Apa Style and Research Report Writing

APA STYLE AND RESEARCH
REPORT WRITING

Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan, PhD
University of Zanjan, Iran
Seyyed Mohammad Alavi, PhD
University of Tehran, Iran

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APA Style and Research Report Writing
Authors: Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan, PhD
Seyyed Mohammad Alavi, PhD
Printed in Iran
Salmani-Nodoushan, Mohammad Ali

‫ ـ‬1348 ،‫ ﻣﺤﻤﺪﻋﻠﻲ‬،‫ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻧﻲ ﻧُﺪوﺷﻦ‬
.(‫)اي ﭘﻲ اي اﺳﺘﺎﻳﻞ اَﻧﺪ رﻳﺴﺮچ رﻳﭙﺮت راﻳﺘﻴﻨﮓ‬

APA Style and Research Report Writing / Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan,
Mohammad Alavi. ‫ ﺗﻬﺮان ـ‬:‫ زﺑﺎﻧﻜﺪه‬،‫ م‬2004=1383
.‫ ﻣﺼﻮر‬:.‫ ص‬151 ، viii

ISBN: 964 – 6117 – 53 – 8
.‫اﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ‬
.‫ﻓﻬﺮﺳﺖ ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻲ ﺑﺮ اﺳﺎس اﻃﻼﻋﺎت ﻓﻴﭙﺎ‬
Alavi, Mohammad. -1339 ،‫ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻮي‬.‫ اﻟﻒ‬.‫ ﮔﺰارش ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻲ داﻧﺸﮕﺎﻫﻲ‬.2 .‫ ﻣﻌﺎﻧﻲ و ﺑﻴﺎن‬-- ‫ زﺑﺎن اﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ‬.1

APA Style and Research Report Writing :‫ ﻋﻨﻮان‬.‫ب‬
808/042
PE 1408 / ‫ س‬8 ‫ اﻟﻒ‬2
1383
‫ م‬83 - 11248

‫ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺨﺎﻧﻪ ﻣﻠﻲ اﻳﺮان‬

APA Style and Research Report Writing
‫ دﻛﺘﺮ ﺳﻴﺪ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻮي‬/ ‫ دﻛﺘﺮ ﻣﺤﻤﺪﻋﻠﻲ ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻧﻲ ﻧُﺪوﺷﻦ‬:‫ﻣﺆﻟﻔﺎن‬
‫اﻧﺘﺸﺎرات زﺑﺎﻧﻜﺪه‬
‫ ﭼﺎپ دﻳﺒﺎ‬،‫ ﻧﺴﺨﻪ‬3000 ‫ ﺗﻴﺮاژ‬،1383 ‫ﭼﺎپ اول‬
‫ راﻫﻨﻤﺎي ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ و ﻫﺮ‬،‫ ﺗﻬﻴﻪ ﭘﺎﺳﺦ ﻧﺎﻣﻪ‬،‫ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﻣﺘﻦ‬،‫ ﻫﺮﮔﻮﻧﻪ ﻧﺴﺨﻪ ﺑﺮداري‬.‫ﻛﻠﻴﻪ ﺣﻘﻮق ﺑﺮاي اﻧﺘﺸﺎرات زﺑﺎﻧﻜﺪه ﻣﺤﻔﻮظ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬
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8 ‫ ﺷﻤﺎره‬،‫ ﺑﺎزارﭼﻪ ﻛﺘﺎب‬،‫ روﺑﺮوي دﺑﻴﺮﺧﺎﻧﻪ داﻧﺸﮕﺎه ﺗﻬﺮان‬،‫ﺗﻬﺮان‬
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ISBN: 964 – 6117 – 53 – 8

964 ‫ ـ‬6117 ‫ ـ‬53 ‫ ـ‬8 :‫ﺷﺎﺑﻚ‬

CONTENTS

PREFACE

VII

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

VIII

SECTION ONE: APA STYLE
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL PRESENTATION

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Introduction
Paper size and quality
Page margins
Paragraph indentation
Line and paragraph spacing
Line alignment
Page header and numbering
Font type and size

3
3
6
10
15
19
22
26

CHAPTER TWO: TABLES AND FIGURES

1. Introduction
2. Tables
3. Figures

29
29
38

CHAPTER THREE: FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

1.
2.
3.
4.

Introduction
Footnotes and citations
Parenthetical citations
Quotations

III

41
41
42
45

CHAPTER FOUR: REFERENCES

1.
2.
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.
2.7.
2.8.
2.9.
2.10.
3.
4.
5.

Introduction
References
Books
Secondary sources
Journals and periodicals
Non-print media
Personal communication
Government documents
Electronic sources
Abstracts
Pamphlets and Brochures
Unpublished materials
Bibliographies
Annotated bibliographies
Final remarks

49
49
50
51
52
53
53
54
54
56
56
57
57
58
58

CHAPTER FIVE: APA INTRICACIES

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Introduction
Headings
Abbreviations and punctuation
Punctuation spacing
Final remarks

59
59
60
61
62

SECTION TWO: LIBRARY RESEARCH
CHAPTER SIX: THE LIBRARY

1.
2.
2.1.
2.1.1.
2.1.2.
2.1.3.
2.1.4.
2.1.5.
2.2.
2.3.

Introduction
Library sources
Standard references
Encyclopedias
Dictionaries
Thesauri
Almanacs and yearbooks
Biography indexes and bibliographies
Books
Legal sources
IV

69
69
71
71
71
72
72
72
73
74

2.3.1.
2.3.2.
2.3.3.
2.3.4.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.
2.7.
2.7.1.
2.7.2.
2.7.3.
2.8.
3.
3.1.
3.2.
3.2.1.
3.2.2.
3.3.
3.3.1.
3.3.2.
3.3.3.
3.3.4.
4.
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
5.

Law dictionaries
Codes
Administrative regulations
Court decisions
Periodicals and journals
Government documents
Pamphlets and directories
Unpublished materials
Masters' theses
Doctoral dissertations
Other unpublished sources
The Internet
Library search methods
Note keeping
Standard search methods
Determination of topics
Finding sources
Other search methods
Course work in other disciplines
Readers
The interdisciplinary team
Browsing
Importance of library research
Know the original source
Be more informed
Be critical
Final remarks

75
75
75
75
76
76
77
78
78
78
79
79
80
80
81
81
81
82
82
83
83
83
83
84
84
85
86

CHAPTER SEVEN: NOTE KEEPING

1.
2.
2.1.
2.2.
3.
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
4.

Introduction
Note keeping
Subject notes
Bibliographical notes
Plagiarism
Word-for-word plagiarizing
The patch job
The paraphrase
Final remarks
V

89
89
90
105
111
112
112
112
112

SECTION THREE: REPORTS AND THESES
CHAPTER EIGHT: THE RESEARCH REPORT

1.
2.
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.
2.7.
2.8.
3.
4.

Introduction
Main sections of the report
The title page
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
List of references
Appendix
Sections of a journal article
Final remarks

115
116
116
118
121
121
124
126
127
130
130
135

CHAPTER NINE: THE THESIS

1.
2.
3.
4.

Introduction
The proposal
Structure of a thesis/dissertation
Final remarks

REFERENCES

137
137
140
149
151

VI

PREFACE

APA Style and Research Report Writing is designed to foster in
undergraduate students the skills they need for success in their research
courses. The book consists of three distinct sections: APA style, Library
Research, and Reports and Theses.
Section one presents the basic concepts of APA style in five chapters:
general presentation, tables and figures, footnotes and quotations,
references, and APA intricacies. Since the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association published by the American
Psychological Association (5th ed.). is a large and very detailed book,
many undergraduate students find it a bit intimidating to use. Therefore,
the five chapters of this section have been prepared in such a way as to
make the task of complying with APA style easier for undergraduate
students. A step-by-step, user-friendly, and interactive guide to the major
aspects of Microsoft Word XP that students need to know is also
incorporated to this section so that they can use the software for typing
their final research report.
Section two is composed of two chapters: The Library, and Note
Keeping. Chapter six discusses the rudiments and the basic concepts of
library research. It covers such topics as the sources available in the
library, different library search methods, the importance of library
research, and a few important hints for the library researchers. The focus
of chapter seven is on the most popular library search method, note
keeping. Two types of notes are discussed: bibliographical notes, and
subject notes. Examples of each type are provided. In addition, the
intricacies of note taking for each type are elaborated on. Plagiarism is
discussed as the major pitfall in library research. Finally, a few hints are
provided for the library research worker as to how they should approach
the task of paraphrasing.

VII

Section three, too, is composed of two chapters: The Research Report,
and The Thesis. Chapter eight focuses on the detailed format that a
modest research report should have. The different sections of the
research report are discussed, along with visual illustrations to foster in
undergraduate students the skills they need for writing their research
reports. The final few pages of the chapter elaborate on the differences
between student research reports and journal papers. Chapter nine is
most useful for graduate students. A brief synopsis of the differences
that exist between short research reports and masters' theses or PhD
dissertations is presented. The discussions of the chapter are enriched
with visual illustrations that are helpful to the graduate student in the
process of writing his thesis or dissertation.

AUTHORS' NOTE
Dr Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan (born in 1969/1348) is an
assistant professor of TEFL at the University of Zanjan, Iran.
Richard W. Sorfleet (born in 1951/1329) is a member of the professional
teachers' association in Ontario, Canada (Ontario College of Teachers).
The Ontario College of Teachers is the professional organization to
which registered teachers in Ontario must belong—a sort of professional
"guild" or association.
Correspondence concerning this book should be addressed to the authors
through the following e.mail addresses:
Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan
[email protected]

Seyyed Mohammad Alavi
[email protected]

November, 2004

VIII

SECTION ONE
APA STYLE

This section presents the basic concepts of APA style in
five

chapters:

General

Presentation,

Tables

and

Figures, Footnotes and Quotations, References, and
APA Intricacies. Notice that the information presented in
this section is only an updated synopsis for the
information presented in the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association published by the
American Psychological Association (5th ed.). That
source is a large and very detailed book which many
undergraduate students find a bit intimidating to use.
Therefore, the five chapters of this section have been
prepared in such a way as to make the task of
complying with APA style easier for undergraduate
students. A user-friendly and interactive guide to the
major aspects of Microsoft Word XP that students need
to know is also incorporated to this section so that they
can use the software for typing their final research
report.

APA STYLE

1

CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL PRESENTATION

1. INTRODUCTION
General presentation refers to the overall appearance or look of your
research report, thesis, or dissertation. The term "format" is sometimes
used to signify the same point. On the whole, format includes the
following considerations:
paper size and quality
page margins
paragraph indentation
line and paragraph spacing

line alignment
page numbering
page ordering

APA style requires that you stick to a fixed format. This format should
not change when you submit a paper to a journal for publication.
However, when you wish to submit your PhD dissertation or masters'
thesis to the university, you should go by the guidelines that your
university or supervisor sets. Iranian universities usually require that you
go by APA style although there may be some modifications.
2. PAPER SIZE AND QUALITY
APA style recommends that you type the manuscript of your research
report on only one side of standard-sized heavy white bond paper, (A4size, 20-pound bond). Some universities and supervisors may tell you
that computer paper ("tractor-fed") is also acceptable. APA style does
not recommend this. If your supervisor accepts computer paper, be sure
that the pin hole borders must be removed. (Razor-edge is preferable.)
Erasable bond and onion skin are not acceptable. If you must prepare
your paper on erasable bond, prepare a good copy of your paper on a
copying machine and submit the copy instead of the original.
GENERAL PRESENTATION

3

As you have already noticed, there are different kinds of paper. Papers
used in notebooks, filler papers, A4-size, legal-size, letter-size, etc. are
only a few examples. Students usually use standard filler papers.
However, it is highly recommended that you use A4-size paper for your
research reports.
An A4-size sheet of paper is 21×29.7 centimeters. Remember that you
should write or print your report on only one side of each sheet. Also
notice that you should not fold your papers, and that you should keep
them clean. Some teachers do not like folded and dirty papers, and this
may put your scores in danger.
Some supervisors do not recommend stapling the pages of your report
together. Making punch holes on the left gutter and placing the report in
a modest file may be preferred by some other supervisors. So make sure
to ask them which method they prefer.
If you type your report using Microsoft Word, make sure that the correct
paper size has been selected by default. If the default paper size is not
A4, you can change it very easily. There are two steps to this:
On the File menu, select "page setup" (as shown in figure 1).

Figure 1. Page setup selection in Microsoft Word

This will open the "page setup" window (as shown in figure 2). Now you
should click the "paper" tab. This will change the appearance of the

4

GENERAL PRESENTATION

"page setup" window. Now you can click to choose a paper size. Be sure
to use A4 size (as shown in figure2).

Figure 2. Page setup window in Microsoft Word (Paper Tab)

After selecting the A4 size, you can either click the "ok" or the "default"
button. Clicking the ok button will change the paper size for this
document (the one you are working with) only, but clicking the default
button will change the paper size for this and every other documents you
work with hereafter. It is recommended that you click the ok button,
especially if the computer is not your own personal computer. For
masters' theses and PhD dissertations, however, it is better to click the
"default" button because you will be typing more than one document—
one for each chapter, and one for each section of the front and back

GENERAL PRESENTATION

5

matters. This helps you make sure that you do not change the paper size
unwittingly across different documents.
3. PAGE MARGINS
Page margins are the blank spaces around the edges of the page. In
general, you insert text in the printable area inside the margins.
However, you can position some items in the margins. For example,
headers, footers, and page numbers normally appear in the margins.

Figure 3. Page setup window in Microsoft Word (Margin Tab)

When you prepare your research reports, you should leave some empty
space all around the sheet of paper on which you write. If you pay
attention to this page (that you are reading now), you see that there is

6

GENERAL PRESENTATION

some distance between the text and the edge of the page on each side.
This distance is called margin. Technically, there are four margins on
each sheet of paper: top, bottom, left, and right. The generally-accepted
size of a margin in APA style is 2.54 cm (or 1 inch). So, you should
allow a distance of 2.54 cm on each side of the sheet of paper on which
you write.
If you type your report using Microsoft Word, make sure that the correct
margin sizes have been set by default. On the File menu, select "page
setup" (as shown in figure 1 above). This will open the page setup
window. If the margin tab (as shown in figure 3 above) is not the default
tab, click it to see the margin window (as shown in figure 3 above). Now
you should be able to use the margin setting boxes (labeled "margin
setting" in figure 3 above) to set the desired margin sizes (i.e., 2.54 in
APA style). Then you can click the "ok" or the "default" button.
Figure 4 is the schematic representation of what is meant by page
margins and gutter.

Top Margin

Left Margin

Gutter

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
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XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

Right Margin

Printable Area

Bottom Margin

Figure 4. Schematic representation of page margins and gutter

You may want to punch (make holes in) your sheets of paper and file
them. If so, you need to add an extra 1 cm space to the left edge of the

GENERAL PRESENTATION

7

page. This extra 1 cm is called the gutter. In Persian, the gutter should be
added to the right edge of the page because Persian writing is right-toleft. In your dissertation or thesis, this consideration is vital since your
work needs binding, and binding requires at least this 1 cm extra space at
the edge of the page.
To set the gutter size and position in Microsoft Word, on the File menu,
select "page setup" (as shown in figure 1 above). This will open the page
setup window. If the margin tab (as shown in figure 3 above) is not the
default tab, click it to see the margin window (as shown in figure 3
above). Now you should be able to use the boxes labeled "gutter setting"
and "Arabic/English gutter" to set the size and position (i.e., left or right)
of the gutter. Then you can click the "ok" or the "default" button.

Figure 5. Page setup window in Microsoft Word (Layout Tab)

8

GENERAL PRESENTATION

When working with Microsoft Word, knowing how to set page layout or
orientation is very important. In fact, some versions of Microsoft Word
(like version 2000, and version 2002—also known as XP) are bilingual.
They provide the left-to-right and right-to-left cursor movements or text
direction. To avoid running into difficulties, it is better to set the page
layout before starting to type your project.
To set the page layout in Microsoft Word, on the File menu, select "page
setup" (as shown in figure 1 above). This will open the page setup
window. If the layout tab (as shown in figure 5 above) is not the default
tab, click it to see the layout window (as shown in figure 5 above). Now
you should be able to use the box labeled "page orientation" to set the
layout (i.e., left-to-right or right-to-left) of the page.
Also use the boxes labeled "header position setting" and "footer position
setting" of the layout window (as shown in figure 5 above) to set the
position of the header and footer of the pages of your report. By default,
Microsoft Word sets both the header and the footer at a distance of 1.25
cm from the very edge of the page. When you are done, you can click
the "ok" or the "default" button. But before clicking either of these
buttons, take a look at the preview (as shown in figure 5 by the label
"previewing") to see if the look of the page resembles that of English
pages or not. If so, click the "ok" or the "default" button. If not, click the
"ok" or the "default" button to return back to the typing window and then
click the left-to-right button shown in figure 6.

Figure 6. Left-to-right button for text direction

You will read more about "header" and "footer" in the following sections
of this chapter. For the time being, it is important to know what the
terms "header" and "footer" mean. A header, which can consist of text or
graphics, appears at the top of every page. A footer appears at the
GENERAL PRESENTATION

9

bottom of every page. Headers and footers often contain page numbers,
chapter titles, dates, and author names. In APA style, short titles are used
as the header on each and every page (more on this in the following
sections).
4. PARAGRAPH INDENTATION
You have already learnt that margins determine the overall width of the
main text area (i.e., the space between the text and the edge of the page).
Indentation, on the other hand, determines the distance of the paragraph
from either the margins. Within margins, you can increase or decrease
the indentation of a paragraph or a group of paragraphs. You can also
create a negative indent (also called outdent), which pulls the paragraph
out toward the left margin in left-to-right languages like English. Firstline indent (also known as regular indent) pushes the first line of a
paragraph away from the left/right margin. You can also create a
hanging or dangling indent, in which the first line of the paragraph is not
indented, but other lines are.

Block style

Xxxxxxxxxxxxx
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Indented style

Xxxxxxxxxx
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Figure 7. Schematic representation of indented and block styles

There are two different styles for writing the paragraphs of your research
report: (a) first-line-indent mode and (b) block mode. In the first-lineindent mode, the first line of the paragraph is usually pushed a little

10 GENERAL PRESENTATION

away from the margin. In other words, the first letter of the first line of
the paragraph does not appear over the first letter of the other lines of the
same paragraph. That is, the first line of the paragraph starts from a
different column than the other lines. All the other lines, however, start
from the same column. This distance is called first-line indent. The
length of this indent varies from 5 mm to 1.5 cm. It is a matter of your
own choice. The generally-accepted length is 5 mm.
In APA style, however, the start of each paragraph is indented 5-7
spaces (roughly 5 to 7 millimeters). Do not indent the abstract. If the
abstract consists of more than one paragraph (e.g., in masters' theses and
PhD dissertations), APA style recommends that all of the paragraphs be
indented except for the first one. When the abstract is only one
paragraph long, APA style prohibits indenting it in your papers or
reports. There are two ways for setting paragraph indentations: (a) using
the ruler tabs, and (b) using the paragraph format feature. The easiest
way is to use the tabs on the ruler in your Microsoft Word to set the
paragraph indentation (See figure 8). Be sure not to use the space or tab
keys on your keyboard for this purpose since this can cause problems
when you want to print the document on another computer—as is
usually the case.

Figure 8. Ruler tabs and their functions

In the block mode, on the other hand, the first letter of the first line of
the paragraph appears exactly over the first letter of each of the other
lines of the same paragraph. That is, all lines start from the same
column. Compare figures 9, 10, and 11 to see how the ruler tabs should
be set for block, first-line indented, and other-line indented (i.e., firstline hanging or dangling) styles, respectively.
GENERAL PRESENTATION 11

Figure 9. Block style ruler tabs (No indentation)

Figure 10. First-line indent style ruler tabs (Regular indentation)

Figure 11. Other-line indent style ruler tabs (Dangling indentation)

As you can see in figures 10 and 11, first-line indentation is of two
types: (1) regular and (2) dangling or hanging (also called other-line
indentation). In the regular type, the first line of the paragraph is pushed
further in. In the hanging type, on the other hand, all lines except the
first line are pushed in. Hanging indentation is normally used for listing
references (or the bibliography) at the end of books, articles, research
reports, and the like. Beware that APA style discourages the use of
dangling indentation. Figure 12 shows the difference between hanging
and regular indentation.

12 GENERAL PRESENTATION

Regular 1st line indentation

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Hanging 1st line indentation

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Figure 12. Schematic representation of first-line indent types

A second way in which you can set paragraph indentations in Microsoft
Word is by using the paragraph format feature available from the format
menu on the menu bar. Select paragraph from the format menu as shown
in figure 13.

Figure 13. Selecting paragraph from format menu in Microsoft Word

This selection will open the "paragraph" window as shown in figure 14.
Once the window is open, make sure that the "indents and spacing" tab
GENERAL PRESENTATION 13

is selected. Click the "indents and spacing" tab to select it if necessary.
Then you should be able to see the following window (without the
appended labels, of course). Now you can use the available features of
this window to set the line alignment, text direction, line indentation,
left- and right-side indentation, paragraph spacing (or the vertical
distance between paragraphs), and line spacing (or the vertical distance
between lines within paragraphs). You can see the changes for your
settings in the preview window labeled "previewing changes" in figure
14. Once you are done, click the ok button so that your changes will take
effect.

