Bachelor Thesis

Masaryk University Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies English Language and Literature

Tatiana Raganová

Central and Eastern European Ethnic Minorities in the Context of British Culturalism
Bachelor’s Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: Stephen Paul Hardy Ph! D!

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I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography. ……………………………………………..
"uthor’s signature

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# $ould li%e to than% &r! Stephen Paul Hardy Ph! D! 'or guidance and supervising during the process o' $riting my thesis!

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Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................5 1 Theory and Practice of Multiculturalism .............................................................................7 1.1 Multiculturalism as a Theory and Ideology ......................................................................7 1.2 British Multiculturalism and Multicultural Society .......................................................12 1.2.1 The Formation of Multi-ethnic Britain: Immigration to Britain and British Immigration Policy in the Post-war ra ..........................................................................13 2 The Polish !ommunity in the !onte"t of British !ulturalism: Past# Present# Future ...22 2.1 British-Polish $elations: Past and Present ......................................................................22 2.2 Polish %a&our Immigration &etween 2''( and 2'') ......................................................28 2.* Influence of the $ecent Polish Immigration on British Society .....................................30 2.( British Immigration Policy for the 21st !entury ............................................................35 !onclusion .................................................................................................................................37 Bi&liogra+hy .............................................................................................................................39

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Introduction The main purpose of the thesis is to look at the development of ritish multi!ethni" so"iet# and to "larif# the status of the $olish "ommunit# %ithin ritish so"iet# in the "onte&t of ritish multi"ulturalism. '# reason for "hoosin( the $olish "ommunit# lies in its relativel# lar(e si)e and the %ave of "on"ern and dis"ussions it has "aused in re"ent #ears in "onne"tion %ith ritish so"iet#. *ue to the openin( of the ritish labour market in 2004+ Central and ,astern ,uropean immi(ration to ritain started to be"ome an important issue+ dis"ussed b# so"ial+ e"onomi" and politi"al theorists. ,ven thou(h ea"h %ave of immi(ration had an impa"t on ritain durin( its histor#+ m# "on"ludin( anal#sis %ill fo"us on the influen"e of $olish immi(rants as a (roup %hi"h helped to fill the (aps in the labour market+ but also "aused a hi(h de(ree of "riti"ism due to its sudden appearan"e and relativel# rapid adaptation into ritish so"ial life+ "ausin( man# ritish people to be"ome fearful of their o%n status %ithin the so"iet#. -evertheless+ sin"e the ne(ative attitude is onl# one side of the ritish multi"ultural .uestion+ the "ontribution of $olish immi(ration should not be omitted and pla#s an important role in the "onte&t of ritish so"iet#. 'ulti"ulturalism itself is an approa"h based on the ideas of "ultural+ so"ial and e"onomi" inte(ration of different ethni" (roups %ithin one so"iet#. The first "hapter of this thesis %ill deal %ith the (eneral theor# and notion of multi"ulturalism+ avoidin( the politi"al aspe"t of multi"ulturalism+ but still servin( as an openin( onto the influen"e of parti"ular %aves of immi(ration on the development of ritish multi!ethni" so"iet#. The main fo"us %ill be on the influen"es on the "ontemporar# ritish "hara"ter %ith primar# re(ard to the %aves of immi(ration to ritain and ritish immi(ration poli"#+ espe"iall# in the se"ond half of the 20th "entur#. /in"e the ritish attitude to%ards immi(rants differs individuall#+ (overnmental and so"ial attitudes to%ards immi(ration %ill pla# an important part here.

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0n addition+ different perspe"tives are also related to the attitude to%ards $olish immi(ration to ritain %here there have emer(ed t%o "amps %ithin ritish so"iet# e&pressin( different thou(hts about $oles and their penetration into the so"iet#. 1o%ever+ despite the "onsiderable ne(ative attitude to%ards $olish immi(ration+ based primaril# on %orries about emplo#ment durin( the "ontemporar# e"onomi" re"ession+ $oles brou(ht alon( opinions and ideas that have penetrated into ritish thou(ht and left a positive result. The se"ond "hapter is+ therefore+ "on"erned %ith the "larifi"ation of the "ontemporar# status of the $olish "ommunit# %ithin ritish so"iet#+ startin( %ith a brief overvie% of the histor# of ritish!$olish relations alon( %ith post!%ar $olish immi(ration and the establishment of the $olish "ommunit#. The possible future role of the $olish "ommunit# in ritain %ill be outlined in the "on"lusion and based on the statisti"s about re"ent $olish immi(ration and immi(ration in (eneral in "onne"tion %ith the (eneral e"onomi" de"line and the re"ent re"ession in ritain.

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1 Theory and Practice of Multiculturalism 1.1 Multiculturalism as a Theory and Ideology 'ulti"ulturalism as a term started to be used in the se"ond half of the 20th "entur#+ espe"iall# in the sense of an 3idea that a so"iet#+ notabl# one %ith a hi(h rate of immi(ration+ is enri"hed b# "elebratin( the separate "ontributions of its "omponent "ultures4 56ll%ords."om7. 1o%ever+ approa"hes to%ards multi"ulturalism 5or multi"ultural theor#7 differ in parti"ular %a#s+ espe"iall# in terms of vie%s re(ardin( its role %ithin the so"ieties. The most "ommon approa"h to%ards multi"ulturalism is "onne"ted %ith immi(ration and sin"e immi(ration e&perien"ed a (reat boom durin( the 20th "entur#+ the appearan"e of multi"ultural theor# is amon( other thin(s a "onse.uen"e of this phenomenon+ althou(h not ne"essaril# in ever# so"iet#. 8a"ial+ reli(ious+ "ultural or so"ial inte(ration has been "ommon as lon( as nations and their so"ieties started to spread and "ommuni"ate. 9reat "ivili)ations su"h as 6n"ient 9ree"e+ 0ndia or China %ere distin(uised b# a si(nifi"ant diversit# of nations and "ultures livin( in the same territor#+ sin"e the "on.uest and the e&pansion of international trade brou(ht a "onsiderable number of forei(ners to these empires. The pro"ess of mi&in( of ethni" (roups %as primaril# one of assimilation sin"e smaller so"ieties %ere subordinated+ but the# still tried to preserve their traditions and "ustoms. The pro"ess of assimilation %as later substituted b# so"ial and "ultural inte(ration %hen the importan"e of uni.ueness and its preservation started to be taken into "onsideration in a serious %a#+ resultin( in the ethni"+ ra"ial and "ultural penetration and diversit# %hi"h is a re"o(ni)able "hara"teristi" of the modern era. 6s alread# mentioned+ there are several approa"hes to%ards multi"ulturalism and its ori(in+ "hara"ter or role. The most si(nifi"ant that %ill serve as a foundation for this "hapter are those of :ill ;#mli"ka+ Tari. 'odood and ,li)abeth <o&!9enovese. 6""ordin( to :ill ;#mli"ka+ multi"ulturalism 3"overs man# different forms of "ultural pluralism+ ea"h of %hi"h raises its o%n "hallen(es. There are a variet# of %a#s in %hi"h minorities be"ame in"orporated

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into politi"al "ommunities+ from the "on.uest and "oloni)ation of previousl# self!(overnin( so"ieties to the voluntar# immi(ration of individuals and families4 5;#mli"ka 107. <rom ;#mli"ka=s perspe"tive+ multi"ulturalism "ould be understood as a notion that embra"es more entities+ but "ertiainl# results from 3national and ethni" differen"es4 in"ludin( the pro"ess of immi(ration and its inte(ration into the parti"ular so"iet# 5;#mli"ka 187. ;#mli"ka deals %ith the term 3multi"ulturalism4 in his o%n %a# "onsiderin( multi"ultural states those %hose 3members either belon( to different nations 5a multinational state7+ or have emi(rated from different nations 5a pol#ethni" state74 5ibid.7. Therefore+ ;#mli"ka uses terms su"h as 3pol#ethni"4 and 3multinational4 that in his vie% avoid the ambi(uit# multi"ulturalism ma# produ"e and are more suitable for that reason. 1e mentions Canada as an e&ample+ %here so"iet# first adopted suspi"ious a and ne(ative attitude to%ards multi"ulturalism in the 1970s. <ren"h Canadian inhabitants %ere afraid of the fa"t that a multi"ultural poli"# %ould 3>redu"e? their "laims of nationhood to the level of immi(rant ethni"it#4 5;#mli"ka 177. 1o%ever+ a""ordin( to ;#mli"ka+ this fear %as inappropriate sin"e multi"ulturalism in his sense of the %ord is a 3poli"# of supportin( pol#ethni"it#4 not @ust in Canadian so"iet#+ but in all multi! ethni" so"ieties 5ibid.7. 0n Tari. 'odood=s approa"h+ the multi"ulturalism is the produ"t of a series of efforts of different 6meri"an so"ial (roups %hi"h started to demand their ri(hts in a more open and persistent %a# durin( the 1920s. The %omen=s eman"ipation movement started to (ain stren(th+ emphasi)in( the role of %omen %ithin the so"iet#. 8a"ial pre@udi"e %as "onfronted more radi"all#. 6 ne% 6fri"an!6meri"an (eneration be(an to e&press their opinions and 3started to assert a ne% bla"k histori"al pride and the need for a spe"ifi"all# bla"k politi"al mobili)ation4 5'odood 17. The notion of humanit# and e.ualit# be"ame a fo"us of a ne% politi"al attitude in order to a"hieve ri(hts for 6fro!6meri"ans+ %omen+ (a#s and other so"ial (roups. 30t %as a politi"s of identit#A bein( true to one=s nature or herita(e and seekin( %ith

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others of the same kind publi" re"o(nition for one=s "olle"tivit#4 5'odood 27. This poli"# be"ame kno%n as 3multi"ulturalism4 5ibid.7. 'odood states that there is a differen"e bet%een 6meri"an and ritish notions of multi"ulturalism+ or better to sa#+ reasons for the emer(en"e of multi"ultural poli"# differ in ea"h "ase. 6meri"an multi"ulturalism+ for e&ample+ emer(ed primaril# as the "onse.uen"e of different so"ial and politi"al movements seekin( the re"o(nition of human ri(hts and personal or "ultural a""eptan"e. The aspe"t of immi(ration %as present as %ell+ but not to the same e&tent as in the "ase of the ritish model of multi"ulturalism. 0n "ontrast+ the ritish model is not a produ"t of politi"al movements+ but a result of the %aves of immi(ration themselves. <or that reason+ ritish multi"ulturalism has to be "onsidered a "on"ept %ith a more limited ran(e a""ordin( to 'odood+ but should be observed as part of a more (eneral notion of multi"ulturalism 5'odood 27. 1avin( said this+ the fa"tor of immi(ration pla#ed and still pla#s a "ru"ial role in the formation of multi"ultural so"ieties. ;#mli"ka "onsiders 3>i?mmi(ration and the in"orporation of national minorities >...? the t%o "ommon sour"es of "ultural diversit# in modern states4 5;#mli"ka 247. 0mmi(ration is not onl# the primar# ritish fa"tor in shapin( and influen"in( so"ial development+ but pla#s an e.uall# si(nifi"ant role in man# other so"ieties. 0t %as the main reason for "ountries su"h as Canada and 6ustralia to be the first to "onsider themselves multi"ultural so"ieties. These %ere "ountries that e&perien"ed (reat %aves of immi(ration durin( their histor# or that %ere literall# 3built up out of immi(ration4 5'odood 37. 9overnment poli"ies up to the 1920s and 1970s %ere based on the aim of a"hievin( the "ultural and so"ial assimilation bet%een the immi(rants and the host "ountr#. 1o%ever+ the diversit# of "ultures and ra"es that mi(rated to these "ountries started to make their influen"e felt and the in"lusion of the immi(rants of different skin "olour finall# made the assimilation impossible+ even thou(h it remains partial# present due to the "ultural and so"ial mi&in(.

