Cambodia Shoreline Management

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Environmental Management of the Coastal Zone Project Ministry of Environment and Danida

CAMBODIA SHORELINE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY Executive Summary

April 2006

PREFACE It is my privilege and pride to hear that the summary report was supported and agreed by the National Coastal Steering Committee (NCSC) in the 25th meeting held on 29 August 2006 in Cabinet of the Ministry of Environment. In my capacity as a NCSC chairman, I wish to present this summary report on shoreline management strategy of the Kingdom of Cambodia, a preliminary data and information base to assist in development plans along the coastal areas of Cambodia. This report was developed with close and active cooperation of concerned institutions and ministries, local authorities, national and international organizations under financial and technical assistance from DANIDA through Coastal Zone Management (CZM) of Cambodia. The summary report and the model of shoreline management plans for Sihanouk Municipality (CD) is an important tool for management of coastal erosions, seawall management, shoreline protection through appropriate zoning and a guideline for sustainable development of coastal and marine ecology. I feel that the summary report and the model will offer concepts on present shoreline management to identify major shoreline management issues and making recommendations for the Royal Government of Cambodia in order to response to the identified emerging issues in consistence with the policy of Cambodia. I wish to highly appreciate the all coastal zone management team members and technical advisors who have made significant contributions to the successful development of this report. I would like to sincerely thank the Royal Government of Demark for the financial and technical assistance, especially for capacity building of the Cambodian officials for the development of the report, which is so important for Cambodian people and the world. Phnom Penh, 07 January 2006 Senior Minister and Minister of the Ministry of Environment and Chairman of the National Coastal Steering Committee

Dr. Mok Mareth

FORWARD The Coastal Zone Management (CZM) of Cambodia has been supporting environmental management and livelihoods of coastal communities since 1997 under assistance from Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA). This summary report was initiated by CZM and compiled by the NCSC Secretariat team in close cooperation with the technical officials from the concerned ministries and international advisors. This report is aimed to be used as a preliminary database and an important tool for the shoreline management of Cambodia. There are two reports in the summary report on the shoreline management strategies. Report 1: a brief description of environmental database, related laws and regulations, and institutional framework for the shoreline management and making recommendations and a model for shoreline management for Sihanouk Municipality. Report 2: descriptions of each coastal cell, detailing its related localities and coastal line assessments of Cambodia with a focus on sedimentations. The objective of the summary report on shoreline management strategy is to raise awareness among Cambodian people, officials at all levels, students, professors, teachers, and national and international agencies on Cambodian shoreline management issues, related laws and regulations and making recommendations for good management of shoreline, ensuring sustainability of coastal natural resources and environment of the Kingdom of Cambodia. Once again, all contents of this report are the results of high efforts and commitments made by technical officials of municipal/provincial departments of environment, land management, urbanization, construction and land titles in cooperation with the project advisors who spent their time on surveys along the coastal line in Kep Muncipality, Kampot privince, Sihanouk Municipality and Koh Kong province. Ministry of Environment NCSC Secretariat 48, Preah Sihanouk Blvd, Tonle Bassac Commune, Chamkarmorn, Phnom Penh Email: [email protected]

