Bible Book
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Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία, tà biblía, "the books") is a canonical collection of texts considered sacred in Judaism or Christianity. Different religious groups include different books within their canons, in different orders, and sometimes divide or combine books, or incorporate additional material into canonical books. Christian Bibles range from the sixty-six books of the Protestant canon to the eighty-one books of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church canon.
The Gutenberg Bible, the first printed Bible
The Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, contains twenty-four books divided into three parts; the five books of the Torah ("teaching" or "law"), the Nevi'im ("prophets"), and the Ketuvim ("writings"). The first part of Christian Bibles is the Old Testament, which contains, at minimum, the twenty-four books of the Hebrew Bible divided into thirty-nine books and ordered differently than the Hebrew Bible. The Catholic Church and Eastern Christian churches also hold certain deuterocanonical books and passages to be part of the Old Testament canon. The second part is the New Testament, containing twenty-seven books; the four Canonical gospels, Acts of the Apostles, twenty-one Epistles or letters and the Book of Revelation. By the 2nd century BCE Jewish groups had called the Bible books "holy," and Christians now commonly call the Old and New Testaments of the Christian Bible "The Holy Bible" (τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια, tà biblía tà ágia) or "Holy Scriptures" (Αγία Γραφή, Agía Graphḗ ). ). Many Christians consider the whole canonical text of the Bible to be divinely inspired. The oldest surviving complete Christian Bibles are Greek manuscripts from the 4th century. The oldest Tanakh manuscript in Hebrew and Aramaic dates to the 10th century CE, [1] but an early 4rth-century Septuagint translation is found in the Codex Vaticanus. The Bible was divided into chapters in the 13th century by Stephen Langton and into verses in the 16th century by French printer Robert Estienne[2] and is now usually cited by book, chapter, and verse. The Bible has estimated annual sales of 25 million copies, [3][4] and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West where it was the first mass printed book.
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Etymology The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the same word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin and ultimately from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία ta biblia "the books" (singular βιβλίον biblion).[5] Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra "holy book", while biblia in Greek and Late Latin is neuter plural (gen. bibliorum). It gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun (biblia, gen. bibliae) in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. [6] Latin biblia sacra "holy books" translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, "the holy books".[7] The word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of "paper" or "scroll" and came to be used as the ordinary word for "book". It is the diminutive of βύβλος bublos, "Egyptian papyrus", possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port An American family Bible dating to Byblos (also known as Gebal) from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to 1859. Greece. The Greek ta biblia (lit. "little papyrus books")[8] was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books (the Septuagint). [9][10] Christian use of the term can be traced to ca. 223 CE.[5] The biblical scholar F.F. Bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer (in his Homilies on Matthew, delivered between 386 and 388) to use the Greek phrase ta biblia ("the books") to describe both the Old and New Testaments together.[11]
Hebrew Bible The Masoretic Text is the authoritative Hebrew text of the Hebrew Bible. While the Masoretic Text defines the books of the Jewish canon, it also defines the precise letter-text of these biblical books, with their vocalization and accentuation. The oldest extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century CE,[12] and the Aleppo Codex (once the oldest complete copy of the Masoretic Text, but now missing its Torah section) dates from the 10th century. Tanakh (Hebrew: " ) תreflects the threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures, Torah ("Teaching"), Nevi'im ("Prophets") and Ketuvim ("Writings"). Torah The Torah ( )תורהis also known as the "Five Books of Moses" or the Pentateuch, meaning "five scroll-cases".[13] The Hebrew names of the books are derived from the first words in the respective texts. The Torah comprises the following five books: • Genesis, Bereshith ()בראשית • Exodus, Shemot ()שמות • Leviticus, Vayikra ()ויקרא • Numbers, Bamidbar ()במדבר • Deut Deuteero rono nom my, Devarim ()דברים
The Nash Papyrus (2nd century BCE) contains a portion of a pre-Masoretic Text, specifically the Ten Commandments and the Shema Yisrael prayer.
Bible The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the creation (or ordering) of the world and the history of God's early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (also called Israel) and Jacob's children, the "Children of Israel", especially Joseph. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of Moses, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. He leads the Children of Israel from slavery in Ancient Egypt to the renewal of their covenant with God at Mount Sinai and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation was ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.[14] The Torah contains the commandments of God, revealed at Mount Sinai (although there is some debate among traditional scholars as to whether these were all written down at one time, or over a period of time during the 40 years of the wanderings in the desert, while several modern Jewish movements reject the idea of a literal revelation, and critical scholars believe that many of these laws developed later in Jewish history).[15][16][17][18] These commandments provide the basis for Jewish religious law. Tradition states that there are 613 commandments (taryag mitzvot ). ). Nevi'im Nevi'im (Hebrew: ביאים N ə ḇî'îm, "Prophets") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and Ketuvim. It contains two sub-groups, the Former Prophets ( Nevi'im Nevi'im Rishonim ים ראשו ביאים, the narrative books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) and the Latter Prophets ( Nevi'im Aharonim ים אחרו ביאים, the books of Isaiah,
Jeremiah and Ezekiel and the Twelve Minor Prophets). The Nevi'im tell the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy and its division into two kingdoms, ancient Israel and Judah, focusing on conflicts between the Israelites and other nations, and conflicts among Israelites, specifically, struggles between believers in "the L ORD God"[19] and believers in foreign gods, [20][21] and the criticism of unethical and unjust behavior of Israelite elites and rulers; [22][23][24] in which prophets played a crucial and leading role. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians followed by the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Former Prophets
The Former Prophets are the books Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. They contain narratives that begin immediately after the death of Moses with the divine appointment of Joshua as his successor, who then leads the people of Israel into the Promised Land, and end with the release from imprisonment of the last king of Judah. Treating Samuel and Kings as single books, they cover: • Joshua’s conquest of the land of Canaan (in the Book of Joshua), • the stru struggle ggle of tthe he peop people le to pos possess sess tthe he land ((in in the Bo Book ok of Jud Judges), ges), • the peop people's le's req request uest to Go Godd to give them a kking ing so that th they ey can occ occupy upy the la land nd in the face ooff their enem enemies ies (in the books of 1st & 2nd Samuel) • the posse possession ssion of the lan landd under the divin divinely ely appoi appointed nted king kingss of the House of David David,, ending in conqu conquest est and foreign exile (1st and 2nd Kings)
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Joshua
The Book of Joshua (Yehoshua )יהושעcontains a history of the Israelites from the death of Moses to that of Joshua. After Moses' death, Joshua, by virtue of his previous appointment as Moses' successor, receives from God the command to cross the Jordan River. The book consists of three parts: • the hi histo story ry of th thee con conque quest st of th thee lan landd (1-1 (1-12). 2). • allotm allotment ent of the land to the diffe different rent tribe tribes, s, with the appo appointme intment nt of cities of refug refuge, e, the provis provision ion for the Levit Levites es (13-22), and the dismissal of the eastern tribes to their homes. • the fare farewell well ad address dresses es of Jos Joshua, hua, wi with th an acc account ount of hhis is deat deathh (23, 24 24). ). Judges
The Book of Judges (Shoftim )שופטיםconsists of three distinct parts: • the intr introducti oduction on (1:1 (1:1-3:10 -3:10 an andd 3:12) ggiving iving a ssumma ummary ry of the bo book ok of Jos Joshua hua • the main tex textt (3:11-16 (3:11-16:31), :31), dis discussi cussing ng the five Grea Greatt Judges Judges,, Abimel Abimelech, ech, and prov providing iding glo glosses sses for a few min minor or Judges • appen appendices dices (17 (17:1-21: :1-21:25), 25), givin givingg two storie storiess set in the time of the Judge Judges, s, but not discu discussing ssing the Ju Judges dges themselves. Samuel
The Books of Samuel (Shmu'el )שמואלconsists of five parts: • • • • •
the period of God God's 's rejec rejection tion of Eli, Sam Samuel's uel's bir birth, th, and subs subsequen equentt judgme judgment nt (1 Samuel 1:1 1:1-7:17) -7:17) the lif lifee of Sau Saull prior to me meeting eting D David avid (1 Samu Samuel el 8:18:1-15:35) 15:35) Saul's intera interaction ction with D David avid (1 Samue Samuell 16:116:1-22 Samu Samuel el 1:2 1:27) 7) David's reig reignn and th thee rebe rebellion llionss he suffers suffers (2 Sam Samuel uel 2:1 2:1-20:2 -20:22) 2) an append appendix ix of materi material al conce concerning rning Davi Davidd in no particula particularr order, and out of sequ sequence ence with th thee rest of the text (2 Samuel 22:1-24:25)
A conclusion of sorts appears at 1 Kings 1-2, concerning Solomon enacting a final revenge on those who did what David perceived as wrongdoing, and having a similar narrative style. While the subject matter in the Book(s) of Samuel is also covered by the narrative in Chronicles, it is noticeable that the section (2 Sam. 11:2-12:29) containing an account of the matter of Bathsheba is omitted in the corresponding passage in 1 Chr. 20. Kings
The Books of Kings ( Melakhim )מלכיםcontains accounts of the kings of the ancient Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah, and the annals of the Jewish commonwealth from the accession of Solomon until the subjugation of the kingdom by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians. Latter Prophets
The Latter Prophets are divided into two groups, the "major" prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and the twelve minor prophets, collected into a single book. Isaiah
The 66 chapters of Isaiah (Yeshayahu [ )]ישעיהוconsist primarily of prophecies of the judgments awaiting nations that are persecuting Judah. These nations include Babylon, Assyria, Philistia, Moab, Syria, Israel (the northern kingdom), Ethiopia, Egypt, Arabia, and Phoenicia. The prophecies concerning them can be summarized as saying that Yahweh is the God of the whole earth, and that nations which think of themselves as secure in their own power might well be conquered by other nations, at God's command.