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*urin( the 1970s some of the ,uropean "ountries also a""epted multi"ulturalism as their state poli"#+ notabl# 9reat ritain+ the -etherlands and /%eden 5'odood 37. The immi(rants %ho arrived %ere en"oura(ed mostl# b# in"reases in %ork opportunities. 0n addition+ the number of immi(rants other than %hite started to in"rease and maintained its hi(h trend up to the present da# %hen the lar(est immi(rant (roup in ,urope is represented b# 'uslims. <or e&ample+ in 2004+ there %ere 15 milion 'uslims in :estern ,urope and the# represented one third of the non!%hite population in 9reat ritain 5'odood 47. 1o%ever+ a""ordin( to 'odood+ after the terrorist atta"k on the :orld Trade Center in 2001+ 'uslims 3have "ome under ne% politi"al s"rutin# even in "ountries in %hi"h 'uslims form a relativel# small proportion of re"ent settlers+ su"h as the B/6+ Canada and 6ustralia4 5'odood 57. 0n ritain+ after the 2005 terrorist atta"k on the Condon publi" transport s#stem+ 'uslim immi(rants started to be "onsidered a potential threat to the so"iet# %ith ever# 'uslim unreasonabl# bein( seen as a potential terrorist. 0t "an be "laimed+ therefore+ that multi"ultural mi&in( brin(s alon( not onl# the mutual enri"hment of different "ultures or reli(ions+ but also a tension that mi(ht arise %ithin a host so"iet#. 8a"ism+ se&ual oppression+ reli(ious intoleran"e+ miso(#n# and anti!/emitism are amon( those phenomena that are unpleasant side effe"ts arisin( from multi"ultural "o! e&isten"e. These obsta"les ma# result no%ada#s mostl# from human fear and suspi"ion to%ards ever#thin( and ever#one different. 1o%ever+ sin"e 3all human bein(s as the bearers of a universal human nature!as persons!are of e.ual value from the demo"rati" perspe"tive+ and all people as persons deserve e.ual respe"t and e.ual opportunit# for self!reali)ation4 5Ta#lor 887+ multi"ulturalism represents the most suitable devi"e for establishin( so"ial balan"e in multi!ethni" so"ieties %ith its "ore based on the preservation of the uni.ueness of ea"h "ulture. -evertheless+ in the last de"ade there has arisen a deep (ap separatin( the role of multi"ulturalism as a proper theor# and its a"tual role %ithin a parti"ular so"iet#. 0n 1999+

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,li)abeth <o&!9enovese (ave a le"ture about multi"ulturalism %here she stated that multi"ulturalism tends to be used mostl# as an ideolo(# instead of a des"ription of the a"tual state of affairs in the individual so"iet# 5<orei(n $oli"# 8esear"h 0nstitute7. <rom her perspe"tive+ multi"ulturalism often serves as an offi"ial theor# or an alternative belief+ but not the des"ription of the true mind of the so"iet# itself 5ibid.7. Dne of the reasons of this statement ma# lie in the "limate of human suspi"ion to%ards different ethni" (roups leadin( to a serious .uestion as to %hether a multi"ultural so"iet# toda# "an funtion at all. Current debates about multi"ulturalism often avoid this topi" even thou(h it is important to disti(uish bet%een the multi"ultural Eideolo(#F+ its presumptive fun"tion and the a"tual state of affairs in different so"ieties. :hen "onsiderin( multi"ulturalism an ideolo(#+ on the one hand+ it ma# be seen as the manipulation of human beliefs and in that "ase it %ill serve as the 3ideolo(# of others or+ "onversel#+ a devi"e for unmaskin( the anti!multi"ulturalist ideolo(# of others4 5<orei(n $oli"# 8esear"h 0nstitute7. Dn the other hand+ ideolo(# mi(ht be des"ribed as a matter one mi(ht "onsider alternative to Erealit#F 5ibid.7. 'ulti"ulturalism as an ideolo(# "overs all that ea"h ethni" (roup ma# brin( and provide+ but it ma# not be misused as a devi"e to suppress one (roup and elevate another. <rom this point of vie%+ the ideolo(# ma# be rather "onsidered a broader vie% %hi"h ea"h ethni" (roup ma# hold to in order to a"hieve+ for e&ample+ the prote"tion of their o%n ethni" ri(hts and preservation of their "ultural and so"ial herita(e 5ibid.7. 0n addition+ multi"ulturalism ma# be also des"ribed as the indi"ation of a de(radation or a (uarantee for a permission 5<orei(n $oli"# 8esear"h 0nstitute7. :hether the host so"iet# de"ides to utili)e its authorit# to limit the immi(ration and thus limit the "ultural diffusion %ithin the a parti"ular "ountr#+ or to enable the unlimited immi(ration %ith the (uarantee of "omplete prote"tion of parti"ular ethni" "ultural and so"ial herita(e. 0t mostl# depends on the

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mentalit# of a parti"ular so"iet# b# %hi"h attitude it %ill be led in the relation %ith multi"ulturalism. This also applies to attitudes to%ards immi(ration+ 3%hether >the? stran(ers are ultimatel# treated %ith hostilit# or admiration4 5ibid.7. 0n other %ords+ it depends 3heavil# on the vitalit# of the Ere"eivin(F "ulture4 5ibid.7 in %hat %a# immi(rants %ill be treatedG it also depends on the preferen"es of the one that "hooses the multi"ulturalism. /in"e ever# multi! ethni" so"iet# has different needs+ it ma# tend to adopt a different level or version of multi"ulturalism and subordinate to it. 6""ordin( to 'odood+ it is important to take into "onsideration the 3"ivi" e.ualit# that offers a "ore vision of multi"ulturalism that is not onl# "oherent and relevant to the t%ent#!first "entur# but is also attra"tive and ou(ht to be a basis for "ivilit#+ politi"al reform and so"ial resear"h4 5'odood 77. The importan"e of multi"ulturalism in the 21st "entur# dra%s primaril# from the in"reasin( population si)e+ the behaviour of so"ieties that (ain more a((resive "hara"ter in order to preserve or even spread their "ultures+ industrial and e"onomi" development 5or failure7+ hi(h unemplo#ment rates+ e"onomi" "risis+ politi"al instabilit# or %ar. These fa"tors provoke "ontemporar# so"ieties to spread be#ond the borders of their native territories. 'ulti"ulturalism thus provides the most ade.uate possibilit# for so"ial balan"e sin"e+ a""ordin( to :illiam 1. '"-eill+ 3>p?eople %ill "herish their differen"es+ espe"iall# in a (lobal+ urbani)ed so"iet# %hi"h is fra(ile and vulnerable to serious disruptions4 5<orei(n $oli"# 8esear"h 0nsitute7. 'ulti"ulturalism is thus a lo(i"al "onse.uen"e of the ne"essit# of mutual "o!e&isten"e and so"ial "oheren"e in toda#=s so"iet#.

1.2 British Multiculturalism and Multicultural Society /in"e ritain belon(s to one of the most "losel# observed multi"ultural "ountries+ espe"iall# in relation to su""eedin( %aves of immi(ration e&perien"ed durin( its histor#+ it ma# help to serve as a parti"ularl# helpful e&ample for insi(ht into the development and su""ess+ or

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failure+ of multi"ulturalism in a so"iet#. esides immi(ration+ there %ere also other imporant histori" events that "ontributed to the "ontemporar# "omple& "hara"ter of ritish so"iet# sin"e ea"h era brou(ht alon( si(nifi"ant features that shaped ritish "ulture or so"ial life and be"ame part of the national herita(e. 1o%ever+ the ma@or purpose of this "hapter is to brin( into sharper fo"us the pro"ess of immi(ration to ritain a"ross its histor# %ith an overvie% of the immi(ration poli"# from 1945 up to the present da#.

1.2.1 The Formation of Multi-ethnic Britain: Immigration to Britain and British Immigration Policy in the Post-war ra ritish so"iet# as a %hole has developed over a lon( period of time due to ritain=s lon( histor#. Dne of the most "onsiderable fa"tors formin( the "hara"ter of the so"iet# is the fa"tor of immi(ration. 0t "ould be said that immi(rants have been "omin( to ritain for "enturies+ thou(h the first offi"ial %ave of immi(ration is not dated until the 12th "entur#. 9roups that "ame in earlier periods of time %ere mostl# invaders %ho prin"ipall# "ame in order to "on.uer the territor# that later be"ame ritish territor#. -evertheless+ durin( the follo%in( "enturies ritish so"iet# formed into a multi!ethni" so"iet# %ith the areas of Condon+ Horkshire+ the /outh ,ast and the 'idlands as most densl# inhabited b# immi(rants at the present time. 6ll the %aves of immi(ration had a "ertain impa"t on the development of a ritish multi!ethni" so"iet#. /tartin( %ith Celts+ 8omans+ 6n(lo!/a&ons+ -ormans+ *anes+ -or%e(ians or Iikin(s+ throu(h the first %ave of Je%ish immi(ration+ the Combards and 1ansa+ the <lemish and :alloons+ protestant 1u(uenots and the first %ave of 6fri"an slaves alon( %ith the :est 0ndians in the 12th "entur#+ 0ndians and Chinese+ 9ermans+ 0talians+ numerous 0rish people es"apin( the potato famine+ up to the late 19th "entur# %ith another Je%ish %ave of immi(ration+ startin( the period of more e&tensive and influential immi(ration