CONTENTS Preface................................................................................................................................... 57 Forward .................................................................................................................................. 59 Contents................................................................................................................................. 61 Table ...................................................................................................................................... 63 Figure ..................................................................................................................................... 65 Photo...................................................................................................................................... 67 1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 69 1.1 Needs ................................................................................................................. 69 1.2 Shoreline Management and Integrated Coastal Zone Management .................. 69 1.3 Objectives........................................................................................................... 69 1.4 Reporting Structure ............................................................................................ 70 2 the cambodian coastline: overview ................................................................................ 70 2.1 Regional setting.................................................................................................. 70 2.1.1 Wind and Wave Conditions ........................................................................ 70 2.2 Ecology............................................................................................................... 71 2.2.1 Coral reefs .................................................................................................. 72 2.2.2 Seagrass..................................................................................................... 72 2.2.3 Coastal wetlands ........................................................................................ 72 2.2.4 Marine Megafauna...................................................................................... 73 2.3 Water Quality...................................................................................................... 73 2.4 Socio Economics ................................................................................................ 74 2.4.1 Marine aquaculture ..................................................................................... 74 2.5 Coastal Morphology............................................................................................ 75 2.5.1 Coastal Characteristics............................................................................... 75 2.5.2 Beach quality and tourism potential............................................................ 76 2.5.3 Coastal Erosion and Defence ..................................................................... 77 2.5.4 Coastal reclamation .................................................................................... 80 2.5.5 Coastline Cells............................................................................................ 81 3 legal and adminstrative framework................................................................................. 81 3.1 Legal Framework................................................................................................ 81 3.2 Institutional Arrangements related to Shoreline Management............................ 82 3.3 Summary and Conclusions................................................................................. 83 3.4 Shoreline Management Issues ........................................................................... 83 3.4.1 Uncontrolled construction along the shoreline............................................ 83 3.4.2 Erosion........................................................................................................ 84 3.4.3 Water Pollution ........................................................................................... 84 3.4.4 Conservation of Natural Habitats................................................................ 85 3.4.5 Monitoring and Enforcement....................................................................... 86 3.5 General Shoreline Management Policies ........................................................... 86 3.5.1 Risk Minimisation........................................................................................ 86 3.5.2 Conservation of natural habitats ................................................................. 87 3.5.3 Policies for Developments Requiring a Coastal Location ........................... 87 3.6 Draft Management Objectives ............................................................................ 88 3.7 Draft Management Strategies............................................................................. 88 3.8 Shoreline Management Plan Preparation........................................................... 89 3.8.1 Baseline study ............................................................................................ 90 3.8.2 Identification of Management Units ............................................................ 91 3.8.3 Setting of Management Objectives............................................................. 91 3.8.4 Setting of Management Strategies ............................................................. 91 3.8.5 Plan Preparation ......................................................................................... 91 3.8.6 Implementation and Review ....................................................................... 91 3.9 Scale................................................................................................................... 92 3.10 Responsibilities................................................................................................... 94 4 Focus area sihanoukville................................................................................................ 94 4.1 Management Unit delineation............................................................................. 95 4.2 Selection of Management Objectives ................................................................. 95

61

4.3 4.4

Selection of Management Strategies ..................................................................95 Management Unit Descriptions ...........................................................................97

62

TABLE Table 3.1

Management Strategies.............................................................................. 88

63

FIGURE Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7 Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2

Location Sketch. ............................................................................................. 70 Typhoon tracks in the South China Sea, 1996 to 1999 .................................. 71 Distribution of seagrass and coral reef habitats; and protected areas............ 72 Marine aquaculture observed during the survey and from other information. 74 Seaweed zones in Kampot (Department of Fisheries) ................................... 75 Coastline classification ................................................................................... 76 Overview of beach quality for beaches surveyed around Cambodia.............. 76 Coastal erosion, severity. ............................................................................... 77 Division of littoral cells along Cambodia’s coastline. ...................................... 81 Steps in the preparation of a Shoreline Management Plan ............................ 90 Map of simulated BOD concentration around Sabah on the 1 December 2003. ........................................................................................................................ 91 Example of the Spatial Plan produced by the West Coast of Sabah SMP ..... 92 Example of the Spatial Plan produced by the North Pahang SMP................. 93 Management units for Cells 6 & 7 in Sihanoukville......................................... 94 Management units and strategies in Cell 6, Sihanoukville ............................. 96 Management units and strategies in Cell 7, Sihanoukville ............................. 97

65

PHOTO Photo 2.1 Photo 2.2 Photo 2.3 Photo 2.4 Photo 2.5

Mangrove recently cut to make way for salt farm development...................... 73 Erosion along agricultural land in Kep (paddy fields and grazing land behind) ........................................................................................................................ 78 Moderate erosion affecting the southeastern end of Ou Tres Beach. ............ 79 Rubble and sand bags protecting some restaurants along Victory beach south (Hawaii south)................................................................................................. 79 Recent land reclamation, Kep......................................................................... 80

67

1

INTRODUCTION The Shoreline Management Strategy for Cambodia details recommended policies, objectives and strategies for shoreline management in Cambodia. The recommendations are based on the findings of a rapid survey of Cambodia’s shoreline, consultation with government stakeholders at the central and provincial level and to a limited extent, existing information on the status of the physical, ecological and socio-economic conditions of the coastal area and current and potential threats. The shoreline surveys and preparation of this strategy was executed under a 2½month project carried out by DHI Water & Environment (Malaysia) Sdn. Bhd. for the Coastal Zone Management Project under the Ministry of Environment, Cambodia.

1.1

Needs The need for shoreline management in Cambodia is becoming critical with increasing economic development. Without reference to any planning controls, much of the development along the coast has involved reclamation of the sea and/or construction of seawalls, groynes or other hard coastal protection structures. Efforts to stabilise shorelines have been substantial in the urban areas of Cambodia’s coastline, primarily because development has often occurred too close to the shoreline. These coastal civil engineering works disrupt natural sediment movement, in many cases causing accelerated erosion along adjacent shorelines. Further, unplanned development along the shoreline can exacerbate resource use conflicts, such as for example, siting industry adjacent to significant marine habitats.