Bible Chapter 6 describes Isaiah's call to be a prophet of God. Chapters 35-39 provide material about King Hezekiah. Chapters 24-34, while too complex to characterize easily, are primarily concerned with prophecies of a messiah, a person anointed or given power by God, and of the messiah's kingdom, where justice and righteousness will reign. This section is seen by Jews as describing an king, a descendant of their great king, David, who will make Judah a great kingdom and Jerusalem a truly holy city. The prophecy continues continues with with what can be characterized as a "book of comfort"[25] which begins in chapter chapter 40 and completes the writing. writing. In the fir first st eig eight ht chapters of this this bo book ok of com comfor fort,t, Isaia Isaiahh prophes rophesies ies the de deliv liverance erance of the Jews from the hands of the Babylonians and restoration of Israel as a unified nnation ation in the land pprom romised ised to the them m by God. Isaiah reaffirms that th thee Jews are ind indeed eed the the cchosen hosen peop people le of God in cchhapter 44 aand nd tha thatt Yahw Yahweh eh iiss the only God for the Jews as he will will sshow how his power over the gods of Babylon in due time in chapter 46. In chapter 45:1 the Persian ruler Cyrus is named as the messiah who will overthrow the Babylonians Babyl onians and allow tthe he return of Israel to their original land. The remaining chapters of the book contai containn prophecies of th thee future glory of Zion under the rule of a righteous servant (52 & 54). Chapter 53 contains a poetic prophecy about this servant which is generally considered by Christians to refer to Jesus, although Jews generally interpret it as a reference to God's people. Although there is still the mention of judgment of false worshippers and idolaters (65 & 66), the book ends with a message of hope of a righteous ruler who extends salvation to his righteous subjects living in the Lord's kingdom on earth. Jeremiah
The Book of Jeremiah (Yirmiyahu [ )]ירמיהוcan be divided into twenty-three subsections, and its contents organized into five sub-sections: • the the iint ntro rodu duct ctio ion, n, ch ch.. 1 • scorn for the sin sinss of Israel, con consisti sisting ng of seven sec sections tions,, (1.) ch. 2; (2.) ch. 3-6; (3.) ch. 7-10 7-10;; (4.) ch. 11-13; (5.) (5.) ch. 14-17:18; (6.) ch. 17:19-ch. 20; (7.) ch. 21-24 • a general rev review iew of all natio nations, ns, fores foreseeing eeing the their ir destru destruction, ction, in two se section ctions, s, (1.) ch. 46-49 46-49;; (2.) ch. 25; with an historical appendix of three sections, (1.) ch. 26; (2.) ch. 27; (3.) ch. 28, 29 • two secti sections ons pictu picturing ring the hope hopess of better time times, s, (1.) ch. 30, 31; (2.) ch. 32, 32,33; 33; to which is add added ed an histori historical cal appendix in three sections, (1.) ch. 34:1-7; (2.) ch. 34:8-22; (3.) ch. 35 1. the con conclusi clusion, on, in tw twoo secti sections, ons, (1 (1.) .) ch. 36 36;; (2.) ch. 445. 5. In Egypt, after an interval, Jeremiah is supposed to have added three sections, viz., ch. 37-39; 40-43; and 44. The principal messianic prophecies are found in 23:1-8; 31:31-40; and 33:14-26. Jeremiah's prophecies are noted for the frequent repetitions found in them of the same words, phrases, and imagery. They cover the period of about 30 years. They are not in chronological order. Ezekiel
The Book of Ezekiel (Yehezq'el [ )]יחזקאלcontains three distinct sections. • the Judgm Judgment ent on Israe Israell - Ezekiel mak makes es a series of denu denunciat nciations ions aga against inst his fell fellow ow Judea Judeans ns ( 3:22-24 [26]), warning them of the certain destruction of Jerusalem, in opposition to the words of the false prophets (4:1-3 [27]). The symbolic acts, by which the extremities to which Jerusalem would be reduced are described in Chapters 4 and 5 [28], show his intimate acquaintance with the levitical legislation. (See, for example, Exodus 22:30 [29]; Deuteronomy 14:21 [30]; Leviticus 5:2 [31]; 7:18,24 [32]; 17:15 [33]; 19:7 [34]; 22:8 [35]) • prophe prophecies cies ag against ainst va various rious ne neighbo ighboring ring nati nations, ons, the A Ammon mmonites ites ( Eze Ezek. k. 25:125:1-77 [36]), the Moabites ( 25:8-11 [37]), the Edomites ( 25:12-14 [38]), the Philistines ( 25:15-17 [39]), Tyre and Sidon ( 26-28 [40]), and against Egypt (29-32 [41]) • prophe prophecies cies del delivered ivered af after ter the destr destructio uctionn of Jerusale Jerusalem m by Nebucha Nebuchadnezz dnezzar ar II: the triump triumphs hs of Israel and of the [42] kingdom of God on earth ( Ezek. 33-39 ); Messianic times, and the establishment and prosperity of the
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Twelve Minor Prophets
The Twelve, Trei Asar (עשר )תרי, also called the Twelve Minor Prophets • • • • • • • • • • • •
Hosea, Hoshea ()הושע Joel, Yoel ()יואל Amos, Amos ()עמוס Obadiah, Ovadyah ()עבדיה Jonah, Yonah (ה )יו Micah, Mikhah ()מיכה Nahum, Nahum () חום Habakkuk, Havakuk ()חבקוק Zephaniah, Tsefanya (הי פצ) Haggai, Khagay ()חגי Zecharia riah, Zekharyah ()זכריה Malachi, Malakhi ()מלאכי
Ketuvim Ketuvim or K ə ṯûḇîm (in Biblical Hebrew: כתובים "writings") is the third and final section of the Tanakh. The
Ketuvim are believed to have been written under the Ruach HaKodesh, but with one level less authority than that of prophecy.[44] The poetic books
In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stitches in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, yields Emet אמ"ת, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, תהלים ,לי ש מ , ,בואי yields which is also the Hebrew for "truth"). These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system. The five scrolls ( Hamesh Hamesh Megillot)
The five relatively short books of Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book of Esther are collectively known as the Hamesh Megillot (Five Megillot). These are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative" in the Jewish canon even though they were not complete until the 2nd century CE.[45] Other books
Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics: • Their narr narratives atives all ope openly nly descri describe be relativ relatively ely late event eventss (i.e. the Babylo Babylonian nian capti captivity vity and the subse subsequent quent restoration of Zion). • The T Talmud almudic ic tra tradition dition ascri ascribes bes la late te aut authorsh horship ip to al alll of the them. m. • Two of them ((Danie Daniell and Ezra Ezra)) are the only bo books oks in Tan Tanakh akh with si signific gnificant ant port portions ions in Ara Aramaic maic..
Bible Order of the books
The following list presents the books of Ketuvim in the order they appear in most printed editions. It also divides them into three subgroups based on the distinctiveness of Sifrei Emet and Hamesh Megillot . The Three Poetic Books (Sifrei Emet ) • Tehillim (Psalms) תהלים • Mishlei (Book of Proverbs) משלי • Iyyôbh (Book of Job) איוב Hamesh Megillot ) The Five Megillot ( Hamesh • Shīr Hashshīrīm (Song of Songs) or (Song of Solomon) ה שירים שיר (Passover) • Rūth (Book of Ruth) רות (Shābhû‘ôth) • Eikhah (Lamentations) איכה (Ninth of Av) [Also called Kinnot in Hebrew.] • Qōheleth (Ecclesiastes) קהלת (Sukkôth) • Estēr (Book of Esther) אסתר (Pûrîm)
Other books ē l (Book of Daniel) אל ד • Dānî ’’ ēl • Ezrā ‘ (Book of Ezra-Book of Nehemiah) עזרא • Divrei ha-Yamim (Chronicles) הימים דברי
The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud (Bava Batra 14b-15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.[46] In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.[47] Canonization
The Ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the Tanakh to have been accepted as biblical canon. While the Torah may have been considered canon by Israel as early as the 5th century BCE and the Former and Latter Prophets were canonized by the 2nd century BCE, the Ketuvim was not a fixed canon until the 2nd century of the Common Era. [48] Evidence suggests, however, that the people of Israel were adding what would become the Ketuvim to their holy literature shortly after the canonization of the prophets. As early as 132 BCE references suggest that the Ketuvim was starting to take shape, although it lacked a formal title. [49] References in the four Gospels as well as other books of the New Testament that many of these texts were both commonly known and counted as having some degree of religious authority early in the 1st century CE. Many scholars believe that the limits of the Ketuvim as canonized scripture were determined by the Council of Jamnia c. 90 CE. Against Apion , the writing of Josephus in 95 CE, treated the text of the Hebrew Bible as a closed canon to which "... no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable..." [50] For a long time following this date the divine inspiration of Esther, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes was often under scrutiny.[51]
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Original languages The Tanakh was mainly written in biblical Hebrew, with some portions (Ezra 4:8 – 6:18 6:18 and 7:12 – 26, 26, Jeremiah 10:11, Daniel 2:4 – 7:28) 7:28) in biblical Aramaic, a sister language which became the lingua franca of the [52] Semitic world.
