Become an Excellent Teacher

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Seven Golden Rules for University and College Lecturersby Henry Ellington

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How to Become an Excellent Tertiary-Level Teacher
- Seven Golden Rules for University and College Lecturers
by Henry Ellington
Abstract
This article highlights the changing role of university and college lecturers from teachers
to facilitators of learning, together with the requirement that they wor to increasingly
high standards! "t #resents seven golden rules for becoming an e$cellent tertiary-level
teacher, and offers detailed #ractical guidance on how to #ut these into #ractice! The
seven golden rules are%
&! 'ind out how your students learn(
)! Set a##ro#riate learning targets(
*! Use a##ro#riate teaching/learning methods(
+! Use a##ro#riate assessment methods(
,! Monitor and evaluate your teaching
-! .lways try to imrove your erformance(
/! 0ee# yourself u-to-date!
The Author
!rofessor Henry Ellington is 1ead of the Centre for Learning and .ssessment 2CL.SS3
at The Robert Gordon University, .berdeen, where he has wored since &4--! 1e is a
highly e$#erienced educational and staff develo#er who has #ublished e$tensively in the
field! 1is latest boo - 5'acilitating Student Learning6 2written with Shirley 7arl - see
5References6 section in main article3 deals in de#th with all the to#ics covered in this
article!
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How to Become an Excellent Tertiary-Level Teacher
- Seven Golden Rules for University and College Lecturers
by Henry Ellington
"ntroduction
The role of university and college lecturers is changing! Traditionally, their main role
was to teach, ie, to im#art nowledge to their students via lectures and similar face-to-
face activities! 8ow, it is becoming increasingly widely recognised that their main role is
to hel their students to learn, something that requires a fairly radical change in how
they wor! They are also having to co#e with all the various technological
develoments that are currently having such an im#act on tertiary education, and may
eventually change it beyond recognition!
"n addition, tertiary-level teachers are now e$#ected to wor# to much higher standards
than was the case in the #ast - standards that seem certain to be increasingly strongly
5#oliced6 by the $uality Assurance Agency 29..3 and the "nstitute for Learning and
Teaching 2"LT3 in the case of 1igher 7ducation! "ndeed, with the latter now becoming
fully o#erational, it seems liely that holding an "LT-recognised teaching qualification
will ra#idly become the norm for university and college lecturers - and may eventually
become mandatory!
Since &4:4, the author and his colleagues have been running a highly-successful
;ostgraduate Certificate Course in Tertiary-Level Teaching for the academic staff of their
own institution - .berdeen6s Robert Gordon University 27llington &44<, &44-, &444a3!
This covers all the main as#ects of tertiary-level teaching in some detail, but the essence
of the course can be enca#sulated in a com#aratively few basic #rinci#les - the seven
golden rules that are #resented in this article! Let us now see what these involve!
%olden &ule ' ( )ind out how your students learn
=es#ite the vast amount of research that has been carried out by educational
#sychologists, we still now com#aratively little about the nature of the learning #rocess!
>e have, however, learned a great deal about how students aroach learning, and it
has also become clear that different students learn in different ways 2Cotton, &44,a, b(
7ntwistle, &44-( 'ry et.al., &444a3!
Some, for e$am#le, #refer to tacle a given learning tas by starting at the beginning and
woring systematically through the material one section at a time( others #refer to wor
in a more holistic way, treating the material as a com#lete, integrated system rather than a
collection of se#arate #arts 2;as, &4/-3! Clearly, both a##roaches have their
)
a##lications, and students should be encouraged to cultivate both styles, choosing the
a##roach that is most suitable for any given situation! >hen e$amining a s#ecific area in
great de#th, for e$am#le, a serialist a##roach is #robably best( when studying a to#ic in
its overall conte$t, on the other hand, a holistic a##roach would #robably be more
effective 2Cotton, &44,a3!
.nother im#ortant distinction is that between surface learners 2who sim#ly 5scra#e the
surface6 of the material being studied without carrying out any dee# #rocessing3 and dee
learners 2who mae a serious attem#t to turn other #eo#le6s ideas into their own
#ersonalised structure of nowledge3 2?iggs, &4:/3! Clearly, all good teachers should try
to give their students the o##ortunity to become dee# rather than surface learners, one of
the most effective strategies for achieving this being to get them actively involved in the
learning rocess! Some of the methods by which this can be done will be discussed later
in this article!