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to ritain. 0t %as follo%ed b# a %ave of in@ured el(ian soldiers %ho "ame to ritain durin( the <irst :orld :ar and %ere follo%ed b# an immense %ave of el(ian refu(ees+ most of %hom %ere sent ba"k to their "ountr# 5/overei(nt#7. 0n 1931+ the first $olish immi(rants entered 9reat ritain and $olish immi(ration "ontinued durin( the /e"ond :orld :ar %hen $oles %ere es"apin( from -a)i perse"ution and from their "ountr# devastated b# %ar. Their influen"e on ritish so"iet# is related further in the se"ond "hapter. 0n addition+ the period of %ar sa% further %aves of immi(ration alon( %ith the ne% 0rish immi(ration. ,ven thou(h 0reland %as not offi"iall# involved in the %ar+ man# 0rish people moved to ritain or parti"ipate in the fi(htin( durin( the %ar. The main reason %as an effort to es"ape from their "ountr# that %as e"onomi"all# behind the times. The post!%ar era of "onsensus!that lasted from 1945!57+ a""ordin( to 'ar%i"k!%as "hara"teristi" b# "ommon effort of so"ial+ e"onomi" and "ultural unanimit# in the sense of mutual help and "o!operation bet%een 5not onl# the ,uropean7 "ountries and revitali)ation of those most devastated b# %ar. The ritish (overnment thus invited different nations to "ome to ritain in order to help to restore the "ountr#. This led to the influ& of %aves of 'uslim+ 6sian 5 an(ladesh+ $akistani+ et".7+ :est 0ndian+ 6fri"an+ Carribean and also 0rish immi(ration. The 1950s and 1920s thus represent amon( others one of the si(nifi"ant periods in relation %ith immi(ration to ritain durin( its histor#. Dne of the most si(nifi"ant %aves of immi(ration in 20th!"entur# ritain %as that of the :est 0ndians. The# started to "ome to ritain after the# had (ained independen"e in 1947+ but their impa"t started to be felt more e&tensivel# in the 1950s. The (overnment=s attitude to%ards immi(ration differed from the rest of so"iet#+ espe"iall# the %orkin( "lass and the lo%er!middle "lass 5'ar%i"k 1237. The (overnment=s attitude %as 3still ver# mu"h influen"ed b# the notion of ritain=s (reat imperial herita(e %hi"h+ as a "on"rete le(a"#+ had left a situation in %hi"h :est 0ndians+ 0ndians+ $akistanis+ and 6fri"ans %ere all full ritish

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sub@e"ts and entitled+ %ithout let or hindran"e+ to settle in ritain itself4 5ibid.7. Dn the other hand+ 3>t?hose in the %orkin( "lass and lo%er!middle "lass+ livin( in the poorer areas in %hi"h+ perfor"e+ the ne% immi(ration "on(re(ated+ %ere more a%are of the disruptions and strains brou(ht to their o%n ever#da# lives4 5ibid.7. 1o%ever+ due to the rise of immi(ration to ritain+ the politi"al parties started to "onsider several different approa"hes to%ards immi(ration sin"e the# %ere a%are of the fa"t that there %as not enou(h %ork for ever#one at that time. Dn the one hand+ bet%een 1955 and 1957 the Conservative $art# under the lead of /ir 6nthon# ,den dis"ussed the possibilit# of immi(ration "ontrols+ but on the other hand+ in 1958 the 0nstitute of 8a"e 8elations %as established instead in order to resear"h ra"e relations %ithin the "ountr# 5'ason 1237. 1o%ever+ the situation "on"ernin( immi(ration started to be"ome "ompli"ated and resulted in several "onfli"ts su"h as the one in 1958+ %hen there arose a ra"e riot bet%een :est 0ndians and lo"al inhabitants in Condon. *ue to the tension arisin( %ithin the "ountr#+ the (overnment started to dis"uss immi(ration more seriousl#. This turn of events led the (overnment to de"ide on le(islation. <inall#+ the 0mmi(ration ill %as approved on 27 <ebruar# 1922. 0t introdu"ed .uota s#stem for immi(rants based on the introdu"tion of spe"ial "ards for immi(rants %ho %ere alread# %orkin( in ritain and those %ho had some parti"ular skills 5'ason 1247. This s#stem %as presented b# the Conservatives and %as stron(l# atta"ked b# Cabour+ but it %as finall# approved. Cabour part# adopted an attitude in favour of the "ontrols+ and the attitude of a so! "alled 3laisse)!faire4 poli"# %hi"h in this "ase meant 3no edu"ation+ no spe"ial trainin(+ no attempt at (eo(raphi"al dispersion4 5'ar%i"k 1247. ,ven thou(h the immi(rants "ontributed to the ritish e"onom#+ most ritish people thou(ht that the number of immi(rants %as alread# too hi(h. <or that reason+ the inte(ration of immi(rants %as a lon( %a# a%a# to be a""omplished.

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The era of the 1920s "arried almost the same "hara"ter e&perien"in( also "onsiderable 'uslim immi(ration. 0n 1925+ the ritish (overnment limited the numbers of immi(rants %ith no skills. 0n 1922+ it introdu"ed the first 8a"e 8elations 6"t in relation to dis"rimination based on the "olour of skin or ethni"it#. :e %ould normall# e&pe"t the politi"al parties in su"h a situation to rea"t to publi" preferen"es b# pushin( for ver# stron( restri"tions on immi(ration. 0nstead+ both mainstream parties have (enerall# favoured a hi(her level of immi(ration than that desired b# the publi"+ and have refused to push for a "omplete halt to immi(ration+ despite the "lear preferen"es of the ma@orit# of voters 5$o%ell and 6fterA 0mmi(ration+ 8a"e and Iotin( in ritain 1970!19797. 0n other %ords+ the (overnment primaril# tried to re(ulate immi(ration and handle dissatisfa"tion %ithin the ritish so"iet#+ espe"iall# in the %orkin( "lass. 0n 1928+ it approved a ne% bill intended to prote"t immi(rants from dis"rimination. 0t %as "onne"ted to ne% 3le(islation to "ontrol entr# >...? bein( in part a rea"tion to events in ;en#a %hi"h seemed likel# to provoke a lar(e!s"ale immi(ration of ;en#a 6sians holdin( ritish passports4 5'ar%i"k 1257. The ritish (overnment %anted to prevent lar(er %aves of immi(ration to enter their "ountr# sin"e there %as hostilit# to%ards immi(ration in mu"h of so"iet#+ but it also tried to prote"t those %ho had entered the "ountr# alread#A 8espe"table parlamentarians+ Cabour+ Conservative+ and Ciberal+ %ere a(reed in tr#in( to prevent ra"e from be"omin( a national politi"al issue+ a(reed on a poli"# of both maintainin( and stren(htenin( "ontrols %hile at the same time endeavourin( to outla% dis"rimination a(ainst those alread# settled in the "ountr# 5ibid.7. /ome politi"ians adopted an even stron(er attitude a(ainst immi(ration. 0n 1928+ durin( parliamentar# dis"ussion about the ne% 8a"e 8elations ill+ ,no"h $o%ell+ %ho

12

%as a Conservative '$+ (ave a spee"h %here he statedA 3>C?ike the 8omans+ 0 seem to see Ethe 8iver Tiber flo%in( %ith mu"h bloodF4 5ibid.7. # this statement he "alled 3for the end of immi(ration and repatriation for immi(rants from -e% Common%ealth states4 5;avana(h 207. 6fter%ards+ statisti"s sho%ed that almost 75K of ritish people a(reed %ith $o%ell and the# e&pressed their support to him even in number of demonstrations 5'ar%i"k 1257. $o%ell be"ame a %ell!kno%n politi"al fi(ure. 1e %as subse.uentl# asked b# ,d%ard 1eath to resi(n from his post from the /hado% Cabinet+ but he sta#ed %ithin the Conservative part#. 0n relation to immi(ration+ he established a path that %as follo%ed b# other politi"ans that "ame after him+ notabl# 'ar(aret That"her. The first #ears of the 1970s %ere still e&perien"in( an e"onomi" rise %hi"h "ontinued from the post!%ar era up to 1973. This period also sa% a (reat rise in the standards for livin(. 1o%ever+ a""ordin( to ;avana(h+ ritain "ould not "ompare itself to other :estern so"ieties in terms of the e"onomi" rise properl# 5;avana(h+ 1237. 0mmi(ration to the "ountr# brou(ht alon( e&tensive %ave of 'uslim immi(rants %ith ,ast 6fri"an and ,ast 6sian %ave that also took pla"e durin( the period of the 1970s. 0t is also important not to for(et the immi(rants from ,ast 6fri"a %ho %ere es"apin( from the maltreatment and politi"al perse"ution. ,ast 6sian immi(rants also in"luded thousands from Iietnam as a result of the %ar. 0n 1971+ the "ommon belief %as that immi(ration had more or less "ome to an end and the immi(rant "ommunit# alread# "ounted one million members. The immi(ration poli"# %as based on these pointsA 3no more primar# immi(ration+ but some famil# reunion+ no ma@or "han(es or mu"h publi" dis"ussion of the immi(ration s#stem+ no en"oura(ement of repatriation of mi(rants or their des"endants+ the promotion of e.ual opportunities and le(islation a(ainst dis"rimination to fa"ilitate inte(ration4 5'i(ration :at"h B;7. 1o%ever+ due to ra"ial tension that %as "onstantl# present %ithin the so"iet#+ in 1972 the ritish

17

(overnment introdu"ed restri"tions on immi(ration that allo%ed the entran"e to ritain onl# for those immi(rants %ho %ere alread# permitted to %ork there or had some famil# members in the "ountr# 5ibid.7. 0n 1975+ 'ar(aret That"her be"ame the leader of the Conservative part#. 0n relation to immi(ration poli"#+ she pra"ti"all# follo%ed in $o%ell=s footsteps+ but she 3%as even "loser to the mainstream %hen she delivered her most famous statement on immi(ration in 1978. /he %as leader of the Conservative $art# %hen she announ"ed on national television her s#mpathies %ith those %ho feared bein( Es%ampedF b# immi(rant "ultures4 5$o%ell and 6fterA 0mmi(ration+ 8a"e and Iotin( in ritain 1970!19797. $o%ell and That"her to(ether (ot even further. The# su""eeded in "onvin"in( the publi" that the Conservatives understood their an&ieties about "oloured immi(ration+ and %ould a"t to stop it. 6s a result+ the# %ere both able to %in over si(nifi"ant numbers of anti!immi(rant voters to the part#+ a fa"tor %hi"h "ontributed to its ele"tion vi"tories in 1970 and 1979 5ibid.7. The# presented the immi(ration as an aspe"t havin( the unpleasant effe"t on the so"iet# and due to the (eneral hostilit# to%ards immi(ration+ their ideas had an impa"t on the publi" opinion and (ain si(nifi"ant number of voters. The Cabour part#+ on the other hand+ adopted different attitude to%ards immi(ration 3and ra"e relations+ parti"ularl# in the 1974!9 (overnment+ and its su""ess in re"ruitin( ethni" minorit# voters+ alienated ra"iall# intolerant and anti!immi(rant %hites+ "onsistentl# "ostin( the part# votes throu(hout the 1970s4 5ibid.7. *ifferen"e bet%een these t%o attitudes is obvious and the# have kept in parti"ular "hara"ter up to the present da#. *urin( the 1980s+ the attitude to%ards immi(ration (ained a less important "hara"ter+ but the politi"al and so"ial attitudes to%ards immi(ration remained pra"ti"all# the same.