1.2

Shoreline Management and Integrated Coastal Zone Management While coastal zone management is a government process which consists of the legal and institutional framework necessary to ensure that development and management plans for coastal zones integrate economic goals with environmental and social goals, the actual management planning of coastal areas is carried out through Shoreline Management Planning. In the coastal zone management context, shoreline management covers the important zone where land meets the sea.

1.3

Objectives The overall aim of shoreline management is to support planned sustainable development along the shoreline of Cambodia. The specific objectives of shoreline management are twofold: i.

To control and manage coastal defence

ii. To protect the shoreline through appropriate zoning and development guidelines. The aim of this present shoreline management investigation has been to identify the key shoreline management issues in Cambodia and to recommend management policies and objectives in response to these observed issues and which are in line with the overall development policies of Cambodia. These policies and objectives relate to the Cambodian shoreline in general rather than specific shoreline management options, which can only be formulated through a full Shoreline Management Planning process. This process and the recommended components of a Shoreline Management Plan for Cambodia have also been briefly summarised and a limited set of shoreline management strategies proposed. 69

A focus area in Sihanoukville was also selected where further subdivisions of the sediment cells into management units were made and management objectives and strategies for each unit developed; in order to provide a demonstration of the plan preparation process and a sample shoreline management plan output.

1.4

Reporting Structure The draft Shoreline Management Strategy for Cambodia is presented in two volumes: • Volume I – Main Report: containing a brief description of the environmental baseline, the legal and institutional framework for shoreline management, a recommended shoreline management strategy and a sample shoreline management plan for a focus area in Sihanoukville. • Volume II – Cell Description: providing locally relevant descriptions and assessments of the coastline of Cambodia for each sediment cell.

2

THE CAMBODIAN COASTLINE: OVERVIEW

2.1

Regional setting Cambodia’s coastline fronts the Gulf of Thailand as shown in Figure 2.1, a semienclosed sea measuring approximately 400km by 800km, and covering an area of about 320,000 square kilometers. The Gulf is part of the Sunda Shelf and is relatively shallow. The mean depth is 45m, and the maximum depth is 80m.

Figure 2.1

2.1.1

Location Sketch.

Wind and Wave Conditions From November through March wind and wave conditions are dominated by the northeast (NE) monsoon while the southwest monsoon prevails from June to September. April and October are transition periods between the NE and SW monsoons. The monsoon winds are occasionally interrupted by strong cyclonic events. Typhoons are a fairly common occurrence in the northern part of the South China 70

Sea. Due to weaker Coriolis forces closer to the equator, typhoons tracking further south are infrequent and comparatively weaker. As an example, Figure 2.2 shows the paths of all typhoons from 1996 to 1999. As shown, typhoons are more frequent and also more intense in the northern latitudes compared to closer to the equator.

Figure 2.2

2.2

Typhoon tracks in the South China Sea, 1996 to 1999

Ecology Three important marine and intertidal environments are present along the coastline of Cambodia, namely, coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangrove forests (Figure 2.3).

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Figure 2.3

2.2.1

Distribution of seagrass and coral reef habitats; and protected areas.

Coral reefs The growth and development of coral reefs are found predominantly around the islands off the coast of Cambodia; no coral reefs were observed in the nearshore areas of the mainland during the field survey. Threats identified to these reefs are dynamite fishing, nearshore trawling, and to a lesser extent, harvesting for ornaments and curios. Currently, the only marine protected area is the Ream National Park, which encompasses several nearshore islands. A formal management plan has yet to be formulated for this Park.

2.2.2

Seagrass The most extensive seagrass area is found in Kampot Bay, with other smaller beds around Kep and Kampong Som Bay. One of the main threats to seagrass areas in Cambodia is the encroachment of trawlers into nearshore fishing areas and trawling over seagrass beds. Seagrass beds are also susceptible to damage from increased sedimentation levels, dredging, and thermal and chemical pollution. Large seaweed farming areas, presently concentrated in the Kampot area can also affect the seagrass areas through direct shading and potentially nutrient enrichment. At present, suspended sediments, eutrophication and other water pollution does not appear to be a serious threat to seagrass habitats compared to direct habitat destruction from trawling mentioned above.

2.2.3

Coastal wetlands Mangroves around found throughout the coastline of Cambodia, forming often narrow fringes along sheltered coastlines, and reaching the most extensive development in estuaries and large river mouths. Most of these mangroves appear to be impacted in some way by human activity such as large-scale harvesting and 72

ongoing small scale utilisation for firewood, construction of homes, and fishing stakes. Wholesale clearing and conversion for salt farms and pond aquaculture have also reduced their spatial extent. Mangrove clearing is still ongoing in some areas as shown in Photo 2.1.