"n recent years, it has become recognised that some students deliberately ado#t a third,
radically different a##roach to study in order to achieve the highest #ossible mars or
grades with the minimum of effort 2?iggs, &4:/( 7ntwistle, &44-3! Such students vary
their a##roach according to the circumstances, ado#ting a surface a##roach if they feel
that this is all that is needed to meet their goals, and only em#loying a dee# a##roach if
they feel that the resultant e$tra wor will be worth the effort! Those res#onsible for the
design and o#eration of tertiary-level courses should be aware that more and more
students are now 5#laying the system6 in this way! "f taen to e$tremes, this can result in
such strategic learners finishing u# with awards that they do not really merit on the basis
of their intrinsic ability or effort! @ne way round the #roblem is to ensure that assessment
methods are #ro#erly matched to learning outcomes, and that all ey learning outcomes
are #ro#erly assessed in some way! ;rovided that this is done, the strategic a##roach can
be turned into a very real aid to effective learning!
"t is also now generally recognised that adults tend to learn in totally different ways from
children, being much more inde#endent and autonomous in their a##roach to study,
#referring to learn from their own e$#erience rather than being taught, #referring tas- or
#roblem-centred a##roaches to learning, and being strongly influenced by internal rather
than e$ternal motivators 20nowles, &44<3! .s students #rogress through a tertiary-level
course, they should be treated more and more lie adults in terms of the learning
o##ortunities #rovided! ;roblems tend to arise when there is a clear mismatch between
the #revailing learning model and the model that learners e$#ect - as, for e$am#le, when
mature learners feel that they are being treated lie children! Good teachers should try to
ensure that such mismatches do not ha##en!
@ther im#ortant distinctions are those between activists and theorists, and between
ragmatists and reflectors! 1oney and Aumford 2&44)3 have devised a highly
so#histicated self-#erce#tion inventory to hel# #eo#le to find out their #referred learning
style 2or styles3 under this classification, and this has #roved e$tremely useful both to
students and to their teachers! . good teacher should again recognise the e$istence of the
four 1oney and Aumford learning styles, try to cater for all styles when #lanning their
teachingBlearning #rogrammes, and try to hel# their students to ado#t different learning
*
styles in different ty#es of situation! The obCect should be to #roduce mature learners
with balanced and fle$ible learning #rofiles by the time they finish their courses!
"f you want to become an e$cellent teacher, find out about these different a##roaches to
learning - and try to find out how your students #refer to learn! Dou will then have a
much better chance of meeting their needs! The &44- boolet on 51ow Students Learn6
by 7llington and 7arl 2see 5References63 #rovides a basic introduction to the to#ic, with
the boos by ?iggs 2&4:/3, Gibbs 2&44+3 and Cotton 2&44,a, b3 #roviding more detailed
treatment 2again, see 5References63!
%olden &ule * ( +et aroriate learning targets
"t is now generally agreed that the ey starting #oint of any successful teachingBlearning
#rogramme is to set aroriate learning targets for the students!
>hen formulating student learning targets, it is #ossible to ado#t two significantly
different a##roaches! The first is to ado#t the a##roach that has traditionally been used to
s#ecify the outcomes of student learning, namely, in terms of general aims and more
detailed associated ob,ectives - often couched in behavioural terms, when they are
sometimes described as learning outcomes- This is the method that is still used in most
degree-level courses in ?ritain 2;ercival et.al., &44*3! The second is to ado#t the
cometence-based aroach that has come into vogue since the late &4:<6s! This is the
a##roach that is now used in virtually all sub-degree-level and vocational courses in
?ritain 27llington, &44,( 8oble, &4443!
"n order to be effective, student learning targets should clearly be relevant to the overall
aims of the course or #rogramme to which they relate, and should also cover all the
essential nowledge and sills that students are e$#ected to acquire! "n #articular, they
should cover all the various rocess s#ills that are so im#ortant for success in later life -
decision-maing sills, #roblem-solving sills, communication sills, inter#ersonal sills,
"T sills and the lie 28oble, &444( Race, &4443! "f you agree with ?!'! Sinner that true
education is what remains after the facts are forgotten, the develo#ment of such sills
becomes doubly im#ortant! Certainly, many em#loyers now regard their develo#ment as
the most im#ortant as#ect of the educational system 27llington, &44,3!