18

-umerous immi(rants %ho "ame durin( this era %ere from the "ountries of the same 5or similar7 ba"k(round as that of ritain+ namel# from the B/6+ Canada+ 6ustralia or -e% Lealand. -everthless+ publi" opinion still emphasi)ed the antipath# to%ards the immi(rants+ demandin( an absolute immi(ration "ut from the Conservative $art#+ that %as not in fa"t fulfilled. 0mmi(rants in"lined mostl# to%ards the Cabour part#+ %hi"h is proved b# the fa"t that >it? had %on over most of the ethni" minorit# vote simpl# b# not bein( the part# of $o%ell+ >it? "ondemned the ConservativesF immi(ration poli"# as ra"ist and held hi(h profile debates over ethni" minorit# representation. The Conservatives did little to hi(hli(ht the issue+ but then the# didnFt need to M their tra"k re"ord+ and CabourFs "ondemnations of it+ spoke for itself 5$o%ell and 6fterA 0mmi(ration+ 8a"e and Iotin( in ritain 1970!19797. The ritish -ationalit# 6"t from 1983 made distin"tion bet%een 3 ritish Citi)en4 and 3 ritish Dverseas Territories Citi)en4 5B; oarder 6(en"#7. The first one (ot the ritish nationalit# b# his famil# linea(e and the se"ond one (ot it in a different %a# than b# bein( member of a famil# from %hi"h he or she "an (ain this status. 1o%ever+ the immi(rants %ho (ained the nationalit# b# a famil# linea(e "ould not pass it on their "hildren if the# %ere born in other "ountr# than ritain 5ibid.7. Cater durin( this era+ another immi(ration started to affe"t ritain. This %as the politi"al instabilit# and %ar that for"ed numbers of 8omanians+ former Hu(oslavians and people from the former /oviet Bnion to leave their homes tr#in( to find ne% ones in ritain. Their intentions %ere based on establishin( a ne%+ solid foundation for the better future of their "hildren. 1o%ever+ the immi(ration offi"ers %ere allo%ed to de"ide %hi"h immi(rant "an enter the "ountr#. 0t %as the parti"ular person=s "redibilit# and the offi"er=s satisfa"tion about an immi(rant=s identit# that finall# allo%ed the immi(rant to enter the "ountr#.

19

The 1990s represent a parti"ularl# si(nifi"ant period. 6""ordin( to John Carvel+ 3population patterns throu(h most of the 20th "entur# had "han(ed dramati"all# durin( the 1990s as mi(ration be"ame the main en(ine of population (ro%th4 59uardian."o.ukG 25 Januar# 20017. 0n relation %ith immi(ration+ the "han(e %as parti"ularl# stark in the "losin( #ears of the "entur#+ %hen mi(ration be"ame the predominant demo(raphi" influen"e. 0mmi(ration overtook natural population (ro%th in ,n(land and :ales in 1994!95. #

1998!99 net in%ard mi(ration in"reased to 194+000+ %hile natural population (ro%th fell to 72+000 5ibid.7. 6""ordin( to present!da# statisti"s+ most of the immi(rants "omin( to ritain durin( the late 1990s %ere from ,B "ountries 5/uite101."om7. This trend maintains its si(nifi"an"e even toda#. 1o%ever+ after 1997+ the non!,B immi(ration started to be"ome more e&tensive sin"e in June 1997+ the ritish (overnment made easier for ritish habitants to brin( husbands and %ives from different "ountries. # the end of the 20th "entur#+ man# aspe"ts of ever#da# life "han(ed. 6fter 2004 openin( of the ritish labout market+ the influ& of the immense labour immi(ration "ame to ritain+ brin(in( alon( ne% and e&tensive Central and ,astern ,uropean immi(ration+ espe"iall# $oles+ Catvians+ Cithuanians+ et". 'uslims also kept "omin( to ritain up to the present time %ith almost 1+5 million 'uslims present in ritain in 2002. The t%o ma@or politi"al parties in ritain!the Conservative $art# and the Cabour $art#!based their poli"ies prin"ipall# on the .uestion of as#lum seekers+ labour immi(ration from ,B and non!,B "ountries "onne"ted %ith the marria(es bet%een immi(rants and the arrival of famil# members to ritain alon( %ith fresh ne% monitorin( of immi(ration 59uardian."o.ukG 1 -ovember 20077. The monitorin( is of (reat importan"e sin"e a""ordin( to 'ason+ 3>l?ike the "on"eptions of ethni"it#+ %hi"h the# refle"t+ the sour"es of data of riain=s ethni" diversit# is in "ontinual

20

flu& in response to "han(es in poli"# "on"erns+ politi"al priorities >...?+ and patterns of politi"al stru((le+ in"ludin( the demands of minorit# ethni" "ommunities themselves4 5'ason 337. The ne% approa"h to%ards immi(ration is thus ne"essar#+ espe"iall# in the "ontemporar# era of e"onomi" instabilit# and population (ro%th.

21

2 Polish !ommunity and Immigration in the !onte"t of British !ulturalism: Past# Present# Future 2.1 British-Polish $elations: Past and Present 6s alread# mentioned+ $olish immi(rants started to "ome to ritain more e&tensivel# in the earl# 1930s+ establishin( the foundation of a relativel# lar(e $olish "ommunit# that lives %ithin "ontemporar# ritish so"iet#. $olish immi(ration to ritain %as a pro"ess that "overed a lon(er periodG it took pla"e 3firstl# as a result of %artime displa"ement and deportation+ then durin( the Cold :ar in spite of heav# restri"tions+ and later a(ain+ >as a? post!so"ialist e"onomi" mi(ration a%a# from the e"onomi" un"ertaint# of a Etransitionin(F "ountr#4 51istor# in <o"usA 'i(ration7. The relationship bet%een ritish people and $oles %as evolvin( durin( this period and %as a""ompanied b# both the a""eptan"e and the hostilit# that %ere present durin( the post!%ar era and toda#. *ue to la"k of books about re"ent $olish immi(ration and its impa"t on ritish so"iet# in the last fe% #ears+ 0 had to rel# mainl# on re"ent arti"les and essa#s from ritish online ne%spapers alon( %ith another 0nternet sour"es that represent the main support for the se"ond part of this "hapter. The links bet%een ritain and $oland "an be tra"ed as earl# as the be(innin( of the 18th "entur#. 0n 1719+ a (rand!dau(hter of ;in( John 000 of $oland+ Clementina /obieska+ married James 000 and I000 of ,n(land and /"otland 5The Ja"obite 1erita(e7. <rom that time+ histories of both "ountries have be"ome intert%ined. Cater+ ritain lost interest in $oland=s destin# for a "ertain period of time and rekindled this interest durin( the %ars a(ainst -apoleon+ sin"e $oland %as on his side and "au(ht ritish attention. ritish!$olish relations be"ame inter"onne"ted durin( the /e"ond :orld :ar. *espite "ontinuous $olish immi(ration+ $oland %as hi(hl# dispara(ed b# numerous ritish politi"ians in the first half of the 20th "entur#+ in"ludin( *avid Clo#d 9eor(e 51823!19457+ a ritish $rime 'inister %ho 3%as noti"eabl# ill!

22

disposed to%ards $oles4 5/ta"hura 97. 0n addition+ he %as not the onl# politi"al representive %ho tended to overlook $oland in the "onte&t of ,uropean relations. *urin( the 1930s+ ritain %as "on"erned mostl# about the affairs of its o%n empire. Central and ,astern ,urope %as+ a""ordin( to another ritish $rime 'inister -eville Chamberlain 51829!19407+ 3"omposed of Efar!a%a#F "ountries4 5/ta"hura 97 sin"e ritain paied most of its attention to%ards the situation %ithin ritish empire and the pro"ess of the a".uisition of independen"e b# some of its former "olonies. 8ea"hin( the 1940s+ ritain and $oland finall# found a base for their "ooperation+ but 3onl# b# unpre"edented "ir"umstan"es of adversit#G the one had alread# been atta"ked and o""upied b# -a)i 9erman#+ %hile the other %as under dire"t threat of e&perien"in( the same4 5ibid.7. ,ven thou(h the attempt to improve the "ool inter%ar realations bet%een $oland and ritain "ame %ith 1939 6n(lo!$olish Treat#+ the #ear 1940 represents more si(nifi"ant pro(ress in their relations+ even thou(h it did not ori(inate entirel# in ritish!$olish %illin(ness. 0n addition+ the balan"e of the relationship bet%een these t%o "ountries depended mostl# on ritain=s point of vie%+ sin"e $olish people %ere inhabitin( ritain and %ere isolated from their "ountr#+ not onl# (eo(raphi"all#+ but also so"iall# and finan"iall#. ritain also adopted a rather va(ue attitude to%ards $olish problems %ith the /oviet Bnion representin( possible threat for $oland from its ,astern border. ritain "ould not (uarantee the "omplete prote"tion of this $olish boarder and /oviet Bnion "onse.uentl# anne&ed ,astern $oland in 1939 5/ta"hura 37. 6fter 1939+ the $olish (overnment %ent to e&ile sin"e the situation %ithin $oland started to "ompli"ate after the anne&ation and made the a"tivit# of (overnment rather diffi"ult. <irst+ the $olish (overnment resided in 8omania+ then to $aris+ 6rdennes and finall# in Condon %here it established its head.uarters and sta#ed up to the end of the %ar and later on 5/ta"hura 337. 0n 1940+ alon( %ith movin( of the head.uarters of $olish (overnment+ numerous $olish immi(rants arrived in ritian %ith man# of them "omin( to /"otland. The# %ere espe"iall# the