Photo 2.1

Mangrove recently cut to make way for salt farm development.

A large, relatively intact area of mangrove in Koh Kong is now protected as a Wildlife Sanctuary (Peam Krasaop Wildlife Sanctuary). This sanctuary is also a Ramsar Site owing to importance as habitat for migratory birds. However, as observed during the field survey, illegal harvesting of mangroves still occurs in this area. There are a several community-based or participatory mangrove management initiatives a number of districts. These include protected zones and permissible use zones. The success of these initiatives is not known. 2.2.4

Marine Megafauna Marine megafauna such as the dugong, turtles and dolphins seasonally inhabit the Cambodian inshore waters. Dolphins were observed on two separate occasions in the Koh Kong area during the shoreline survey. Surveys of marine mammals indicate that the waters of the Koh Tang and Koh Polou Wai archipelagoes are a key area for species diversity, while in terms of abundance, Koh Kong Bay and adjacent waters, Kompong Som Bay and Ream National Park appear to be of key importance.

2.3

Water Quality Based on observation of water quality during the shoreline survey, major causes of water pollution were wastewater discharge from households and industries, sewage and solid wastes from water villages. Potential water pollution may also arise from marine aquaculture, shrimp farming, cage culture and/or seaweed farming at Koh Kong, Kampot and Sihanoukville. Fish and mollusc cage culture sites can change the characteristics of the seabed in their 73

vicinity, while the effects of fish cage culture where additional food is added are even greater. Pond aquaculture can result in greater pollution loads. Where pond discharge is uncontrolled, water pollution can result in eutrophication, harmful algal blooms, disease transmission, and increased suspended sediments, among others. Suspended sediments

Overall, the nearshore waters appeared to be relatively free of suspended sediments along most of the coastline. Sediment plumes from the larger rivers were generally limited to near the coastline.

2.4

Socio Economics

2.4.1

Marine aquaculture Shrimp ponds, fish cage and mollusc culture, as well as seaweed farming were observed in various areas along the shoreline during the survey, as shown in Figure 2.4. It should be noted that areas of aquaculture are not limited to those indicated in the figure as the locations shown are derived only from observation in the field, and some limited information from existing data.

Figure 2.4

Marine aquaculture observed during the survey and from other information.

Shrimp pond aquaculture

According information given by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery, shrimp pond aquaculture is presently carried out on a small scale (i.e. by small holders with one or two ponds), with no extensive farms owned by large companies. Based on discussions with the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery, the Department of Fishery does not encourage the development shrimp pond aquaculture. Cage culture

Finfish culture in pens or cages are observed in Koh Kong province and Sihanoukville. Cages for cockles were observed in a number of locations within 74

Kampong Som Bay and are reported in Trapeang Ropov of Kampot bay, while green mussel culture was observed in Koh Kong bay. Seaweed Culture

The culture of seaweed is an increasingly important aquaculture activity, currently centred in Kampot. The Department of Fisheries in Kampot have identified zones for seaweed culture, as shown in Figure 2.5 below. Although the MAFF policy is that seaweed farms may not be established over seagrass beds, according to the existing data, the seaweed zones overlap with seagrass areas. It is acknowledged that the data on seagrass and coral distribution may be out of date, thus the Department of Fisheries should prioritise surveys in these areas to determine the distribution and status of seagrass to be certain that they are not directly impacted by seaweed farms.

Figure 2.5

Seaweed zones in Kampot (Department of Fisheries)

2.5

Coastal Morphology

2.5.1

Coastal Characteristics An overall classification of the coastline is presented in Figure 2.6.

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Figure 2.6

2.5.2

Coastline classification

Beach quality and tourism potential There are a number of recreational and tourist beaches along the coastline. An overall qualitative assessment of beach quality is shown in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7

Overview of beach quality for beaches surveyed around Cambodia

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2.5.3

Coastal Erosion and Defence Coastal erosion was observed in a number of areas; these were classified in terms of severity, based on degree of erosion observed and the importance or economic value of land or structures affected by erosion (Figure 2.8). Some of the areas suffering moderate to serious erosion, and those with existing coastal defence are briefly described here.

Figure 2.8

Coastal erosion, severity.