The targets that you set your students should also become #rogressively more
demanding as they #rogress through their course, while, at the same time, remaining
realistic and achievable! Useful guidelines on how to do this have recently been
develo#ed by the 9.. 2179C, &44-3, and some colleges and universities are #roducing
their own systems for hel#ing staff to write their learning outcomes at the a##ro#riate
level! The author recently #roduced such a system for use in his own university, in
connection with its Common Course .rchitectureBCourse Aodularisation #rogramme
27llington, &444b3! This consists of a suite of generic level learning outcome temlates
that show staff how to write a##ro#riate learning outcomes at all four stages of the
Scottish honours degree and also at #ostgraduate 2masters3 level! They cover the four sill
+
areas s#ecified in the recent =earing Re#ort 28C"17, &44/3 - #nowledge and
understanding. #ey /transferable rocess0 s#ills. /higher0 cognitive s#ills and
sub,ect-secific s#ills! .s a result of using the tem#lates, staff have been able to match
the learning outcomes of s#ecific course units to the stages of the course at which the
units are taught much more effectively than in the #ast! .ll good lecturers should try to
do liewise!
"t is also im#ortant that lecturers should let their students #now what is exected of
them, #referably before they embar on the course, course unit or activity to which the
targets relate 2Race, &4443! Students have a right to now their learning targets, and, by
#roviding them with this information in as much detail as #ossible, you can mae a very
significant contribution to ensuring that the learning targets are in fact achieved! This is
#articularly im#ortant in the case of com#etence-based courses, where students have to
demonstrate their com#etence by meeting the requirements of s#ecified #erformance
indicators 2;ercival, et.al., &44*3!
Setting clearly-defined student learning targets is also of considerable hel# to the staff
who have to teach a course or course unit! 'irst, they hel# to define the general
direction of the course or curriculum and indicate the sort of material that should be
covered! Then, they give some guidance as to what teaching/learning methods should
be em#loyed 2see %olden &ule 13! 'inally, they are of considerable assistance in
#lanning assessment rocedures 2see %olden &ule 23!
"f you want to become an e$cellent teacher, mae yourself thoroughly familiar with the
basic #rinci#les of #roducing clear, effective student learning targets - in whatever form
they are required to be written in the courses you have to teach! The boolet on
5S#ecifying the @utcomes of Student Learning6 by 7llington and 7arl 2&44-b3 #rovides a
fairly com#rehensive introduction to the associated theory, as well as detailed guidelines
on how to #ut the theory into #ractice! Aore detailed treatment can be found in Aager,
&4-) 2still well worth reading3 and >aler, &44+!
%olden &ule 1 ( 3se aroriate teaching/learning methods
@nce you have established your student learning targets, thought should be given as to
what #articular mi$ of teaching/learning methods would be most suitable for hel#ing
your students to achieve these various outcomes! 8ote that a good teacher will always
choose their teachingBlearning methods to match their learning targets - not, as is so often
the case, the other way roundE 2;ercival, et.al., &44*3!
>hen doing so, remember that different teachingBlearning methods are best suited to
achieving different ty#es of learning outcomes! The lecture, for e$am#le, is most suitable
for #resenting basic facts and #rinci#les - and not really suitable for hel#ing students to
develo# high-order cognitive sills such as analysis, evaluation or #roblem-solving, or
communication and inter#ersonal sills 2Race and ?rown, &44:( 1organ, &4443! To
,
develo# such sills effectively, you will need to use more active teachingBlearning
methods such as #roCects, case-studies and role-#lays!
.s can be seen in any basic te$t on the subCect, many different ty#es of teachingBlearning
methods are available to the modern university or college lecturer! "t is, however,
#ossible to divide these into three broad grou#s, based on the e$tremely useful
classification first suggested by Lewis 7lton 27lton, &4/:3!
The first of these grou#s contains mass-instruction methods such as conventional
lectures and other forms of taught lesson, film and video #resentations, and educational
broadcasts! 1ere, the teacher o#erates in the traditional e$#ository role, deciding what
material will be covered, in what way, at what #ace, in what de#th, and so on! The
students, on the other hand, are largely #assive, being virtually totally de#endent on what
they get from the teacher! 'or this reason, 7lton describes mass instruction as the
deendent mode of teachingBlearning! .s we have seen, mass-instruction methods are
best suited to achieving student targets that fall in the lower #art of ?loom6s cognitive
domain, ie, covering the basic facts and #rinci#les of a subCect! >hen used by a silled
teacher, they can be e$tremely effective in achieving such outcomes!