Septuagint The Septuagint, or LXX, is a translation of the Hebrew scriptures and some related texts into Koine Greek, begun in the late 3rd century BCE and completed by 132 BCE,[53][54][55] initially in Alexandria, but in time elsewhere as well.[56] It is not altogether clear which was translated when, or where; some may even have been translated twice, into different versions, and then revised.[57] As the work of translation progressed the canon of the Greek Bible expanded. The Torah always maintained its pre-eminence as the basis of the canon but the collection of prophetic writings, based on the Nevi'im, had various hagiographical works incorporated into it. In addition, some newer books were included in the Septuagint, among these are the Maccabees and the Wisdom of Ben Sira. The Septuagint version of some Biblical books, like Daniel and Esther, are longer than those in the Jewish canon. [58] Some of these apocryphal books (e.g. the Wisdom of Solomon, and the second book of Maccabees) were not translated, but composed directly in Greek. Since Late Antiquity, once attributed to a hypothetical late 1st-century Council of Jamnia, mainstream Rabbinic Judaism rejected the Septuagint as valid Jewish scriptural texts. Several reasons have been given for this. First, some mistranslations were claimed. Second, the Hebrew source texts used for the Septuagint differed from the Masoretic tradition of Hebrew texts, which was chosen as canonical by the Jewish rabbis. [59] Third, the rabbis wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly emerging tradition of Christianity.[55][60] Finally, the rabbis claimed for the Hebrew language a divine authority, in contrast to Aramaic or Greek - even though these languages were the lingua franca of Jews during this period (and Aramaic would eventually be given the same holy language status as Hebrew).[61] The Septuagint is the basis for the Old Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian and Coptic versions of the Christian Old Testament.[62] The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches use most of the books of the Septuagint, while Protestant churches usually do not. After the Protestant Reformation, many Protestant Bibles began to follow the Jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called Biblical apocrypha. The Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the King James Version of the Bible, the basis for the Revised Standard Version.[63] Incorporations from Theodotion In most ancient copies of the Bible which contain the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Book of Daniel is not the original Septuagint version, but instead is a copy of Theodotion's translation from the Hebrew, which more closely resembles the Masoretic text. The Septuagint version was discarded in favour of Theodotion's version in the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. In Greek-speaking areas, this happened near the end of the 2nd century, and in Latin-speaking areas (at least in North Africa), it occurred in the middle of the 3rd century. History does not record the reason for this, and St. Jerome reports, in the preface to the Vulgate version of Daniel, "This thing 'just' happened."[64] One of two Old Greek texts of the Book of Daniel has been recently rediscovered and work is ongoing in reconstructing the original form of the book. [65] The canonical Ezra-Nehemiah is known in the Septuagint as "Esdras B", and 1 Esdras is "Esdras A". 1 Esdras is a very similar text to the books of Ezra-Nehemiah, and the two are widely thought by scholars to be derived from the same original text. It has been proposed, and is thought highly likely by scholars, that "Esdras B" – the canonical –
Ezra-Nehemiah is Theodotion's version of this material, and "Esdras A" is the version which was previously in the Septuagint on its own.[64]
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Final form Some texts are found in the Septuagint but are not present in the Hebrew. These additional books are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, Baruch, Letter of Jeremiah (which later became chapter 6 of Baruch in the Vulgate), additions to Daniel (The Prayer of Azarias, the Song of the Three Children, Susanna and Bel and the Dragon), additions to Esther, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Odes, including the Prayer of Manasseh, the Psalms of Solomon, and Psalm 151. Some books that are set apart in the Masoretic text are grouped together. For example the Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings are in the LXX one book in four parts called Βασιλειῶν ("Of Reigns"). In LXX, the Books of Chronicles supplement Reigns and it is called Paralipomenon (Παραλειπομένων — —things left out). The Septuagint organizes the minor prophets as twelve parts of one Book of Twelve.[65] Greek-based name
Conventional English name
Γένεσις
Génesis
Genesis
Ἔξοδος
Éxodos
Exodus
Λευϊτικόν
Leuitikón
Leviticus
Ἀριθμοί
Arithmoí
Numbers
Δευτερονόμιον
Deuteronómion
Deuteronomy
Ἰησοῦς Nαυῆ
Iêsous Nauê
Joshua
Κριταί
Kritaí
Judges
Ῥούθ
Roúth
Ruth
Βασιλειῶν Αʹ
I Reigns
I Samuel
Βασιλειῶν Βʹ
II Reigns
II Samuel
Βασιλειῶν Γʹ
III Reigns
I Kings
Βασιλειῶν Δʹ
IV Reigns
II Kings
Παραλειπομένων Αʹ
I Paralipomenon
I Chronicles
Παραλειπομένων Βʹ
II Paralipomenon
II Chronicles
Ἔσδρας Αʹ
I Esdras
1 Esdras;
Ἔσδρας Βʹ
II Esdras
Ezra-Nehemiah
Τωβίτ
Tobit
Tobit or Tobias
Ἰουδίθ
Ioudith
Judith
Ἐσθήρ
Esther
Esther with additions
Μακκαβαίων Αʹ
I Makkabees
1 Maccabees
Μακκαβαίων Βʹ
II Makkabees
2 Maccabees
Μακκαβαίων Γʹ
III Makkabees
3 Maccabees
Ψαλμοί
Psalms
Psalms
Ψαλμός ΡΝΑʹ
Psalm 151
Psalm 151
Προσευχὴ Μανάσση
Prayer of Manasseh
Prayer of Manasseh
The Orthodox [56][66][67] Old Testament Law
History
[68]
[70]
[69]
Wisdom
Bible
10 Ἰώβ
Iōb
Job
Παροιμίαι
Proverbs
Proverbs
Ἐκκλησιαστής
Ecclesiastes
Ecclesiastes
Ἆσμα Ἀσμάτων
Song of Songs
Song of Solomon or Canticles
Σοφία Σαλoμῶντος
Wisdom of Solomon
Wisdom
Σο Σοφ φία Ἰη Ἰησσοῦ Σειρά ιράχ
Wi Wisd sdom om of Je Jesu suss the the so sonn ooff Sei Seirrac achh Si Sirrac achh or or Ec Eccl cles esia iast stic icus us
Ψαλμοί Σ Σα αλoμῶντος
Psalms of of SSoolomon
[71]
Psalms of Solomon Prophets Δώδεκα
The Twelve
Minor Prophets
Ὡσηέ Αʹ
I. Osëe
Hosea
Ἀμώς Βʹ
II. Ämōs
Amos
Μιχαίας Γʹ
III. Michaias
Micah
Ἰωήλ Δʹ
IV. Ioel
Joel
Ὀβδίου Εʹ
V. Obdias
Obadiah
Ἰωνᾶς Ϛ'
VI. Ionas
Jonah
Ναούμ Ζʹ
VII. Naoum
Nahum
Ἀμβακούμ Η Σοφονίας Θʹ
VIII. Ambakum IX. Sophonias
Habakkuk Zephaniah
Ἀγγαῖος Ιʹ
X. Ängaios
Haggai
Ζαχαρίας ΙΑʹ
XI. Zacharias
Zachariah
Ἄγγελος ΙΒʹ
XII. Messenger
Malachi
Ἠσαΐας
Hesaias
Isaiah
Ἱερεμίας
Hieremias
Jeremiah
Βαρούχ
Baruch
Baruch
Θρῆνοι
Lamentations
Lamentations
Ἐπιστολή Ιερεμίου
Epistle of Jeremiah
Letter of Jeremiah
Ἰεζεκιήλ
Iezekiêl
Ezekiel
Δανιήλ
Daniêl
Daniel with additions
[72]
ʹ
Appendix
Μακκαβαίω Μακκα βαίωνν Δ' Παράρτημα Παράρτημα IV Makkab Makkabees ees
4 Maccabees
[73]
Christian Bibles A Christian Bible is a set of books that a Christian denomination regards as divinely inspired and thus constituting scripture. Although the Early Church primarily used the Septuagint or the Targums among Aramaic speakers, the apostles did not leave a defined set of new scriptures; instead the canon of the New Testament developed over time. Groups within Christianity include differing books as part of their sacred writings, most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books. Significant versions of the English Christian Bible include the Douay-Rheims Bible, the Revised Standard Version, the Authorized King James Version, the English Standard Version, the New King James Version, and the New
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International Version. Old Testament The books which make up the Christian Old Testament differ between the Catholic, Orthodox and Protestants churches, with the Protestant movement accepting only those books contained in the Hebrew Bible, while Catholics and Orthodox have wider canons. A few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the Greek Septuagint, the Aramaic Peshitta, and the English King James Version. Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books
In Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. The Septuagint was generally abandoned in favour of the 10th-century Masoretic Text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western languages. Some modern Western translations since the 14th century make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic Text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts e.g. those discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.[74][75] A number of books which are part of the Peshitta or Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew (Rabbinic) Bible (i.e., among the protocanonical books) are often referred to as deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e. deutero) canon, that canon as fixed definitively by the Council of Trent 1545-1563.[76][77] It includes 46 books for the Old Testament (45 if Jeremiah and Lamentations are counted as one) and 27 for the New.[78] Most Protestants term these books as apocrypha. Modern Protestant traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles included them in Apocrypha sections until the 1820s. However, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament. The Roman Catholic Church recognizes:[79] • • • • • • • • • •
Tobit Judith 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees Wisdom Sirac Sirachh (or Ec Eccl cles esia iast stic icus us)) Baruch The L Lett etter er of Je Jerem remiah iah (B (Baru aruch ch Ch Chapt apter er 6) Greek Additi Additions ons ttoo Est Esther her (B (Book ook of Esthe Esther, r, cha chapters pters 10:4 – 12:6) The PPrayer rayer of Az Azariah ariah and SSong ong of the T Three hree Holy Childr Children en verses 1– 6688 (Book of Daniel, chapter 3, verses 24 – 90) 90) • Sus Susann annaa (Bo (Book ok ooff Dan Daniel iel,, cha chapte pterr 13) • Bel aand nd the D Drag ragon on (B (Book ook of D Dani aniel, el, ch chapt apter er 14) In addition to those, the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches recognize the following: • • • •
3 Maccabees 1 Esdras Pray Prayer er of Ma Mana nass sseh eh Psalm 151
Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches include: • 2 Esdr Esdras as i.e i.e.,., Lat Latin in Es Esdras dras iinn the R Russia ussiann and G Georgi eorgian an Bib Bibles les There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church, but was included by St. Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate, and is an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it is therefore sometimes