Kep

There are a number of areas in Kep suffering from moderate to severe erosion. Coastal defence structures, such as seawall and groynes have been constructed along some badly eroding stretches. Mangrove replanting has also been carried out by one of the salt farm owners in an effort to prevent shoreline retreat. Along this village and the salt farms nearby, the coast has reportedly retreated more than 10m in the last 15 years. In other areas, severe erosion is affecting agricultural land (Photo 2.2), where there is essentially no beach at all.

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Photo 2.2

Erosion along agricultural land in Kep (paddy fields and grazing land behind)

Kampot

There is some mild to moderate erosion in the Kampot area, for example the Preak Ampil resort. This may be due to the extensive seaweed farms (covering approximately 20km) fronting this section of coast, as the thousands of stakes and lines along the nearshore area may have altered the near-shore hydrodynamics. Sihanoukville

Erosion around the Ream Naval Base is severe – several structures are threatened and require protection. In addition, further along to the north, there have been a couple of reclamations and land grabbing where seawalls have been built along the beach. These structures may have impacts to the hydrodynamics and exacerbate the erosion problem in this area. There is also some moderate erosion along the eastern side of Ream Bay. It is currently not affecting any structures, however, is mentioned here due to the proposals to construct a coastal road along this stretch. The Ou Tres and Occhuteal beaches suffer some mild erosion in places, as evidenced by scour under tree roots in some areas (Photo 2.3). Along the presently undeveloped areas of these beaches, it is therefore important to observe an appropriate setback from the shoreline for new development, so as to avoid potential damage to property.

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Photo 2.3

Moderate erosion affecting the southeastern end of Ou Tres Beach.

Along Victory beach, there is again the problem with restaurants built too close to the shoreline and having to construct coastal defence as the shoreline retreats (Photo 2.4).

Photo 2.4

Rubble and sand bags protecting some restaurants along Victory beach south (Hawaii south)

Other areas to the north are generally suffering from only mild erosion and there is little development in this area.

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Koh Kong

Many of the beaches are suffering from mild erosion, however, there is no serious erosion or threats to structures or properties. In Koh Kong town towards the Thai border, seawalls have been constructed along the shoreline to protect developments such as the Safari World Theme Park. The seawall is fronted by a narrow sandy beach in most areas, and generally the structures seem sound and there is little actual erosion observed. 2.5.4

Coastal reclamation Several areas are also undergoing land reclamation as part of land speculation/land grabbing that can be observed in many areas along the Cambodian coast (Photo 2.5). This was observed mainly around the relatively urbanised areas of Sihanoukville and Kep, or areas which are being newly developed, such as near the Naval base in Ream and the new port of Oknha Mong at Keo Phos. No actual reclamations were observed in the latter area, however, some of the annexed land lies along the shoreline and the fences have been built very close to the shoreline, almost constituting a seawall of sorts. These reclamations are generally of a small scale, the purpose primarily being to extend the land area for private plots of land; however, their impacts on hydrodynamics and the littoral transport processes may still be significant, particularly for adjacent areas of the coastline which do not have any coastal protection.

Photo 2.5

Recent land reclamation, Kep.

A committee to study and evaluate illegal encroachment on and clearance of mangrove land and reclamation of the seaside for suppressive measures was established recently. The duties and tasks of the committee include taking measures to stop the encroachment activities and to force the return of the encroached/reclaimed land. It is not clear whether the intention is to physically remove any reclaimed land, and no examples of such action were mentioned by any of the governors consulted with during the course of this study. 80

2.5.5

Coastline Cells The coastline of Cambodia has been sub-divided into cells which describe sections of coastline with similar sediment transport and morphological characteristics. The cell division follows the following main criteria: Primary Cell

A primary sediment cell is defined as a section of coast bounded by morphological features around which there is negligible sediment bypass, even during extreme events, or bounded by major rivers where the sediment supply from the river dominates the littoral drift. Thus, coastal construction in one primary cell should have no influence on the shoreline morphology of adjacent cells. Pollution and fine sediments may however be transported by marine currents from one cell to another. For the present assessment, it is not practical to have a too large number of small primary cells, and areas with numerous small primary cells have therefore been lumped into single main cells such that the number of main cells have been kept to 15 for the entire coastline of Cambodia (Figure 2.9).

Figure 2.9

Division of littoral cells along Cambodia’s coastline.