The second of 7lton6s three grou#s contains individualised-learning methods such as
directed study of te$tboos and similar #rinted materials, o#en-learning methods of all
ty#es, all the different forms of com#uter-based learning, multimedia and >eb-based
learning, and student e$ercises and activities such as assignments and #roCects! >hen
using such methods with their students, the teacher has to ste# bac from the traditional
e$#ository role, acting instead as a #roducerBmanager of learning resources and as a tutor
and guide to the students, #roviding su##ort and hel# as and when required! The students
themselves are largely res#onsible for their own learning, controlling their own #ace of
learning, de#th of study, etc! 'or this reason, 7lton describes individualised learning as
the indeendent mode of teachingBlearning! "ndividualised-learning methods can be
used to achieve a much wider range of student learning outcomes than mass-instruction
methods, covering the whole of the cognitive domain as well as many useful #rocess
sills!
The third of 7lton6s three grou#s contains grou-learning methods such as buFF sessions
and similar small-grou# activities, class discussions, seminars and grou# tutorials,
interactive e$ercises of the gameBsimulationBcase-study ty#e, and grou# #roCects! >hen
using such methods, the teacher has again to ste# bac from the traditional e$#ository
role, acting sim#ly as an organiser of the grou# activity and a facilitator of the student
learning e$#erience! The students themselves are largely res#onsible for their own
learning, but are also strongly de#endent on one another for the quality and de#th of the
resulting learning e$#erience! 'or this reason, 7lton describes grou# learning as the
inter-deendent mode of teachingBlearning! Aodern grou#-learning methods have their
foundations in the humanistic sychology that was develo#ed by #eo#le such as Carl
Rogers during the &4-<6s - a totally different ty#e of #sychology from the highly
mechanistic behavioural sychology which formed the basis of the earlier #rogrammed
learning movement 2;ercival et al, &44*3! They are ca#able of achieving student learning
-
outcomes of all ty#es, being #articularly well suited to develo#ing higher-cognitive,
affective, inter#ersonal and communication sills!
"f you want to become an e$cellent teacher, you should mae yourself thoroughly
familiar with the full range of teachingBlearning methods that are currently available, and
try to choose the most a##ro#riate method 2or mi$ of methods3 for achieving any given
set of student learning outcomes! The &44- boolet on 5Selecting .##ro#riate
TeachingBLearning Aethods6 by 7llington and 7arl 2see 5References63 is a good starting
#oint! =etailed guidance on how to mae effective use of the various methods can be
found in any of the standard te$ts on the subCect( 5The Lecturer6s Toolit6 2Race and
?rown, &44:3, 5'acilitating Student Learning6 27llington and 7arl, &4443 and 5.
1andboo for Teaching and Learning in 1igher 7ducation 2'ry et.al., &444b3 are three
recent boos that readers should find useful!
%olden &ule 2 ( 3se aroriate assessment methods
"t is now becoming increasingly widely acce#ted that assessing their erformance is the
most im#ortant thing that teachers do for their students, es#ecially at tertiary level!
Students can, after all, miss lectures and other scheduled classes and still #ass their course
- but they cannot o#t out of the assessment #rocess 2?rown and 0night, &44+3!
Thus, it is im#ortant that tertiary-level teachers should carry out this assessment
#rofessionally and effectively, and should also try to mae it as useful to the students as
#ossible 2Race and ?rown, &44:3! Good assessment should be a ey #art of the learning
#rocess( indeed, assessment methods and teaching methods are now very often the same
thing 2essays, assignments and #roCects, for e$am#le3!
"deally, all student assessment should have the following five characteristics 2;ercival
et.al., &44*3! 'irst, it should be valid, ie, should actually assess what it sets out to assess,
not something com#letely different 2lie s#eed of writing in traditional essay-based
e$aminations, for e$am#le3! "t should also be reliable, #roducing the same results under
different but com#arable conditions, or when the same #iece of wor is assessed by
different marers( some assessment methods, such as essays, can have severe reliability
#roblems unless suitable measures are taen to standardise maring! .ssessment
#rocedures should also be reasonably racticable in terms of their cost, time taen and
ease of a##lication( this sometimes necessitates a trade-off against other desirable
characteristics such as validity, eg, in the assessment of #ractical wor! 8e$t, assessment
should be fair to all students, and should not mae une$#ected or unreasonable demands
of them - something that is #articularly im#ortant in these days of student charters and the
increasing tendency of students to demand 5value for money6! 'inally, as we have
already seen, students should find their assessment useful, both by hel#ing to facilitate
the learning #rocess and by #roviding them with feedbac on how they are #rogressing!