23

remnants of $olish troops %hi"h helped the 6llian"e=s arm# and "ame alon( %ith several thousands of $olish refu(ees. $olish immi(rants "omin( to ritain %ere re"eived %ith different feelin(s. 0n /"otland+ the# %ere re"eived b# people 3%ho re(arded these stran(ers from a distant and unkno%n "ountr#+ speakin( an in"omprehensible lan(ua(e+ %ith a "ombination of intense "uriosit# and admiration4 5/ta"hura 497. <irst+ the# %ere (athered in spe"ial tent "amps near Cra%ford+ + *ou(las+ i((ar+ Cuppar+ et". /"ots also invited $oles into their homes %hi"h made the $oles feel ver# (rateful for the help (iven. Cater on+ several edu"ational institutions %ere established for the in"omin( $oles+ for e&ample the $olish 'edi"al /"hool at the Bniversit# of ,dinbur(h+ the $olish 6(ri"ultural /"hool+ the $olish Centre of ,le"tro!Te"hni"al Trainin(+ et". 5/ta"hura 517. The situation %ith $olish immi(ration started to "ompli"ate after the /oviet Bnion be"ame a member of the 6llian"e a(ainst 9erman# in 1942. *ue to the Communist movement that took "ontrol over $oland+ $oles livin( in /"otland %ere not %illin( to leave the "ountr# and return to $oland dominated b# the Communists. <or that reason+ the relationships bet%een $oles and /"ots started to be"ame diffi"ult sin"e /"ots started to fear for the impa"t of $oles on their livin( "onditions+ es"pe"iall# @obs and housin(. 6fter the ele"tions in 1945+ %hen the Cabour part# under the leadership of Clement 6ttlee %on+ $oles %ere more frankl# made to feel ho% un%el"ome the# %ere in ritain. There %ere alread# 250+000 $oles in ritain and the ne% $rime 'inister %as read# to make en effort to send them ba"k home as .ui"kl# as possible sin"e the finan"ial sour"es for their support %ere alread# runnin( short 5/ta"hura 537. 1o%ever+ the ma@orit# of $oles did not %ant to return to $oland so the ritish (overnment had to a""ept them in the "ountr#. *ue to these "ir"umstan"es+ $oles 3be"ame the involuntar# immi(rants in the "ountr# that the# believed had sold them politi"all# %hen it had mattered4 5ibid.7. The #ear 1939 and the $olish anne&ation pla#ed an important part here.

24

$olish despair %as deepened also b# the results of the Halta "onferen"e held durin( the %artime in <ebruar# 1945 in Crimea+ %here important politi"al representatives of the Bnited /tates+ 9reat ritain and /oviet Bnion met to di"uss the possible or(ani)ation of post!%ar ,urope. 0n relation %ith $oland+ :inston Chur"hill made a (reat effort to (ain the establishment of free $olish ele"tions and a "ompletel# demo"rati" (overnment in $oland. 1o%ever+ /talin %anted $oland to be"ome part of the /oviet Bnion sin"e it %as a strate(i" territor# for 8ussia. $oland re"eived several promises from /talin in"ludin( the opportunit# of free ele"tions. 1o%ever+ /talin did not fulfill an# of them. 6fter losin( some of its territor#+ $oland lost "ontrol over its o%n (overnment due to pseudo!demo"rati" ele"tions and b# 1949 $oland be"ame a "ompletel# "ommunist "ountr#. 6""ordin( to $eter /ta"hura+ >i?n realit#+ the $oles had been "rushed %ell before Halta b# the militar# and dimplomati" advan"e of the /oviet Bnion+ and b# the "#ni"al disre(ard sho%n for them b# their :estern allies. -either Chur"hill+ despite his (eneral s#mpath# for the $oles in the fa"e of /talin=s intransi(ent animosit# to%ards them+ nor espe"iall# 8oosevelt+ had an# real+ sustained interest in the fate of ,astern ,urope+ for their main priorities la# else%here 5/ta"hura 117. ,ven thou(h the allies made a notable effort to improve the post!%ar situation in $olish politi"s+ the# %ere more "on"erned about other ,uropean affairs in"ludin( their o%n. /in"e $oland %as not "apable of fi(htin( for its o%n ri(hts and ade.uate status %ithin the post!%ar ,urope+ it %as e&posed to the po%er of the /oviet Bnion. 6""ordin( to 9iles Coren+ there %ere t%o t#pes of $olish mi(ration durin( and after the %ar!it %as 3the e"onomi" and the humanitarian4 one 5Times DnlineG 22 Jul# 20087. The differen"e bet%een them lies in the fa"t that $oles %ho "ame for e"onomi" reasons mostl# returned home after this parti"ular period of time. The other mi(ration+ as in the "ase of

25

Coren=s an"estor and man# other $oles+ %as the mi(ration of people %ho did not %ant to return ba"k to $oland sin"e after 1945+ the pre!%ar $oland no lon(er e&isted 5ibid.7. 6fter the %ar+ the anti!$olish attitude (ained more stren(th sin"e $oles started to be "onsidered a burden to ritish so"iet#+ livin( from the mone# of the ritish

people. The (overnment+ espe"iall# ,rnest

evin %ho %as <orei(n /e"retar# of the

Cabour part#+ tried to persuade $olish servi"emen to (o ba"k to $oland sin"e it %as their o%n obli(ation to return ba"k to their homeland. 1e later stated that if he "ould send all the $oles ba"k home+ he %ould do so immediatel# 5/ta"hura 217. The "ontribution of $olish troops durin( the allies= fi(ht a(ainst -a)i 9erman# %as almost "ompletel# for(otten and repla"ed b# ne(ative attitude to%ards $oles instead. 0n the last #ears of 1940s+ the so"ial situation "on"ernin( $olish immi(rants be"ame even more "ompli"ated. $oles had to find @obs in order to support their families+ but the hostilit# that started to prevail a(ainst them made their efforts even more diffi"ult. <or those $oles from a professional ba"kround and those %ho had been "areer offi"ers in the armed for"es+ the ad@ustment to "ivilian life in a (enerall# inhospitable "limate %as even more stressful+ for their .ualifi"ations %ere usuall# not re"o(nised. Conse.uentl#+ the# %ere "ompelled to retain as %at"hmakers+ bookkeepers and similar+ %hi"h meant that the# lost the so"ial and e"onomi" status and presti(e the# had en@o#ed in $oland before the %ar 5/ta"hura 547. 0n addition+ the $oles livin( in /"otland started to feel even more alienated sin"e /"otland differed (reatl# from their o%n homeland in ever# aspe"t. <ortunatel#+ $oles %ere ti(htl# bound to(ether b# their stron( Catholi" faith and also the "ommon aversion to%ards the /oviet union as the $olish enem#. 1o%ever+ the members of the post!%ar $olish "ommunit# in /"otland did not feel safe sin"e their status %ithin

22

ritain %as no more than the one of un%anted immi(rants. 0n addition+ sin"e most of the $oles that had es"aped from the %ar and -a)i perse"ution e&perien"ed numerous horrors in their "ountr#+ b# the time the# "ame to ritain 3a hi(h in"iden"e of mental illness has prevailed amon( $oles >there?4 5/ta"hura 857. 1o%ever+ /ta"hura stated that there %as not a ma@orit# of $oles livin( in ritain that suffered from mental illness

5/ta"hura 877+ but it %as a si(nfi"ant number that "ontributed ne(ativel# to the alread# diffi"ult status of $oles in ritain. 6mon( other immi(rants+ $oles also felt inse"ure due to the established trade unions %hose poli"# %as based on the approa"h that refu(ees %ould be the first ones to be dismissed if there %ere not enou(h va"an"ies 5 ulbrin( 1007. 'an# former $olish a(ri"ultural %orkers ended up in the industr# and vi"e versa %hi"h also "aused a lot of dis"ontent due to the la"k of attention pa#ed to a"tual %orkin( skills of the refu(ees 5ibid.7. This led man# refu(ees to leave ritain and emi(rate to the B/6+ Canada and 6ustralia. *urin( the first #ears of the 1950s+ numerous refu(ees "hose this path and left ritain+ but plent# of them sta#ed. The main reason %as the 3so"ial servi"es of the ritish %elfare state that (ave them (reater se"urit# than in an# other "ountr#+ %ere unemplo#ment and si"kness %ere apt to prove disastrous4 5 ulbrin( 1017. 0n addition+ several institutions %ere established in different to%ns in ritain to help $oles and other refu(ees and immi(rants to settle do%n or at least provide them %ith a steppin( stone in a ne% "ountr#. /in"e the housin( "onditions %ere not suffi"ient+ several hundreds of $oles inhabitated the $olish <amil# 1ostels or other fa"ilities like Camp of a Central Drdnan"e *epot 5 ulbrin( 1057. 1o%ever+ in to%ns %ith lar(er $olish "ommunities su"h as the one in Cei"ester or radford+ the antipath# to%ards $oles made the inte(ration impossible+ espe"iall# in the later one. 0n fa"t+ the inhabitants of radford pra"ti"all# ini"iated the antipath# to%ards $olish soldiers durin( the %ar and 3>n?o dis"tin"tion bet%een nationalities %as made b# the lo"al people+ and man# of them speak of an# refu(e as a $ole4 5ibid.7.

27

To sum up+ at the be(innin(+ the ritish attitude to%ards $oland as a "ountr# remained rather neutral+ althou(h some se"tions of (overnment remotel# supported the Communist movement in $oland. 6s alread# mentioned+ the $olish (overnment remained in e&ile in Condon even after the ritish (overnment stated that $oles did not have to return to $oland un%illin(l#. *urin( the period of the Cold :ar+ $oland adopted a rather ne(ative attitude to%ards ritain as part of the :est "ountries. The development of ritish!$olish relations started to improve sli(hlt# from the 1980s. The representatives of the ritish (overnment tried to ini"iate the reforms in $oland b# (ainin( the release of $oland from the :arsa% $a"t si(ned in 1955 and 3desi(ned+ amon( other thin(s+ to ensure "lose inte(ration of militar#+ e"onomi" and "ultural poli"# bet%een ei(ht Communist nations. >...? B//8+ $oland+ ,ast 9erman#+ C)e"hoslovakia+ 1un(ar#+ 8omania+ ul(aria and 6lbania4 5 C Dn This *a#7. 6nother

reason %as the demo"rati" 3/olidarit#4 movement in $oland %hi"h %as supported b# ritain 5B; in $oland7. 0n 1988+ 'ar(aret That"her visited $oland and met the leadin( fi(ure of the movement+ Ce"h :aNOsa+ and her 3philosoph# of e"onom# and her pro(ramme of reforms provided the ke# inspiration for the emer(in( liberal thou(ht in the free $oland4 5ibid.7. The "ooperation "otinued after the fall of the "ommunist movement as %ell b# 3"reatin( a "omprehensive s#stem of (rants and s"holarships+ supportin( the development of the demo"rati" state and the "ivil so"iet#4 5ibid.7 from ritish side. ritain also supported the $olish effort to be"ome a member of -6TD and the ,uropean Bnion. The most re"ent relations bet%een ritain and $oland are "onne"ted to the 1990s and the re"ent #ears after the openin( of the ritish labour market in 2004 %hen ritain opened its market to%ards Central and ,astern labour appli"ants 3%ith no limitations and dela#4 5ibid.7.