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included in collections of the Apocrypha. The Syriac Orthodox tradition includes: • Psalms 151 – 155 155 • Th Thee A Apo poca caly lyps psee of Baru Baruch ch • Th Thee L Let ette terr of Ba Baru ruch ch The Ethiopian Biblical canon includes: • Jubilees • Enoch • 1 – 3 Meqabyan and some other books. The Anglican Church uses some of the Apocryphal books liturgically. Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Anglican Church include the Deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the Vulgate appendix. Role in Christian theology
The Old Testament has always been central to the life of the Christian church. Bible scholar N.T. Wright says "Jesus himself was profoundly shaped by the scriptures." [80] He adds that the earliest Christians also searched those same scriptures in their effort to understand the earthly life of Jesus. They regarded the ancient Israelites' scriptures as having reached a climactic fulfillment in Jesus himself, generating the "new covenant" prophesied by Jeremiah.[81] New Testament The New Testament is a collection of 27 books[82] of 4 different genres of Christian literature (Gospels, one account of the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles and an Apocalypse). Jesus is its central figure. The New Testament presupposes the inspiration of the Old Testament [83] (2 Timothy 3:16). Nearly all Christians recognize the New Testament as canonical scripture. These books can be grouped into: The Gospels
Pastoral epistles
•
Syno Synopt ptic ic Go Gosp spel elss
• •
• Go Gosp spel el Acco Accord rdin ingg to Mat Matth thew ew • Go Gosp spel el Ac Acco cord rdin ingg to to Mar Markk • Go Gosp spel el Acc Accor ordi ding ng to Luke Luke Go Gosp spel el A Acc ccor ordi ding ng to Jo John hn Acts Acts of th thee A Apo post stle less
• • • • •
Pauline Epistles • • • • • • • • •
Firs Firstt Epi Epist stle le ttoo Tim Timot othy hy Seco Se cond nd E Epi pist stle le ttoo T Tim imot othy hy Epis istl tlee ttoo Tit Tituus Epis Epistl tlee to Phil Philem emon on Epis Epistl tlee ttoo th thee Heb Hebre rews ws
General epistles, also called Catholic epistles • • • • • • •
Epis istl tlee of of JJam ames es Firs Firstt E Epi pist stle le of Pe Pete terr Seco Se cond nd Epis Epistl tlee ooff PPet eter er Firs Firstt Epi Epist stle le of of Jo John hn Seco Se cond nd Epis Epistl tlee ooff JJoh ohnn Thir Thirdd Ep Epis istl tlee of Jo John hn Epis istl tlee ooff JJud udee
Epis Epistl tlee ttoo the the Roma Romans ns Fir First st Epi Epistl stlee to the Corint Corinthia hians ns Sec Secon ondd Epist Epistle le ttoo th thee Corin Corinthi thians ans Epis Epistl tlee to to the the Ga Gala lati tian anss Epis Epistl tlee to the the E Eph phes esia ians ns Epis Epistl tlee to tthe he PPhi hili lipp ppia ians ns Revelation, or the Apocalypse Epis Epistl tlee to tthe he C Col olos ossi sian anss Fir First st E Epis pistle tle to the the T Thes hessal salon onian ianss Sec Secon ondd Epist Epistle le to the T Thes hessal salon onian ianss
The New Testament books are ordered differently in the Catholic/Protestant tradition, the Slavonic tradition, the Syriac tradition and the Ethiopian tradition.
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Original language
The mainstream consensus is that the New Testament was written in a form of Koine Greek, [84][85] which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean[86][87][88][89] from the Conquests of Alexander the Great (335 – 323 323 BC) until the evolution of Byzantine Greek (c. 600). Historic editions
The autographs, the Greek manuscripts written by the original authors, [90]
have not survived. When of ancient scribes copied earlier they wrote notes on the margins the page ( marginal glossesbooks, ) to correct their text — —especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line —and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text. Over time, different regions evolved different versions, each with its own assemblage of omissions and additions.[91]
The Codex Gigas from the 13th century, held at the Royal Library in Sweden.
The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type (generally minimalist), the Byzantine text-type (generally maximalist), and the Western text-type (occasionally wild). Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts. Development of the Christian canons The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Greek Septuagint translations and original books, and their differing lists of texts. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity subsequently added various writings that would become the New Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity. In the 4th century a series of synods produced a list of texts equal to the 39, 46(51),54, or 57 book canon of the Old Testament and to the 27-book canon of the New Testament that would be subsequently used to today, most notably the Synod of Hippo in AD 393. Also c. 400, Jerome produced a definitive Latin edition of the Bible (see Vulgate), the canon of which, at the insistence i nsistence of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. With the benefit of hindsight it can be said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time. A definitive list did not come from an Ecumenical Council until the Council of Trent (1545 – 63). 63).[92] During the Protestant Reformation, certain reformers proposed different canonical lists to those currently in use. Though not without debate, see Antilegomena, the list of New Testament books would come to remain the same; however, the Old Testament texts present in the Septuagint but not included in the Jewish canon fell out of favor. In time they would come to be removed from most Protestant canons. Hence, in a Catholic context, these texts are referred to as deuterocanonical books, whereas in a Protestant context they are referred to as the Apocrypha, which means "hidden", the label applied to all texts excluded from the biblical canon but which were in the Septuagint. It should also be noted that Catholics and Protestants both describe certain other books, such as the Acts of Peter, as apocryphal. Thus, the Protestant Old Testament of today has a 39-book canon —the number of books (though not the content) varies from the Jewish Tanakh only because of a different method of division —while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books (51 books with some books combined into 46 books) as the canonical Old Testament. The Eastern Orthodox Churches recognise 3 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Prayer of Manasseh and Psalm 151 in addition to the Catholic canon. Some include 2 Esdras. The Anglican Church also recognises a longer canon. The term "Hebrew Scriptures" is often used as being synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, since the surviving scriptures in Hebrew include only those books, while Catholics and Orthodox include additional texts that have not survived in
Bible Hebrew. Both Catholics and Protestants have the same 27-book New Testament Canon.[93] The New Testament writers assumed the inspiration of the Old Testament, probably earliest stated in 2 Timothy 3:16, "All scripture is given by inspiration of God". [8] Ethiopian Orthodox canon
The Canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is wider than the canons used by most other Christian churches. There are 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible. [94] The Ethiopian Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the Septuagint accepted by other Orthodox Christians, in addition to Enoch and Jubilees which are ancient Jewish books that only survived in Ge'ez but are quoted in the New Testament , also Greek Ezra First and the Apocalypse of Ezra, 3 books of Meqabyan, and Psalm 151 at the end of the Psalter. The three books of Meqabyan are not to be confused with the books of Maccabees. The order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups', as well. The Old Testament follows the Septuagint order for the Minor Prophets rather than the Jewish order.
Divine inspiration The Second Epistle of Timothy says that "All scripture is inspired of God." (Timothy 2 3:16-3:17) [95] Christians believe that the Bible is the inspired word of God, that God, through the Holy Spirit, intervened and influenced the words, message, and collation of the Bible. For many Christians the Bible is also infallible, and is incapable of error in matters of faith and practice, but not necessarily in historic or scientific matters. A related, but distinguishable belief is that the Bible is the inerrant word of God, without error in any aspect, spoken by God and written down in its perfect form by humans. Within these broad beliefs there are many schools of hermeneutics. "Bible scholars claim that discussions about the Bible must be put into its context within church history and then into the context of contemporary culture."[81] Fundamentalist Christians are associated with the doctrine of biblical literalism, where the Bible is not only inerrant, but the meaning of the text is clear to the average reader. [96] Belief in sacred texts is attested to in Jewish antiquity, [97][98] and this belief can also be seen in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention divine agency in relation to its writings. [99] In their book A General Introduction to the Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix wrote: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record." [100] Most evangelical biblical scholars[101][102][103] associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the autographic text of Scripture. [104] Among adherents of Biblical literalism, a minority, such as the King-James-Only Movement, extend the claim of inerrancy only to a particular translation.
Versions and translations
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The original texts of the Tanakh were mainly in Hebrew, with some portions in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the Targum Onkelos, an Aramaic version of the Bible. There are several different ancient versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew, mostly differing by spelling, and the traditional Jewish version is based on the version known as Aleppo Codex. Even in this version there are words which are traditionally read differently from f rom written, because the oral tradition is considered more fundamental than the written one, and presumably mistakes had been made in copying the text over the generations.
A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.