>hen #lanning student assessment, you should begin by asing yourself a number of
basic questions regarding the mode of assessment, eg%
/
• 4hy is the assessment being carried outG "s it formative assessment, designed
#rimarily to #rovide feedbac on #rogressG @r is it summative assessment, designed
to establish or measure what the learner has achieved, determine mars or grades, or
#rovide a gateway to further #rogressionG
• 4ho is to carry out the assessmentG "s it to be carried out by an external body of
some sort, or are the course tutors to be res#onsible for #lanning and administering
itG "f the latter, could there be some advantage in involving the students themselves
in the #rocess, via eer assessment or self-assessmentG 2?oth modes are becoming
increasingly widely used in tertiary education!3
• "s the assessment to be norm-referenced 2in which the relative #erformances of
students are directly com#ared3, or criterion-referenced 2in which the #erformance
of students is assessed against #re-determined criteria, without regard to their
#erformance relative to one another3G "ncreasingly, the latter form of assessment is
becoming standard in tertiary education - es#ecially in com#etence-based courses!
• "s the assessment to be continuous 2carried out on an on-going basis as students wor
their way through the course or course unit3 or terminal 2carried out once the
#rogramme of study has been com#leted3G Aost courses now incor#orate at least an
element of the former, since it reduces 5e$amination #ressure6 on students and
#rovides useful feedbac on #rogress!
Dou should also give some thought to the method 2or methods3 by which the assessment
is to be carried out! =ifferent assessment methods are best suited to assessing different
ty#es of student learning outcomes, so you should try to match the two as effectively as
#ossible! >hen assessing nowledge and understanding of the basic facts and #rinci#les
of a subCect, for e$am#le, the best methods are #robably ob,ective tests or short-answer
tests of some sort! >hen assessing higher-level cognitive sills such as analysis,
evaluation or #roblem-solving, on the other hand, tests based on extended-answer
5uestions or continuous-assessment based on essays. assignments or ro,ects are
#robably more suitable! 'or other ty#es of sills, ractical tests. situational assessment
or ortfolio-based assessment might be the best way to #roceed!
"f you wish to become an e$cellent tertiary-level teacher, mae yourself thoroughly
familiar with the full range of student assessment methods that are currently available,
and try to choose the most a##ro#riate assessment strategy in any given situation! The
&44- boolet on 5.ssessing Student ;erformance6 by 7llington and 7arl 2see
5References63 could serve as a useful starting #oint here, with more detailed guidance on
the #lanning and im#lementation of student assessment being available in any of the
standard te$ts on the subCect - eg, 5.ssessing Learners in 1igher 7ducation 2?rown and
0night, &44+3 or 5;lanning and "m#lementing .ssessment6 2'reeman and Lewis, &44:3!
:
%olden &ule 6 ( Monitor and evaluate your teaching
"f you want to be an e$cellent teacher, you should constantly monitor and evaluate your
own #erformance! @nly by doing this can you tell whether you are being really effective!
Dou can do so in three basic ways%
&! ?y reflecting deely and critically on your own #erformance as a facilitator of
student learning, eg by maintaining a reflective log on all the teaching that you carry
out!
)! Through feedbac# from your students, eg via informal discussions, class
questionnaires and the results of student assessment 2the last of these generally gives
a very clear indication of whether you are being effective or not3!
*! Through feedbac# from your colleagues, eg, by asing someone whose o#inion you
value to sit in on one of your classes and #rovide you with constructive critical
feedbac on how you did!
=uring the early &44<6s, the author6s own university develo#ed a com#rehensive scheme
designed to hel# staff carry out such monitoring and evaluation of their #erformance as
teachers 27llington and Ross, &44/3! This was built into the university6s staff
develo#ment and career review scheme, where it was used to hel# inform the #lanning of
lecturers6 #ersonal develo#ment #rogrammes! "t also hel#ed the university to #rovide
tangible evidence of the quality of its teaching, something that was of considerable
benefit during quality assessment visits!