Figure 14. Paragraph window in Microsoft Word

In writing the paragraphs of your research report, the use of either the
block mode or the indented mode is not a matter of choice. APA style
requires that you use the regular first line indentation set at 5 to 7
millimeters for the paragraphs, and even for your reference items on the
14 GENERAL PRESENTATION

reference list. Your supervisor may want you to use hanging or dangling
indentation set at 5 to 7 millimeters for the reference list of your report.
Therefore, be sure to check this with your supervisor or university
authorities.
Where you use quotations, if the quotation is longer than 40 words, you
should set it off from the foregoing and forthcoming sections of your
report. Here you need to use the block style for the quotation. Notice that
where APA style is not required, like in books, the American writer
usually prefers the block mode whereas the British writer, on the
contrary, seems to prefer the indented mode.
5. LINE AND PARAGRAPH SPACING
In APA style, and in Microsoft Word, the term "spacing" is used in two
different senses: (1) the vertical distance between the lines of a
paragraph (called line spacing), and (2) the vertical distance between
paragraphs within a text (called paragraph spacing).

Line and paragraph spacing in 1st line indented style

Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
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Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
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xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Figure 15. Schematic representation of indented style

In indented mode, as figure 15 shows, the vertical distance between the
lines of a paragraph is the same as the vertical distance between two or
more successive paragraphs. That is, line spacing and paragraph spacing
GENERAL PRESENTATION 15

are the same. This is the format that APA style requires you to follow in
your research reports. In the reference section of your research report,
APA style requires that you use single spacing for the lines of each
source and double spacing between different sources. Here, you may
sometimes use hanging or dangling indentation.
In block mode (see figures 16 and 17), in contrast, the vertical distance
between two successive paragraphs is twice as much as the vertical
distance between the lines within each paragraph. That is, paragraph
spacing is two times bigger than line spacing. APA style requires the
block mode in two situations: (a) in quotations larger than 40 words, and
(b) in the first paragraph of abstracts. Notice that in most cases abstracts
are only one paragraph long. Figure 16 shows how a block quotation
will look in a research report.

In an attempt to make sense of the various models of communicative
competence and communicative language ability, Henning and Cascallar (1992)
turn to the field of cartography for a metaphor:
Various kinds of two-dimensional maps have been devised as aids to
navigation. Some maps are useful geographical models for ocean
navigation, others for automobile navigation, and still others for wilderness
trekking . . . none of these two-dimensional maps provides a completely
accurate representation of three-dimensional reality, nor does any one kind
of two-dimensional map serve every navigational purpose equally well.
(Henning and Cascallar, 1992, p. 4)
So it is with models of language ability. The framework Douglas develops is
not offered in opposition to any others. He tries to design a map to help . . . .
Figure 16. Example of block quotation in research report

In block quotations, line spacing usually comes one step down from that
of the main text. In other words, if lines of the main text are doublespaced, lines of the block quotation are one-and-a-half spaced. If, on

16 GENERAL PRESENTATION

the other hand, the lines of the main text are one-and-a-half spaced, lines
of the block quotation are single-spaced.

Line and paragraph spacing in 1st line block style

Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Figure 17. Schematic representation of block style

To set paragraph spacing, you can use the features of Microsoft Word
available from the menu bar. Move your mouse pointer to the "format"
menu and left-click to choose "paragraph" as shown in figure 13 above.
This will open the "paragraph" window as shown in figure 14 above.
Now you can set the vertical distance between successive paragraphs by
identifying the number of points you wish to include before and/or after
each paragraph. To do this, you need to use the boxes "before" and/or
"after" provided under the heading "spacing" in the "paragraph" window.
This feature has been labeled "vertical paragraph spacing in figure 14
above so that you can easily locate it. Using your mouse pointer, you can
add the required spacing between successive paragraphs. Be sure not to
use the "enter key" on your keyboard to double the vertical space
between paragraphs—as you would do on an ordinary typewriter—since
this will create problems when you want to print your document using
another computer, as is often the case. To make it easier for you to
understand, part of the "paragraph" window (figure 14) is reproduced for
you here in figure 18.

GENERAL PRESENTATION 17

Figure 18. Setting vertical paragraph spacing in Microsoft Word

There are three standard types of vertical line spacing: (a) single spacing,
(b) one-and-a-half spacing, and (c) double spacing. There are also as
many non-standard types of line spacing as you can imagine. Compare
the sections of figure19.

Single line spacing

1.5 line spacing

xxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxx

xxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxx

Double line spacing

xxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxx

xxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxx

xxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxx

Figure 19. Schematic representation of line spacing methods

In single spacing, the distance between two given lines of a paragraph is
roughly about 1 cm. In one-and-a-half spacing, as the name says, this
distance is about 1.5 cm. In double spacing, the distance is about 2 cm.
APA style suggests that authors use double-spacing in their research
reports or papers. Your supervisor may want you to use one-and-a-half
spacing or even single spacing in your masters' thesis or PhD
dissertation. However, you may prefer to single space your paragraphs.
It is safer to ask your supervisor or university about the proper spacing
that you are required to use.
18 GENERAL PRESENTATION

To set line spacing, you can use the features of Microsoft Word
available from the menu bar. Move your mouse pointer to the "format"
menu and left-click to choose "paragraph" as shown in figure 13 above.
This will open the "paragraph" window as shown in figure 14 above. To
make it easier for you to understand how to set line spacing, part of the
"paragraph" window (figure 14) was reproduced for you in figure 18
above. Use the "line spacing" feature of the "paragraph" window (see
figures 14 and 18) to set line spacing. Shortcut buttons of the main
window of Microsoft Word provide another method of setting "line
spacing." Click the appropriate shortcut button and you are there (See
figure 20).

Figure 20. Setting vertical line spacing in Microsoft Word

6. LINE ALIGNMENT
You have already learnt that many factors tell you how text is
positioned. Margins control the distance from the edge for all the text on
a page. Spacing controls the space needed between lines, and before and
after paragraphs. Paragraph indentation and alignment tell you how
paragraphs fit between the margins.
Alignment refers to the appearance of the edges of the paragraph. On the
whole, there are four types of horizontal paragraph alignment: (a) leftaligned, (b) right-aligned, (c) centered, and (d) justified. The most
common type of paragraph alignment is left alignment. In a left-aligned
paragraph, the left edge of the paragraph is flush with the left margin. In
a right-aligned paragraph, on the other hand, the right edge of the
paragraph is flush with the right margin. A justified paragraph is one
GENERAL PRESENTATION 19

which has been aligned on both sides. That is, the left edge of the
paragraph is flush with the left margin, and the right edge with the right
margin.
Center alignment is somewhat different. Here you can imagine a midline that passes across the length of the printable area of the page. The
center of each line of the paragraph should be flush with this imaginary
line. As such, the appearance of your paragraph will become
symmetrical. Center alignment is used for specific purposes like in the
title page of books.

Left alignment

Right alignment

Xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xx xx xxx xx xx xx
xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xx xx xx xx xx xxxx
xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xx
xx xx xx xx xx xx xx

Xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xx xx xxx xx xx xx
xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xx xx xx xx xx xxxx
xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xx
xx xx xx xx xx xx xx

Center alignment

Justified alignment

Xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xx xx xxx xx xx xx
xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xx xx xx xx xx xxxx
xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xx
xx xx xx xx xx xx xx

Xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xx xx xxx xx xx xx
xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xx xx xx xx xx xxxx
xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xx
xx xx xx xx xx xx xx

Figure 21. Schematic representation of alignment types

Another common type of alignment is called vertical alignment
(sometimes called vertical indent). It controls the paragraph's position
relative to the top and bottom margins. This is useful, for example, when
you’re creating a title page, because you can position text precisely at

20 GENERAL PRESENTATION

the top or center of the page, or justify the paragraphs so that they are
spaced evenly down the page. To this end, you can use the "paragraph
spacing" feature of Microsoft Word discussed above, and illustrated by
figures 14, and 18. Shortcut buttons of the main window of Microsoft
Word provide another method of setting "line alignment." Click the
appropriate shortcut button and you are there (See figure 22).

Figure 22. Setting line alignment in Microsoft Word

APA style employs two types of alignments: (a) left alignment, and (b)
center alignment. The information presented on the title page of your
project needs to be presented with the center-alignment format. The rest
of the report will be left-aligned. However, your supervisor may want
you to use other forms of alignment. Thus, it is recommended that you
consult your supervisor to make sure which form of alignment you
should use in your research reports.
Please understand that it is very difficult and almost impossible to justify
paragraphs when you are not using a word processor installed in the hard
disk of your personal computer that runs under graphic mode—one like
Microsoft Word. Therefore, hand-written or mechanically typed
reports—by means of regular typewriters—should be left-aligned. You
are not allowed to write in the right margin. When you approach the end
of each line, you should decide whether the next word is small enough to
go within the remaining space. If not, you can do one of the two things:
(a) syllabify the word, or (b) move it to the next line.
Notice that syllabification should not be haphazard. You cannot break a
word at any place you like. There are rules for it. Many dictionaries, like
the American Heritage Dictionary, tell you where to break words. They
GENERAL PRESENTATION 21

indicate separate syllables, usually by a heavy black dot in the first entry.
For example, the word English may look like En•glish, the word
dictionary like dic•tion•ar•y, etc. The dots tell you where to break the
word. If you need to break the word English, you can only do this after
the letter n. Similarly, you can break the word dictionary at one of the
three places (that is, after the letters c, n, r). The first part is written at
the end of the line and is followed by a hyphen (-). No hyphen is needed
at the beginning of the next line. The rest of the word goes to the
beginning of the next line. Take the following example:
Jack really loves Mary. He knew that Mary loved convertible cars. He went to the . . . .

As the example shows, the word convertible has been broken into two
parts: convert and ible.
7. PAGE HEADER AND NUMBERING
On the top right-hand side of every page of the paper (or research report)
a few words of the title (usually the running head) will appear. In APA
style this is called the "short title." It is an "abbreviated title" which will
appear on each page of the report if it is published. It should be
capitalized and no more than 50 characters (letters, spaces, punctuation
included) in length. Five spaces along (i.e., roughly about 5 millimeters)
is the page number (See figure 23).

running text

distance (5-7 mm)
short title

page number

Research Reports

36

more successive paragraphs. That is, line spacing and paragraph spacing are the
same. This is the format that APA style requires that you to follow when . . . .

Figure 23. Page header and number at upper right corner of page

You don't need to type these on every page yourself: use the 'header and
footer' function of your Microsoft Word, and they will appear
automatically on each page.
22 GENERAL PRESENTATION

Figure 24. Selecting "page numbers" from insert menu

As shown in figure 24, from the insert menu on the menu bar, select
"page numbers." This should open the following dialogue box:

Figure 25. Page number window in Microsoft Word

Now, use the features of this dialog box to set the page numbers. Select
the "Top of page (Header)" as the position, and "Right" as the alignment.
Then click ok. The page numbers will automatically appear on each
page. To format the page number (i.e., to decide on Arabic/Roman/other
numerals as well as to select the starting page number—for chapters
GENERAL PRESENTATION 23

within books, theses, and dissertations), you can click the format button.
The following dialog box (figure 26) will appear and you can adjust the
settings you want:

Figure 26. Formatting page numbers in Microsoft Word

Figure 27. Selecting header and footer in Microsoft Word

To place the "short title" next to the page numbers, from the menu bar,
select the "view" menu and then "Header and Footer" as shown in figure
24 GENERAL PRESENTATION

27 above. Once you have selected the header and footer option, the
following dialog box will appear on the screen:

Figure 28. Customizing header/footer in Microsoft Word

You will be able to locate the blinking cursor. Now you should decide
whether you want to put the short title as the footer or the header (APA
style says that it should be placed as the header on the upper right-hand
side of the page at a distance of 5 millimeters from the page number).
You should use the left mouse button to click the appropriate place—
header of footer (the mouse pointers in figure 28 above identify the
header and footer boxes). The blinking cursor is moved to that position.
Now, you can type the short title and adjust its position relative to the
page number by means of the tabs on the ruler, line alignment buttons,
and text direction (language selection) buttons identified in figure 28
above. You can also set the font and type face of the page header and
page the number as shown in figures 29 and 30 below.
Once you are done, click the close button to return to the typing window.
Now you will see the header and the page number on the pages of your
report as an embedded opaque image.
In masters' theses and PhD dissertations, like in books, chapter titles may
replace the short title. In addition, footers may be used instead of
GENERAL PRESENTATION 25

headers. This is, however, determined by your supervisor or university.
So, before deciding to use footers, or chapter titles, ask your supervisor
or university authorities which one they prefer.
8. FONT TYPE AND SIZE
Normally the font used in APA style is Times New Roman, set in 12
points (the font you are reading right now). The term "font" refers to the
appearance of the typed letters. Compare the appearances of the fonts in
table 1:
FONT NAME

Times New Roman
BordeauxLight
Comic Sans MS
HandelGothic BT

FONT SIZE

12 pt
12 pt
12 pt
12 pt

FONT APPEARANCE

AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJj …
AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJj …
AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJj …
AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJj …

Table 1. Examples of font name, size, and look

It is very easy to set the font and its size for your research project. Take
a look at the following figure:

Figure 29. Font name and size selection in Microsoft Word

26 GENERAL PRESENTATION

You can move the mouse pointer to the fields labeled "name of selected
font" and "size of selected font" in figure 29 to select the appropriate
font and set its size. Notice that most fonts can have four different
appearances (called type face): regular, bold, italic, and bold-italic. Take
a look at table 2:
Times New Roman

Courier New

Arial

Regular

America

America

Bold

America

America
America

America

Italic

America

America

America

Bold-italic

America

America

America

Table 2. Examples of different type faces

In addition to the selection of appropriate type face, APA style
sometimes requires that some parts of the text of your research report be
underlined. These adjustments can easily be achieved by the shortcut
buttons of the main window of Microsoft Word (See figure 30).

Figure 30. Type face shortcut buttons in Microsoft Word

To set the appropriate type face, move the mouse pointer to the
appropriate button and left-click. To use the bold-italic type face, you
need to left-click both the bold and the italic shortcut buttons. Also
notice that these adjustments take effect only after you have selected the
text to be modified. To do this, you need to click, and hold the left
GENERAL PRESENTATION 27

mouse button down and drag your mouse over the text you want to
modify. This will highlight the text (as shown in figure 31 below). Then
you can release the mouse button, move its pointer to the appropriate
type-face button, and click the left mouse button. Now, you should be
able to see the change. Notice that text buttons show the direction in
which the blinking cursor moves as you type your report.

Figure 31. Selecting text and changing its type face in Microsoft Word

28 GENERAL PRESENTATION

CHAPTER TWO
TABLES AND FIGURES

1. INTRODUCTION
If you are using tables and figures (graphs) to present the results of your
study, you should consult the APA publication manual for the
requirements (see pp. 120-158 of the manual). A brief synopsis is
provided in this chapter for quick reference.
2. TABLES
In APA style, tables and their captions should follow a very strict
format. Take the following example:
Table 1
Correlation between Perceived Control and Well-being for
Males and Females
Figure 1 shows how tables appear in a research report in accordance
with APA style:
Table 16
Specification of Devices Used by US Army

GDPN
GNCT
UPOV

Code
117
123
325

Type
code 23
code 67
code 89

Utility
USAF
USMF
USSF

Cost
$ 120000
$ 217000
$ 670000

Figure 1. Appearance of a typical table in APA style

TABLES AND FIGURES

29

This is the recommendation of APA style for papers and research
reports. However, in books, theses, and dissertations, the writers or their
supervisors may prefer some variations. Therefore, you should consult
your supervisor to make sure if you can deviate from APA style or not.
It is very easy to draw tables in Microsoft Word once you know how
many columns and rows you need for your table. There are a few
methods for this. Two of the methods of inserting tables into your
documents in Microsoft Word are easier than the others: (a) The shortcut
table button, and (b) the table menu.
To insert a table using the shortcut button, click that part of the
document where you want to create a table. This will move the blinking
cursor to that place. Then, click the table shortcut button (see figure 2
below) on the standard shortcut bar and drag to select the number of
rows and columns you want as shown in figure 2. Once the correct
number of rows and columns has been selected, click the left mouse
button once more. This will place the table in the document.

Figure 2. Inserting table using shortcut key in Microsoft Word

The second method of inserting tables in word documents is through the
use of the table menu from the menu bar. To insert a table using this
method, click where you want to create a table to move the blinking
cursor to that position. Then, on the Table menu, point to Insert, and
then click Table as shown in figure 3 below.
30

TABLES AND FIGURES

Figure 3. Inserting table using table menu in Microsoft Word

This will open the table dialogue box as shown in figure 4.

Figure 4. Inserting table using table menu in Microsoft Word

Now, under Table size, select the number of columns and rows. Under
AutoFit behavior, choose options to adjust table size. To use a built-in
table format, click AutoFormat. This will open the table autoformat
dialogue box as shown in figure 5 below. Now, you should be able to
TABLES AND FIGURES

31

select the options you want. For APA style, select Table List 3 under
Table style. Then click ok. You will return to insert table dialogue box
(figure 4). Click ok to return to the main window of word. The selected
table is now inserted in the place you chose for it.

Figure 5. Auto-formatting table in Microsoft Word

You can use the font size, font name, type face, and line alignment
windows and shortcut buttons to change the appearance of your tables.
Another good technique is to click and drag those cells, rows, columns
and even the whole of the table that you want to modify so that they will
be selected or highlighted. Then, you should move your mouse pointer
32

TABLES AND FIGURES

to the highlighted area and click its right button to open the table
customization menu as shown in figure 6 below. Now you can customize
your table as you like.

Figure 6. Built-in table customization menu in Microsoft Word

In order to highlight the whole of the table at once, you need to move the
mouse pointer to the upper left edge of the table (in Persian to the upper
right edge) to see the "anchor" as shown in figure 7.

Figure 7. Table anchor in Microsoft Word

By left-clicking the anchor, you will see that the whole of the table will
be highlighted (or blocked). Now, move your mouse pointer to the
highlighted area and right click to open the built-in table customization
menu as shown in figure 6 above. Use the available options of this menu
to customize your table as you wish. One of the most important skills
you need to master to be able to comply with APA style is to know how
TABLES AND FIGURES

33

to change the appearance and weight (or thickness) of the table grids
(i.e., vertical and horizontal lines that keep table cells apart) and the
table box (that is, the very external table grids). To customize the table
grids, from the built-in customization menu select "borders and shading"
(see figure 6). This will open the table "border and shading" dialogue
box as shown in figure 8.

Figure 8. Table border and shading dialogue box in Microsoft Word

The options of this dialogue box are identified by black mouse pointers
in figure 8. You can use these click points to customize your table.
Notice that the preview represents the highlighted area of the table that
you have already selected. If you have highlighted the whole table, the
preview represents the whole table. If you have selected only one cell
you will see only one box in the preview which represents that one cell.
Clicking any of the vertical or horizontal lines in the preview area will
cause a change in the corresponding area of the table. Before clicking
the preview-area lines, you need to select the kind of style, color, and
width that you want to apply to the highlighted area of the table. After
setting your desired changes, click ok to return to the main window of
34

TABLES AND FIGURES

Microsoft Word where you can see the changes in your table. To comply
with APA style, after highlighting the whole of the table (click the
anchor (see figure 7)), right click it and select the "borders and shading"
option (see figure 6) to open the "borders and shading." In the preview
area of the "borders and shading" dialogue box (as shown in figure 8),
click the vertical lines to remove them and then click ok.

Figure 9. Comparing table highlighted area 1 and the preview area

If you select two or more cells vertically (or even a complete column),
the preview window will look like the one shown in figure 9. Here, all
the internal grid lines of the selected area will be represented by the mid
line in the preview area of the "borders and shading" dialogue box.
TABLES AND FIGURES

35

If, on the other hand, you select two or more cells horizontally (or even a
complete row), the preview window will look like the one shown in
figure 10. Here, all the internal grid lines of the selected area will be
represented by the mid line in the preview area of the "borders and
shading" dialogue box.

Figure 10. Comparing table highlighted area 2 and the preview area

In addition, if you select a few cells both vertically and horizontally (or
even the whole table), the preview window will look like the one shown
in figure 11.

36

TABLES AND FIGURES

Figure 11. Comparing table highlighted area 3 and the preview area

Here, all the internal vertical grid lines of the selected area will be
represented by the vertical mid line, and all the internal horizontal grid
lines of the selected area will be represented by the horizontal mid line
of the preview area of the "borders and shading" dialogue box.
To set the shading of the table, or cells of the table, follow the steps as
shown by figures 6 and 8 above. Make sure that the shading tab (labeled
"shading tab" in figure 8 above) is selected. If not click to select it. This
will open the dialogue box shown in figure 12. Now you can use the
features of this dialogue box to customize the shading as you wish.