The primary biblical text for early Christians was the Septuagint. In addition, they translated the Hebrew Bible into several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic, Ge'ez and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translations of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament. The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible. Pope Damasus I assembled the first list of books of the Bible at the Council of Rome in AD 382. He commissioned Saint Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the Latin Vulgate Bible and in 1546 at the Council of Trent was declared by the Roman Catholic Church to be the only authentic and official Bible in the Latin Rite. Since the Protestant Reformation, Bible translations for many languages have been made. The Bible continues to be translated to new languages, largely by Christian organisations such as Wycliffe Bible Translators, New Tribes Mission and the Bible society. Bible translations, worldwide (as of 2011) [105] Number
Statistic
6,800 6,800
App Approx roxima imate te nnum umber ber of of lan langu guage agess spoke spokenn in the worl worldd to today day
1,500 1,500 1,223 1,223
Num Number ber ooff tra transl nslati ations ons into into new lang languag uages es curre currentl ntlyy in prog progres resss Num Number ber of lang languag uages es with with a trans translat lation ion of the the New New T Test estame ament nt
47 4711
Number Number of langua languages ges wit withh a trans translat lation ion of the Bib Bible le (Prote (Protesta stant nt Can Canon) on)
Bible
Biblical studies Biblical criticism refers to the investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention. It is not the same as criticism of the Bible, which is an assertion against the Bible being a source of information or ethical guidance, or observations that the Bible may have translation errors.[106] Higher criticism In the 17th century Thomas Hobbes collected the current evidence to conclude outright that Moses could not have written the bulk of the Torah. Shortly afterwards the philosopher Baruch Spinoza published a unified critical analysis, arguing that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses . . ."[107][108] Despite determined opposition from Christians, both Catholic and Protestant, the views of Hobbes and Spinoza gained increasing acceptance amongst scholars.
Archaeological and historical research Biblical archaeology archaeology is the archaeolo archaeology gy that relates to to and and sheds light upon the Hebrew Scriptures and and the the Christian Greek Scriptures (or "New Testament"). It is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical times. There are a wide range of interpretations in the field of biblical archaeology. One broad division includes biblical maximalism which generally takes the view that most of the Old Testament or Hebrew Bible is based on history although it is presented through the religious viewpoint of its time. It is considered the opposite of biblical minimalism which considers the Bible a purely post-exilic (5th century BCE and later) composition. Even among those scholars who adhere to biblical minimalism, the Bible is a historical document containing first-hand information on the Hellenistic and Roman eras, and there is universal scholarly consensus that the events of the 6th century BCE Babylonian captivity have a basis in history. The historicity of the bi biblical blical account of the history of ancient Israel and Judah of the 10th to 7th-centuries BCE is disputed in scholarship. scholarship. The biblical account of the 8t 8thh to 7th centuries BCE is widely, but not univers universally, ally, accepted as historical, while the verdict on the earliest period of the United Monarchy (10th-century BCE) and the historicity of David is unclear. Archaeological evidence providing information on this period, such as the Tel Dan Stele, can potentially be decisive. The biblical account of events of the Exodus from Egypt in the Torah, and the migration to the Promised Land and the period of Judges are not considered historical in scholarship. [109][110] Regarding the New Testament, the setting being the Roman Empire in the 1st century CE, the historical context is well established. There has been some debate on the historicity of Jesus, but the mainstream opinion is that Jesus was one of several known historical itinerant preachers in 1st-century Roman Judea, teaching in the context of the religious upheavals and sectarianism of Second Temple Judaism.
Criticism In modern times, the view that the Bible should be accepted as historically accurate and as a reliable guide to morality has been questioned by many mainstream academics in the field of biblical criticism. Most Christian groups claim that the Bible is inspired by God, and some oppose interpretations of the Bible that are not traditional or "plain reading". Some groups within the most conservative Protestant circles believe that the Authorized King James Version is the only accurate English translation of the Bible, and accept it as infallible. They are generally referred to as "King James Only". Many within Christian fundamentalism —as well as much of Orthodox Judaism —strongly support the idea that the Bible is a historically accurate record of actual events and a primary source of moral guidance.
16
Bible
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In addition to concerns about morality, inerrancy, or historicity, there remain some questions of which books should be included in the Bible (see canon of scripture). Jews discount the New Testament, most Christians deny the legitimacy of the New Testament apocrypha, and a view sometimes referred to as Jesusism does not affirm the scriptural authority of any biblical text other than the teachings of Jesus in the Gospels.
Endnotes [1] Davi Davies, es, Philip Philip R. (2008) (2008).. Memories of ancient Israel (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=M1rS4Kce_PMC& pg=PA7& hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false). Westminster John Knox Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-664-23288-7. 978-0-664-23288-7. . [2] "Where did the the chapter and verse numbers of the Bible originate?" (http:/ / www.catholic.com/ quickquestions/ where-did-the-chapter-and-verse-numbers-of-the-bib where-did-the-chapter-and-v erse-numbers-of-the-bible-originate). le-originate). CA. . [3] Radosh, Daniel. "T "The he Good Book Business" (http:/ / www.newyorker.com/ archive/ 2006/ 12/ 18/ 061218fa_fact1 061218fa_fact1). ). Condé Nast. . Retrieved 28 March 2012. [4] Ash, Russell Russell (2001). (2001). Top 10 of Everything 2002. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 0-7894-8043-3. 0-7894-8043-3. [5] Harpe Harper, r, Douglas. Douglas. ""bibl bible" e" (http:/ (http:/ / www.etymonline.com/ index.php?term=bible). Online Etymology Dictionary. . [6] "The Ca Cathol tholic ic Encyclope Encyclopedia" dia" (http:/ (http:/ / www.newadvent.org/ cathen/ 02543a.htm). Newadvent.org. . Retrieved 2010-04-23. [7] Bibl Biblion, ion, Henry Henry Georg Georgee Liddell, Liddell, Robert Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus (http:/ / www.perseus.tufts.edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=#19917). [8] Sta Stagg, gg, Frank Frank.. New Testament Theology. Nashville: Broadman, 1962. ISBN 0-8054-1613-7. 0-8054-1613-7. [9] "From Hebrew Bible to Christian B Bible" ible" by Mark Hamilton Hamilton (http:/ / www.pbs. org/ wgbh/ pages/ frontline/ shows/ religion/ first/ scriptures. html) on PBS's site From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians (http:/ / www.pbs.org/ wgbh/ pages/ frontline/ shows/ religion/ ). [10] Dictionary.com etymology of the word "Bib "Bible" le" (http:/ / dictionary.reference.com/ search?q=Bible). [11] [[F.F. Bruce Bruce Bruce, Bruce, Fred Frederick erick (1988) (1988).. The Canon of Scripture. Downers Grove, Illinois, U.S.: IVP Academic. p. 214. ISBN 083081258X. [12] A 7th century fragment fragment containing the Song Song of the Sea (Exodus (Exodus 13:19-16:1) is oone ne of the few surviving ttexts exts from the "silent era" of Heb Hebrew rew
biblical texts between the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Aleppo Codex. See "Rare scroll fragment to be unveiled," Jerusalem Post, May 21, 2007 (http:/ / fr. jpost.com/ servlet/ Satellite?cid=1178708654713&pagename=JPost/ JPArticle/ ShowFull). [13] [13] (h (htt ttp: p:/ / / books. google. com/ books?id=CakJchHfN1QC&pg=PA647&lpg=PA647& dq=Pentateuch+from+Greek+meaning+ "five+ scroll-cases&source=bl&ots=iUzv6_UPBw&sig=itoLPZH_dUSbPWww1gnM1PJfk3Q& hl=en&sa=X& ei=BmZoUNa6IZS08ATC1oGIBw&ved=0CEMQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q=Pentateuch from Greek meaning "five scroll-cases& f=false) The Restored New Testament: A New Translation with Commentary, Including the Gnostic Gospels Thomas, Mary, and Judas by Willis Barnstone - W. W. Norton & Company - page 647 [14] [14] (h (htt ttp: p:/ / / books. google. com/ books?id=AzZlANCOIRgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:"Seymour+Rossel"&source=bl& ots=H0fv2a4pWG&sig=NQIme41Zh-HHQP6XRxIoeYletNE&hl=en& sa=X&ei=ZddoUKjaLY-o8QT2zYCgDg& ved=0CDYQuwUwATgK#v=onepage&q&f=false) The Torah: Portion by Portion By Seymour Rossel - Torah Aura Productions, 2007 page 355 [15] Mordecai Mordecai Kaplan Kaplan 11934 934 Judaism as a Civilization MacMillan Press [16] Elliot Elliot N N.. Dorff Dorff 1979 1979 Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors to Our Descendants (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=diqTpD-UbW0C& lpg=PA98&pg=PA98#v=onepage& q&f=false). United Synagogue. p. 98-99 (114-115 ( 114-115 in 1978 edition) [17] Milton Milton Steinb Steinberg erg 1947 Basic Judaism (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=iBu5Tpc4DtcC& lpg=PA27&pg=PA27& dq=isbn:0156106981#v=onepage& q&f=false) Harcourt Brace, p.27-28 ISBN 0-15-610698-1 [18] Gilbert Gilbert Rosen Rosenthal thal 1973 Four paths to One God Bloch Publishing pp. 116-128, 180-192, 238-242 [19] 1Kings.1 1Kings.18:24 8:24;1Kin ;1Kings.18 gs.18:37-3 :37-399 9 [20] George George Savran Savran "I and II Kings Kings"" in The Literary Guide to the Bible edited by Robert Alter and Frank Kermode. "Each king is judged either good or bad in black-and-white terms, according to whether or not he "did right" or "did evil" in the sight of the Lord. This evaluation is not reflective of the well-being of the nation, of the king's success or failure in war, or of the moral climate of the times, but rather the state of cultic worship during his reign. Those kings who shun idolatry and enact religious reforms are singled out for praise, and those who encourage pagan practices are denounced." 146 [21] Yehezkel Yehezkel Kauf Kaufmann mann "Is "Israel rael In Canaan" Canaan" in Great Ages and Ideas of the Jewish People edited by Leo Schwartz, The Modern Library. "The fight against Baal was initiated by the prophets" 54 [22] Yehezkel Yehezkel Kauf Kaufmann mann "T "The he Age of Prop Prophecy" hecy" in Great Ages and Ideas of the Jewish People edited by Leo Schwartz, The Modern Library. "The immediate occasion of the rise of the new prophecy was the political and social ruin caused by the wars with Israel's northerly neighbor, Aram, which continued for more than a century. They raged intensely during the reign of Ahab, and did not end until the time of Jeroboam II (784-744). While the nation as a whole was impoverished, a few — apparently of the royal officialdom — grew wealthy as a result of the national calamity. Many of the people were compelled to sell their houses and lands, with the result that a sharp social cleavage arose: on the one hand a mass of propertyless indigents, on the other a small circle of the rich. A series of disasters struck the nation — drought, famine,