28

2.2 Polish %a&our Immigration &etween 2''( and 2'') <or a better "omprehension of $olish labour mi(ration to and from ritain+ it ma# be useful to observe the numbers of re"ent $olish immi(rants in "omparison to the immi(ration in (eneral. There are numerous dis"repan"ies bet%een offi"ial fi(ure and a"tual numbers sin"e most of the statisti"s are based on "asual samples and man# immi(rants do not re(ister for %ork sin"e the# "ame to look for a short!time @ob+ espe"iall# durin( the summer. 6""ordin( to D-/ 5Dffi"e for -ational /tatisti"s7 statisti"s from 2002+ 1+500 of immi(rants have entered ritain ever# da# sin"e 2005 5:orkpermit."om7. ,ven thou(h the number %as lo%er than in 2004+ the hi(h immi(ration trend has "ontinued up to the present time %hen the immi(rants started to leave ritain due to the re"ent e"onomi" re"ession. 6lthou(h numbers of immi(rants leave ritain ever# #ear+ the immi(rants "omin( to the "ountr# first far more outnumbered those that left. 6""ordin( to anal#sts+ it is for the first time sin"e the labor market opened that there are more $oles leavin( ritain than enterin( it 5ibid.7. /tartin( %ith ori(inall# risin( immi(ration trend+ in 2002+ 3>o?f the 1.42 million total number of immi(rants %ho arrived in the B; sin"e 'a# 2004+ 427+000 %ere people re(isterin( to %ork from the ei(ht former ,astern lo" "ountries %hi"h @oined the ,B in 2004+ %ith the vast ma@orit# "omin( from $oland4 5:orkpermit."om7. 6""ordin( to the resear"h+ 380+000 people offi"iall# "ame from the so!"alled 6""ession ,i(ht "ountries for at least a #ear in 2005+ up more than 50K a(ain from the 52+000 of the se"ond half of 20044 5ibid.7. 6""ordin( to the ritish online bran"h of the Times ne%spaper+ the number of $oles appl#in( for %ork in ritain datin( from the openin( of the labour market up to the #ear 2008 has rea"hed 274+024 persons 5Times DnlineG 12 <ebruar# 20087. 1o%ever+ as alread# stated+ $oles did not "ome as a one! shot %ave of immi(ration+ but the# kept "omin( "onstatnl# %ith risin( or des"endin( de(ree. <o"usin( on $olish immi(ration a(ain+ it %as stated that from enterin( the ,uropean Bnion appro&imatel# 270+000 $oles applied for %ork in ritain up to the #ear 2008. The#

29

represent 22K of all the ,astern ,uropean appli"ations 5B; in $oland7. <or further information+ about 525+000 people "ame to ritain %ith primar# plans to sta# for at least a #ear. 0n addition+ a""ordin( to D-/+ about 80+000 people "ame to ritain from ,astern ,urope %ith the same plans. 0n 2005+ $oles formed the parti"ipation of 49+000 of that number 5Times DnlineG 12 <ebruar# 20087.

2.* Influence of the $ecent Polish Immigration on British Society 0t "ould be stated that ritish people %ere lookin( at the openin( of their labour market in 2004 %ith %orr# and distress. The# feared mostl# the "apabilit# of their "ountr# to provide va"an"ies for a labour demand that %as e&pe"ted to rise after the enterin( of the first more e&tensive %ave of immi(ration to ritain. ,ven thou(h $oles %ere a%are of a multi!ethni" "hara"ter of ritain %hen "omin( to the "ountr#+ their ritain. 0t is

behaviour in man# "ases differed sin(nifi"antl# after their arrival in

relativel# %ell!kno%n that $oland is a "ountr# in %hi"h immi(rants or members of different ethni" (roups are rather rare. 6fter "omin( to ritain+ a number of $oles %ere "onfused b# the a"tual level of multiethni"it# present in ritish so"iet#

59uardian."o.ukPThe DbserverG 15 6pril 20077. 0t %as perhaprs the reason %h# some $olish families seekin( the lo"ations in ritain via the a(en"ies asked for pla"es %ith fe%er members of different ethni" (roups. 1o%ever+ a""ordin( to 'arta 8abiko%ska from the Bniversit# of ,ast Condon+ this $olish behaviour 3is an intoleran"e of somethin( different+ that the# have not e&perien"ed before4 59uardian."o.ukPThe DbserverG 15 6pril 20077+ not of the people themselves. 0n order to defend themselves+ $oles that %ere asked to fill the so"ial resear"hes tried to @ustif# their behaviour b# the statement of not understandin( the differen"e of matters in ritain as the# en"ounter them for the first time 5ibid.7. 1o%ever+ in some "ases the situation %ent too far %ith

30

$olish "hildren a"tuall# demonstratin( their %hite superiorit# over their 6sian or bla"k "lassmates 5ibid.7. 6leksandra $odhorode"ka+ president of a so"iet# that runs /aturda# s"hools for $olish "hildren stated that >i?t is diffi"ult to blame the "hildren+ be"ause a lot "ome from rural so"ieties in eastern $oland %here there are ver# fe% immi(rants and some "hildren have never seen :est 0ndians or 6sians in the flesh. /o to suddenl# be thro%n into a s"hool %ith 100 different lan(ua(es+ "ultures and reli(ions is a "ultural sho"k4 5ibid7. -evertheless+ on the other hand+ there is also an opinion amon( ritish publi" that the $olish "hildren pa# mu"h more attention durin( the "lases and behave in a more proper %a# than their ritish "ounterparts 59uardian."o.ukG 14 'ar"h 20087. The opinions on $olish immi(ration and immi(ration in (eneral differ to a (reat de(ree durin( the %hole period of modern era. Dn the one hand+ man# ritish people like $oles sin"e the# are hard%orkin( and undemandin(. Dn the other hand+ there are also man# of them %ho frankl# e&press hostilit# to%ards $oles. 0n 2005+ a house of several $olish immi(rants in *err#+ -orthern 0reland %as atta"ked b# a bomb. The atta"k 3"aused s"or"h dama(e to the outside of the propert#+ but the o""upants mana(ed to (et out unhurt. 6 $oli"e /ervi"e of -orthern 0reland spokesman "onfirmed dete"tives %ere treatin( the in"ident as a ra"ial atta"k 5 reakin(-e%s.ie7. 0n June 2009+ a $olish famil# left their home in Count# T#rone+ -orthern 0reland after a series of atta"ks durin( %hi"h their propert# %as dama(ed 5 C -e%s DnlineG

22 June 20097. 0n addition+ there also arised the number of atta"ks dire"ted on the $olish bar %orkers in /"otland. 0n 2007+ the poli"e servi"e in ,dinbur(h had to deal %ith si(nifi"ant number of those atta"ks. 3'ore than a third of the 900 ra"e hate "rimes in ,dinbur(h took pla"e in the "it# "entre+ and most of those involved >$olish? vi"tims4 5-,:/.s"otsman."om7. 0n addition+ serious ritish ne%spapers su"h as The Guardian or Independent "ontain numerous

31

arti"les %here ritish inhabitants e&press their e&perien"es %ith $oles %orkin( as plumbers+ builders or me"hani"s. 6s Chittenden and T"horek stated in their arti"le in Times Online+ a si(nifi"ant number of $olish %orkers adopted rather pro"rastinative attitude to%ards their %ork and "ontra"tual obli(ations re"entl#+ ever sin"e the first more e&tensive %ave of $oles "ame to ritain several #ears a(oG the# are adoptin( this 3disease4 as ritish themselves "all it 5Times DnlineG 12 /eptember 20077. ,ven thou(h plent# of ritish people speak hi(hl# about "ontemporar# $olish %orkers+ some hi(h ritish e&pe"tations ended in devastated properties and la% suits. 0n addition+ as stated in The Daily Mail 56u(ust 20087+ 3$oles %ere linked to problems in the -1/ and s"hools+ unemplo#ment amon( ritons+ dru( smu((lin(+ rape and so on4 5.td. in 9uardian."o.ukG 11 6u(ust 20087. ,ven thou(h $oles felt and sill feel humiliated b# the number of these statements and e&press their dissatisfa"tion b# sendin( the letters of "omplaint to The Daily Mail 59uardian."o.ukG 14 'ar"h 20087+ the suspi"ion amon( ritish people remained and it has deepened sin"e ritish people started to blame $oles for the defi"ien"# of @obs for ritish people and 3stealin(4 ritish mone# from the "ountr#. 0n 2007+ $oles sent home about Q1+8 billion pounds and help to improve the e"onomi" situation in $oland 5'ail DnlineG 4 Januar# 20087. The# supported and still do support their families and more $oles are able to bu# more produ"ts that %ere "onsidered lu&uries before. 1o%ever+ even thou(h $oles often %ork for re(ular %a(es in %a#s that help to refuel the ritish e"onom# b# bein( a relativel# "heap %orkfor"e+ the# also take 3>m?one# *o%nin( /treet hoped mi(ht be plou(hed into the ritish e"onom#4+ but 3is instead finan"in( a propert# and "onsumer boom in $oland4 5ibid.7. Thanks to su"h finan"ial shots+ the annual rise of the $olish e"onom# %as estimated to be 5+5K in 2008 and $olish mone# earned in ritain helped $oland to pull its e"onom# round and improve the livin( "onditions of thousands of $oles 5ibid.7.

32

Dn the other hand+ even thou(h plent# of people adopted the primar# attitude of suspi"ion or hatred to%ards $oles after 2004+ $olish immi(ration represents a substantial "ontribution to the e"onomi" sphere. /everal fields have stru((led from the la"k of %orkers+ for e&ample the 3lo"al authorities from *evon to /"otland+ all desperatel# short of stuff on their transport net%orks4 5Tele(raph."o.ukG 23 D"tober 20087. 6bout 400 $olish drivers and 20 me"hani"s helped to fill this (ap durin( the last three #ears via individual firms and a(en"ies. $oles also helped to improve an insuffi"ient %orkin( situation in the field of "onstru"tion and helped to enlar(e the mone# suppl# "omin( to ritish e"onom# b# stren(thenin( the buildin( for"e 5ibid.7. Houn( people keep "omin( to the farms and other fa"ilities of this t#pe to help to pi"k and pa"k fruit+ ve(etable and other farmin( produ"ts for a minimal %a(e %hi"h save farmers thousands of pounds and help to refuel ritish a(ri"ulture. 0n addition+ plent# of $olish nurses and do"tors "ame to @oin -ational 1ealth /#stem and help to improve medi"al "are in ritain 5ibid.7. 0n the "ultural sphere+ $olish edu"ational "enters and ne%spapers represent a si(nifi"ant aspe"t that be"ame a part of ritish "ultural life. The $olish "ommunit# has enlar(ed the arra# of its asso"iations established b# first $olish immi(rants+ plent# of them fo"used on the edu"ation of the $olish #oun(er (eneration. There are more than 100 different $olish so"ieties and asso"iations in ritain. 6mon( these institutions %e "an mention $D/; or $olski Dsrodek /pole")no ;ulturaln#+ an institution for establishin( and promotin( $olish "ulture in ritain or the $olish H'C6. 0n addition+ there is The 6sso"iation of $olish /tudents and 9raduates in ritain 5L/6$: 7+ $olish <olk *an"in(+ $olish Choir+ $olish ,"onomi" and usiness 6sso"iation in the B; 5$, 67+ $olish Cultural 0nstitute+ et". $olish "ommunit# in ritain also established the $olish ,du"ational /o"iet# "alled $olska 'a"ier) /)kolna and $olish /aturda# /"hools for edu"atin( $olish immi(rants and "hildren if needed 56TC6/ ! $olishA $olish Communit# in the B;7.