3

LEGAL AND ADMINSTRATIVE FRAMEWORK

3.1

Legal Framework The Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia stipulates that the State shall protect the environment and balance the abundant natural resources. In response to the Constitutional mandate, the government has adopted and promulgated a number of laws, Preach Reach Krets, Anukrets and Prakas for protection and sustainable management and use of natural and mineral resources and the environment. Some of the key laws and regulations relevant to shoreline management are listed here: 81

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

Law on Fisheries Management and Administration (1989); Land Law (1992 and 2001); Preah Reach Kret on Creation of Protected Natural Areas (1993); Law on the Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction (1994); Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resources Management (1996); Law on Forestry (2002); Law on Mineral Resources Management and Mining Exploitation (2001); Law on Commune/Sangkat Administrative Management (2001); Preach Reach Kret on Creation of Fisheries Communities (2005); Anukret on Environmental Impact Assessment (1999); Anukret on Water Pollution Control (1999); Anukret on Solid Waste Management (1999); Anukrets on establishment of protected forests, natural resources conservations, wildlife protection areas, protected forest for biodiversity conservation (2002 and 2004).

In addition, the Royal Government of Cambodia is in the process of drafting a few other relevant laws including: • • • •

draft law on natural protected areas; draft law on fisheries; draft law on water resources management; draft Prakas on Participatory Land Use Planning

The various laws provide both civil and criminal penalties for violation. Each law specifies the institution responsible for management and enforcement as well as the required collaboration among the various institutions and authorities.

3.2

Institutional Arrangements related to Shoreline Management The government has established a number of institutions to lead and be responsible for the management, protection and sustainable use of the resources and environment. The key ministries and institutions involved in these matters are the Council for Development of Cambodia; the Ministry of Environment; the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry; the Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction; the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy; the Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology; the Ministry of Public Works and Transport; the Ministry of Tourism; the Ministry of Rural Development; the Forest Administration; the Autonomous Port Authority for Sihanoukville International Port; and the Commune/Sangkat Councils. Coordination among the State bodies that share responsibility for regulating the use of natural resources takes place through the mechanism for making joint decisions on licences for the use of natural resources, e.g. Inter-Ministerial Committees. Pertinent coordinating bodies include: (i)

The National Committee for Land Management Urbanisation and Construction, created in 1997 to regulate construction activity based on a zoning plan;

(ii)

The National Coastal Steering Committee was established by a decision of the Royal Government of Cambodia in 2001 for facilitate coastal zone management and protect the environment and natural resources in the coastal zone, in an effort to improve the living conditions for coastal population through the sustainable use and development of the coastal zone. 82

3.3

(iii)

The Coastal Coordinating Unit pays as secretariat for National Coastal Steering Committee within MOE. The unit is responsible for coordinating coastal activities, reporting and making recommendations to NCSC for approvals.

(iv)

The Commission on Monitoring and Assessing for Suppressing Encroachment into mangrove land and coastal reclamation was established by a decision of the Royal Government of Cambodia (Decision # 28 S.S.R of 2005). The Committee composition includes Minister of Environment, MoI SS, MLMUPC SS, MAFF SS, MoT SS, Governors (Sihanoukville, Kep, Kompot, Koh Kong). The duties and tasks of the committee include taking measures to stop the encroachment activities, to force the turn of the encroached/reclaimed land, and to order the culprit to replant the mangrove for replacing the felled/cleared mangroves.

Summary and Conclusions There are a number of laws and regulations relating to the management of natural resources and land use in the coastal zone, which, on the whole, provide a solid basis for shoreline management. In addition, multi-sectoral issues may be addressed by the Coordination committee for coastal zone management in addition to other committees established to address specific shoreline management and/or coastal zone management issues which extend through the areas of interest of several institutions. However, in many instances, the legislation lacks the implementation mechanisms. Discussions held with officers of various ministries and provincial level government have highlighted that existing laws are not well implemented or enforced due to the following constraints, uncontrolled development, wealthy people's interests and technical constraints (human resources, monitoring equipment, local awareness of the laws and lack of provincial power in the control of natural resource use).

3.4

Shoreline Management Issues Observations from the shoreline survey and the discussions with the Ministries and local government officials have indicated a number of significant issues related to shoreline management, namely: • • • • •

Uncontrolled construction along the shoreline; Erosion Water Pollution; Conservation of natural habitats; Monitoring and enforcement.

These issues are briefly summarised here. 3.4.1

Uncontrolled construction along the shoreline The problem of unplanned land reclamations and coastal protection works along the shoreline goes hand in hand with the issue of land grabbing. According to the Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction, no land titles or licenses are issued in the sea, and reclamation is not permitted. However, this is clearly not adhered to. Land reclamations carried out in a haphazard or ad hoc manner apart from detracting (in most cases) from the landscape value of the coastline, also changes the hydrodynamics along the shoreline, affecting littoral transport and potentially causing changes in shoreline morphology of adjacent areas. 83