plagues, death and captivity (Amos 4: 6-11), but the greatest disaster of all was the social disintegration due to the cleavage between the poor masses and the wealthy, dissolute upper class. The decay affected both Judah and Israel....High minded men were appalled at this development. Was this the people whom YHWH had brought out of Egypt, to whom He had given the land and a law of justice and right? it
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seemed as if the land was about to be inherited by the rich, r ich, who would squander its substance in drunken revelry. it was this dissolution that brought the prophetic denunciations to white heat." 57-58 [23] Abraham Abraham Joshua Joshua He Heschel schel 1955 1955 The Prophets Harper and Row: "What manner of man is the prophet? A student of philosophy who runs from the discourses of the great metaphysicians to the orations of the prophets may feel as if he were going from the realm of the sublime to an area of trivialities. Instead of dealing with the timeless issues of being and becoming, of matter and form, of definitions and demonstration demonstrations, s, he is thrown into orations about widows and orphans, about the corruption of judges and affairs of the market place. Instead of showing us a way through the elegant mansions of the mind, the prophets take us to the slums. The world is a proud place, full f ull of beauty, but the prophets are scandalized, and rave as if the whole world were a slum. They make much ado about paltry things, lavishing excessive languag languagee upon trifling subjects. What if somewhere in ancient Palestine poor people have not been treated properly by the rich? .... Indeed, the sorts of crimes and even the amount of delinquency that fill the prophets of Israel with dismay do not go beyond that which we regard as normal, as typical ingredients of social dynamics. To us a single act of injustice — cheating in business, exploitation of the poor- is slight; to the prophets, a disaster. To us an injustice is injurious to the welfare of the people; to the prophets it is a deathblow to existence; to us an episode; to them, a catastrophe, a threat to the world." 3-4 [24] Joel Rosen Rosenberg berg "I aand nd II Sam Samuel" uel" in The Literary Guide to the Bible edited by Robert Alter and Frank Kermode. "Samuel is thus a work of national self-criticism. It recognizes that Israel would not have survived, either politically or culturally, without the steadying presence of a dynastic royal house. But it makes both that house and its subjects answerable to firm standards of prophetic justice — not those of cult prophets or professional ecstatics, but of morally upright prophetic leaders in the tradition of Moses, Joshua, Deborah, Gideon, and others ..." 141 [25] [25] (h (htt ttp: p:/ / / books. google. com/ books?id=VeOwyTae71cC&pg=PA328& lpg=PA328& dq=the+book+ of+comfort+isaiah&source=bl& ots=VOmO772O7q&sig=0bohL7s3-xxgidnD16IThNl0vKo& hl=en&sa=X&ei=8eZqUPWpM-WC2wXH4oEg& ved=0CEsQ6AEwBjgU#v=onepage& q=the book of comfort isaiah& f=false) Ancient Israelite And Early Jewish Literature By Theodoor Christiaan Vriezen, A. S. Van Der Woude - BRILL, 2005 - page 328 [26] [26] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=ezekiel%203:22-24;&version=49; [27] [27] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=ezekiel%204:1-3;&version=49; [28] [28] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=ezekiel%204-5;&version=49;
[29] [29] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Exodus%2022:30;&version=49; [30] [30] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Deut%2014:21;&version=49; [31] [31] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Lev%205:2;&version=49; [32] [32] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Lev%207:18,24;&version=49; [33] [33] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Lev%2017:15;&version=49; [34] [34] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Lev%2019:7;&version=49; [35] [35] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Lev%2022:8;&version=49; [36] [36] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Ezekiel%2025:1-7;&version=49; [37] [37] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Ezekiel%208-11;&version=49; [38] [38] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Ezekiel%2012-14;&version=49; [39] [39] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Ezekiel%2015-17;&version=49; [40] [40] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Ezekiel%2026-28;&version=49; [41] [41] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Ezekiel%2029-32;&version=49; [42] [42] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Ezekiel%2033-39;&version=49; [43] [43] http http:/ :/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Ezekiel%2040;48;&version=49; [44] Neusner, Jacob, The Talmud Talmud Law, Theo Theology, logy, Narrative: A Sourcebook. Sourcebook. University Press of of America, 2005 [45] Coogan, Michael Michael D. A Brief Introduction to the the Old Testament - the Hebrew Bible Bible in its Context. Ox Oxford ford University Press. 20 2009; 09; p. 5 [46] [46] (h (htt ttp: p:/ / / books. google. com/ books?id=9NUejG2IGPMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false) The Babylonian Talmud, Vol. 7 of 9: Tract Baba Bathra (Last Gate) translated by Michael L. Rodkinson - first published 1918 - published 2008 by Forgotten Books - page 53 [47] [47] (h (htt ttp: p:/ / / www.beitemet.com/ index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=10:ketuvim&catid=39:about-the-bible&Itemid=57& fontstyle=f-smaller) Ketuvim 30 כתובים July 2008 [48] Coogan, Michael. Michael. A Brief Introduction to the Old Old Testament: Th Thee Hebrew Bible in Its Contex Context.t. Oxford University Press, 22009, 009, p. 5 [49] Henshaw, T. The Writings: Writings: The third div division ision of the Old Testament Testament canon. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 196 1963, 3, pp. 16 – 17 17 [50] Lightfoot, Neil R. How How We Got the Bible, 3rd edition, edition, rev. and expanded expanded.. Baker Book House House Company. 200 2003, 3, pp. 154 – 155. 155. [51] Henshaw, T. The Writings: Writings: The third div division ision of the Old Testament Testament canon. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 196 1963, 3, p. 17 [52] Sir Godfrey Driver. "Introduction "Introduction to the Old Testament Testament of the New Englis Englishh Bible." Web: 30 Nov November ember 2009 [53] Life after death: a history of the afterlife in the religions of the West (2004) (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=owd9zig7i1oC& pg=PA369), Anchor Bible Reference Library, Alan F. Segal, p.363 [54] Gilles Dorival, Dorival, M Marguerite arguerite Harl, Harl, and Olivier Munnich, Munnich, La Bible grecque des Septante: Du judaïsme hellénistique au christianisme ancien (Paris: Cerfs, 1988), p.111 [55] "[...] die griechische Bibelübersetzung, Bibelübersetzung, die einem in innerjüdischen nerjüdischen Bedürfnis Bedürfnis entsprang [...] [von den] den] Rabbinen zuerst gerü gerühmt hmt (..) Später
jedoch, manchelehte ungenaue ungenaue Übertragung desab." hebräischen Textes TexDeutschen tes in der Septuaginta und undneu Übersetzungsfehler Übersetzungsfeh ler die Grundlage für Jacob, hellenistische hellenistische Irrlehrenals abgaben, man die Septuaginta Verband der Juden (Hrsg.), hrsg. von Walter Homolka, Walter Tovia Ben Chorin: Die Lehren des Judentums nach den Quellen; München, Knesebeck, 1999, Bd.3, S. 43ff
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[56] Karen H. Jobes Jobes and M Moise oisess Silva (2 (2001) 001).. Invitation to the Septuagint (http:/ (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=OysSAQAAIAAJ&q). Paternoster Press. ISBN 1-84227-061-3. 1-84227-061-3. . [57] Joel Kalvesmak Kalvesmaki,i, The Septua Septuagint gint (htt (http:/ p:/ / www.kalvesmaki.com/ LXX/ ) [58] [58] Ric Rickk Gran Grantt Jon Jones, es, Various Religious Topics, " Books of the Septuagint (http:/ / www.webcitation.org/ query?url=http:/ / www.geocities. com/ Heartland/ Pines/ 7224/ Rick/ Septuagint/ sp_books. html&date=2009-10-25+07:45:33)," (Accessed 2006.9.5). [59] "The translation, which which shows at times a pecu peculiar liar ignorance of Hebrew usag usage, e, was evidently made from from a codex which differed wi widely dely in places from the text crystallized by the Masorah." "Bible Translations - The Septuagint" (http:/ / www. jewishencycloped jewishencyclopedia. ia.com/ articles/ 3269-bible-translations). 3269-bible-translati ons). JewishEncyclopedia.com. . Retrieved 10 February 2012. [60] "Two things, however, however, rendered the Septuag Septuagint int unwelcome in th thee long run to the Jews Jews.. Its divergence from the accepted accepted text (afterward called the Masoretic) was too evident; and it therefore could not serve as a basis for theological discussion or for homiletic interpretation. This distrust was accentuated by the fact that it had been adopted as Sacred Scripture by the new faith [Christianity] [...] In course of time it came to be the canonical Greek Bible [...] [ ...] It became part of the Bible of the Christian Church." "Bible Translations - The Septuagint" (http:/ / www. jewishencyclopedia..com/ articles/ 3269-bible-translati jewishencyclopedia 3269-bible-translations). ons). JewishEncyclopedia.com. . Retrieved 10 February 2012. [61] Mishnah Sotah (7:2-4 and 8:1), amon amongg many others, discusses discusses the sacredness of of Hebrew, as opposed to Aramaic Aramaic or Greek. This is comparable to the authority claimed for the original Arabic Koran according to Islamic teaching. As a result of this teaching, translations of the Torah into Koine Greek by early Jewish Rabbis have survived as rare fragments only. [62] [62] Ern Ernst st Würthwe Würthwein, in, The Text of the Old Testament, trans. Errol F. Rhodes, Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. Eerdmans, 1995. [63] "NETS: "NETS: Electr Electronic onic Ed Edition ition"" (http: (http:/ / / ccat.sas.upenn. edu/ nets/ edition/ ). Ccat.sas.upenn.edu. 2011-02-11. . Retrieved 2012-08-13. [64] This article incorporates text from the 1903 Encyclopaedia Biblica article "TEXT AND VERSIONS", a publication now in the public
domain.