33

0n "ities and to%ns housin( (reater $olish "ommunities su"h as the one in Cei"ester+ the information labels and ins"riptions often "ome alon( in the $olish lan(ua(e. $olish "ulture and "ustoms also penetrated into the restaurants and pubs offerin( $olish spe"ialities in Condon+ 'an"hester+ et". and other to%ns and "ities %here $oles have settled do%n. $olish "ulture also found its fulfillment in numerous ma(a)ines and ne%spapers in"ludin( 9onie" $olski 'a(a)inePThe $olish Times+ $olish ,&press 'a(a)ine+ $olski *)ennik or $olish *ail#+ 8)e")pospolita+ 6n(ora+ :prost+ 9a)eta :#bor")a+ ;ultura+ -0,+ et". 5$olish<orums."om7. There is also the $olish bran"h of pa(e "alled C that is present in ritain sin"e 1939+ %ith its online

C $olska."om emer(in( durin( the 1990s. 0t fun"tions as a "onne"tion bet%een

$olish immi(rants and their homeland %ith "urrent $olish affairs. 0n the so"ial sphere+ one of the benefits of $olish immi(ration ma# be "onsidered the enterin( of $olish #oun( men into the $oli"e /ervi"e of -orthern 0reland 5$/-07. /in"e $rotestant!Catholi" problems still remain in the -orthern 0rish re(ion+ the ritish (overnment tried to maintain balan"e bet%een these t%o reli(ious "amps b# establishin( 50 ! 50 re"ruitment poli"# 5Times DnlineG 12 Janurar# 20087. /in"e there is la"k of Catholi" men interested in enterin( the poli"e servi"e in -orthern 0reland+ $olish interest in bein( re"ruited as poli"e offi"ers helped to solve this problem at least for the near future. The reason is that almost all of the $olish re"ruits are Catholi"s. ,ven thou(h plent# of $oles do not speak ,n(lish on a suffi"ient level or at all+ the a"tin( of $/-0 and the a""eptation of $oles si(nali)es the intention to establish balan"e and avoid another disa(reements bet%een $rotestants and Catholi"s. Criti"s of the 50 ! 50 res"ruitment s#stem+ ho%ever+ used $olish re"ruitment to emphasi)e the absurdit# of this s#stem sin"e the reli(ion should not be the "ondition for a""eptation into poli"e servi"e 5ibid.7. /in"e $oles "ould de"ide %hi"h reli(ion the# %ould re(ister into+ the# %ould also "hose $rotestant reli(ion or non!Catholi" %hi"h means the#

34

%ould be re(istered as $rotestants. Criti"s thus stated that the# mi(ht also lo%er "han"es for $rotestants %ho %anted to enter the poli"e servi"e 5ibid.7. 6""ordin( to Joer( Tittel from the $olish Cultural 0nstitute+ 3$olish "ulture means hard %ork. 6lso+ famil# and personal relationships are ver# important. 0t=s a far less "#ni"al so"iet# than here >in ritain?. :e >$oles? are importin( old!s"hool notions that histor# has proven %ork rather %ell4 5Tele(raph."o.ukG 23 D"tober 20087. 6""ordin( to this statement+ the $olish sense for famil# and solidarit# have brou(ht alon( a(ain the importan"e of respe"tin( personal values and simpli"it# that are (enerall# overlooked b# the so"ieties toda#+ espe"iall# due to the rapid lifest#le of the modern era. /in"e $oland is an old reli(ious "ountr# dra%in( deepl# from its tradition and belief+ it is su((ested that the $olish immi(ration mi(ht brin( 3the (ood old da#s4 ba"k to ritain 5ibid.7. 2.( British Immigration Policy for the 21st !entury 0n relation %ith relativel# e&tensive %aves of immi(ration "omin( to ritain in re"ent #ears 5in"ludin( the $olish immi(ration7+ the "ommon (round of the t%o ma@or ritish politi"al parties+ the Conservative and Cabour parties+ is formed b# the .uestion of handlin( immi(ration in a %a# that %ould primaril# prote"t the ritish interest+ %hi"h a"tuall# means the inevitable "ut or at least partial restri"tion in immi(ration to ritain. 1o%ever+ ea"h politi"al part# %ants to implement this "ut in a different %a#. The Conservative part# %ants to introdu"e a .uota s#stem for the labour appli"ants from ,B and non!,B "ountries 59uardian."o.ukG 1 -ovember 20077. 0t %as dis"ussin( the immi(ration "ut and the annual limits of the immi(ration sin"e publi" servi"es be"ame overe&tended. The (overnment do not %ant the population to (o be#ond 70 million %hi"h %as supposed to happen in 2031 b# offi"ial assumptions 59uardian."o.ukG 3 D"tober 20077. 0n 2007+ *avid Cameron as a leader of the Conservative $art# 3outlined plans to set annual limits on e"onomi" mi(rants from outside the ,uropean Bnion+ a border poli"e for"e %ith po%ers to tra"k do%n and remove ille(al mi(rants

35

and to impose transitional "ontrols on e"onomi" mi(rants from ne% ,B states %orkin( in the B;4 5ibid7. 1e stated that immi(ration has a (reat impa"t on ritish e"onom#+ but has to be "ut do%n sin"e there are in"reasin( demands for housin(+ s"hools and other fa"ilities. 1o%ever+ he did not state the e&a"t number %hi"h the immi(ration should be limited to. The Cabour part# does not share the same stri"t interest and in 2005 it alread# 3ar(ues that >there? "annot >be? set .uotas for either e"onomi" mi(ration or as#lum4 5 C -e%s DnlineG 15+ <ebruar#+ 20057

sin"e the proper offi"ial monitorin( of immi(rants barel# e&ists. -evertheless+ the Cabour part# is also a%are of the fa"t that immi(ration "annot follo% the same path and aims to build a s#stem of immi(ration ade.uate to the 21st "entur#. 0n 2008+ a ne% s#stem "alled the 3points!based s#stem4 5 C -e%s DnlineG 15

<ebruar# 20057 %as introdu"ed into ritish immi(ration pro"edure. 0t is based on the ne"essit# of skills parti"ular person disposes of and to %hat e&tent these skills are demanded. 0n other %ords+ 3the more #our skills are demanded+ the more likel# #ou are to be allo%ed in to %ork4 5ibid.7. oth parties also has stren(thened their efforts to improve health s"reenin( and the prote"tion a(ainst 10I and T infe"tion brou(ht b# immi(ration b# (ivin( the immi(ration offi"ers the po%er to ask the immi(rants to be tested durin( their arrival in ritain 5ibid.7. 0n relation to the .uestion of as#lum+ the main "on"ern is the forestallin( of the abuse of opportunities to ask for as#lum and the prin"ipal effort is to prevent the smu((lin( of people 5 C -e%s DnlineG 15 <ebruar# 20057. The main reason is the re"ent displeasure e&pressed b#

some ritish "iti)ens %ho do not %ant to a""ept the immi(rants sin"e the# are mostl# afraid of the as#lum abuse. /ome of the ritish "iti)ens also e&pe"t that the (overnment should limit the possibilities for settlement for labour immi(rants!in"ludin( $oles!and also prevent their families from "omin( to ritain to live %ith them 5ibid.7.

32

!onclusion ,thni" diversit# in ritain is a result of the substantial immi(ration that %as and still is e&perien"ed b# ritish so"iet#. 6""ordin( to 'ason+ 3the ma@or determinant of the patternin( of mi(ration flo%s in ritain has been the demand for labour4 5'ason 307. ,ven thou(h after the /e"ond :orld :ar there %ere not enou(h possibilities+ people kept "omin( in order to help and subse.uentl# benefit from the risin( ritish e"onom#. 0t is important also to emphasi)e the "on"ern of the ritish (overnment dire"ted to%ards the 3a(itation surroundin( the immi(ration from the -e% Common%ealth4 5ibid.7. ,ven thou(h man# ritish people did not a(ree %ith the levels of immi(ration introdu"ed after the %ar+ the (overnment follo%ed its o%n path of enablin( the immi(rants to enter ritain %ith no parti"ular restri"tions in the be(innin(. *urin( the se"ond half of the 20th "entur#+ ho%ever+ politi"al attitudes started to differ to a (reat e&tent+ espe"iall# bet%een the Conservative and Cabour parties. 8ea"hin( the "ontemporar# %orld e"onomi" situation+ the ritish e"onom# has fallen into re"ession that is "ausin( serious in"onvenien"es su"h as %eakenin( of the ritish pound. This has led man# immi(rants to leave the "ountr#. /in"e the livin( "osts are une&pe"tedl# risin(+ life in ritain has started to be"ome less profitable for labour immi(rants+ in"ludin( the $oles %ho represent one of the most si(nifi"ant %aves of immi(ration "omin( to ritain in re"ent #ears. 0n relation %ith $olish immi(ration+ a""ordin( to the Centre for 0nternational 8elations+ 3half of the estimated one million ritain!based $oles are e&pe"ted to return home4 5Times DnlineG 12 <ebruar# 20087 and statisti"s that do e&ist sho% a hu(e do%n%ard trend in the numbers of ne% $olish immi(rants to > ritish? shores. 0n the se"ond .uarter of the #ear >2008?+ 32+000 ne% %orkers from $oland si(ned up to the 1ome Dffi"e=s re(istration s"heme. Dver the past three months >of the #ear 2008?+ the total de"reased to 25+000 5Tele(raph."o.ukG 23 D"tober 20087.