Try all of these various techniques( e$#erience shows that they wor! ?asic guidance on
how to do so can be found in the &44/ boolet on 5=evelo#ing a ;ersonal =evelo#ment
;rogramme6 written by the author and Shirley 7arl 2see 5References63, while more
detailed guidance can be found in the boo on 5.ssessing Dour @wn Teaching 9uality6
written by Sally ?rown and ;hil Race in &44, 2again, see 5References63! The &444
51andboo for Teaching and Learning in 1igher 7ducation 2'ry et.al., &444b3 also
contains a number of e$tremely useful cha#ters dealing with #ersonal monitoring and
evaluation!
%olden &ule 7 ( Always try to imrove your erformance
7$cellent teachers are never satisfied with their #erformance( they are always striving to
do even better!
@ne #ractical way of doing this is to ado#t a detailed set of standards to which you wish
to as#ire - eg, those #roduced by the Universities6 and Colleges6 Staff =evelo#ment
.gency 2UCoS=., &44+a3 or by the Staff and 7ducational =evelo#ment .ssociation
4
2S7=., &44,3! Dou can then measure your #erformance against these standards on an
on-going basis - by, for e$am#le, giving yourself a mar out of &< for each, or rating
yourself using a suitable scale!
.nother thing that all e$cellent teachers do is reflect critically on every teaching session
that they conduct with a view to thining of s#ecific ways in which it might have been
im#roved - and thus can be im#roved ne$t time round! @ne way of doing this is to
maintain a #ersonal reflective log of the ty#e discussed in the #revious section!
The teaching evaluation scheme develo#ed in The Robert Gordon University made use of
both these techniques 27llington and Ross, &44/3! "t incor#orated a set of standards,
s#ecifying detailed criteria for effective #erformance as a tertiary-level teacher! Staff
made use of a four-#oint scale to rate their #erformance against each of these, being
required to cite su##orting evidence of some sort if they rated themselves on the 5high6
half of the scale! "f they rated themselves on the 5low6 half, no evidence was required,
since mere recognition of the fact - and of the im#licit need for im#roved #erformance -
was regarded as sufficient!
Guidance on how to set about im#roving your #erformance as a tertiary-level teacher in a
systematic and effective way can again be found in the boolet on 5=evelo#ing a ;ersonal
=evelo#ment ;rogramme6 27llington and 7arl, &44/3 and in 5. 1andboo for Teaching
and Learning in 1igher 7ducation6 2'ry et.al., &444b3!
%olden &ule 8 ( 9ee yourself u-to-date
The author6s seventh and final #iece of advice to as#iring e$cellent teachers is to try to
#ee abreast of the latest develoments - and to #ut these into #ractice in your own
teaching wherever #ossible!
The ey to this #rocess is a commitment to continuing rofessional develoment 2C;=3
- reading boos and articles, attending conferences and seminars, and generally ta#ing an
interest in what is ha##ening to your #rofession 2being a regular reader of this Cournal is
a good starting #ointE3
8eedless to say, it is absolutely vital to ee# u# to date with the latest develo#ments in C
H "T if you want to be an e$cellent teacher! 8ew delivery systems such as multimedia
and the "nternet are currently revolutionising tertiary education! Use these to your
advantage( if you do not, you will soon be left behind by those who doE
Guidance on how to #lan and im#lement your own C;= #rogramme can again be found
in the boolet on 5=evelo#ing a ;ersonal =evelo#ment ;rogramme6 27llington and 7arl,
&44/3! The Green ;a#er on C;= #roduced by the Universities6 and Colleges Staff
=evelo#ment .gency 2UCoS=., &44+b3 also #rovides very hel#ful advice, and does the
cha#ter on 5Continuing ;rofessional =evelo#ment6 in 5. 1andboo for Teaching and
Learning in 1igher 7ducation6 2;artington, &4443!
&<
Ac#nowledgement
This article is a greatly e$tended version of an invited feature article written for the
5Times 1igher 7ducational Su##lement6, #ublished on .#ril *<
th
, &444 under the title
51ow to teach with e$cellence6! The coo#eration of T17S in #ermitting the #ublication
of the #resent article is gratefully acnowledged!
&eferences
?iggs, I! 2&4:/3! Student Approaches to Learning and Studying( .ustralian Council for
7ducational Research, Jictoria!
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