[65] [65] Jen Jennif nifer er M. Dines, Dines, The Septuagint, Michael A. Knibb, Ed., London: T&T Clark, 2004. [66] [66] Timoth Timothyy McLa McLay, y, The Use of the Septuagint in New Testament Research ISBN 0-8028-6091-5. — — The current standard introduction on the NT & LXX. [67] The canon of the original original Old Greek LXX is disputed. disputed. This table reflects the canon of the Old Testament Testament as used currentl currentlyy in Orthodoxy. [68] Βασιλειῶν (Basileiōn) is the genitive genitive plural ooff Βασιλεῖα (Basileia). ʹ
[69] [69] That That is, is, Things set aside from Ἔσδρας Α . [70] also called called Τωβείτ Τωβείτ or Τωβί Τωβίθθ in some sou sources. rces. [71] Not in Orthodox Orthodox Canon, but originally included in the LXX. http:/ http:/ / ccat.sas.upenn.edu/ nets/ edition/ [72] Obdiou Obdiou is gen genitive itive from from "The "The vision vision of Obdias," which opens the book. [73] Originally placed after 3 Maccabees Maccabees and before Psalms, Psalms, but placed in an appendix appendix of the Orthodox Orthodox Canon [74] The Masoretic Masoretic Text and the Dead Sea Scrolls Scrolls (http:/ / www.biblicalarchaeology.org/ daily/ biblical-topics/ bible-versions-and-translations/ the-masoretic-text-and-the-dead-sea-scrolls/ ) - biblicalarchaeology.org. Retrieved 26 December 2012. [75] Dead Sea SScroll crollss (ht (http:/ tp:/ / www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/ 03d/ sine-data,_Absens,_ sine-data,_Absens,_Dead_Sea_Scrolls_[T Dead_Sea_Scrolls_[Texts_And_Tran exts_And_Translations],_EN. slations],_EN. pdf) [76] [76] Counci Councill of Tren Trent: t: Decretum de Canonicis Scripturis "Decree Concerning the Canonical Scriptures" (http:/ / www.bible-researcher.com/ trent1.html), from the Council's fourth session, of 4 April 1546: Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, The Fourth Session, Celebrated on the eighth day of the month of April, in the year 1546 , English translation by James Waterworth (London 1848). [77] The Council of Trent confirmed the identical identical list/canon of sacred scriptures already anciently app approved roved by the Synod of Hippo (Synod of 393), Councils of Carthage (The Council of Carthage, 28 August 397), and Council of Florence (originally Council of Basel), Session 11, 4 February 1442 (http:/ / www.papalencyclicals.net/ Councils/ ecum17. htm) —[Bull of union with the Copts] seventh paragraph down. [78] Catechism of the Catholic Church, Second Edition, n. 120. ——Catechism of the Catholic Church, Second Edition, Latin text copyright © 1994, 1997 Libreria Editrice Vaticana, Citta del Vaticano. English translation of the Catechism of the Catholic Church for the United States of America copyright © 1994, United States Catholic Conference, Inc. — —Libreria Editrice Vaticana. English translation of the Catechism of the Catholic Church: Modifications from the Editio Typica copyright © 1997, United States Catholic Conference, Inc. — —Libreria Editrice Vaticana. United States Catholic Conference, 3211 Fourth Street, NE, Washington, DC 20017-1194 ISBN 1-57455-109-4. 1-57455-109-4. [79] Canon of Trent: List of the Cano Canonical nical Scriptures. Scriptures.
But if anyone receive not, as sacred and canonical, the said books entire with all their parts, as they have been used to be read in the Catholic Church, and as they are contained in the old Latin vulgate edition; Decretum de and knowingly and deliberately contemn the traditions aforesaid; let him be anathema. — — Canonicis Scripturis, Council of Trent, 8 April 1546 [80] [80] Wright Wright,, N.T. N.T. The Last Word:, page 3 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=id2_m0j804YC& lpg=PP1& dq=isbn:0060872616& pg=PA3#v=onepage&q=profound q=profoundly ly shaped&f=false) HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 0-06-087261-6 / 9780060872618 Getting Beyond the Bible Wars. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN [81] [81] Wright Wright,, N.T. N.T. The Last Word: Scripture and the Authority of God — — Getting 0-06-087261-6 / 9780060872618 [82] [82] (h (htt ttp: p:/ / / books. google. com/ books?id=m2Lz7iwklhAC& pg=PA439& lpg=PA439& dq=The+ New+Testament+is+a+collection+of+
27+books& source=bl&ots=Vip6fgXsM0&sig=OqAJAg42gVbZtqk3dJPznkT8imI& hl=en& sa=X&ei=dmNWUK_cGo-m8gSr34GQCg& ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q=The New Testament is a collection of 27 books& f=false) What the Bible is All About Visual Edition by Henrietta C. Mears - Gospel Light Publications, Feb 5, 2007 - page 438-439
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[83] [83] (h (htt ttp: p:/ / / books. google. com/ books?id=O5BHAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA343& lpg=PA343& dq=The+ New+Testament+presupposes+the+ inspiration+of+the+Old+Testament&source=bl&ots=97gNck-NWl&sig=rzLPlPu0s8vFu2uNyFxd0BYppng& hl=en&sa=X& ei=oWRWUISzCISg8gSo0IH4Bw&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q=The New Testament presupposes the inspiration of the Old Testament&f=false) Inspiration and Inerrancy: A History and a Defense By Henry Preserved Smith - R. Clarke, 1893 - page 343 [84] Kurt Aland, Barbara Aland The The text of the New Testam Testament: ent: an introduction to the critical 1995 p52 p52 "The New Testament Testament was written in Koine Greek, the Greek of daily conversation. The fact that from the first all the New Testament writings were written in Greek is conclusively demonstrated demonstrated by their citations from the Old Testament, .." [85] Archibald Macbride Hunter Hunter Introducing the the New Testament 1972 p9 "How came the twenty-seven twenty-seven books of of the New Testament to be gathered together and made authoritative Christian scripture? 1. All the New Testament books were originally written in Greek. On the face of it this may surprise us." [86] Wenham The elements elements of New Testament Greek Greek -p xxv Jeremy Duff, Jo John hn William Wenham - 2005 "This is the the language of the New Testament. By the time of Jesus the Romans had become the dominant military and political force, but the Greek language remained the 'common language' of the eastern Mediterranean and beyond, and Greek ..." [87] Daniel B. Wallace Greek Grammar Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax ooff the New Testament 19 1997 97 [88] Henry St. John Thackeray Thackeray Grammar of New Testament Testament Greek ed. Friedrich Wilh Wilhelm elm Blass, 1911 "By far the most predomin predominant ant element in the language of the New Testament is the Greek of common speech which was disseminated in the East by the Macedonian conques conquest,t, in the form which it had gradually assumed under the wider development ..." [89] David E. Aune The Blackwell companion companion to the New Testament 2009 p61 CHAPTER CHAPTER 4 New Testament Greek Christophe Christophe Rico "In this short overview of the Greek language of the New Testament we will focus on those topics that are of greatest importance for the average reader, that is, those with important ..." [90] [90] (h (htt ttp: p:/ / / books. google. com/ books?id=Ze16lRIzIzcC&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9& dq=The+ autographs,+the+Greek+manuscripts+written+ by+the+original+authors,+have+not+survived&source=bl&ots=zsb8T0Wp78& sig=sKzOavYaAcLmApZwhmiHxSxLrlw&hl=en& sa=X&ei=jG5WUILfDIPI9gTx44CABw&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q=The autographs, the Greek manuscripts written by the original authors, have not survived& f=false) Manuscripts and the Text of the New Testament: An Introduction for English Readers by Keith Elliott, Ian Moir - Continuum International Publishing Group, Nov 20, 2000 - page 9