37

0n addition+ a""ordin( to ;r)#s)tof Trep")#nski %ho is 'inister for ,"onomi" *evelopment at the $olish ,mbass# in Condon+ 3>a?t the end of last #ear >2007? %e sa% the tippin( point4 5ibid.7 of $olish immi(ration influ&. 1e addedA 30tFs a real "han(e. There are no% definitel# more $oles (oin( ba"k to $oland4 5ibid.7. ,ven thou(h there arise doubtful .uestions %hether $oles are reall# leavin( ritain+ (eneral thinkin( more or less in"lines to%ards a de"line of $olish immi(ration that %ill have a pro"eedin( "hara"ter. 0n addition+ 3>t?he $olish (overnment is bein( %arned b# its e"onomi" advisers that up to a third M 400+000 M of ritain=s $olish population4 5ibid.7 "ould return home in 2009. 6""ordin( to 1arr# de Ruetteville+ $oles are not "omin( an# more. The era of "heap "redit is over+ and "heap bathroom and kit"hen installations have had their da#. Cike those transport authorities %ho "ame to rel# on $olish drivers+ %e must all no% learn to do %ithout the vast numbers of immi(rants %hose arrival %e so feared %hen the ,astern ,uropean blo" @oined in 2004 5ibid.7. There is no doubt that immi(ration represents one of the most dis"ussed issues toda#+ espe"iall# in relation %ith the re"ent %orld e"onomi" de"line. 6""ordin( to provided numbers+ the status of the $olish "ommunit# in ritain remains un"ertain %ith more or less a""urate appro&imations about its future role %ithin ritish so"iet#. ,ven thou(h numerous immi(rants had alread# left the "ountr# and returned to their homelands+ immi(rant "ommunities in ritain have lon( histor# and stron( roots there. 0n addition+ ritain has developed into a multi!ethni" so"iet# over a lon( period of time and it is rather improbable that it %ould lose its multi!ethni" "hara"ter or the %hole $olish "ommunit# in the near future.

38

Bi&liogra+hy 31955A Communist /tates /i(n :arsa% $a"t.4 C Dn This *a#. 2008. 23 June 2009.

ShttpAPPne%s.bb"."o.ukPonthisda#PhiPdatesPstoriesPma#P14Pne%sidT3771000P3771025.st mU. 6sthana 6.+ <it)(erald '.. 3'ulti"ultural ritain Confuses $oles.4 9uardian."o.ukPThe Dbserver. 15 6pril 2007. 30 -ovember 2008. ShttpAPP%%%.(uardian."o.ukPso"iet#P2007PaprP15Pas#lum.ra"eintheukU. 3 ritish Citi)enship.4 B; order 6(en"#. 23 June 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.ukba.homeoffi"e.(ov.ukPbritish"iti)enshipPU. rook /.+ 9raham C.. 3B; $oles 6tta"k *ail# 'ail E iasF.4 14 'ar"h 2008. 20 June 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.(uardian."o.ukPmediaP2008PmarP14Pdail#mail.pressandpublishin(U. ulbrin(+ 'aud. 3$ost!%ar 8efu(ees in 9reat ritain.4 Population Studies 8.2 519547A 99!112. J/TD8. 'asar#k B+ rno+ CL. 22 June 2009 ShttpAPP%%%[email protected](U. urrell+ ;ath#. 3:ar+ Cold :ar+ and -e% :orld DrderA $oliti"al oundaries and $olish 0mmi(ration to ritain.4 1istor# in <o"usA 'i(ration. 2002. 12 June 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.histor#.a".ukPihrP<o"usP'i(rationParti"lesPburrell.html,. Carvel+ John. 30mmi(ration in ritain=s i((est /o"ial Chan(e.4 9uardian."o.uk. 25 Januar# 2001. 20 June 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.(uardian."o.ukPso"iet#P2001P@anP25Ppoli"#U. Coren+ 9iles. 3T%o :aves of 0mmi(ration+ $oles 6part.4 Times Dnline. 22 Jul# 2008. 15 June 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.timesonline."o.ukPtolP"ommentP"olumnistsP(ilesT"orenParti"le4399229.e"e ,. 3*efinitionsA 'ulti"ulturalism.4 6ll%ords."om. 1998!2009. 10 June 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.all%ords."omP%ord!multi"ulturalism.html,.

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<ord+ 8obert. 3$o%ell and 6fterA 0mmi(ration+ 8a"e and Iotin( in ritain 1970!1979.4 17 June 2009. ShttpAPP209.85.129.132Psear"hV .W"a"heA" 9l5B2)i1kJA%%%.epop02."omPpapersP,$D$K25202002K2520final K2520version.do"X$o%ellXandXafterAXimmi(rationY"dW1YhlWskY"tW"lnkU. <ord 8.+ /#lvester 8.+ Thompson 6.. 30mmi(ration to be Cut as Bnemplo#ment /oars.4 Times Dnline. 18 D"tober 2008. 2 *e"ember 2008 ShttpAPP%%%.ebs"ohost."omU. 9ress+ *avid. 3'ulti"ulturalism in :orld 1istor#.4 <orei(n $oli"# 8esear"h 0nstitute. /eptember 1999. 30 'ar"h 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.fpri.or(PfootnotesP058.199909.(ress.multi"ulturalismin%orldhistor#.htmlU . 1all+ 6lan. 3$oles :orkin( in ritain /end 1ome 8e"ord Q1.8 billion to Their <amilies.4 'ail Dnline. 4 Januar# 2008. 12 6pril 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.dail#mail."o.ukPne%sParti"le! 502148P$oles!%orkin(! ritain!send!home!re"ord!1!8bn!families.htmlU. Chittenden+ '.+ T"horek+ ;.. 3$oles Cat"h the ritish *isease.4 Times Dnline. 12 /eptember 2007. 17 6pril 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.timesonline."o.ukPtolPne%sPukParti"le2421302.e"eU. 30mmi(rationA $art# $oli"ies.4 C -e%s Dnline. 15 <ebruar# 2005. 15 June 2009.

ShttpAPPne%s.bb"."o.ukP2PhiPukTne%sPpoliti"sP4243027.stmU. 3James 000 and I000.4 The Ja"obite 1erita(e. 5 June 2007. 15 6pril 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.@a"obite."aPkin([email protected]. ;avana(h+ *ennis. Thatcherism and British Politics: The End of Consensus? D&fordA D&ford Bniversit# $ress+ 1990. ;#mli"ka+ :ill. Multicultural Citi enship: a !i"eral Theory of Minority #i$hts% D&fordA Clarendon $ress+ 1995.

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Cerou&+ 'ar"us. 3$oles 1elp Blster $oli"e to 'eet Ruota of Catholi"s.4 Times Dnline. 12 Januar# 2007. 19 *e"ember 2008. ShttpAPP%%%.timesonline."o.ukPtolPne%sPukParti"le1292159.e"eU. 'ar%i"k+ 6rthur. British Society since &'(). CondonA $en(uin ooks+ 1990. 'ason+ *avid. #ace and Ethnicity in Modern Britain. D&fordA D&ford Bniversit# $ress+ 1995. '"Conna"hie+ 6listair. 36 1istor# of 0mmi(ration to ritain.4 /overei(nt#. -ovember 2002. 12 'ar"h 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.soverei(nt#.or(.ukPfeaturesParti"lesPimmi(.htmlU. '"Cullou(h+ Joseph 6llen. 30mmi(ration to ritainA <rom 1u(uenots to the ,uropean Bnion.4 17 -ovember 2008. 19 'a# 2009. ShttpAPPukirishhistor#.suite101."omParti"le."fmPimmi(rationTtoTbritainU. 'odood+ Tari.. Multiculturalism. Cambrid(eA $olit# $ress+ 2007. 'ostrou+ 6.+ /eib+ Ch.. 3Tide Turns as $oles ,nd 9reat 'i(ration.4 Times Dnline. 12 <ebruar# 2008. 12 6pril 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.timesonline."o.ukPtolPne%sPukParti"le3378877.e"eU. 3Dvervie% of B;!$olish 8elations.4 B; in $oland. 2009. 12 6pril 2009. ShttpAPPukinpoland.f"o.(ov.ukPenP%orkin(!%ith! polandPbilateralrelationsPovervie%ofukpolishrelationsU. 3$oles ,s"ape 8a"ist omb 6tta"k in *err#.4 reakin(-e%s.ie. 8 6u(ust 2005. 18 June 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.breakin(ne%s.iePirelandP"%kfo@kfo@o@PU. 3$olish -e%spapers in the B;.4 $olish<orums."om. 4 D"tober 2007. 13 6pril 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.polishforums."omPpolishTne%spapersTuk!31T14223T0.htmlU. Ruetteville+ 1enr# de. 3$olish 0mmi(rants Ceavin( ritainA :hat the $oles *id for Bs.4 Tele(raph."o.uk. 23 D"tober 2008. 18 6pril 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.tele(raph."o.ukPne%sP%orldne%sPeuropePpolandP3248852P$olish! immi(rants!leavin(! ritain!:hat!the!$oles!did!for!us.htmlU.

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8ile#+ :ilma. 38ise in 8a"e Crimes Cinked to 6tta"ks on $oles.4 -,:/.s"otsman."om. 28 June 2007. 17 June 2009. ShttpAPPne%s.s"otsman."omPta"klin(ra"ismins"otlandP8ise!in! ra"e!"rimes!linked.3299508.@pU. /ta"hura+ $eter *.. The Poles in Britain* &'(+,-+++: .rom Betrayal to /ssimilation. CondonA <rank Class+ 2004. Ta#lor+ Charles. Multiculturalism: E0aminin$ the Politics of #eco$nition. -e% Jerse#A $rin"eton Bniversit# $ress+ 1994. 3The 1istor# of 'i(ration to the B;.4 'i(ration :at"h B;. 2009. 20 June 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.mi(ration%at"huk.or(Pbriefin($aperPdo"umentP48U. Trus"ott+ Claire. 31o% Cabour and Conservative 0mmi(ration $oli"ies Compare.4 9uardian."o.uk. 1 -ovember 2007. 15 June 2009.
ShttpAPP%%%.(uardian."o.ukPpoliti"sP2007PnovP01Pimmi(rationpoli"#.immi(ration1U.

3B; 0mmi(ration /tatisti"s for $ast T%o Hears.4 :orkpermit."om. 21 -ovember 2002. 18 6pril 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.%orkpermit."omPne%sP2002T11T21PukP2! #earTimmi(rationTstatisti"s.htmU. 3:ho is a ritish Dverseas Territories Citi)enV4 B; order 6(en"#. 23 June 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.ukba.homeoffi"e.(ov.ukPbritish"iti)enshipPU. :ilb#+ $eter. 36 Tale of $oles and $re@udi"e.4 9uardian."o.uk. 11 6u(ust 2008. 14 6pril 2009.ShttpAPP%%%.(uardian."o.ukPmediaP2008Pau(P11Ppressandpublishin(.ra"eandreli(i onU. :ood%ard+ :ill. 3*avis $romises i( Cut in 0mmi(ration and 6nnual Cimit.4 9uardian."o.uk. 3 D"tober 2007. 14 6pril 2009. ShttpAPP%%%.(uardian."o.ukPpoliti"sP2007Po"tP03Pimmi(rationandpubli"servi"es."onserv ativesU.

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