TABLES AND FIGURES

37

Figure 12. Table shading dialogue box in Microsoft Word

The shading feature is excellent when you want to show contrast
between different cells of a table. In APA style no shading is required. In
dissertations, theses, and books you may use this feature.
3. FIGURES
Figures are also numbered consecutively (Figure 1, Figure 2) but
separately from tables. The figure caption is presented below the figure
that it refers to. In the figure caption, the word 'Figure' and the number
of the figure is underlined, however the title is not underlined (see the
example below). Unlike tables, the main words in the caption are not
capitalized (only the first word is). The figure caption finishes with a
period.
For example:
Figure 1. Comparison of mean perceived control scores for males
and females.
38

TABLES AND FIGURES

The following figure shows how a figure will appear in a paper or
research report in accordance with APA style:

IELTS

6

TBRT-GM

5

Mean score

TBRT-AM
4

TBRT-EM
3
2
1
0
Proficient

Fairly-Proficient Semi-Proficient

Non-Proficient

Subjects' proficiency level

Figure 3. Mean plot for subjects’ sentence-completion task performance.

TABLES AND FIGURES

39

CHAPTER THREE
FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

1. INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, a footnote was normally defined as a note at the bottom of
a page, giving further information about something mentioned in the text
above. A reference number or symbol would usually be printed after the
relevant word in the text and before the corresponding footnote at the
foot of the page. More recently, the term "footnote" has been extended to
mean 'an extra comment or information added to what has just been said
within the text' (usually within parentheses). APA style uses the label
"parenthetical citation" to refer to this kind of footnoting.
2. FOOTNOTES AND CITATIONS
In APA style, footnotes take one of the two forms: (a) traditional
footnoting style, and (b) parenthetical citations. The former is sparingly
used when you want to draw the readers' attention to important
information. Here, you will place a superscribed number after the text
that requires the footnote. In the past, the footnote would be presented at
the foot of the page—being set off from the main text by a line, and
carrying the same numeral code (See figure 1).

Spacapan (1991). There are two aims of this study: (a) to explore the
relationship between perceived control of internal states as measured
by the PCOISS1 and psychological wellbeing as . . . .
1 Perceived Control of Internal States Scale

Elements of footnote

Figure 1. Traditional footnoting method

FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

41

Recently, however, footnotes are presented at the end of the paper or
research report on a separate page that carries the heading "Footnotes."
3. PARENTHETICAL CITATIONS
"Parenthetical citation" is the technical term used in APA style to refer
to a popular form of footnoting. Your readers should be able to
discover—without undue fuss—the source of any language or ideas you
have used in writing your paper/project that are not your own. This is an
important part of being a responsible member of the academic
community. When you use the ideas or language of someone else, you
can refer your readers easily to that resource by using something called a
parenthetical citation. Within parentheses, at the end of the "quoted
language" or "borrowed idea," key words should be used that refer your
readers to your page of references, where the readers can then find out
whatever bibliographic information is necessary to track down that
resource. The APA system of citing sources indicates the author's last
name and the date, in parentheses, within the text of your paper or
project (i.e., inline with the main text of your report or paper. Figure 2
shows how a parenthetical citation will look within the running text:
(Wesche, 1992). In this context, performance testing borrowed from the field of
vocational testing in which a test taker needs to carry out realistic tasks applying
language skills in actual or simulated settings (Carroll and Hall, 1985). The criteria
used for . . . .
Figure 2. Example of parenthetical citation

The commonest form of parenthetical citation of an entire work or
source consists of the author's last name followed by a comma and the
year of publication.
Example: (Jason,1994)

(Bachman, 1990)

Use the last name only in both first and subsequent citations, except
when there is more than one author with the same last name. In that case,
use the last name and the first initial.
Example: (Jason, K.,1994)

(Bachman, L., 1990)

If the author is named in the text, only the year is cited.
42

FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

Example: According to Irene Taylor (1990), the personalities . . . .
If both the name of the author and the date are used in the text,
parenthetical reference is not necessary.
Example: In a 1989 article, Gould explains Darwin's . . . .
Parenthetical citations are needed when you quote the language of other
people. In this case, the page number(s) should follow the year. Specific
citations of pages or chapters follow the year.
Example: Emily Bronte "expressed increasing hostility for the world
of human relationships, whether sexual or social" (Taylor,
1988, p. 11).
As you see, in the above example, the language of Taylor (1988) has
been quoted from page 11 of his work. In this case, the following
formula has been used:
(Author's last name + comma + year + comma + p. +page number)

If the quotation is made from two or more pages, the system needs some
variations. For consecutive pages—pages that follow each other—a
hyphen (-) is used; for non-consecutive pages, on the other hand, the
page numbers are set off by means of commas. The hyphen means "to"
and the comma means "and" in parenthetical citations of this type. Take
the following examples:
Consecutive pages:
Non-consecutive pages:

Example
(Jason, 1994, pp. 23-37)
(Jason, 1994, pp. 23, 27, 36)

Some universities (or even your supervisor) may want you to use a colon
(:) between the year and the page numbers instead of using the
abbreviations p. or pp. This is part of Modern Language Association
(MLA) style. Therefore, you need to ask your supervisor about the
preferred style. Take the following examples:
APA
MLA
(Jason, 1994, p. 23)
(Jason, 1994: 23)
Single page:
(Jason, 1994, pp. 23-37) (Jason, 1994: 23-37)
Consecutive pages:
Non-consecutive pages: (Jason, 1994, pp. 23, 27) (Jason, 1994: 23, 27)

FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

43

When the reference is to a work by two authors, cite both names each
time the reference appears.
Example: Sexual-selection theory often has been used to explore
patterns of various insect mating (Alcock & Thornhill,
1983) . . . Alcock and Thornhill (1983) also show . . . .
When the reference is to a work by three to five authors, cite all the
authors the first time the reference appears. In a subsequent reference,
use the first author's last name followed by "et al." (meaning "and
others").
Example: Patterns of Byzantine intrigue have long plagued the
internal politics of community college administration in
Texas (Douglas, et al., 1997)
When the reference is to a work by six or more authors, use only the first
author's name followed by "et al." in the first and all subsequent
reference. The only exceptions to this rule are when some confusion
might result because of similar names or the same author being cited. In
that case, cite enough authors—usually three of them—so that the
distinction is clear.
When the reference is to a work by a corporate author, use the name of
the organization as the author.
Example: Retired officers retain access to all of the university's
facilities (Columbia University, 1987, p. 54).
Personal letters, telephone calls, e-mail correspondence (note that APA's
preferred spelling is e-mail), and other material that cannot be retrieved
are not listed in References (at the end of your research report) but are
cited in the text.
Example: Jesse Moore (telephone conversation, April 17, 1989)
confirmed that the ideas . . . .
Parenthetical references may mention more than one work, particularly
when ideas have been summarized after drawing from several sources.
Multiple citations should be arranged as follows.
Examples: List two or more works by the same author in order of the
date of publication: e.g., (Chomsky, 1987, 1989)
44

FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

Differentiate works by the same author and with the same
publication date by adding an identifying letter to each
date: e.g., (Bloom, 1987a, 1987b)
List works by different authors in alphabetical order by
last name, and use semicolons to separate the references:
e.g., (Finch, 1989; Smith, 1983; Tutwiler, 1989).
4. QUOTATIONS
APA style instructs writers to document quotations, paraphrases,
summaries, and other information from sources as follows: "Document
your study throughout the text by citing by author and date the works
you used in your research. This style of citation briefly identifies the
source for readers and enables them to locate the source of information
in the alphabetical reference list at the end of the article" (Publication
Manual, p. 207). When using APA style, you should consult the
Publication Manual for general style requirements (e.g., style for metric
units) and for advice on preparing manuscripts and electronic texts.
You can remember from the preceding section that language quoted
directly from other people should be identified by the use of
parenthetical citations that show, the author's name, year of publication,
and page number(s). Short quotations (fewer than 40 words) are
incorporated into the text, enclosed by double quotations marks ("), and
followed by parenthetical citations. Line spacing for short quotations is
the same as line spacing for the main text of the report. Take a look at
figure 3:

the following claim: "We are rarely concerned just with the particular
performance per se but also with the knowledge, skill, and other attributes
that enable both the given performance and a range of other performances
engaging the same knowledge and skills" (Messick, 1994, p. 16). This
suggests that constructs like relevant knowledge and skills, rather . . . .

Figure 3. Example of in-line quotation

FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

45

Long quotations of 40 or more words are displayed in a double-spaced
block of typewritten lines with no quotation marks. APA style suggests
that you do not single space; however, some instructors will require that
indented quotations be single-spaced, especially when quoting poetry,
which loses some of its formal characteristics when double-spaced.
Check with your instructor before single-spacing quotations. Indent five
spaces from the left margin and type the entire quotation on the indented
margin without the usual opening paragraph indentation. If the quotation
is more than one paragraph, indent the first line of the second and
additional paragraphs five spaces from the already indented margin—
that is, ten spaces from the left margin. Take a look at figure 4:

(Bachman, 1990, p. 312). Skehan hypothesizes a similar problem in another
domain that of a waiter in a restaurant:
Although at first sight 'waiter behavior' might seem to be a
straightforward affair, we soon need to ask questions like: what range of
customers needs to be dealt with? What range of food is to be served?
Once one probes a little, the well-defined and restricted language
associated with any role is revealed to be variable, and requiring a range
of language skills. (Skehan, 1984, p. 216)
Tests developed in the real-life mold, which equate language ability with a
specific language performance, are analogs to the training courses . . . .

Figure 4. Example of block quotation

If you have a quotation within a block quotation, enclose it in double (")
quotation marks. If you have a quotation within a short quote (one
incorporated within the text), enclose it within single quotation marks (').
Ellipsis points ( . . . ) are used to indicate omitted material. Type three
periods with a space before and after each period to indicate omission
within a sentence ( . . . ). To indicate an omission between sentences,
type a punctuation mark for the sentence followed by three spaced
periods ( . . . . ) (? . . . ) (! . . . ). When a period or comma occurs with
46

FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

closing quotation marks, place the period or comma within the closing
quotation mark. Put any other punctuation mark outside the quotation
marks unless that mark is part of the quoted material (See figures 5 and
6).

Douglas claims "A specific purpose language test . . . . allows us to make
inferences a bout a test taker's capacity to use language in the specific purpose
domain." (2000, p. 19)

Figure 5. Ellipsis points in in-line quotations

Douglas (2000) proposes a more precise definition of specific purpose
language tests:
A specific purpose language test is one in which test content and
methods are derived from an analysis of a specific purpose target
language use situation . . . allowing for an interaction between the test
takers' language ability and specific purpose content knowledge, on
the one hand, and the test tasks on the other. Such a test allows us to
make inferences about a test taker's capacity to use language in the
specific purpose domain. (Douglas, 2000, p. 19)
Douglas discusses reasons for wishing to develop 'specific purpose
language' tests, and notes that language performance . . . .

Figure 6. Ellipsis points in block quotations

Copy quoted passages exactly as they appear in the original. Permit
errors to stand, but call attention to them by adding the notation [sic]

FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

47

immediately after their occurrence in a passage. If you insert a word or
phrase to clarify a quotation, enclose the addition in brackets.
Example:
"A former department head [James Damber] wrote . . . ."
In this example, "James Damber" has been added to the quotation. If you
change the type face (i.e., italicize, underline, …) of some parts of the
quoted material, indicate the change in parentheses. Take the following
example:

Douglas claims "A specific purpose language test . . . . allows us to make
inferences a bout a test taker's capacity to use language in the specific purpose
domain." (2000, p. 19) (italics mine)

Figure 7. Indicating your additions in quotations

48

FOOTNOTES AND QUOTATIONS

CHAPTER FOUR
REFERENCES

1. INTRODUCTION
Throughout your paper or research report, you must acknowledge the
sources of all the information that you provide (quotations or
references). You have already learnt how to do this by means of
parenthetical citations. In addition to parenthetical citations, APA style
requires that you provide an alphabetical list of references at the end of
your report—after its conclusion section.
2. REFERENCES
According to APA style, the sources in a paper or research report should
be listed alphabetically on a separate page headed References. It follows
the final page of the text and is numbered. Entries appear in alphabetical
order according to the last name of the author; two or more works by the
same author appear in chronological order by date of publication. When
there are two or more books or articles by the same author, repeat the
name of the author in each entry. Two or more works by the same author
with the same publication date are identified by lower-case letters of the
alphabet. Do not double space the distance between different sources.
Do not use first-line hanging or dangling indentation in your reference
list either.
In listing the references of your report or paper, notice that the title of
books and journals must be italicized unless your are using regular
typewriters that lack this feature. Here you need to use underlining
instead of italicizing the book/journal title.
To give you an insight as to how different types of sources should be
listed in your References section, a few examples are provided here.

REFERENCES

49

When using these examples, it is important to follow the suggested
pattern closely, even to the spacing of periods, commas, etc.
2.1. BOOKS
Books fall into a few categories. Each kind requires referencing of its
own. There are seven major kinds of books: (a) single-author books, (b)
multi-author books, (c) editions other than first, (d) edited volumes, (e)
books without author or editor listed, (f) multi-volume works, and (g)
multi-author articles in a multi-author volume. Examples of reference for
each kind have been presented here.
Notice that the abbreviation et al. (for "and others") is not used in the
reference list, regardless of the number of authors, although it can be
used in the parenthetical citation of material with three to five authors
(after the initial citation, when all are listed) and in all parenthetical
citations of material with six or more authors..
Single-author books
Alverez, A. (1970). The savage god: A study of suicide. New York:
Random House.
Multi-author books
Natarajan, R., & Chaturvedi, R. (1983). Geology of the Indian Ocean.
Hartford, CT: University of Hartford Press.
Hesen, J., Carpenter, K., Moriber, H., & Milsop, A. (1983). Computers
in the business world. Hartford, CT: Capital Press.
Editions other than first
Creech, P. J. (1975). Radiology and technology of the absurd (3rd ed.).
Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
Edited volumes
Stanton, D. C. (Ed.). (1987). The female autograph: Theory and practice
of autobiography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
If you are referring to an article or signed chapter in an edited volume,
your reference would look like this:
50

REFERENCES

Pepin, R. E. (1998). Uses of time in the political novels of Joseph
Conrad. In C. W. Darling, Jr., J. Shields, & V. B. Villa (Eds.),
Chronological looping in political novels (pp. 99-135). Hartford:
Capital Press.
Books without author or editor listed
Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary. (1961). Springfield, MA: G. & C.
Merriam.
Multi-volume works
To refer to a single volume, include only the relevant date and volume
number; to refer to another volume in the work, create another entry.
Nadeau, B. M. (Ed.). (1994). Studies in the history of cutlery. (Vol. 4).
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Multi-author articles in a multi-author volume
Pepin, R.E., Darling, C.W., & Villa, V. (1997). Poe and the French
symbolistes. In P. Wursthorn, Jr., J. Darling, & J. Brother (Eds.),
The era of decadence (pp. 110-145). Hartford, CT: Woodland
Press.
2.2. SECONDARY SOURCES
A secondary source is one in which material has been quoted from
another source. To cite from a secondary source is to use material that is
quoted or paraphrased elsewhere when you do not use the original
resource. Here, your reference should include the source of your
language (or idea):
Affleck, M., Allen, R., & DeLoatch, K. (Eds.). (1997). Whatever
happened to the humanities? Studies in Byzantine Intrigue, 77,
235-278.
Note that in the above example, the italicized 77 is a volume number,
not a page number. In your text—the body or main content of the paper
or report, you would quote or paraphrase the idea that Affleck has
quoted or used, as follows:
REFERENCES

51

As Villa trenchantly points out, "Perhaps the conflict seems so strong
because the stakes are so low." (as cited in Affleck, Allen, &
DeLoatch, 1997, p. 21).
2.3. JOURNALS AND PERIODICALS
In reference to journals or periodicals, use inclusive page numbers. Do
not use the abbreviations "p." or "pp." unlike what you did in the main
text of the paper or report. Take the following examples:
Heyman, K. (1997). Talk radio, talk net. Yahoo!, 3, 62-83.
Maddux, K. (1997, March). True stories of the internet patrol. NetGuide
Magazine, 88-92.
Periodicals without volume numbers
Include month and day (if any) as well as the year. Months are not
abbreviated. Military style is not used for dates (not 2 April; instead, use
April 2). Page numbers are not condensed (not 178-88; instead, use 178188). Discontinuous pages are cited in full (1A, 9A; not 1A+). Take the
following example:
Grover, R. (1988, September 19). A megawatt power play. Business
Week, 34-35.
Newspaper articles
If the article is "signed" (that is, you know the author's name), begin
with that author's name. (Notice the discontinuous pages.)
Poirot, C. (1998, March 17). HIV prevention pill goes beyond 'morning
after'. The Hartford Courant, pp. F1, F6.
If the author's name is not available, begin the reference with the
headline or title in the author position.
New exam for doctor of future. (1989, March 15). The New York Times,
B-10.

52

REFERENCES

2.4. NON-PRINT MEDIA
Non-print media includes films, cassettes, musical recordings, and so on.
Reference to these materials has its own specific style. The following
examples show how you can write references of this kind.
Films
Redford, R. (Director). (1980). Ordinary people [Film]. Paramount.
Films of limited circulation
Holdt, D. (Producer), & Ehlers, E. (Director). (1997). River at High
Summer: The St. Lawrence [Film]. (Available from Merganser
Films, Inc., 61 Woodland Street, Room 134, Hartford, CT 06105)
Cassettes
Lake, F. L. (Author and speaker). (1989). Bias and organizational
decision making [Cassette]. Gainesville: Edwards.
Musical recording
Barber, S. (1995). Cello Sonata. On Barber [CD]. New York: EMI
Records Ltd.
2.5. PERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Personal communication refers to letters, telegrams, e-mails, phone
conversations, and so on. Because this kind of material is often not
recoverable (i.e., it is not possible for someone else to see or hear it), it
should not be listed in the list of References. It can, however, be listed
parenthetically within the text. It is extremely important that what is
cited in this way be legitimate and have scholarly integrity. The
parenthetical citation for interviews may look like this:
Example: (R. Wilbur, personal communication, March 28, 1968).
The parenthetical citation for phone conversations may look like this:

REFERENCES

53

Example: According to Connie May Fowler, the sources for her novel
Sugar Cane were largely autobiographical (personal
communication, July 22, 1997).
2.6. GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS
Government documents are often used in research, especially when the
topic has to do with politics, economics, legislation, and so on. In this
case, the reference list shows which documents were used in the study.
1) The reference to a report from the Government Printing Office,
corporate author, may look like this:
National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and behavior:
Ten years of scientific progress (DHHS Publication No. A 821195). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
2) Reports from a Document and Deposit Service (e.g., NTIS, ERIC,
etc.) other than U.S. government may take the following form:
Tandy, S. (1980). Development of behavioral techniques to control
hyperaggressiveness in young children (CYC Report No. 803562). Washington, DC: Council on Young Children. (NTIS No.
P880-14322).
Gottfredson, L. S. (1980). How valid are occupational reinforcer pattern
scores? (Report No. CSOS-R-292). Baltimore, MD: Johns
Hopkins University. Center for Social Organization of Schools.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 182 465)
2.7. ELECTRONIC SOURCES
Electronic correspondences, such as e-mail or discussions on bulletin
boards or discussion groups, is regarded by APA style as personal
communication (like phone conversations or memos), because it is not
recoverable by others. Such instances of personal communication are
cited only within the text and not on the reference page. For citing
personal communications in the text, give the initials and surname of the
author and provide as exact a date as possible. Take this example:

54

REFERENCES

Example 1: R.W. Runyon (personal communication, April 18, 1993)
Example 2: (M. Kohel, personal communication, June 28, 1993)
However, if the information is, in fact, retrievable, the following
elements are necessary for the reference page:
Author, I. (date). Title of article. Name of periodical : (On-line),
xx.available: specify path

The date should be the year of publication or the most recent update. If
the date of the source cannot be determined, provide the exact date of
your search. Take the following example:
Sosteric, M. (1996). Electronic journals: The grand information future?
Electronic Journal of Sociology: (On-line), 4 (1). Available:
http://www.sociology.org/content/vol004.001/sosteric.html
The path information should be sufficient for someone else to retrieve
the material. For example, specify the method used to find the material:
the protocol (Telnet, FTP, Internet, etc.), the directory, and the file name.
Do not end the path statement with a period.
In the following sections, examples of different types of sources, and
how they should appear in the reference list, are provided. Please
understand that commas, periods, underlined and italicized words, etc.
are vital in listing references. So, follow them closely.
Online journals, FTP
Funder, D.C.(1994, March). Judgmental process and content:
Commentary on Koehler on base-rate [9 paragraphs] Pscyoloquy
[Online serial]. 5(17). Available FTP: Hostname:princeton.edu
Directory: pub/harnad/Psycholoquy.94.5.17.base-rate.12.funder
Online articles (WWW)
Klein, Donald F. (1997). Control group in Pharmacoptherapy
and psychotherapy evaluations. Treatment, I. Retrieved
November 16, 1997 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.apa.org/treatment/vol1/97_a1.html