3.4.2

Erosion Moderate to severe coastline erosion is presently limited to a few several areas. This classification takes account of the economic value of land potentially threatened by erosion, thus actual shoreline erosion is occurring in a number of other places, however, is classified as mild as these areas are largely undeveloped. In some areas, erosion affects agricultural land and thus affects the rural poor. In urban areas, erosion threatens restaurants, small guesthouses and in some cases, coastal roads. In these built up areas, erosion in some cases has been exacerbated by human interference, with the construction of seawalls, groynes and revetments. These can affect littoral transport, for example, seawalls and revetments inmobilise sediment at its source thereby reducing the supply down the coast. Recommendations Clearer allocation of responsibilities

After review of the institutional framework and consultation with government stakeholders at the national and provincial level, it is still unclear as to who is responsible for monitoring shoreline erosion, and for implementation of shoreline protection or defense works. Currently this seems to be carried out in a piecemeal process by the Provincial authorities, based only upon complaints from the public. The Ministry of Public Works and Transportation appears to play an advisory role in terms of design specifications for implementing agencies, for example the Port of Sihanoukville in constructing a breakwater; while the Public works department at the province level similarly provides such input. There is no system to monitor erosion, and no decision support tools to assess when action (in terms of shoreline defense) is required, nor are there guidelines for assessment of design specifications for coastal engineering works. The first step would therefore to assign clearer responsibilities for this to a relevant department, such as Ministry of Public Works and Transportation, Ministry of Land Management, Urbanisation and Construction or the Ministry of Water Resources and Meterology. The relevant ministry should establish a Coastal Engineering Center or department at the provincial level to implement a coastal erosion control programme. Integrated Shoreline Management Plan

The prioritisation and design of coastal protection works can be seen as a short term strategy required to mitigate the effects of existing development which is too close to the shoreline. A longer term strategy is to give due consideration to the consequences of erosion when undertaking development so as to avoid the need for expensive protection works, i.e. through control of land use and development near the shoreline. This can be accomplished with the preparation and implementation of a Shoreline Management Plan. Outcomes of the Shoreline Management Plan investigation would be a detailed zoning plan, specifying setback limits from the shoreline, costbenefit analyses of coastal protection and waste management works. This is described in more detail in Section 3.8 below. 3.4.3

Water Pollution Waste disposal, in terms of solid wastes, sewage, industrial, agricultural and other waste products is an increasing issue in the urbanised areas where there are industries, but also around water villages. Floating rubbish and discharge of sewage from urban areas as well as effluents from for example, duck farm and industries into rivers and waterways can produce impacts such as: 84

• • • • • •

Threats to public health and safety Degrading effect on aesthetic appearance General degradation of various habitats Reduction of tourism potential and threats to existing tourism operations Specific threats to sensitive habitats (coral reefs, seagrass beds, etc.) Reduction in fishing /mariculture potential caused by pollution

Recommendations

• Inland policies and practices, for instance in terms of buffer zones around water ways, should be reviewed and updated if necessary. • Mangroves should be replanted in areas (e.g. around salt farms) where they have been cleared right up to the shoreline and river banks • Waste management prioritising the larger water/coastal villages. • Monitoring and control over effluent discharge from industries 3.4.4

Conservation of Natural Habitats Much mangrove area has been lost due to the development of shrimp ponds and salt farms, despite the fact that mangroves are defined as public areas under the Land Law (2001), while other areas have been severely disturbed due to the collection of wood for charcoal and other uses. Protected mangrove areas (either formal or through community-based initiatives) have been established, however, observations show that illegal harvesting of mangrove poles still occur in these areas, although these designations do generally safeguard against outright conversion to other land uses. Seagrass areas are under threat from land based pollution and runoff, trawling in nearshore areas and seaweed farming. Although the MAFF policy is that seaweed farms may not be established over seagrass beds, according to the existing data, the seaweed zones overlap with seagrass areas. Apart from direct shading impacts, seaweed farms may also cause increases in organic matter in the sediments and surrounding waters owing to detritus and deposition of algal matter on the seabed. Recommendations

There should be a regional perspective in assigning mangrove areas for the domestic use and consumption of villagers (under a sustainable community management programme) and those areas which should be left undisturbed/totally protected. Mangrove replanting efforts (in areas historically under mangrove) should firstly focus on fringing coastal mangrove areas and along river banks. Nearshore trawling affects the seagrass beds as well as the artisanal fishermen. Enforcement of the restriction of commercial fishing to outside the 20m zone (as per Fisheries Law) should be prioritised. The Department of Fisheries should prioritise surveys in these areas to determine the distribution and status of seagrass to be certain that they are not directly impacted by seaweed farms. It is recommended that the hydrodynamic and environmental effects of the seaweed farming industry be investigated in detail, particularly before full development of the seaweed zones proposed by the Department of Fishery. Environmental impacts assessments for siting of heavy industries with high potential pollutant loadings nearby seagrass areas (i.e. within the same cell or adjacent cells) should specifically examine in detail potential impacts on the seagrass beds in terms 85

of morphological impacts, sedimentation, suspended sediments and water quality, and, where relevant, thermal plume impacts. 3.4.5