[91] [91] (h (htt ttp: p:/ / / books. google. com/ books?id=cxN1wn_fO5YC&pg=PA152& lpg=PA152& dq=When+ ancient+scribes+copied+earlier+ books,+they+wrote+notes+on+the+margins+of+the+page+(marginal+glosses)+to+correct+their+textâespecially+if+a+scribe+ accidentally+omitted+a+word+or+lineâand+to+comment+ about+the+text&source=bl&ots=1-pyD8FDbY& sig=Qxx7t7IqIsAJL9VgY1sKQY1BL_A&hl=en&sa=X&ei=k21WUIX4AoXo8QTzq4Fg&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their textâespecially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or lineâand to comment about the text& f=false) God-Trail of Evidence: The Quest for the Truth By Dwo iUniverse, Jul 12, 2011 - page 152 - ISBN 978-1-4502-942 978-1-4502-9429-4 9-4 {sc} [92] Catholic Encyclopedia: Encyclopedia: Canon of the New Testament Testament (http (http:/ :/ / www.newadvent.org/ cathen/ 03274a. htm): "The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not rreach each its final term until the dogmatic definition of the Tridentine Council." [93] [93] (h (htt ttp: p:/ / / books. google. com/ books?id=gxEONS0FFlsC& pg=PA103& lpg=PA103& dq=Both+ Catholics+and+Protestants+have+the+ same+27-book+ New+Testament+Canon& source=bl&ots=t_K6gKrJKM&sig=4VIpxeGItb4s5eAyqcVZM5YzYUU&hl=en& sa=X& ei=RvBtUIWiK6PY2gX0j4DIAQ&ved=0CFsQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Both Catholics and Protestants have the same 27-book New Testament Canon&f=false) Encyclopedia of Catholicism By Frank K. Flinn | Infobase Publishing, Jan 1, 2007 | page 103 [94] "The Ethiopian Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church" (http:/ / www.ethiopianorthodox.org/ english/ canonical/ books. html). Ethiopianorthodox.org. Ethiopianortho dox.org. Archived (http:/ / web.archive.org/ web/ 20101105112040/ http:/ / ethiopianorthodox.org/ english/ canonical/ books. html) from the original on 5 November 2010. . Retrieved 2010-11-19. 2010-11-19. [95] Grudem, Grudem, Wayne Wayne (1 (1994) 994).. Systematic Theology. Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press. pp. 49 – 50. 50. [96] Beyond Biblical Literalism and Inerrancy: Conservative Protestants and the Hermeneutic Interpretation of Scripture], John Bartkowski, Sociology of Religion, 57, 1996. [97] Philo of Alex Alexandri andria, a, De vita Moysis 3.23. [98] [98] Joseph Josephus, us, Contra Apion 1.8. [99] "Basis for belief of Inspiration Inspiration Biblegateway" (http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=2 Sam 23:2,2 Tim 3:16,Luke 1:70,Heb 3:7,10:15-16,1 Peter 1:11,Mark 12:36,2 Peter 1:20-21,Acts 1:16,Acts 3:18,Acts 28:25;&version=50). Biblegateway.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-23. [100] Norma Normann L. Geisler, Geisler, William William E. Nix. Nix. A General Introduction to the Bible. Moody Publishers, 1986, p.86. ISBN I SBN 0-8024-2916-5 [101] For exam example, ple, see Ler Leroy oy Zuck, Zuck, Roy B. Zuck. Basic Bible Interpretation. Chariot Victor Pub, 1991,p.68. ISBN 0-89693-819-0 [102] Roy B. Zu Zuck, ck, Don Donald ald Campbel Campbell.l. Basic Bible Interpretation. Victor, 2002. ISBN 0-7814-3877 0-7814-3877-2 -2 [103] Norma Normann L. Geisler. Geisler. Inerrancy. Zondervan, 1980, p.294. ISBN 0-310-3928 0-310-39281-0 1-0
The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (http:/ / www.churchcouncil.org/ [104] International Council on Biblical Biblical Inerrancy (1978) (PDF (PDF). ).Council ccpdfdocs/ 01_Biblical_Inerrancy_A& D.pdf). International on Biblical Inerrancy. .
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[105] Wycliffe Bible T Translators, ranslators, Inc. (WBT (WBT)) Translation Statistics. 2011: Wycliffe Bible T Translators ranslators (http:/ / www.wycliffe.org/ About/ Statistics.aspx) (updated 17 April 2012) [106] "Expondo Os Erros Da Sociedade Bíblica Internacional" Internacional" (http:/ / www.baptistlink.com/ creationists/ expondoerrossbinvi.htm). Baptistlink.com. . Retrieved 2012-01-13. [107 [107]] (h (htt ttp: p:/ / / books.google.com/ books?id=xtq2ZyKf-YQC&pg=PA65& lpg=PA65&dq=clearer+than+the+sun+ at+noon+that+the+ Pentateuch+was+not+ written+by+Moses& source=bl&ots=20Bz7dfslQ&sig=rsPuYGb80r-lWjCFAtW0U8q7LaY&hl=en& sa=X& ei=7W9WUJu7DIrW9QT5vYGgBA&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses&f=false) In the Beginning: Hijacking of the Religion of God , Volume 1 by Sami M. El-Soudani, Nabawia J. El-Soudani - Xlibris Corporation, Jan 1, 2009 - page 65 [108 [108]] (h (htt ttp: p:/ / / books.google.com/ books?id=gvrcHyusPbMC& pg=PA121& lpg=PA121& dq=clearer+than+the+sun+ at+noon+ that+the+ Pentateuch+was+not+ written+by+Moses& source=bl&ots=tIddvOc2Nv&sig=lHzsQ_BeqBPGxjK2Z0g94THacK0&hl=en&sa=X& ei=o3BWUMr3IInc9ATGx4HoBw&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q=clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses&f=false) Ten More Amazing Discoveries By George Potter - Cedar Fort, Oct 1, 2005 - page 121 [109] Fink Finkelste elstein, in, Israel Israel;; Neil Silberm Silberman. an. The Bible Unearthed . [110] [110] Dev Dever, er, Willia William. m. Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come from?.
References and further reading • An Ande ders rson on,, B Ber ernh nhar ardd W W.. Understanding the Old Testament . ISBN 0-13-948399-3. • Asim Asimov ov,, Isaa Isaac. c. Asimov's Guide to the Bible. New York, NY: Avenel Books, 1981. ISBN 0-517-34582-X. • Berlin Berlin,, Ade Adele, le, M Marc arc Z Zvi vi Br Brettler ettler and M Michae ichaell Fish Fishbane. bane. The Jewish Study Bible (http:/ / www.newjewishbooks. org/ 0195297512/ ). Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-529751-2. • Finkel Finkelstein stein,, Isr Israel; ael; Silber Silberman, man, Neil Asher (2001) (2001).. The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-2338-1. • Finkel Finkelstein stein,, Israel; Silbe Silberman, rman, Nei Neill Asher (Augus (Augustt 2002). "Revie "Review: w: "The Bible Unea Unearthed rthed": ": A Rejoinder" Rejoinder".. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 327: 63 – 73. 73. JSTOR 1357859 • Her Herzog zog,, Ze Ze'ev 'ev (29 Oct Octobe oberr 19 1999) 99).. Deconstructing the walls of Jericho (http:/ / mideastfacts.org/ facts/ index. php?option=com_content&task=view&id=32&Itemid=34). Ha'aretz • Dever Dever,, Willia William m G. (Ma (March/Ap rch/April ril 2007 2007). ). "Los "Losing ing Fait Faith: h: Who Di Didd and Wh Whoo Didn’t, How Scholarship Affects Scholars" (http:/ / creationontheweb.com/ images/ pdfs/ other/ 5106losingfaith.pdf). Biblical Archaeology Review 33 (2): 54 • Deve Dever, r, Will Willia iam mG G.. Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come from? Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. ISBN 0-8028-0975-8. • Eh Ehrm rman an,, Ba Bart rt D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why New York, NY: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. ISBN 0-06-073817-0. • Ge Geis isle ler, r, No Norm rman an (e (edi dito tor). r). Inerrancy. Sponsored by the International Council on Biblical Inerrancy. Zondervan
Publishing House, 1980, ISBN 0-310-39281-0. • Head, Tom. The Absolute Beginner's Guide to the Bible . Indianapolis, IN: Que Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0-7897-3419-2 • Hoff Hoffma man, n, Jo Joel el M. In the Beginning (http:/ / www.newjewishbooks.org/ ITB/ ). New York University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8147-3690-4 • Lien Lienha hard rd,, Jose Joseph ph T. The Bible, The Church, and Authority . Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1995. • Li Lind ndse sell ll,, Ha Haro rold ld.. The Battle for the Bible. Zondervan Publishing House, 1978. ISBN 0-310-27681-0 • Ma Masa salh lha, a, Nu Nur, r, The Bible and Zionism: Invented Traditions, Archaeology and Post-Colonialism in Palestine-Israel. London, Zed Books, 2007. • McDon McDonald, ald, Lee M. aand nd Sa Sanders nders,, Ja James mes A., eeds. ds. The Canon Debate. Hendrickson Publishers (1 January 2002). 662p. ISBN 1-56563-517-5 ISBN 978-1565635173 • Mi Mill ller er,, John John W. The Origins of the Bible: Rethinking Canon History Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1994. ISBN 0-8091-3522-1. • Ri Rich chees, John. ohn. The Bible: A Very Short Introduction , Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-285343-0
Bible • Siku. The Manga Bible: From Genesis to Revelation . Galilee Trade (15 January 2008). 224p. ISBN 0-385-52431-5 ISBN 978-0385524315 • Taylo Taylor, r, H Hawley awley O. "Math "Mathemati ematics cs and Prophe Prophecy." cy." Modern Science and Christian Faith. Wheaton: Van Kampen, 1948, pp. 175 – 83. 83. • Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, s.vv. "Book of Ezekiel," p. 580 and "prophecy," p. 1410. Chicago: Moody Bible Press, 1986.
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