REFERENCES

55

On-line journals, subscriber-based
Central Vein Occlusion Study Group. (1993. October 2). Central vein
occlusion study of photocoagulation: Manual of operations [675
paragraphs]. Online Journal of Current Clinical Trials [On-line
serial]. Availabe: Doc No. 92
2.8. ABSTRACTS
Abstracts are the short synopses of long research reports that appear in
one-paragraph or one-page formats. Very often they can be retrieved
from online sources. Some libraries provide CD-ROMs or Microfilms
that contain abstracts. Within brackets, identify the source: (e.g., [CDROM] or [Microfilm]). Citing reference to abstracts requires specific
skills. The following examples will help.
On-line abstract
Meyer, A.S., & Bock, K.. (1992). The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon:
Blocking or partial activation? [On-line]. Memory & Cognition, 20.
715-726. Abstract from: DIALOG File: PsychINFO Item: 80-16351
Abstract on CD-ROMs
Bower, DL. (1993). Employee assistant programs supervisory referrals:
Characteristics of referring and nonreferring supervisors [CDROM]. Abstract from: Proquest File: Dissertation Abstracts Item:
9315947
2.9. PAMPHLETS AND BROCHURES
In reference to pamphlets and brochures, treat pamphlets created by
corporate authors in the same way you would treat an entire book written
by a corporate author. Do not forget to identify your resource as
[Brochure] or [Pamphlet] within brackets. The following example will
help you write your references to pamphlets and brochures.
The Writing Center of Capital Community-Technical College. (1997).
Writing: the goal is variety (4th ed.) [Brochure]. Hartford, CT:
Author.
56

REFERENCES

2.10. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS
Unpublished materials are usually housed by college and university
libraries. The often-referred-to materials of this kind are masters' theses
and PhD dissertations.
Dissertations
When you have used the actual dissertation (usually from the shelves of
the University where it was written, sometimes obtained through
interlibrary loan), the reference will look like:
Darling, C. W. (1976). Giver of due regard: the poetry of Richard
Wilbur. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
Connecticut, Storrs.
Dissertation abstracts
When you have used an abstract of the dissertation found on microfilm
in Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI), your reference may take
the following form:
Darling, C. W. (1976). Giver of due regard: the poetry of Richard
Wilbur. Dissertation Abstracts International, 44(02), 221A.
(University Microfilms No. AAD44-8794)
For masters' theses, do the same thing. This time, you will use the phrase
"Unpublished masters' thesis" in the reference instead of the phrase
"Unpublished doctoral dissertation."
3. BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Bibliographies are alphabetical lists of books and articles dealing with
specific subjects or general areas of study; for example, the Cambridge
Bibliography of English Literature. Although they contain no facts
themselves, bibliographies are the most complete references of where to
find the facts. Most are annotated with notes about each item to indicate
special qualities or usefulness.
You are seldom asked to write bibliographies because the reference list
of your research report should normally include only reference to the

REFERENCES

57

items you actually used in your study. However, your supervisor or
university may require that you prepare a bibliography in addition to the
list of references of your report. If so, notice that the points discussed in
sections 2 through 2.10 above must be observed.
4. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES
An annotated bibliography will have the same basic layout as a
Reference page. However, There are three major differences. First, you
can include in your bibliography works that you think would be useful to
your reader that you might not have used in the writing of this particular
paper or article. Second, you can break down the references into useful
categories and arrange those categories in ways that you think would be
helpful to your reader. Third, you can add commentary to the references,
telling your reader the particular virtues (or, if necessary, the
shortcomings) of that resource. Commentaries should be concise,
economical summaries, written in sentence fragments; if related,
fragments should be connected with semicolons. The commentary
should begin on a new line, indented slightly from the preceding line.
Example:
National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and behavior:
Ten years of scientific progress (DHHS Publication No. A 821195). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Documents connections between children's lack of attention in
school and hours of television watching; provides scientific
evidence of changed viewing habits over ten years.
5. FINAL REMARKS
On the World Wide Web, the author's name is not always available. If
you have determined that the material nonetheless has scholarly integrity
(because, say, it was published on the web-site of a responsible scholar
or prestigious university), you would list that resource in your Reference
page the same way you would treat a book without an author: begin your
reference with the title. Parenthetically, within your text, use the title of
the document so that your reader can find the list on your References
page and discover, then, how to find that document.

58

REFERENCES

CHAPTER FIVE
APA INTRICACIES

1. INTRODUCTION
Chapters one through four presented the main elements of APA style.
There are a few other aspects of APA style that require your attention.
These aspects include:
1. Headings and heading levels
2. Abbreviations and punctuation
3. Punctuation spacing
This chapter will provide a brief overview of these less-often-noticed,
though very important, aspects of APA style.
2. HEADINGS
The APA publication manual gives clear guidelines concerning the
format to be used for the different levels of headings. The term
"heading" refers to the phrases that label the different sections of a
paper, research report, book, masters' thesis, or PhD dissertation. The
four major levels of heading identified by the APA publication manual
are illustrated below:
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4

CENTERED UPPER-CASE
Centered Upper-case and Lower-case
Flush left, Underlined, Upper-case and Lower-case Side Heading
Indented, underlined, lower-case paragraph heading ending with a
period

For many research reports only two levels of headings are required. In
this case, the publication manual suggests using heading level 2 and
heading level 3, as illustrated below.
APA INTRICACIES

59

Abstract
Title (Using Capital Letters for Main Words)
Method
Participants
Materials
Procedure
Results
Discussion
References
The other levels of headings will need to be used (a) if additional
headings are used throughout the introduction, or (b) if you need to
divide your results or discussion sections into subsections. If additional
heading levels are required consult the APA publication manual (pp. 9093, 242-243). In PhD dissertations, masters' theses, and books, the writer
may introduce variations on this basic formula. He may use numbers to
organize the headings and subheadings as has been done in this book.
3. ABBREVIATIONS AND PUNCTUATION
The APA publication manual provides very clear guidelines concerning
the abbreviations and punctuation to be used throughout your report.
You should check these carefully. Some commonly used abbreviations
are listed here:
e.g.

for example

n

etc.
i.e.,
vs.
et al.

and so forth
that is
versus
used when you have
multiple authors and you
have already provided the
full citation
number of subjects in the
total sample

M
SD
ns
p

number of subjects in each
group or subset of the
sample
mean
standard deviation
not significant
probability

df

degrees of freedom

N

60

APA INTRICACIES

4. PUNCTUATION SPACING
Punctuation includes commas, colons, end-of-sentence punctuation (or
periods/full stops), punctuation in quotations, spaces between words, and
semicolons should be closely observed in your research reports. APA
style makes some suggestions for the correct use of punctuation in your
reports.
Place one space after punctuation (: ; . , ? ! etc.) because the APA now
calls for one space to appear after all punctuation marks. If you are using
a mono-space font (such as Courier), you may consider using two spaces
after end-periods and colons, but consult your supervisor first to make
sure about his/her preferences.
EXCEPTIONS:
1) No space is needed after internal periods in abbreviations.
Example:
a.m. but not a. m. i.e., but not i. e. , U.S. but not U. S.
2) No space is needed after the colon in ratios.
Example:
6:1 but not 6: 1 5:2 but not 5: 2 7:6 but not 7: 6
Hyphens need no space before or after them.
Example:
trial-by-trial analysis

step-by-step completion

Dashes are typed as two hyphens with no space before, between or after
them.
Example:
Studies--published and unpublished--are . . . .

APA INTRICACIES

61

Note that Microsoft Word will automatically change the appearance of
the dash. The above example, when typed in Microsoft Word will look
like this:
Example:
Studies—published and unpublished—are . . . .
The negative symbol of mathematics or the Minus symbol (-) looks very
much like the hyphen. Type the "minus symbol" as a hyphen with space
on both sides
Example:
x – 3 but not x-3

y – 26 but not y-26

Here, again, Microsoft Word will automatically pull the hyphen to make
it longer so that it will resemble the "minus" sign more closely.
Also notice that opening punctuation marks like ( { [ " ' are preceded but
not followed by a space. Take the following examples:
CORRECT

WRONG

It (the Moon) has . . . .

It( the Moon )has . . . .

Jack said, "I will . . . ."

Jack said , " I will . . . . "

etc.
Table 1. Examples of right and wrong punctuation use

The hints provided in the next section help you minimize the possibility
of punctuation and spelling errors in your research reports.
5. FINAL REMARKS
In Microsoft Word the enter key on the keyboard should only be used at the
end of each paragraph or block.

To minimize the possibility of error in your research reports. You can
use the features of Microsoft Word available from the tools menu on the
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APA INTRICACIES

menu bar to set the writing and grammar options for your documents
before you start typing them. To access these options, you need to open
the "options" dialogue box. See figure 1:

Figure 1. Selecting "options" in Microsoft Word

This should open the Options dialogue box as shown in figure 2. When
the dialogue box opens, make sure that the "Spelling & Grammar" tab
should be selected for setting the required options. If this is not done by
Microsoft Word default settings, click the tab to select it. Then you will
be able to set the options as you like.
Also notice that if you are setting options for text written in a language
other than your language version of Word, the options may differ in the
dialog box. For example, if you are typing Spanish text in an English
document, the grammar and style options for Spanish will be different
from the ones for English.
APA INTRICACIES

63

Figure 2. Setting spelling and grammar options in Microsoft Word

The following are grammar and writing style options you can set in the
Grammar Settings dialog box (Tools menu, Options command, Spelling
& Grammar tab—as shown in figures 1 and 2):
Capitalization problems, such as proper nouns ("Mr. jones" should
be "Mr. Jones") or titles that precede proper nouns ("aunt Helen"
should be "Aunt Helen");
Numerals that should be spelled out (use nine instead of 9), and vice
versa (use 12 instead of twelve). The option also detects incorrect
usage of "%" in place of "percentage;"
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APA INTRICACIES

Use of contractions that should be spelled out or that are considered
too informal for a specific writing style—for example, "We won't
leave 'til tomorrow" instead of "We will not leave until tomorrow;"
Gender-specific
language,
such
as
"councilman"
and
"councilwomen" which should be replaced by non-gender-specific
(or non-sexist) language;
Questionable but not strictly incorrect possessive usages such as
"Her memory is like an elephant's" or "I stopped by John's;"
Pronouns "I" and "me," which shouldn’t be used in scientific or
technical writing;
Wordy relative clauses or vague modifiers (such as "fairly" or
"pretty"), redundant adverbs, too many negatives, the unnecessary
use of "or not" in the phrase "whether or not," or the use of "possible
… may" in place of "possible … will."
After setting the options, click ok. This will return you to the main Word
window. You will see the effect of the set options when you type your
research report.

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65

SECTION TWO
LIBRARY RESEARCH

This section is composed of two chapters:
Chapter Six: The Library
Chapter Seven: Note Keeping
Chapter six discusses the rudiments and the basic
concepts of library research. It covers such topics as
the sources available in the library, different library
search methods, the importance of library research, and
a few hints for the library researchers.
The focus of chapter seven is on the most popular
library search method—note keeping. Two types of
notes are discussed: bibliographical notes, and subject
notes. Examples of each type are provided. In addition,
the intricacies of note taking for each type are
elaborated on. Plagiarism is discussed as the major
pitfall in library research. Finally, a few hints are
provided for the library research worker as to how they
should approach the task of paraphrasing.

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67

CHAPTER SIX
THE LIBRARY

1. INTRODUCTION
One of the key capabilities that university students should be able to
develop in themselves is the ability to use research findings from their
own and related fields. A good place where they can assimilate an
increasing amount of knowledge to keep abreast of recent developments
in their field is the library. Literally thousands of books, periodicals,
documents, and pamphlets are placed on library shelves each year. Skill
is required in making a comprehensive search for information about a
specific topic. A failure to develop these skills will lead to much wasted
effort and frustration.
Although a knowledge of library methods is desirable for the consumer
of research, it is essential for the research worker. Too often graduate
and undergraduate students and other beginning research workers try to
solve a problem without attempting to determine whether others have
conducted investigations in the same area.
This chapter, designed to help the consumer and research worker gain
knowledge of library skills, emphasizes that library study is not a
meaningless activity but an essential ingredient of the systematic
approach to problem solving. The major sections of this chapter include
(1) a statement of the purpose of library study, (2) a description of
library resources, and (3) suggestions of methods which will aid in the
collection of data from library resources.
2. LIBRARY SOURCES
Many excellent libraries are available to graduate and undergraduate
students throughout the world. Because of the differences in
organization of materials, detailed instructions about the use of a library
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may not be helpful; therefore, attention has to be focused on library
sources and on methods which can serve in any library setting.
A useful method for learning about library sources is to visit the library
where the research is to be carried out. First, contact the head librarian
and arrange for a description of the sources and their location. A guided
tour of the various sections of the library should follow. The initial
orientation time can be spent browsing to become familiar with the
location of various sections and departments.
Library source are either general sources (called generalities) or specific
sources (called specifics). General sources talk about more than one
topic assigning a few pages or one single chapter to each topic.
Encyclopedias are the best example of general sources. Specifics, on the
other hand, are totally devoted to one single topic. For example,
Chomsky's Studies on semantics in generative grammar (Chomsky,
1972) discusses only one topic—namely semantics in generative
grammar.
Undergraduate students are asked to use generalities because their
research reports are supposed to be relatively short (not more than 20
pages). Furthermore, only a small section of this short report will be
dedicated to literature review—no more than a few pages, say, 2 or 3 at
best. PhD and masters' students, on the other hand, will find specifics
more promising for their research projects. This is because of the fact
that a full chapter is dedicated to the review of the related literature in
PhD dissertations and masters' theses.
On the whole, major library sources of use to research workers fall into
the following seven categories:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

standard references
books
legal sources
periodicals or journals
government documents
pamphlets and directories
unpublished materials

Each of these source types is explained in a separate section below.

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2.1. STANDARD REFERENCES
Certain references are consulted first whenever there is a systematic
library search. The librarian can provide information about the
availability of these sources although the best way to become familiar
with the basic references is to study the organization of their contents
carefully.
2.1.1. ENCYCLOPEDIAS
Encyclopedias are the most important example of standard references.
They contain summaries of research studies arranged by topics. The
content of each topic has been prepared by a specialist who volunteered
to summarize research findings for his specific area of interest. These
summaries cannot be considered as substitutes for the original research
reports but can be used for screening purposes to limit the scope of the
library search. If a study appears relevant, a reference to the original
source is provided at the end of each section. Because of the time
required to prepare a comprehensive encyclopedia, studies in print less
than one year before the publication date of a given encyclopedia will
probably not be described in that source.
Recently, the major encyclopedias of the world have been marketed in
the form of CD-ROM volumes that can be viewed on personal
computers. Updates of these electronic encyclopedias are available on
the Internet. The major volumes that are available in electronic format
are Encyclopedia Americana, Encyclopedia Africana, Encyclopedia
Encarta, and Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Encarta is perhaps
the best in this rich aristocracy of electronic encyclopedias.
2.1.2. DICTIONARIES
Dictionaries are the constant companions of a researcher. Because a
researcher must define terms with precision, a knowledge of which
dictionaries to use is an inevitable part of successful library research.
Among the better-known general dictionaries are the Oxford English
Dictionary (12 volumes), Dictionary of American English on Historical
Principles (4 volumes), Funk and Wagnalls New Standard Dictionary,
and Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language.
More specialized dictionaries are also needed at times. Longman
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Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics by Richards,
Platt, and Platt (1985) is one such dictionary. A Dictionary of Linguistics
and Phonetics by David Crystal (1980) is another specialized dictionary.
Students of English literature will also find valuable information in
specialized dictionaries of their own field.
2.1.3. THESAURI
Thesauri are a new type of reference. A thesaurus is a reference book
that has been compiled in conjunction with the development of
information retrieval systems. A thesaurus of descriptors is a list of
words and phrases that indexers use to describe a periodical article or
research report so that it can be stored for future search and retrieval.
Researchers can use them to search for information that has been stored
in the system. Two of the thesauri that provide indexers and researchers
with a common communication system are (1) The New York Times
Thesaurus of Descriptors: A Guide for Organizing, Indexing, and
Searching Collections of Information on Current Events, and (2) The
Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors.
2.1.4. ALMANACS AND YEARBOOKS
A wealth of current information may be found in almanacs and
yearbooks. The World Almanac, published from 1868 to the present,
affords up-to-date statistics and data concerning events, progress, and
conditions in a wide variety of fields. The librarian can tell you which
almanac best suits your research needs.
2.1.5. BIOGRAPHY INDEXES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES
When carrying out a research study, one may have to obtain a specific
fact about a person, such as his birthdate, degrees, publications, present
position, or professional affiliations. This type of information as well as
information concerning the background, competency, prestige, or biases
of a person, may be found in encyclopedias or in biography indexes.
Here again, the librarian can tell you which biography index best suits
your research needs.
Compiling a bibliography is one of the first and one of the last things a
researcher may need to do in conducting a study. This essential task is
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less arduous and time-consuming if the researcher is well acquainted
with the various labor-saving devices at his disposal. He may find books
and periodicals in the library that will help him locate bibliographies that
have already been compiled. Of course, the bibliographies will vary in
type and quality; some will be exhaustive and others selective or brief;
some will be annotated—providing brief descriptions of each source—
and others not. If the bibliographies are compiled by experts in the field
and give clues to the content, general value, scholarship, and significant
features of the publications, that is, if they are annotated, they may save
the researcher weeks of searching time.
2.2. BOOKS
Material included in textbooks and other expository works may contain
authoritative information that is very helpful to the research worker.
Unfortunately, the contents of books are seldom classified in external
sources in sufficient detail to insure complete access by conventional
search methods. The sources of such information follow.
Author subject card index: All libraries contain card catalogues. Many
provide an author-title index and a subject index. The author-title index
is an alphabetical listing of all the titles and a separate listing for authors;
for example, three cards would be found in the author-title index for a
book titled Recreation by Jones and Smith, one under "recreation" and
one for each author. A card entry would also be found under "recreation"
in the subject catalogue and also, depending on the contents of the book,
references may be found under "camping," "fishing," "wild life," "golf,"
or "bird watching."
Each card in the author-subject card index will usually contain either a
cross-reference to another card or information regarding the (1) author or
authors, (2) title, (3) date of publication, (4) description of contents, and
(5) Library of Congress card number.
Subject headings: This source published by the Library of Congress is a
valuable adjunct to the card catalogue system developed by the college
library. As an example, if the researcher is unable to find a desired topic
in the regular card catalogue, use of Subject Headings will indicate other
categories where the topic might be found. Because many libraries use
Subject Headings as a guide for establishing subject card catalogues, this

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volume is usually conveniently located near the main card catalogue.
The library staff can assist in its use.
Books in print: This source is an author and title series index to the
Publishers Trade List Annual. It contains a listing of most books Printed
by 1,400 American publishers and includes more than 163,000 entries.
Included is a reference to author, title, publisher, and cost; however,
books, published in English in foreign countries, government
documents, certain law volumes, and many paperback editions are not
listed. Listings are divided into two sections; in the first, publications are
arranged alphabetically by author. The second section contains an
alphabetical listing of titles. Often, when only the author or title of a
work is known, Books In Print will enable the researcher to obtain
sufficient additional information to provide a complete bibliographic
reference.
Cumulative book index: Issued since 1938, this source contains a listing
of all books published in the English language; therefore, its coverage is
somewhat broader than Books In Print. The source, however, does not
list government documents.
Books out of print: Frequently the researcher is unable to obtain a
published volume in the library or through an interlibrary loan because it
is out of print. Several methods for acquiring such a source can be used.
First, the librarian can be requested to place the bibliographic reference
on an out-of-print list which is circulated among librarians and book
readers. Second, he can examine listings in the Antiquarian Bookman
available from Box 1100, Newark, New Jersey. This periodical contains
commercial listings of rare and out-of-print volumes. Third, the
researcher can contact University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, to
determine whether facsimiles of the volume are available on microfilm
or xerographic enlargements.
2.3. LEGAL SOURCES
Legal references are an important source of information for the
researcher interested in analyzing the development of social thought in
society. Students of English literature may find legal sources very
effective. Records of past legislative acts and court decisions have long
been recognized as a reflection of basic changes occurring in the fabric
of society. In addition to a scholarly interest in legal proceedings, the
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practicing educator should possess sufficient skill in legal research to
meet the day-to-day requirements for information arising out of the
practice of his profession. Legal sources can be divided into four
categories, namely, dictionaries, codes, administrative regulations, and
court decisions.
2.3.1. LAW DICTIONARIES
Before attempting to read laws and particularly legal decisions, the
research worker should have access to a law dictionary. The Law
Dictionary, edited by A. C. Black, is a standard legal reference. In
addition, the research worker may need assistance in interpreting certain
legal material. The aid of a law professor or practicing attorney should
be solicited when required.
2.3.2. CODES
Legal codes contain a list of laws enacted by legislative bodies. Federal
codes are listed in official sources in two ways: (1) serially by data and
(2) by topic. In the United States, both federal codes and the code of the
local state laws can be found in most university libraries; only large law
libraries contain complete sets of codes for all of the states.
2.3.3. ADMINISTRATIVE REGULATIONS
Statutes frequently outline policy and delegate the responsibility for its
administration to administrative agencies. Administrative enactments
which are not law in the sense of having been enacted by legislative
bodies nevertheless have the force of law in many instances. They have
been called administrative laws. Proceedings of state educational bodies
such as state boards of education are incorporated in administrative
codes. These regulations govern the actions of local school districts as
well as other educational institutions, and can be used in language
teaching/learning research.
2.3.4. COURT DECISIONS
While much of organized law has been established through legislative
action, the courts are also guided by previous judicial decisions. These
decisions may interpret, modify, or negate legislation. Court decisions

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can be used as a good source of information regarding the state of
language teaching and learning policies in a country.
2.4. PERIODICALS AND JOURNALS
In library terms, a periodical is a source that is published at specific time
intervals. Quarterlies, Monthlies, Dailies, etc. are among the different
types of periodicals (e.g., TESOL Quarterly).
Periodicals and journals usually contain more recent accounts of current
research than do standard references or books. Utilization of periodical
references will enable the researcher to examine the results of studies
soon after they are completed. Further, original sources of classic studies
are frequently found in periodicals. A list of the most important indexes
that are useful for research projects of EFL learners follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Bibliographic Index
Biography Index
Child Development Abstracts
Essay and General Literature Index
International Index to Periodicals
Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature

Newspapers often constitute an excellent record of past events. Public
officials and attorneys utilize newspaper accounts to determine the
legality of certain actions taken in the past. In the United States, the most
authoritative index to newspaper articles reflecting a national interest is
the New York Times Index issued since 1913.
Although many libraries do not have original editions of newspapers,
many possess microflim copies. Newspaper indexes are published
monthly with yearly summaries. Topics are arranged alphabetically.
Each entry briefly describes the contents, and lists the date the article
appeared in the newspaper and its page and column number.
2.5. GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS
Documents are publications issued by governments. They provide
excellent sources of information but because of the number of
publications, diversity of topics, and variety of agencies involved, ready

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access to specific sources is difficult. Government documents provide a
rich reference source frequently bypassed in routine library searches.
2.6. PAMPHLETS AND DIRECTORIES
Pamphlets include publications of local governmental and private
agencies which do not exceed a certain number of pages. Examples
would include public relations releases issued by private organizations,
and information bulletins, conference notices, manuals, and handbooks
issued by local governmental and educational agencies. Some libraries
catalogue these publications in the regular cataloguing system; thus
references to pamphlets can be found in the card catalogue. The location
and method used for cataloguing pamphlets can be found by consulting
the library staff. When searching for pamphlets, it is important to
remember that they usually are available for only a short time after
publication and some are produced for advertising or propaganda
purposes. Once again, the librarian is the best reference who can tell you
how pamphlets can be located and which pamphlet best suits your
research needs.
Directories are an essential tool in drawing a sample from a known
population for the purpose of circulating a questionnaire. If the
investigator wishes to ascertain the opinions of city managers
concerning the role of schools in city government, for example, he will
need a list of all city managers in the area of the study. From this
"population" of names, a sample could be chosen. Recently, however,
the homepages of schools, universities, etc. list the names and addresses
of their staff in their staff directories. Yahoo or MSN people search is
also a useful directory.
Directories are as valuable in professional life as a personal address
book is in private life. A researcher can use them to locate the names and
addresses of persons, periodicals, publishers, organizations, or firms
when he wants to obtain information, interviews, or research materials
and apparatus. By consulting directories, he may find people or
organizations who have similar professional interests or who are
qualified to answer his questionnaires or help solve his problems. The
directories are listed alphabetically and are arranged under subject
headings. The librarian can tell you which directory best suits your
research needs.
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2.7. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS
Results of most recently conducted research studies quite frequently are
first available in unpublished form. Many worthwhile studies in addition
to masters' theses and doctoral dissertations do not appear in published
form. These include papers presented at conferences, intern research
reports, studies conducted for associations and groups, and the products
of the efforts of school district personnel. The assumption should not be
made that the highest quality research is always published in journals.
On the contrary, because of the limited interest in certain topics,
valuable studies may not be included in the conventional research
journals.
2.7.1. MASTERS' THESES
Masters' theses are often not published. Two useful listings of masters'
theses include Masters' Theses In Education and Masters Abstracts. The
former source has been published for a number of years and includes a
title and short description of masters' theses completed by degree
candidates at major colleges and universities. The second source,
Masters Abstracts, is relatively new. It contains a short summary of
studies completed by masters' candidates of contributing institutions.
Copies of masters' theses listed in the Abstracts can be obtained in
microfilm or xerographic enlargements from the publisher.
2.7.2. DOCTORAL DISSERTATIONS
In comparison with masters' theses, a more complete listing of doctoral
dissertations is available. Most dissertations submitted to colleges and
universities in the United States can be found listed in a number of
sources. Doctoral Dissertations Accepted By American Universities
includes most dissertations accepted by higher institutions since 1933.
This listing service has been replaced by Dissertation Abstracts which
contains a short summary of each study including a brief statement of
findings. The beginning researcher is cautioned, however, to obtain a
copy of the original investigation through the interlibrary loan service or
from the publishers of the Abstracts before citing the results in a
research study. Proper evaluation of the research findings can be made
only by examining the entire document.

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2.7.3. OTHER UNPUBLISHED SOURCES
Other unpublished sources can be found in the pamphlets section of the
library, in the card catalogue, or in special field service collections.
Direct contact can be made with associations and school districts where
certain types of research are known to be under way. Unpublished
research studies provide a rich source of information for the investigator
who desires to give an accurate portrayal of the present status of
knowledge in a specific topic area. The sources, however, are less
systematically organized and catalogued than other published sources.
2.8. THE INTERNET
In modern societies, many libraries afford access to the Internet. The
Internet can also afford access to a rich repertoire of abstracts—or even
full-text materials. Two good online sources are known as ERIC and
Proquest. To access the abstracts available at Proquest or ERIC
clearinghouses, you can use the Internet search engines. A list of the
most useful search engines and their addresses follows:
Ask Jeeves:
Altavista:
Mamma:
Lycos:
Direct hit:
Google:
Microsoft:
Yahoo:
NBC:
Netscape:
Excite:
Hotbot:

http://www.ask.com/
http://www.altavista.com/
http://www.mamma.com/
http://www.lycos.com/
http://www.directhit.com/
http://www.google.com/
http://www.msn.com/
http://www.yahoo.com/
http://www.nbci.com/
http://www.netscape.com/
http://www.excite.com/
http://www.hotbot.com/

To successfully search a topic through the Internet, enclose your search
words (also called keywords or descriptors) within quotation marks. For
example, to search the topic 'field independence', place "field
independence" in the search box of your search engine and let it go. You
can also go by the search engine's web directory. Take a look at figure 1
below:

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Figure 1. Ask Jeeves search window

3. LIBRARY RESEARCH METHODS
The most effective methods for utilizing library resources depend to a
certain extent on the facilities and organization of the library which is
available. As mentioned previously, consultation with library staff
members will prove a valuable aid in obtaining the most effective use of
this source. Methods for library use can be described as:
(1) note-keeping
(2) standard search procedures
(3) other search methods.
3.1. NOTE KEEPING
After locating source materials, you should read them and take notes in a
manner that furthers the whole research process. Note-keeping is a

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systematic method for collecting information that will help the
investigator utilize the results of library research more fully. In
conducting an historical study, an extensive content analysis, or a
comprehensive literature review or survey to determine the current
status of knowledge in a special field, the researcher may collect
material from a great many sources for future use. He must use an
adequate method for recording and filing notes that maximizes accuracy
and minimizes time spent in nonproductive clerical work. The easiest
and the most economical method is to use note cards. This is the focus of
the next chapter (chapter 7).
3.2. STANDARD SEARCH METHODS
Most professional researchers identify a few phases for any successful
library research. The phases of library research must be accomplished in
precisely the same manner as they are described by these professional
researchers. Since academic library research, especially at undergraduate
level, is often done in college and university libraries, most of these
professional researchers suggest only two phases for library search.
Following is a description of the two phases in library search procedures
which can be utilized in nearly all college and university libraries.
3.2.1. DETERMINATION OF TOPICS
The key to a successful library search is proper selection of key topic
words, signposts which will guide the researcher through the labyrinth of
library sources. After determining the area for which the survey is
developed, a list of words should be made which describes the topic. The
list of topics, compiled in this way, should be recorded for the
researcher's use and can be listed in the written report to indicate the
scope of the library search.
3.2.2. FINDING SOURCES
Once the list of topics has been developed, the investigator can begin the
process of methodically examining each listing of books and periodicals.
Consult each of the key topics and work back through older editions. For
studies dealing with learning, the investigator may find a need to
continue the search into the earlier literature dealing with education or
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educational psychology. Many of the journal articles listed under the
appropriate topics can be eliminated from consideration by examining
the titles.
A list should be made of journal articles and books with titles which
indicate a relationship to the selected topics. Sufficient bibliographic
information should be recorded to insure location of the sources. An
examination of the most recent sources will provide bibliographies to
earlier works which may be useful. A list of these should be compiled
and checked off when the search is continued. An important source of
information concerning current research not in published form can be
obtained by examining copies of the Dissertation Abstracts or the
Masters' Abstracts which contain short summaries of doctoral
dissertations and masters' theses completed by graduate students in
subscribing institutions. If the description of the study indicates it
contains needed information, the complete work should be obtained
through the interlibrary loan service or from the publishers of
Dissertation Abstracts.
The description of standard search methods presented in the preceding
paragraphs emphasizes one principle. It is absolutely necessary to refer
to original sources; use commentaries on and summaries of research
only as a means of identifying original sources.
3.3. OTHER SEARCH METHODS
Besides "note keeping" and "standard library search methods," there are
less recognized steps that you can take to make your research more
fruitful. These further steps are recommended below to broaden your
scope of inquiry beyond the traditional boundaries.
3.3.1. COURSE WORK IN OTHER DISCIPLINES
A graduate survey course can provide a means for the investigator to
become familiar with other areas which may have a bearing on the
subject of the investigation. Doctoral candidates with dissertation topics
relating to other disciplines such as psychology, political science,
economics, history, or sociology are counseled into appropriate courses
at this level. The assigned readings and lectures offer an opportunity to

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select pertinent areas of these disciplines to add to the body of
educational knowledge.
3.3.2. READERS
Reader is a name commonly used to designate selections of works which
have been collected into one volume with editorial comments and
explanation by the editors. The readers present an excellent source for
the research worker who wishes to gain knowledge about other academic
areas.
3.3.3. THE INTERDISCIPLINARY TEAM
The interdisciplinary team is increasingly utilized in a number of largescale research endeavors. The sociologist, psychologist, historian, social
psychologist, political scientist, anthropologist, and philosopher can add
new perspective to a problem which may be considered essentially
linguistic in nature. Some debate exists concerning the point during
study development when talent from other areas should be utilized.
Some feel that personnel from related disciplines should be involved
during the planning stages while others assert that the outside expert is
most helpful after the preliminary plan for the study has been made. In
any event, individuals with training in non-linguistic disciplines—
professionals, professors or graduate students—can be of assistance to
the researcher.
3.3.4. BROWSING
Many graduate students have encountered a study with important
implications for their investigation while browsing through books and
periodicals. The ease of browsing depends on the physical organization
of library facilities. When books and periodicals are catalogued in open
stacks without restrictions, browsing can be more easily accomplished
than when each book or periodical must be checked out prior to
examination.
4. IMPORTANCE OF LIBRARY RESEARCH
The purpose of library study is dictated by the activity involved. The
research worker uses the library to determine new developments which
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have a bearing on his specialty whatever it might be. Although the
research worker uses the library for somewhat different purposes, a
knowledge of his use of the literature is essential to evaluate the quality
and interpret the findings of studies.
In masters' theses and PhD dissertations, there should be a chapter that
presents the background and history of the topic under study. Although it
is often possible to locate a "state of the art" article about the research
topic in a specialized journal that presents this needed background and
history whole sale, very often PhD candidates and masters' students will
have to use library resources to write their reviews of the related
literature.
Before a research worker initiates a study, he must first determine what
has previously been done in the topic area. In addition to classic studies,
a thorough knowledge of contemporary research in the topic area would
also be necessary. Current status in a specific area cannot be determined
by skimming and by reading summaries of studies; intensive analysis is
required. Determination of current status in a field of knowledge
requires access to the most accurate sources available.
4.1. KNOW THE ORIGINAL SOURCE
Like rumor, the restating of conclusions presumably reached by a
pioneer in a field of knowledge can result in gross distortion of the
original findings. If "animal imagery in Shakespeare's plays" is the
problem selected for study, the original account of the investigations
done in this connection should be read. Second-handed descriptions
should not be considered a substitute for the original sources. When a
study published in an unfamiliar language is to be used, a comparison of
more than one translation of the original work should be made if at all
possible. Although examination of original articles sometimes requires
much time, the practice eliminates secondhand scholarship.
4.2. BE MORE INFORMED
In researching a specific literary topic, the library search may extend to
directly related fields such as literary criticism; in a library, however,
books are catalogued and journals are classified on the basis of broad
subject areas. As a result, you may fail to encounter references to
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relevant studies in other areas unless you take special steps in addition to
prescribed library search methods. Useful findings from other fields may
not be utilized by research workers because of a lack of communication
among research workers in the various fields of study.
4.3. BE CRITICAL
More than a single study usually has been conducted relating to a
problem area selected by you for your term project. The report of these
related studies must be analyzed line by line; even the meaning of each
word must be determined, if possible.
The purpose of this critical analysis is threefold. The quality of
individual studies must be ascertained. The findings of two or more
studies should be analyzed to determine if investigators concurred in
their findings and should be contrasted to identify differences in their
conclusions. Disagreements of two or more competent investigators
about the exact nature of facts leads to the third consideration, namely, a
determination of the gaps in the existing body of knowledge. The
research worker may then decide to do his research in such a way as to
fill this gap.
Library scholarship is essential for constructing a foundation upon which
quality research can be built. Before moving ahead, the research worker
must be aware of what is known with some degree of certainty, what is
accepted as truth by some but not by others, and must have some inkling
of the nature of unexplored areas where additional research should be
conducted.
Many research projects necessitate the use of instruments such as
questionnaires, schedules, attitude scales, rating scales, and achievement
tests, and apparatus such as soundproof booths, one-way mirrors, and
other devices. Development of valid and reliable instruments with which
to conduct an investigation may require a great amount of expertise,
time, and effort. If appropriate, the use of instruments developed and
validated by others will save time and serve also to relate the problem
under study to other better known "facts." A library-based survey of the
literature can be initiated for the primary purpose of identifying valid
instruments, proven methods, or appropriate apparatus. Therefore,

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85

library search is a useful tool, available for the research worker, that
makes the selection of data collection instruments easy.
To formulate the null and alternate hypothesis for statistical analysis in
an experimental design an investigator may be justified in guessing
tentatively the outcome of the research. This guess, or estimate, of the
outcome should be based on research findings from similar
investigations and related to a theoretical rationale. In comparing the
relative merits of two given methods of language teaching, for example,
the investigator should examine previous research studies in which these
methods were compared. He could make one of four decisions:
1. If no previous studies were conducted comparing the two methods,
the probable outcome could not be ascertained;
2. If a number of competent researchers had compared the methods
using various types of subjects (normal children, mentally retarded
children, illiterate adults, and adults learning English as a second
language, for example) and some investigators had found method I
superior and others indicated that method II produced greater
learning, then no probability would be established because of
conflicting conclusions;
3. If a majority of previous studies indicated the superiority of method
I, probability would be established. The investigator would
formulate his hypothesis with the "guess" that method I would
result in greater learning;
4. If nearly all previous studies indicated that method I was superior,
the hypothesis could be formulated to indicate greater gain from
this method.
A review of related studies serves as a guide to what is acceptable and
what is not acceptable verification of the hypothesis in question. Library
research is used to establish the appropriateness of certain statistical
tools and analytical methods in your experiments.
5. FINAL REMARKS
In connection to language teaching, the most important purpose for
conducting library research is to improve the effectiveness of teaching
practices. The aims previously described for library research were
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directed toward improving the quality of planned research
investigations. All investigations, however, are aimed at improving the
effectiveness of the classroom teacher.
Quite clearly, if the teacher and school administrator do not familiarize
themselves with results of studies, most of the effort expended by
research workers will be wasted. A thorough review of the literature
should be made before school district personnel embark on an
experimental language teaching program or make changes in existing
programs which have proven satisfactory in the past.
In addition to other considerations including acceptance by teachers,
parents, and members of the general public, change must follow a
careful examination of related research findings. By utilizing the library,
practicing educators can profit from the successes of others. They can
also eliminate or circumvent causes of failure.

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CHAPTER SEVEN
NOTE KEEPING

1. INTRODUCTION
The term "note" is often used to refer to something written down, often
in abbreviated form, as a record or reminder. There are two note keeping
methods: (a) note taking, and (b) note making. To take notes suggests a
passive procedure of recording words verbatim, like a secretary taking
dictation; to make notes demands your full attention. In this book,
however, the two terms have been used interchangeably.
2. NOTE KEEPING
Critical note taking is an exciting, challenging experience; passive note
taking is a monotonous, boring activity. A nonselective unsystematic
method of recording notes usually piles up tangled masses of data that
are a greater obstacle than an aid to a researcher who is working on a
problem. An efficient note taking system preserves the most significant
ideas in a form that facilitates shifting, comparing, grouping, and
ordering items. When you write the final report of your research study,
pertinent, precise, and flexible notes can be organized and synthesized
into original thought patterns more easily than continuous pages of
rambling, jumbled information.
There are two types of note cards: (a) subject notes, and (b)
bibliographical notes. Subject notes are used to keep paraphrased
material or quoted language. Bibliographical notes are used to keep the
bibliographical information of the source used in note taking.
Subject and bibliographical notes serve different purposes. Each type of
note possesses its individual characteristics. from a practical standpoint,
mongrel notes (part bibliographical and part subject) are useless.
Copying full bibliographical data on each subject card would be

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89

excessively time-consuming; failing to put full data on mongrel notes
would cause difficulties; therefore, keeping the two types of note cards
separate is advisable.
Any note taking system that serves your needs is acceptable, but the
well-tested subject and bibliographical note taking procedures discussed
below are worthy of consideration.
2.1. SUBJECT NOTES
The information that you record on subject notes (also called subject
cards) depends upon the nature of your problem and your experiential
background. During an investigation, you may (1) copy many specific
facts from references, such as dates, places, names, statistics, formulas,
and definitions; (2) summarize or copy arguments, questions,
explanations, illustrations, or descriptions; (3) write comments about
your reactions to reference materials; (4) state relationships, conclusions,
or interpretations that come to your mind during the contemplative
phases of your work; and (5) jot down items that require further
checking.
Subject notes usually make up the bulk of the notes taken in a study;
they form a reservoir of facts. When writing a report you may draw upon
them to (1) support a particular position, (2) illustrate a point of view,
(3) make comparisons, (4) weave a web of logical evidence, or (5)
buttress arguments by passages from recognized authorities. This last
usage—using passages from recognized authorities to buttress your
arguments—is most useful for students of literature. Discriminatingly
selected subject cards provide the building blocks that you need to solve
a problem; haphazardly collected notes may cause your investigation to
collapse.
Copying subject notes about every item that remotely relates to your
problem is an unprofitable practice. To avoid wasting time writing,
filing, reexamining, and culling many worthless subject cards, form the
following habits:
Before taking any notes, skim quickly through a few of the
references. Examine the table of contents, topical headlines,
summary paragraphs to ascertain the purpose, scope, biases,
distinctive features of the reference. Read only those sections
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NOTE KEEPING

best
and
and
that

relate to your problem and record the location of important facts or
passages. If you own the book, underline these items; if not, list the
location of them on a card in an abbreviated form, such as 198:2, 4-6
(page 198: paragraph 2, lines 4-6). Photocopying some materials may
save considerable time. After you have skimmed the references,
reevaluate the underlined, listed, or photocopied passages and copy or
paraphrase the most pertinent ones on your subject cards. (Van Dalen,
1962, p. 97)(italics mine)
A system of note taking that produces permanent, easy-to-handle notes
lessens the labor involved in assembling the final report. Writing notes
consecutively in bound books or on pages of paper is an unwise practice,
for the items will later have to be relocated, reclassified, and either
recopied or indexed elaborately. A note is of the greatest value if it is a
complete unit that can be (a) found quickly in a sheaf of notes, (b) traced
readily to the original source, and (c) transferred easily from one
position in your outline to another.
If each item is placed on a separate card, you can run through notes
taken from many sources and at different times, slip out those cards that
pertain to the same subject, and reorganize them quickly in a logical
sequence for your report. When several items of information are placed
on one card, problems arise. If the items fall logically into different
sections of the report, the process of shuffling cards and ordering them
into the proper report sequence is a confusing and arduous task. You
may overlook important information that is buried among other data on a
card, or you may combine unrelated facts in a report merely because
they were on the same card.
Since smeared, penciled notes or illegible pen scratchings that are
crammed with complicated abbreviations will impede your progress,
always type notes or write them in ink. Make an effort to form each
letter and figure perfectly and to use a simple abbreviation system
consistently. After taking a note, check to make certain that you or a
secretary can decipher each word accurately now and in the future.
Because assorted shapes of note sheets are clumsy to organize and easy
to lose, write all subject notes on cards of the same size. Some research
workers prefer to use notepaper because it is not as bulky as cards,
provides more space for writing, and is more convenient to use when
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91

typing; others prefer cards because they are more durable and easier to
sort and arrange. The nature of the study and the idiosyncrasies of the
writer determine what size card or paper is most serviceable. Subject
cards may require a larger-size card than bibliographical notes. It is
recommended that you use same size cards for both bibliographical and
subject notes. It is also recommended that you refrain from using paper
instead of cards.
Note cards are most convenient for recording notes from printed sources.
Most commonly used size is 10 × 15 cm. The paper used for making
note cards should be thick and stiff enough so that they can be handled
easily. It is recommended that two different colors be used for subject
and bibliographical cards for ease of reference at a later time. It is also
recommended that the subject and bibliographical cards be of the same
size.

Author(s) last name(s), year

Page number(s)

Subject line (use a different color)

Note taking area

Position of card continuation memo

Figure 1. Appearance of a subject note/card

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NOTE KEEPING

OVER / Cont

Subject notes, also called subject cards, are used to keep paraphrased
material or quoted language. Each subject card should also contain brief
bibliographical information about the source, a blank subject line, and
the paraphrased or quoted idea or language (See figure 1 above).
At the upper left corner of the card, the author's surname and the year of
publication of the source should be indicated (e.g., Jason, 1994). A
comma will separate these two pieces of information. If there are more
than one authors, use APA conventions discussed in previous chapters.
At the upper right corner of the card, the page number(s) should be
written. If the material on the card is being quoted or paraphrased from a
single page of the source, the abbreviation "p." will precede the page
number (e.g., p. 48).

Pervin, 1963

p. 32

One of the key developments within psychological
literature on control has been the growing recognition
of the multidimensional nature of the control
construct. Early studies defined control only in terms
of the availability of the means to influence an
aversive situation or outcome. Recent studies show the
importance of individual perceptions in control of
temper under situations of stress. They also delineate
the differences between field dependent (FD) and field
independent (FI) individuals in this connection. They
show FI individuals can control such situations better
than FD individuals.

Figure 2. A sample subject card

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93

When the note has been taken from two or more consecutive pages, the
abbreviation pp. will be used, and the starting-and-end-page numbers are
used with a hyphen between them (e.g., pp. 32-35). If the pages are not
consecutive, hyphen will be replaced by comma (e.g., pp. 32, 35). One
space below the head information, you need to draw a centered line
(called the subject line). Nothing should be written on this line. It should
be kept blank until you have collected all the note cards you need for
your study. The reason for this will be discussed below. Paraphrased or
quoted information can be left-aligned or justified. A sample note card
will look like figure 3 below.
Writing notes on both sides of a card is a mistake. If you must flip cards
constantly when organizing notes into a logical order, you may become
confused and overlook items. Have you ever searched desperately for a
note, only to find it much later tucked away on the back of a card—
which you assumed to be blank?

Douglas, 2000

p. 19

"A specific purpose language test is one in which test
content and methods are derived from an analysis of a
specific purpose target language use situation, so that
test tasks and content are authentically representative of
tasks in the target situation, allowing for an interaction
between the test taker’s language ability and specific
purpose content knowledge, on the one hand, and the
OVER
*

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NOTE KEEPING

*
test tasks on the other."

Figure 3. Front and back of a subject card

Sometimes, the paraphrased or quoted information is longer than one
single card. Here there are two possibilities. If the information is a
fragment of the last sentence which you have written on the front side of
the card, place it at the back of the card. Flip the card vertically to write
on its back—as shown by * in figure 3 above. Write OVER at the lowerright corner of the front side of the card. Notice that quoted language
must be placed within quotation marks. (See figure 3)
If, on the other hand, the information is longer than a fragment of a
single sentence (that is, if the remaining information is one-and-a-half
sentence or longer) a new card should be used. Here, the rest of the note
must be placed on a second card. Write "Cont 1" at the lower-right
corner of the first card and then write the remaining information on a
new card. The two cards in figure 4 below present and example of card
continuation. Take a close look at figure 4 to see how this should be
done:
NOTE KEEPING

95

Shohamy, 1995

p. 196

"Indeed, a few testers did try to get away from the
distinction and to claim that any linguistic behavior
constitutes instances of performance (Rae, 1985). This
broader view does away with the communicativeperformance division since competence can only be
inferred through performance which is therefore all that
can be directly observed and hence assessed. Since no
communicative theoretical model made a clear
Cont 1

Shohamy, 1995, Cont 1

p. 196

distinction between competence and performance,
pragmatic considerations and operational definitions should
guide the development of language tests. With no
underlying theory of performance, actual performances,
translated into tasks and actions, became the de facto
theory. The tests, then, were communicative, functional,
authentic, and direct, with a special focus on performance
and ignoring the notion of competence."

Figure 4. Two consecutive subjects cards

The second card does not need a subject line. If extra information
remains when you come to the end of the second card, your should either
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NOTE KEEPING

write the remaining information at the back of the second card (if it is a
fragment of a sentence, or continue to the third, fourth, fifth … cards.
Here you need to use Cont 2, Cont 3, Cont 4, Cont 5, etc. Only the first
card requires the subject line (See figure 5).

Shohamy, 1995

p. 196

"Indeed, a few testers did try to get away from the
distinction and to claim that any linguistic behavior
constitutes instances of performance (Rae, 1985). This
broader view does away with the communicativeperformance division since competence can only be
inferred through performance which is therefore all that
can be directly observed and hence assessed. Since no
communicative theoretical model made a clear
Cont 1

Shohamy, 1995, Cont 1

p. 196

distinction between competence and performance,
pragmatic considerations and operational definitions
should guide the development of language tests. With
no underlying theory of performance, actual
performances, translated into tasks and actions, became
the de facto theory. The tests, then, were
communicative, functional, authentic, and direct, with a
special focus on performance and ignoring the notion
of competence. The main criteria for determining what
it means to know a language was in performing tasks.
Cont 2

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97

Shohamy, 1995, Cont 2

p. 196

These performance definitions have since dictated the
process of test development: The purpose and context
for a test are defined based on a needs analysis;
samples of the ‘behavior’ in that context are defined,
actual performance or simulation tasks that elicit the
performance are selected; tasks are performed by the
test-taker (in simulated or real situations); the
language samples are elicited; and the language
samples are assessed, usually by means of rating
Cont 3

Shohamy, 1995, Cont 3

p. 196

scales which define criteria for successful
performance. Language testers, then, have turned to
behavioral definitions in which language is described
in performance terms rather than in implicational
terms. Performance tests also have gained high face
validity, high washback, and high client acceptability.
Competence has not been the focus of these language
tests, as only what could be observed was measured,
and covert mental acts were totally overlooked."

Figure 5. Four consecutive subjects cards

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NOTE KEEPING

Entries on the card can be made in handwriting; however, if a typewriter
can be used in the library, note-taking is faster, especially when large
quantities of material are to be recorded verbatim. Recent technological
developments have made computers and scanners available. You can
scan the sections of the printed material you want to use, save them
using TIF file format, convert them into text by different OCR software
packages—like AABBYY Sprint—and open them in you Microsoft
Word software for editing and use.
Entries on note cards should be coded systematically to facilitate ease of
access when the materials are being analyzed for writing the research
report. The cards can be filed in small recipe boxes, steel files, or fiber
folders. Cards should be indexed in two ways—by author and subject.
The cards should be arranged with the author's surname listed in the
upper left-hand corner, using the standard bibliographic reference form.
Cards can then be filed alphabetically by author.

IMPORTANT NOTICE 1
Since bibliographical cards (explained below) carry the
complete data for references, the subject card may merely
identify the source by author's surname and publication date,
but it must indicate the exact page or pages from which the
note is derived. Since each footnote in your final report will
have to state the complete bibliographical information for the
reference, forgetting to record the source and page of a note
may cause discouraging delays when you are ready to write up
the study. Days may be spent in obtaining a reference again and
rereading it to locate a quotation—and the search may not
always culminate in success.

As you have already noticed, there are two types of note cards: (a)
paraphrased-information cards, and (b) quoted-material cards. Some
researchers include a third type of subject cards—summary cards. It is
much wiser if you use different colors for different type of cards. For
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99

example, you may decide to use pink cards for paraphrasing, yellow
cards for quotations, gray cards for summaries, and white cards for
bibliographical notes. This will help you file and retrieve your cards
more easily. Furthermore, it will save you in case you forget to use
quotation marks on cards to identify quoted language.
Now you may want to know which type of materials should be
paraphrased and which quoted. It is wiser if you use direct quotation
cards for:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

points of major controversy
points of major importance
points of major disagreement
definitions of key terms and concepts used in your study
any other point that may create negative reaction in your readers
or supervisor

After locating pertinent material in a reference, you may decide to copy
it verbatim, paraphrase it, or summarize it. Your decision will determine
the type and form of the note you make. Never copy a statement word
for word unless it is especially significant and vitally important to your
study. Enclose a copied statement in quotation marks at once so that you
will not later assume these are your own words and commit an act of
plagiarism unwittingly.
Using a different color for quotation cards is a much wiser strategy.
Copy quoted passages exactly as they appear in the original. Permit
errors to stand, but call attention to them by adding the notation [sic]
immediately after their occurrence in a passage. If you insert a word or
phrase to clarify a quotation, enclose the addition in brackets. For
example, "A former department head [James Damber] wrote the report."
To inform the reader that words have been omitted, insert ellipses—
three periods with alternating spaces ( . . . ). For example, "Professor
Thomas Wood . . . first outlined the program in 1910." If you omit
something from the end of a sentence or delete more than one sentence,
add an additional period—making four periods in all ( . . . . ). After
copying a quotation, recheck each word, punctuation mark, and capital
letter to make certain that you have not made a mistake or omitted
anything.

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NOTE KEEPING

Should the investigator paraphrase or record statements verbatim as they
are listed in the library sources? Paraphrasing saves time and provides
the beginning researcher with practice in analyzing passages, obtaining
facts, and determining the ideas and attitudes expressed by the author.
The process also increases the possibility of error. The person preparing
the notes can project his own attitudes and bias and perhaps distort the
meaning intended by the author whose work is being reviewed.
Frequently, information recorded on note cards is not immediately
utilized by the investigator and may be placed in storage for a long
period of time. Paraphrased passages thus may lose much of their
original meaning.
Although it is not recommended by many scholars, limitations imposed
by paraphrasing can be overcome if items from the original source are
recorded word for word. Needless to say, word-for-word recording of
the items from the original source takes more time, but the possibility for
distortion is reduced. The use of a typewriter to record notes from
sources enables the investigator to record a great deal of information in a
short time. Care must be taken, however, to include sufficient
information from the printed source to avoid quoting out of context.
In spite of the fact that paraphrasing may create some problems for the
beginning researcher, it is usually recommended that you use as much
paraphrasing as possible. Remember to refrain from copying pages of
direct quotations where possible. Get the full meaning out of the author's
ideas and then paraphrase his ideas into notes that can be woven into the
first draft of your report with little or no recasting. Stringing quotations
together to form a research report is an indication of sloppy, superficial
thinking; such compilations make dull reading and no significant
contribution to the advancement of knowledge. A worthwhile report is a
product of critical thinking: it presents the investigator's own ideas and is
written in his own words. Copying notes verbatim merely postpones the
time when you must analyze and synthesize the source materials.
Paraphrasing and summarizing are skills that require practice. copying
phrases, words, or partial sentences usually produces unsatisfactory
notes, for after a lapse of time, these isolated items may not convey
significant meanings and the partial quotes may be mistaken for one's
own words or may be easily distorted. You cannot assimilate an author's
ideas if you merely copy fragments of his sentences or change a word or
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101

two. Assimilation requires effort: you must concentrate on passages until
you eliminate unessential details, single out the significant ones, and
recast these ideas into sharply coined, original sentences that reproduce
the exact intent of the author. A few carefully drafted notes are
invaluable; an abundance of inaccurate, ambiguously stated notes is
useless.

IMPORTANT NOTICE 2
For purposes of critically analyzing the results of research
studies, reproduction of the entire study should be obtained.
Most libraries have book copiers for photo reproduction of
material from bound volumes. To avoid its high cost, the
publishers of journals can be contacted to determine if reprints
of studies are available. The researcher must exercise judgment
in selecting and accurately recording the essential parts of
printed materials.

Accepting and copying unquestioningly the words on a printed page is a
dangerous and unfruitful practice. Reference materials vary in reliability;
consequently, you must become a skillful detective who makes
comparisons, notes discrepancies, sees relationships, analyzes
arguments, and evaluates data. During this process, disturbing doubts,
and challenging questions may seep into your mind. You may ask: Did
the author use primary sources? Did he observe these conditions
himself? Did he borrow his ideas from someone else? Does this
statement contradict what he wrote earlier or what some other authority
reported? From what source? Did he obtain these statistics? How were
they derived? Is his definition of this new term different than that given
by other authorities? Where can I obtain a clearer definition of this new
term? Does this new term refer to the same concept that other authorities
identify with other terms? Is Galileo not spelled differently in the
Encyclopedia Britannica? Does this author agree with other authorities?
Has he arrived at his conclusions by a sound reasoning process? Do the

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statements that he presents as supporting evidence justify his
conclusions?
Critical reading will produce many questions such as these. Keeping a
record of them and seeking answers to them will prod your investigation
toward a successful solution. Personal reactions to reference materials
may be written on separate cards or below a summary or quotation note.
If you register a personal reaction to a source material directly on a
subject card, distinguish your words from those of the author by
enclosing them in [] or by placing an asterisk * or some similar symbol
beside them.

IMPORTANT NOTICE 3
It is much safer if you use separate cards, and preferably cards
with a color different from your subject and bibliographical cards,
for your personal ideas and reactions. Needless to say, this will
save you from later confusion.

To prevent materials from getting lost during the collection of data, file
your notes regularly in a convenient depository. Use vertical files, letter
files, accordion files, work organizers, or large manila folders and a
cardboard box of the proper size. To speed the filing of notes and to
order them in a manner that will facilitate writing the final report, label
the file guide cards with the main topics and subtopics in your report
outline. Keep your filing system up-to-date. If a category that was once
important is no longer useful, place the notes under other topics or place
them in an inactive file until the study is completed. When you must add
new topics, fit them properly into the organizational scheme of the
report.
Some professional researchers recommend that at least 35% of all the
cards should be quoted-information cards. The remaining 65% of the
cards will be paraphrased-information cards. After you have collected all
your cards, you need to leave them aside for a few days during which
you give yourself a period of rest. This is important because you need to
"desuggest" your mind before you can label the cards.
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103

After a few days—preferably two weeks—when you no longer
remember the content of the cards, you can start reading them. This time
you should identify the main idea of each card—as you would do for
paragraphs in your reading comprehension courses—and write it down
on the card right above the blank subject line which you had put on the
cards when you first wrote them. The main ideas should be short phrases
that can later be used as the headings and subheadings of your project.
These phrases will give you a good idea as to how the cards should be
grouped together to afford sets of cards carrying the same topic or
subject on their subject lines. Cards in each set of cards can then be
sorted by author, or in chronological order, and incorporated into the
research report where they best fit. You can even elicit the final outline
of your research report from your card groupings.
Some researchers prefer to begin their note-taking only after they have
written a tentative outline for their final project. If this is the case,
headings and subheadings of this outline may be used as clues that go
over the empty subject lines of cards. In other words, if the main ideas of
the cards are the same as the topics and subtopics of the tentative report
outline, the outline topics and subtopics should be placed on the cards.
This will facilitate the locating, sorting, and classifying of the cards and
the writing of the report. If you encounter materials in a reference that
suggest a new or more effective topic heading, use it and revise your
outline accordingly. When you cannot decide where to file a note, study
its relationship to the subject and determine whether your outline
contains overlapping, vague, or insufficient subject headings. Your
initial outline and the headings you assign to topics will not be perfect.
You will discover weaknesses in them and ways to improve them as you
work.
Brief notes may be made of items that vie for your attention when you
are trying to concentrate on something else. While reading, note taking,
or engaging in some other pursuit, you may encounter a worthwhile
reference, see a desirable method of classifying some facts, question a
point, or become concerned about a personal problem. To avoid
becoming sidetracked and to prevent worthwhile ideas from escaping
you, jot these thoughts down quickly in abbreviated form to preserve
them for later consideration. Once recorded, they are less likely to keep
intruding on your train of thought and interrupting the work at hand.

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IMPORTANT NOTICE 4
Notes of temporary nature may be listed in a notebook and
those of a more permanent nature on cards. Divide your
temporary notes into research and personal items. For
example,
Research: "good bibliography on English language teaching,
Taghavi, 1963, p. 322. Check average salary of
Iranian highschool teachers last year. How long
did Mr. Taghavi observe Iranian schools? Did he
speak the English language?"
Personal: "Obtain a copy of The New York Times. Ask
Professor Hashemi for a conference on Thursday.
Get stamps."
Each day scan these notes and during spare moments try to
take care of some of them. Set aside definite blocks of time
periodically to clear up any unfinished business. When you
finish an item, cross it off your list.

2.2. BIBLIOGAPHICAL NOTES
Bibliographical notes are made for several purposes: (a) to have the
complete bibliographical information available for each reference that
may contribute to a research study, (b) to facilitate the relocation of the
reference in the library at a later time, (c) to preserve a brief record of
the general nature and value of a reference, and (d) to have the
information necessary for constructing a formal bibliography or list of
references.
For each source, you will write a bibliography card. The bibliography
cards will be used when you decide to write the reference(s) list of your
research report. Here again, you should use 10 × 15 cm cards. Use
hanging/dangling indentation. The bibliographical information that you

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105

write down on the bibliography cards should go by the conventions of
APA style presented in foregoing chapters. This will save time and effort
when you want to prepare the final report of your research project.
Figures 6.1. and 6.2. give you an idea of what the front and back sides of
a typical bibliography card will look like:

Call
Number

Library name, Section and
shelf number

Bibliographical note should be written here
after APA style.

OK
Figure 6.1. Schematic representation of the front side of a typical
bibliography card

To help you relocate the reference quickly, the following information
should be placed on the card: (a) the library call number, (b) the name of
the library if you patronize more than one, and (c) the room, department,
division, or section that houses the reference—if the library utilizes the
open system. It is a good strategy to place the library call number of the
source at the upper left corner of the card. The name of the library (and
also the section of the library) should be placed at the upper right corner
of the card. These pieces of information will save time and effort if you
need to retrieve the source from the library at a later time.

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After using several references, the research worker may become
confused about what information is in the various volumes. Writing very
brief notes on the back of the bibliographical card will help you recall
what contributions the reference may make to your study.
The notes that you place at the back of a bibliography card will include
information of various kinds. They can focus on such topics as:
the nature of the source
the scope of the source
the chief strengths of the source
the special features of the source
the chief weaknesses of the source
the page numbers of the most pertinent topics in the source
If your supervisor asks you to compile an annotated bibliography, for the
final research report, these notes will provide you with much useful
information (See figure 6.2.).

Your major note about the source:
Topic 1
Topic 2
Etc.

Page numbers for topic1
Page numbers for topic 2
Etc.

Specific notes about the source that can be used for
compiling an annotated bibliography entry for the
source.

Figure 6.2. Schematic representation of the back side of a typical
bibliography card

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107

Figures 7.1. and 7.2. are an example of an actual bibliographical note
written after the conventions of writing bibliographical notes as
delineated by figures 6.1. and 6.2.

913.32
J173m

Torqabah University Library
Section D, Shelf 24

Pervin, L. A. (1963). The need to predict and
control under conditions of threat.
Journal of Personality, 31, 570-587.

OK
Figure 7.1. Front of bibliography card for a source

Excellent review of literature (1921-1963) on:
Conditions of threat
Control

pp. 23-31
pp. 33, 37-39

Gives appropriate examples of conditions of threat
Cites pertinent bibliography
Provides operational definitions for key terms
etc.

Figure 7.2. Back of the same bibliography card

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Some libraries utilize the open system, some others the close system. In
an open-system library, you are allowed to walk between the shelves and
retrieve the books, journals, etc. yourselves, which can then be checked
out of the library at the circulation desk. In the close system, by way of
contrast, you cannot reach the sources yourselves. You have to write the
call numbers of the sources on pieces of paper (that are usually placed
near the card catalogues by the library staff) and give them to the
librarian. The librarian will then retrieve those sources from the shelves
and let you check them out. Most Iranian libraries follow the close
system.
To economize on time and effort, establish efficient bibliographical
note-taking habits. Screen references before copying a single item so as
to avoid accumulating many useless cards. Refrain from scribbling
partial bibliographical information on notebook covers, backs of letters,
class notes, or any available scrap of paper. Scattered, fragmentary notes
that are written on assorted sizes of paper are easy to lose, difficult to
relocate and file, and hard to interpret.
Copying each reference in full, once and for all, on a separate standardsize card or sheet of paper is a prudent practice. Cards are more durable
and easier to handle, to sort, and to file than lists of sources on sheets of
paper. A 10 × 15 cm card is convenient to carry, but some researchers
prefer larger or smaller cards. If you keep a few blank cards in your
purse or pocket at all times, recopying bibliographical information will
not be necessary.
Before compiling your bibliography, investigate the form and content of
the entries that you will be required to use in the final report. Different
professors, institutions, and publishers establish style standards that vary
slightly. If they do not have their own style manual, they require that
scholars conform to some other recognized style manual—very often
APA style, and sometimes MLA style.
If you form the habit of recording bibliographical notes in conformity
with a recommended style manual, you can type the final bibliography
directly from these cards without reorganizing the data. This practice
eliminates the tedious task of shifting items on cards and avoids the
errors that may creep into a bibliography during the recopying process.
Always carry sample style cards for a book, periodical, and newspaper
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109

with you and refer to these samples when you write bibliographical
notes. To save time and to eliminate errors, you may prefer to purchase
printed bibliographical cards or to mimeograph cards that provide blanks
for required items.
If you keep a style manual accessible while working, you can check the
correct bibliographical form when special problems arise, such as how to
write up the entry when an organization is the author; when a
pseudonym is used; when a translator or editor is noted; or when the
article copies from an encyclopedia, a chapter of a yearbook, or a
newspaper. When you do not have a style manual available, copy all the
essential information from the reference; reorganize these items in
accordance with the approved style before you include them in the
formal report.
Before taking a single note from a reference, make out a bibliographical
card neatly and legibly in ink. Procure the information for books from
the title page rather than from the cover of the book. After completing
the task, check carefully whether you have omitted any necessary data—
an item, word, letter, punctuation mark, or number—and check the
correctness of the spelling, punctuation marks, and call number. When
you are finished, make an "OK" notation at the lower right corner of the
front of the card (as shown in figure 7.1. above).
With this strategy, no doubts concerning the accuracy of the
bibliographical cards will arise later. The extra minutes expended in
recording bibliographical information accurately is time well invested,
for careless errors may later cause you to spend hours searching for
missing items, recopying cards, and retyping entire bibliographical
cards. Merely omitting the pages covered by an article on an entry may
force you to make a special trip to the library, and if the volume has been
checked out by another person, a return trip and more wearisome waiting
at the circulation desk will be necessary.
After collecting a number of bibliographical notes, one must organize
them into some meaningful order. An alphabetical arrangement by
authors' surnames—or the first important word of the title if there is no
author given—proves satisfactory in most studies. Some research
workers file their bibliographical cards under subject headings and then
sort them alphabetically by authors' surnames. They make out duplicate
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or cross-reference cards for a work that is used in more than one section
of their final research report, annotating its usefulness for each of section
at the back of the cards. In some studies, researchers classify cards under
primary and secondary sources; under types of references, such as
books, periodicals, and pamphlets; or under the chronological
arrangement.
Because elaborate filing systems are cumbersome, experienced writers
employ simple systems. Two such systems are (a) mechanical key sort
systems, and (b) computer storage.
Mechanical key sort systems can be used to classify extensive notes
obtained from reviews of the literature. The key sort system consists of
cards with a number of holes in all four margins, a filing cabinet and thin
steel rod. When the cards are filed, designated holes are punched out of
them indicating specific topics; later when notes relating to a specific
topic are needed, the steel rod is pushed through the designated hole of
the entire file of cards. Those cards which have the designated hole
opened will fall from the stack of cards and the others will be retained.
The use of key sort cards eliminates the need to alphabetize or otherwise
organize the cards in the file to assure ready access.
With the development of computer storage systems, a means is available
to store many items of information for almost instant future access. The
system has been used for accounting and inventory control purposes. It
can provide a means for storing information gathered from very
extensive surveys of the literature. Items of information gathered from
library research can be coded and fed into a computer. When the
information is needed at a later date, certain instructions can be fed into
the machine and the desired information can be made available in
printed form almost immediately.
3. PLAGIARISM
Closely related to library research is the notion of plagiarism. The term
plagiarism is used to refer to the act of stealing original ideas of others
and presenting them as one's own original ideas without identifying their
sources. The plagiarist is the student or scholar who leads readers to
believe that what they are reading is the original work of the writer—
when it is not. There are several species of plagiarism.
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3.1. WORD-FOR-WORD PLAGIARIZING
After composing half of a first sentence, the writer copies exactly what
is in the original text. If the writer encloses all the copied text in
quotation marks and identifies the source in a footnote, there can be no
charge of plagiarism. However, a research paper cannot simply be a list
of direct quotations. A reader might then justifiably feel that the writer's
personal contribution to the discussion is not very significant.
3.2. THE PATCH JOB
This occurs when phrases are lifted out of the original text and moved
into patterns. The writer provides a few linking words and transitions,
but the major part of each sentence is not original. Again, the writer
must use quotation marks and identify all sources when using material
that is not original. But to put every stolen phrase in quotation marks and
footnote it would produce an almost unreadable text, and the writer is
still not contributing significantly to the discussion.
3.3. THE PARAPHRASE
This occurs when the writer substitutes equivalent terms for ideas
encountered in reading. While paraphrasing does not require quotation
marks—it is not, after all, a direct quotation—it does require the
identification of the source. Paraphrasing is not the idea of the student,
even though the words may be the student's, and so the idea must be
attributed to its source. A footnote or a parenthetical citation is
necessary; otherwise, it is an act of plagiarism.
4. FINAL REMARKS
While doing library research, always remember that the purpose of
"paraphrase" should be to simplify or to throw a new and significant
light on a text. Paraphrasing requires much skill if it is to be honestly
used and should rarely be resorted to by the student except for the
purpose of his personal enlightenment. Some ideas are clearly drawn
from an original source, but there are ideas that are in "the public
domain." In other words, they are ideas that have been accepted
generally, and that many writers have used before. In this case, the
student may use them without footnotes. However, if there is any doubt
about the source, the student should footnote the idea.
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SECTION THREE
REPORTS AND THESES

This section is composed of two chapters:
Chapter Eight: The Research Report
Chapter Nine: The Thesis
Chapter eight focuses on the detailed format that a
modest research report should have. The different
sections of the research report are discussed, along
with visual illustrations to foster in undergraduate
students the skills they need for writing their research
reports. The final few pages of the chapter elaborate on
the differences between student research reports and
journal papers.
Chapter nine is most useful for graduate students. A
brief synopsis of the differences that exist between
short research reports and masters' theses or PhD
dissertations is presented. The discussions of the
chapter are enriched with visual illustrations that are
helpful to the graduate student in the process of writing
his thesis or dissertation.

REPORTS AND THESES

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CHAPTER EIGHT
THE RESEARCH REPORT

1. INTRODUCTION
A research reports consists of specific sections or chapters. APA style
sets specific rules as to how a research report should be prepared. Type
the manuscript on one side of standard-sized heavy white bond paper,
(A4-size, 20-pound bond). Computer paper ("tractor-fed") is acceptable,
but the pin hole borders must be removed. (Razor-edge is preferable.)
Erasable bond and onion skin are not acceptable. If you must prepare
your paper on erasable bond, prepare a good copy of your paper on a
copying machine and submit the copy instead of the original.
One-inch margins (2.54 cm) at the top, bottom, right and left sides are
now required by APA. Double spacing is required throughout the paper.
Double-space after every line of the title, headings, quotations,
references, etc. Do not use single or one-and-a-half spacing unless your
supervisor tells you to do so. If you wish to use single-spacing for
quotations of verse and drama because it more nearly approximates what
the poet and dramatist would want, consult with your supervisor before
doing so.
Each page is numbered consecutively, including title page and reference
page. Type the numbers in the upper right-hand corner using Arabic
numerals. Arrange the pages of the manuscript as follows:
Title page numbered 1.
Abstract (separate page numbered 2).
Text (start on a new page numbered 3).
Notice that pages with figures are seldom numbered. A short title is used
throughout the paper including the title page. The short title is a single
two or three-word derivation of the title of the paper. For example, if the
title of your paper were Understanding Patterns of Byzantine Intrigue,
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your Short Title could be Byzantine Intrigue. The Short Title is typed (in
upper-and-lower-case letters) one inch (2.54 cm) below the top of the
page flush with the right-hand margin; the numeral 1 also appears on the
title page. The distance between the short title and the numeral 1 is 5-7
millimeters. The Short Title should not be confused with the Running
Head which is typed flush left at the top of the title page (but below the
manuscript page header) and in all uppercase letters. The Running Head
is usually not necessary for high school and college papers unless
specifically required by individual instructors. However, it may well be
required on documents being prepared for actual publication.
The title itself is typed in uppercase and lowercase letters, centered on
the page. If the title requires more than one line, double-space between
all the lines.
Within the main text (the body of the report), paragraphs are indented
five to seven spaces (which translates into about a half-inch indent on
word-processors). The only exceptions to this requirement are the
abstract, block quotations, titles and headings, entries in the reference
list, table titles and notes (if any), and figure captions, which require no
indents.
All typing is done flush-left, not right justified nor full justified. In other
words, leave the right margin uneven or "ragged right." Do not break
(hyphenate) words at the ends of lines. Type a line short or just beyond
the right-hand margin rather than break a word at the end of a line.
2. MAIN SECTIONS OF THE REPORT
The research report is made up of a number of distinct sections. These
sections include the title page, abstract, introduction, method, results,
discussion, references and appendix. In an MA thesis or a PhD
dissertation, you should also provide table of contents, list of tables, and
list of figures. The key points relating to each section of the report are
presented below.
2.1. THE TITLE PAGE
The format of the title page in APA style is illustrated below. The title
page should have the title of the paper centered on the page. The Short
Title and page number appear at the top right of the title page. The

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student's name appears one double-space below the title. The
institutional affiliation (name of the college or university for which the
paper has been written) appears one double-space below student name.
If there is no institutional affiliation, the city and state or city and
country of the author should be identified instead (See figure 1).

Top margin (2.54 cm)

Short title

Page number

PERCEIVED CONTROL AND WELLBEING

Perceived Control of States
and Wellbeing

Author's
name

Left margin (2.54 cm)

Hasan Taghavi Aliabadi

Printable area

Torqabah University

Author's
affiliation

title

Right margin (2.54 cm)

Running head

Perceived Control 1

Bottom margin (2.54 cm)

Figure 1. Appearance of title page recommended by APA
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Title: The title of your report should clearly and concisely capture the
essence of your study (in 10 to 12 words). This is not easy to do! Drop
any words that are not useful (e.g., 'a study of . . .'). Don't include any
abbreviations in the title. The title is positioned in the centre of the page
(vertically and horizontally). The first letter of the main words is
capitalized.
Name: Underneath the title you type your name (usually your first
name, initial and then surname). This is also centered.
Affiliation: Below your name put the name of your university or
organization. If there is no institutional affiliation, the city and state or
city and country of the author should be identified instead. In PhD
dissertations and masters' theses, the authors may include other pieces of
information like the name of the supervisor, a descriptive phrase
showing why the report is being submitted, and the date of submission.
Running head: The title also includes a 'running head'. It should be all
capitals and no more than 50 characters in length (letters, spaces,
punctuation included).
Page header: On the top right-hand side of every page of the paper (or
report) a few words of the title (usually the running head) will appear.
This short title is the short form of the main title that appears close to the
page number. Five spaces along is the page number. You do not need to
type these on every page yourself: use the 'header and footer' function of
your word processor as discussed in chapter 1, and they will appear
automatically on each page.
2.2. ABSTRACT
The abstract is presented on a page of its own, which is usually the
second page of the report, using the heading 'Abstract', which is
centered. The first line is not indented. It provides a brief summary (120
words or less) of the main elements of your report. It is important that
the abstract describe the following:
a) the question that was addressed
b) the sample used
c) the experimental method
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d) an overview of the main findings
e) the conclusions and implications
of the study

Type the abstract as a single paragraph in block format (i.e., without
paragraph indentation. To help you get an idea of what is required in the
abstract, have a look through journals published in your topic area.
Collect examples of good concise abstracts to use as role models. Figure
2 shows the appearance of an abstract page:

Perceived Control

2

Abstract
Recent studies suggest that perceived control of the
emotional impact of a stressful event may be just as
important as the perception that control of the event is
possible. This study explored the importance of
perceived control of internal states in psychological
wellbeing, using a general community sample
(N=439). Scores on the Perceived Control of Internal
States Scale (PCOISS) showed moderate, positive
correlations with a number of wellbeing measures. The
results of this study provide confirmation of previous
research findings concerning the important role that
perceived control plays in psychological wellbeing.

Figure 2. Appearance of abstract page recommended by APA
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119

Page 3 is the beginning of the main body of the paper or research report.
The title of the paper appears (centered) one double-space below the
Short Title. The first line of the body of the paper appears one doublespace below the title. The first part of the main body of the paper or
report is the introduction (See figure 3 below).

Perceived Control

3

Perceived Control of States and Wellbeing
One of the key developments within psychological
literature on control has been the growing recognition
of the multidimensional nature of the control construct.
Early studies defined control only in terms of the
availability of the means to influence an aversive
situation or outcome (Pervin, 1963). Studies over the
last fifteen years, however, have explored . . . .
Method
Participants
The sample consisted of 439 adults, ranging in age
from 18 to 82 years (M=37, SD=13). Forty-two per cent
of the sample were males, 58 per cent were females.
Fifty eight per cent of participants were either married
or living with a partner, 24% were single . . . .

Figure 3. Appearance of first body page recommended by APA
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2.3. INTRODUCTION
As mentioned earlier, the main text of the report begins on page 3 with
the introduction. Unlike the other sections of the report, it is not labeled
'Introduction'. Instead the full title of the report is presented at the top,
centered, with all main words capitalized (See figure 3 above). The first
lines of all paragraphs are indented 5-7 spaces (roughly one tab if you
are using a word processor). The introduction should include at least
three points:
(a) Statement of the problem
(b) Review of the literature
(c) Statement of the study purpose
The introduction indicates the problem that is to be addressed and
reviews the literature relevant to the topic of your research (using
citations where appropriate). In some works, including masters' theses
and PhD dissertations, however, the literature will appear as a separate
section or even a separate chapter—usually chapter two. In the closing
section of the introduction, the purpose or rationale of the study is
presented and the specific questions and hypotheses are stated.
2.4. METHOD
The method section is not presented on a new page, but flows on from
the end of the introduction—or the review of literature where it is
presented as a separate section (See figures 3 above). It describes exactly
how your study was conducted, with sufficient detail so that another
researcher could repeat the study. The method is divided into a number
of subsections. These subsections are flushed left and underlined. The
first letter of each of these subsections is capitalized. The most important
subsections of "method" are (a) participants, (b) materials, and (c)
procedure.
Participants: This section (usually headed Participants) contains a brief
description of the subjects or respondents included in your study. For
studies involving humans you should report the major demographic—
human-related—characteristics of the sample (age, sex, race, education
level, etc.) giving both numbers and percentages of subjects in each
category (e.g., males, females), and mean and standard deviations for

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continuous variables. Give the total number of subjects and the number
of cases in each experimental condition. You can obtain this information
by running Frequencies SPSS on these variables. Also indicate any
'drop-outs' or subjects that did not complete participation in the study
(See figure 3 above).

Perceived Control

4

living with a partner, 24% were single . . . .
Materials
Each questionnaire booklet contained a number of
validated scales and demographic questions. Respondents
were asked to provide details of their gender, age, marital
status and educational level. Details of the scales included in
the booklet are provided below.
Perceived Control of Internal States Scale (PCOISS:
Pallant, in press). The PCOISS1 is an eighteen-item scale
designed to measure respondents' perceptions of their ability
to control their internal states and to moderate the impact of
aversive events on their emotions, thoughts and physical
wellbeing. According to the author (Pallant, in press) the
PCOISS has good internal consistency (Cronbach alpha=.92)
and adequate test-retest reliability (.89 over a two-week
period . . . .

Figure 4. Appearance of materials section recommended by APA
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Apparatus or materials: In a study involving a laboratory experiment
you describe the equipment used under the left-aligned heading
Apparatus. You also describe the tools to measure the dependent
variable. If a survey or questionnaire design was used, you describe the
scales or questionnaires used under the flush-left heading Materials.
Details of the reliability and validity of the scales would be reported,
along with the reliability and validity of the instruments obtained in the
current study. See figure 4 above for an understanding of how the
Materials section should be presented. For your better understanding of
the figure, the last line of figure 3 has been repeated in figure 4 so that
you can see the position of the Materials subheading relative to the
previous subheading—Participants.

Perceived Control

5

and adequate test-retest reliability (.89 over a twoweek period . . . .
Procedure
The students enrolled in a research subject at
Torqabah University were asked to distribute
questionnaire booklets to their friends, family and
acquaintances.
Each potential participant was provided with a
package containing an explanatory statement, the
questionnaire booklet and a reply-paid envelope.
Participation in the study was voluntary and all
questionnaires were completed anonymously . . .

Figure 5. Appearance of procedure section recommended by APA
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123

Procedure: In this section you describe the design of the study, the
procedures used to assign subjects to the various conditions or sample
groups, and the techniques used to manipulate the independent variable.
In a survey design you describe the sampling procedure and how the
questionnaires were distributed and collected. Sufficient detail should be
provided to enable another researcher to replicate your study. See figure
5 above for an understanding of how the Procedure section should be
presented. The last line of figure 4 has been repeated in figure 5 so that
you can see the position of the Procedure relative to the previous
subheading—Materials.
2.5. RESULTS
In this section you would describe your data, the statistics used and the
results of the descriptive and inferential techniques used. This section
should be brief and to the point, but provide sufficient detail that the
reader can understand what was done. It needs to be well structured,
perhaps following the order of the hypotheses that were specified in the
introduction. Remind the reader of each hypothesis, describe the
statistical analysis used and report the results. Do not attempt to explain
the results (except where it is necessary to perform an additional analysis
to explore the outcome further)—the interpretation of results should be
saved for the discussion section.
When reporting the results of statistical analyses you need to include the
name of the test (e.g., independent samples t-test), the value obtained,
the degrees of freedom, the probability level, the effect size and the
direction of the effect (e.g., were males higher or lower than females).
Where appropriate, you may also need to report the mean, standard
deviation and number of subjects for each group.
Sometimes the results of analyses can be presented more clearly in table
or graph format, rather than described in a paragraph. Do not go
overboard with graphs save these for dramatic effect (e.g., when
presenting significant ANOVA interactions). All tables and figures must
be referred to in the text and sufficient explanations provided to ensure
that the reader can understand what is presented. There are some quite
strict guidelines for the formatting of tables and figures (See the
explanations presented in the previous chapter). Figure 6 below shows
how you should report the results of your project.
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THE RESEARCH REPORT

Perceived Control

6

questionnaires were completed anonymously . . . .
Results
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were
calculated to explore the relationship between scores on
the PCOISS and a number of measures of wellbeing
(Satisfaction with Life scale, Positive Affect scale.

In a thesis or dissertation, table 1 is inserted here

Negative Affect scale, Perceived Stress scale).
Preliminary analyses revealed no violations of the
assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity.
The PCOISS showed moderate to strong correlations, in
the expected direction, with each of the wellbeing
measures (see Table 1).

The strongest correlation for the PCOISS was with the
Perceived Stress scale:
r(425) = -0.58, p.001.
The PCOISS showed a similar pattern of correlations
with measures of wellbeing . . . .

Figure 6. Appearance of results section recommended by APA
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125

When submitting a research report for publication the tables and figures
are presented at the end of the manuscript; some journals may want the
contributors to present the tables and figures in the main body of the
report, though. For a thesis or dissertation, however, the tables are
incorporated in the main body of the report. You should check with your
supervisor concerning the specific requirements for your report.
2.6. DISCUSSION
In the discussion section you attempt to integrate or pull together all the
various sections of your report. This involves a summary of the main
findings of the study, followed by your interpretation of these results, in
light of your literature review presented earlier in your report.

Perceived Control

7

with measures of wellbeing . . . .
Discussion
The results of this study provide confirmation of
previous research findings concerning the important
role that perceived control plays in psychological
wellbeing.
Respondents with high levels of perceived
control of their internal states reported higher levels
of life satisfaction and positive affect, and lower
levels of negative affect and perceived stress. The
respondents also . . . .

Figure 7. Appearance of discussion section recommended by APA
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THE RESEARCH REPORT

According to the APA publication manual, you are "free to examine,
interpret, and qualify the results, as well as to draw inferences from
them" (the APA publications manual, p. 18). You should compare your
results with previous research and suggest reasons for any differences
found. You should consider the broader implications of your findings,
discuss any limitations or weaknesses of the study, and make
suggestions for future research.
2.7. LIST OF REFERENCES
The reference list begins on a new page. Type the word References
(Reference in the case of only one) centered at the top of the page.
Double-space all reference entries. Indent the first line of each entry; the
second and succeeding lines in references should be typed flush to the
left-hand margin.
It is understood that when the document is published in a journal,
references will appear in a hanging-indent format; some institutions—
including Iranian universities—may require the hanging-indent format
for theses and dissertations. The references in the example page below
have italicized titles. Although the technological reasons for an
insistence on underlining are no longer applicable, the APA Publication
Manual says that underlines are preferred for manuscripts being
prepared for eventual publication. If your paper is not being submitted
for publication, italics are acceptable.
The "references" section provides details of the literature that you have
referred to in your report. Do not include other background material that
you may have read but did not refer to specifically in your literature
review.
The very strict guidelines for the format used to present the different
types of material (journal articles, books, etc.) have already been
discussed—and examples have been presented—in the previous chapter.
For your ease of reference, examples of some of the more commonly
used reference types have been reproduced here.
EXAMPLE 1: Journal article (one author)

Dawis, R. V. (1987). Scale construction. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 34, 481-189.

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127

EXAMPLE 2: Journal article (more than one author)

Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1984). The effect of sampling error
on convergence, improper solutions, and goodness-of-fit indices
for maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analysis.
Psycholmetrika, 49, 155-173.
EXAMPLE 3: Book (one author)

Stangor, C. (1998). Research methods for the behavioral sciences.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
EXAMPLE 4: Book (more than one author)

Hair, J. F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R. L. & Black, W. C. (1992).
Multivariate data analysis with readings. New York: Macmillan.
EXAMPLE 5: Book (later editions)

Goodwin, C. J. (1998). Research in psychology: Methods and design
(2nd edition). New York: John Wiley.
EXAMPLE 6: Edited book

Robinson, J. P., Shaver, P. R., & Wrightsman, L. S. (Eds.). (1991).
Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes.
Hillsdale, NJ: Academic Press.
EXAMPLE 7: Book chapter in an edited book

Robinson, J. P., Shaver, P. R., & Wrightsman, L. S. (1991). Criteria for
scale selection and evaluation. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, &
L. S. Wrightsman. (Eds.), Measures of personality and social
psychological attitudes (pp. 1-15). Hillsdale, NJ: Academic Press.
Remember that the references are presented in alphabetical order by
author. Each reference is given a new line, indented by 5-7 spaces
(roughly 5-7 millimeters). Multiple entries by the same author are
ordered according to the year of publication, with the earliest listed first.

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References that have the same first author but different second authors
are presented alphabetically by the surname of the second author.

Perceived Control

8

References
Pallant, J. F. (in press). Development and
evaluation of a scale to measure perceived control of
internal states. Journal of Personality Assessment.
Pervin, L. A. (1963). The need to predict and
control under conditions of threat. Journal of
Personality, 31, 570-587.
Taylor, S. E. (1983). Adjustment to threatening
events: A theory of cognitive adaptation. American
Psychologist, 38, 1161-1173.
Thompson, S. C., Nanni, C., & Levine, A.
(1994). Primary versus secondary and central versus
consequence-related control in HIV-positive men.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67,
540-547.
Thompson, S. C., & Spacapan, S. (1991).
Perception of control in vulnerable populations.
Journal of Social Issues, 4, 1-21.

Figure 8. Appearance of the references section recommended by APA
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129

2.8. APPENDIX
If you have additional material that the reader might like to refer to, but
is not central to your report, this can be provided in the appendix. This
could include the item of a scale used in the questionnaire, the results of
additional analyses conducted, or an example of responses to an openended question. If you need to use a number of appendices, these are
labeled using a letter, rather than a number (Appendix A, Appendix B,
and so on). Each appendix must be given a title.
3. SECTIONS OF A JOURNAL ARTICLE
If you are submitting your work to a journal for publication, there are a
number of additional sections required. These include author
identification notes and footnote(s). If you are submitting your research
paper to a journal, or if you are required to adhere strictly to APA style,
the following order should be used to present the various parts of your
report:
1. title page
2. abstract
3. introduction (not identified by any heading)
4. method
4.1. participants
4.2. materials
4.3. procedure
5. results
6. discussion
7. references
8. author identification notes (not usually needed for research report)
9. footnotes (if any)
10. tables (one per page), with titles attached
11. figure captions
12. figures (one figure per page), with no captions attached
This order is often relaxed, particularly when preparing a thesis or
dissertation, so check with your supervisor or lecturer. The following
figures will help you understand how these pages are prepared. Note the
short title, page numbers, italicized and underlined parts, etc.

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The page headed Author Note provides the reader with information
concerning the author of the report. This page should provide
information concerning how the author can be accessed. This page is
optional in academic reports but must be provided when you submit
your report to a journal for publication (See figure 9).

Perceived Control

9

Author Note
Correspondence concerning this paper should be
addressed to Hasan Taghavi Aliabadi, School of
Humanities, Torqabah University, PO Box 218, Iran
KHPT 3122. e-mail: [email protected]

Figure 9. Appearance of author note recommended by APA
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131

The "footnotes" page provides additional information or explanation
concerning the points you have identified in the report by superscribed
numerals. Compare figure 4 above with figure 10 below. The footnote
for PCOISS1 in figure 4 is presented in figure 10.

Perceived Control

10

Footnotes
1 The PCOISS was developed as part of a
multidimensional, multidomain inventory.
Copies of this inventory can be obtained from
the author.

Figure 10. Appearance of footnotes recommended by APA
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After the Footnotes page, you will need to include a few pages for
presenting the tables you used in your report. Each table appears on a
page of its own. Label each and every table "Table" and use an Arabic
numeral to identify it. Titles should be underlined. The text
accompanying tables must be double-spaced. Do not end the table
caption with a period.

Perceived Control

11

Table 1
Pearson Product Moment Correlation between
the PCOISS and Wellbeing Measures
Scale

PCOISS

Mastery scale

Satisfaction

.37*

.44*

+ Affect

.55*

.43*

- Affect

-.57*

-.46*

Stress

-.58*

-.61*

* p < .001

Figure 11. Appearance of tables recommended by APA

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133

After the Table page(s), you will need to include a few pages for
presenting the figures you used in your report. Each figure appears on a
page of its own. Label each and every figure "Figure" and use an Arabic
numeral to identifying it. The term "Figure" and the Arabic numeral
following it must be underlined. The text accompanying figures must be
double-spaced. End the figure caption with a period.

Perceived Control
female

200

male
180

sex

160

Mean Total PCOISS

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
18-24

25-32

33-40

Age Group

Figure 1. Comparison of PCOISS scores for
males and females across three age groups.

Figure 12. Appearance of figures recommended by APA

134

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12

Notice that APA style does not recommend the use of line graphs only.
You can use bar graphs, pie graphs, etc. The major concern of APA style
is about the way in which you write the captions of figures in your
reports.
APA style suggests that all tables and figures appear at the end of the
paper, each on a separate page. Some schools and colleges, however,
require these elements to appear within the body of the paper. A great
deal may depend on the capabilities of the word-processing machine you
are using. Consult with your instructor before deciding where to place
tables and figures.
4. FINAL REMARKS
Notice that some journals may recommend the MLA (Modern Language
Association) or the Chicago style sheet (CSS). Each journal has a "notes
for contributors" or "submission policy" section that may be included
somewhere in the journal itself, or in the Homepage of that journal on
the Internet. Therefore, before submitting your manuscript to any journal
for publication, make sure whether that journal prefers APA, MLA, or
CSS style. APA style is the most popular one, though.

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135

CHAPTER NINE
THE THESIS

1. INTRODUCTION
Masters' theses and PhD dissertations are specific types of research
reports that usually remain unpublished. They are longer than journal
papers and may require considerations other than those outlined by APA
style. When preparing a thesis, or a dissertation, a number of
modifications to APA style are required, although many of the
conventions still apply. It is important that you consult your supervisor
for the specific requirements of your department and institution.
2. THE PROPOSAL
Before you are allowed to do your research in masters' and PhD levels,
you need to submit a research proposal to your department or the to the
professor whom you have chosen as your supervisor. Sometimes more
than one copies of the research "proposal" should be submitted. Your
department will tell you how many copies you are supposed to submit.
A research proposal is a plan you suggest for your research. It can serve
as a rough draft of your final research report. Therefore, you can save
time and effort if you use the same format for the proposal as you will
ultimately use in the final report.
The research proposal will answer the questions that any pedantic
cynical professor might ask when you first say that you have a question
or questions that you want to address in a research project:
1) What are the research questions, hypotheses, variables?
2) What has already been done to answer the questions?
3) What evidence do you expect to gather to answer the
question(s)?

THE THESIS

137

4) Where or from what subjects (or texts or objects) do you expect
to collect data? How? How will you analyze the data you collect?
5) What do you expect the results to be? Exactly how will the
results you obtain address the question?
6) What wider relevance (or restricted relevance) does the study
have? Are there any suggestions for further research?
7) Where can the related literature be found?
8) If new materials, tests, or instruments are proposed, what does a
sample look like?
9) What are the limitations of your research project?
This list is formidable. If you prepare the proposal for anyone other than
yourself, the first thing to do is to inquire whether there is a set format
that you should follow. You can check with your department, university
or library to find if your university gives graduate students a detailed
outline for theses and dissertation proposals. Some universities ask for
no more than three double-spaced pages outlining the research plan.
Some others, may ask you to give not only an extensive description of
the study, but a list of relevant course work and a detailed timetable for
completion of the project. Whether the format is open or extremely
detailed, the same questions will need to be answered. The major
sections of a research proposal are listed here:
I. Introduction
The introduction does three things: (a) states the purpose of your
research project, (b) describes the design of your research project,
and (c) justifies how your research project is significant.
II. Review of the related literature
The literature review does at least three things: (a) overviews the
background of your research project, (b) highlights the research
lag or gap in the literature that needs attention, and (c) leads to
your statement of the problem and research question(s).
III. Statement of the problem
Building upon your literature review, you will state what the
specific problem that you want to address in your research study
is.
IV. Research questions and hypotheses
In this section of your proposal, you will list the questions, and
138

THE THESIS

the research and null hypotheses that you will address in your
research. Sometimes, research questions and hypotheses are
placed under the "Statement of the problem" heading—as part of
it. Your supervisor or university may require separate sections for
each, so check this with your department or supervisor.
V. Method
In this section of your research proposal, you will describe the
population, subjects, sampling method, apparatus and instruments,
materials, procedure, and data collection and analysis techniques.
The timetable of your research project will also be discussed here.
In brief, this section will show how your are going to do your
research. Each one of the elements of the method section must be
defined in a separate paragraph—and preferably under separate
sub-headings.
VI. Definition of key terms and concepts
In this section of the proposal, you will tell the reader how you are
going to define the technical terms that apply to your research.
For example, if your research focuses on the "effects of stress on
language proficiency," you need to define the terms "stress" and
"proficiency." Operational definitions should be provided for each
term.
VII. (De)limitations of the study
In this section, you will outline the limits of your study for the
reader. This can be anything, from the specific models that you
use in your study (e.g., Bachman's 1990 CLA model) to the
limitations you impose on sampling, population, etc.
VIII. References
You will provide a list of the references that you have cited in
your literature review (section II). Some supervisors may want
you to provide additional references that you will be using. Some
of them may even ask for annotated bibliographies.
IX. Appendices
You will append any material (tests, questionnaires, etc.) that you
will be using in your research project to your proposal—if the
department or your supervisor asks for them.

THE THESIS

139

The different sections of the research proposal will be converted into
parts of the research report or the thesis/dissertation after the completion
of the study: Sections I, III, IV, VI, and VII will be placed in chapter one
of the thesis or dissertation; section II will comprise the second chapter
of the thesis or dissertation; section V will make up chapter three of the
thesis or dissertation; Chapter four of the thesis or dissertation will
present the findings and discuss the results of the research study; and,
Chapter five of the thesis or dissertation will (a) discuss the conclusions
of the research study and (b) make suggestions for further research.
3. STRUCTURE OF A THESIS/DISSERTATION
The main differences between theses/dissertations and the research
report discussed in chapter eight are highlighted below:
1) Additional preliminary pages are required for a thesis. These include
acknowledgments, approval page, table of contents, list of tables and
figures, etc.
2) The abstract for a thesis is usually longer than that of a research
report or a paper. It may include more than one paragraph.
3) The different sections of the thesis (introduction, method, results
etc.) are usually presented as separate chapters (with different short
titles), each starting on a new page. In a thesis the introduction is
labeled (unlike an article).
4) The tables and figures are usually presented as part of the results
section, integrated with the running text, as you would see in a
published journal article or a book.
5) Different heading styles are permissible, particularly where they aid
presentation and readability. This includes the use of different fonts
and type faces (italics, bold, etc.) that are not usually part of strict
APA style. Names of journals and books are italicized rather than
being underlined.
6) Italics can be used throughout the thesis or dissertation wherever it is
necessary to underline (e.g., in the reference list for journal titles,
book titles, etc.). Check this with your supervisor or department.
7) Single spacing can be used where necessary in a thesis to improve
presentation. This includes titles, headings, quotations, tables and
references (however, keep the double spacing between items on your
reference list to keep different sources you used in your study apart).
140

THE THESIS

8) Hanging or dangling indentation is used in the reference list. The
space between different entries of the list is doubled.
There are three distinct parts to a thesis or dissertation: (a) the front
matter, (b) the body, and (c) the back matter. The front matter includes:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

the "Title" page
the "Approval" page
the "Acknowledgments" page
the "Table of contents" page(s)
the "List of tables" page(s)
the "List of figures" page(s)
the "Abstract" page(s) (one or two pages, check with your
supervisor)

The approval page lists the names of the members of the thesis or
dissertation committee and provides a leading line for the signature of
each of them. It usually begins with a short paragraph of approval (See
figure 2 below).
The abstract may be longer than one paragraph. The first paragraph is
not indented, but the other paragraphs may be indented. Check with your
supervisor or department.
The body of a thesis or dissertation normally consists of five chapters:
Chapter One:
Chapter Two:
Chapter Three:
Chapter Four:
Chapter Five:

Preliminaries
Review of the literature
Method
Results and discussion
Conclusion

The back matter of a thesis or dissertation includes the list of
"references" and the "appendices." In Iran, most universities require a
Persian "Approval" page and a Persian "Abstract" page at the end of a
thesis or a dissertation that an EFL graduate student submits to the
English department. Check this with your department or supervisor to
see if these additional Persian pages are required or not.
The following figures illustrate the typical appearances of the pages of
the front matter of a thesis or dissertation.
THE THESIS

141

Torqabah University
College of Psychology

PERCEIVED CONTROL
OF STATES AND
WELLBEING

by
Hasan Taghavi Aliabadi

Supervisor: Dr. X. Ravankav
Reader: Dr. J. Ravangard

Thesis submitted to the Graduate
Studies Office in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
of MA in Psychoanalysis

September, 1921

Figure 1. Thesis title page
142

THE THESIS

IN THE NAME OF GOD
We hereby certify that we have read this thesis written by
Hasan Taghavi Aliabadi, entitled Perceived control of
states and wellbeing, and that it is satisfactory in scope
and quality as a thesis for the degree of MA in
Psychoanalysis.
Dr. X. Ravankav (Supervisor)

……………….

Dr. J. Ravangard (Reader)

……………….

Dr. A. Ravanparish (Reader)

……………….

Dr. R. Pishgou (Internal Examiner)

……………….

Dr. P. Froidzade (Internal Examiner)

……………….

Dr. M. Ravanbin (External Examiner)

……………….

Dr. Z. Ravanjou (External Examiner)

……………….

September, 1921
II

Figure 2. Thesis approval page
THE THESIS

143

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to many people who have contributed to
the preparation of this thesis. First of all, I wish to express
my heartfelt thanks to my supervisor Dr. X. Ravankav
whose help and support were manifested in more ways
than I can say without writing a whole other thesis on that
subject. I also acknowledge the cooperation of Dr. J.
Ravangard who read the thesis and provided me with
useful comments which enabled me to convert turgid
prose into readable English.
Most of the materials used in chapter two of this thesis
have been provided by Dr. P. Froidzade. I am also grateful
to the students who responded to the questionnaires with
patience.
I am also indebted to my friends, Mahdi Songhori and
Reza Aliabad-e-Katooli who proofread the manuscript and
made corrections where needed.

III

Figure 3. Thesis acknowledgements page
144

THE THESIS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title page

I

Approval

II

Acknowledgements

III

Table of contents

IV
VIII

List of tables

X

List of figures

XI

Abstract
Chapter 1: Preliminaries
Introduction

1

Statement of the problem

2

Questions and hypotheses

6

Definition of key terms and concepts

7

Delimitations of the study

9

Final remarks

13

Chapter 2: Review of the literature
The eighteenth century

21

The early psychoanalysts

23

...

...
IV

Figure 4. Thesis table of contents
THE THESIS

145

LIST OF TABLES
Page
Chapter 3
Subject frequency

83

Reliability analysis of PCOISS

84

Validity analysis of PCOISS

85

Reliability analysis of GEFT

87

Validity analysis of GEFT

88
91

Chapter 4
ANOVA for group 1 PCOISS

94

ANOVA for group 2 PCOISS

99

ANOVA for group 3 PCOISS

102

ANOVA for group 4 PCOISS

111

ANOVA for group 1 GEFT

113

ANOVA for group 2 GEFT

115

ANOVA for group 3 GEFT

116

ANOVA for group 4 GEFT

117

...

...

VIII

Figure 5. Thesis list of tables
146

THE THESIS

LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Chapter 3
Pie chart for subject distribution

83

Reaction time scatter plot 1

84

Reaction time scatter plot 2

85

Reaction time scatter plot 3

87

Reaction time scatter plot 4

88

Reaction time scatter plot 5

91

Chapter 4
Bar graph for subject group 1

94

Bar graph for subject group 2

99

Bar graph for subject group 3

102

Bar graph for subject group 4

111

...

...

X

Figure 6. Thesis list of figures
THE THESIS

147

ABSTRACT
Recent studies suggest that perceived control of the
emotional impact of a stressful event may be just as
important as the perception that control of the event is
possible. This study explored the importance of perceived
control of internal states in psychological wellbeing.
The study used a general community sample (N=439).
The subjects took both the Perceived Control of Internal
States Scale (PCOISS) and the Group Embedded Figures
Test (GEFT). Scores on the PCOISS showed moderate,
positive correlations with a number of wellbeing
measures. Subjects' scores on the GEFT, used to identify
Field Dependent (FD) and Field Independent (FI)
subjects, were compared to their scores on PCIOSS. The
results revealed that FD subjects, compared to FI subjects,
were less able to control internal states.
The results of this study provide confirmation of
previous research findings concerning the important role
that perceived control plays in psychological wellbeing.
The implications of the study are discussed. Suggestions
for further research are also made.

XI

Figure 7. Thesis abstract
148

THE THESIS

4. FINAL REMARKS
Remember that each section of the front matter in a thesis or dissertation
should start on a new page. Observe the page numbers (centered page
footers) in figures 1 through 6 above. As you see, roman numerals have
been used for numbering the pages of the front matter. The body and
back matter pages are normally numbered in accordance with APA style
(Arabic numerals at the upper right corner of the page at a distance of 5
to 7 millimeters from the short title).
To realize which points to observe in your thesis or dissertation, you can
ask your supervisor to lend you a thesis or dissertation done by another
student, one that your supervisor evaluates to be good. You can then
follow the format of that thesis or dissertation. This minimizes the
probability of errors and mistakes in your work.

THE THESIS

149

REFERENCES

American Psychological Association. (1994). Publication manual of the
American Psychological Association (4th ed.). New York: American
Psychological Association.
Hatch, E., & Lazaraton, A. (1991). The research manual: Design and
statistics for applied linguistics. New York: Newbury House
Publishers.
Lehmann, I. J., & Mehrens, W. A. (Eds.). (1971). Educational research:
Readings in focus. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc.
Lester, J. D. (1995). Writing research papers: A complete guide (7th
ed.). New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.
Maxwell, J. A. (1996). Qualitative research design: An interactive
approach. London: SAGE Publications.
Microsoft Corporation. (2004). Microsoft Encarta reference library
[Computer Software]. Redmond, WA.: Microsoft Corporation.
Microsoft Corporation. (2004). Microsoft Word 2002 [Computer
Software]. Redmond, WA.: Microsoft Corporation.
Seliger, H. W., & Shohamy, E. (1989). Second language research
methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Tesch, R. (1990). Qualitative research: Analysis types and software
tools. Basingstoke: Burgess Science Press.
Van Dalen, D. B. (1973). Understanding educational research: An
introduction (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

REFERENCES

151