Monitoring and Enforcement Many of the varying problems or issues observed during the coastline assessment, such as effluent discharge from industries, clearing of mangroves, nearshore trawling, uncontrolled development in the shoreline to name a few of the more widespread examples, arise from disregard of established laws and regulations. For example, in all the above mentioned problems, these activities are specifically addressed in existing legislations and guidelines – the Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resources Management (1996) under the purview of the Ministry of Environment (Department of Monitoring & Pollution Control) controlling effluent discharge in the first case; Law on Fisheries Management and Administration (1989), under the purview of the Department of Fisheries for mangrove clearing and nearshore trawling and the Law on the Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction (1994) and Land Law (2001) controlling land development and construction. It is therefore clear that the weak link arises from enforcement of all the above and other well intentioned legislation.

3.5

General Shoreline Management Policies

3.5.1

Risk Minimisation Risks to any development near the shoreline arise from flooding and storm surge; erosion by the sea; and land slides. These areas of risk should be identified, and, where possible, the management policy is avoidance. In particular, new development should not generally be permitted in areas which would need expensive engineering works, either to protect developments on land subject to erosion by the sea or to defend land which might be inundated by the sea. There is also the need to consider the possibility of such works causing a transfer of risks to other areas. In order to minimise such risks, development should be prohibited in areas prone to active morphological processes such as river mouths. In other areas, an appropriate development setback should be determined and applied. No permanent structures should be built within the required setback line. A detailed study of shoreline morphology, littoral transport rates should be prioritised to determine setback limits. Coastal protection and defence

Where development in higher-risk areas cannot be avoided, the policy is to ensure, to the best possible level of certainty given the prevailing knowledge, that coastal defence structures are sound, effective and safe. Protection against erosion and defence against flooding can have a considerable effect on the coastal environment. Whilst improvements to existing sea defence works are not usually subject to control, formal approval from either the Ministry of Public Works and Transportation or the provincial level departments and local authority is required for new works. The impact of the design and the construction materials on the environment and their natural movement along the coast should be taken into account in reaching planning decisions. Many parts of Cambodia’s coastline are fringed with mangroves and other forests. In keeping with the policy of the Cambodian Government, mangrove forests should be protected for the dual purposes of shoreline protection and habitat conservation. The protection of mangrove forests is discussed further in Section 3.5.2. 86

3.5.2

Conservation of natural habitats The potential impact of development on the natural environment is a major concern voiced by many stakeholders consulted. In that regard, the policy for shoreline management is for the conservation of natural beauty and amenity of the land and, related in many ways to this, the conservation of natural habitats such as seagrass and mangrove areas. Development, particularly those with high polluting potential should be discouraged near critical sub-tidal nursery areas for fish and other aquatic resources. Particular care should be taken to assess the impact of proposals affecting estuaries and seim-enclosed bays, not only on the immediate site and surroundings, but also of the cumulative effects on water quality of the estuary. Nearshore fishing grounds are an important resource for coastal communities and thus should be taken into consideration when planning shoreline usage and the siting of potentially polluting industries.

3.5.3

Policies for Developments Requiring a Coastal Location A wide range of uses and activities can be found in the coastal areas of Cambodia including: Tourism Tourism development is identified by the government authorities as one of the main sectors with potential along the shoreline. The coastal tourism strategy is currently to focus development on Sihanoukville and Koh Kong due to the lack of infrastructure in other areas and the limited budget for development. However, the need to preserve other areas of coastline with good beaches, water quality and scenic beauty for potential future (long-term) tourism development should also be recognised. Recreation

The coast is a popular destination for recreational activities for international and local tourists, as well as the local population. The constitution of Cambodia declares the coastline as State property, and hence public access to the beach and the coast generally should be a basic principle, unless it can be demonstrated that public access is damaging to nature environment or impractical because the area is hazardous or that the land is used as a military range. Industry

Many major industries require access to the shoreline for example for shipping or cooling water, including refineries, ports, and oil and gas terminals. These developments are of importance to the national economy and hence selected areas for industry should be set aside. The site selection process should consider feasibility in terms of the physical environment (topography, bathymetry, etc.) and avoid environmentally and culturally sensitive areas. Quarrying

Extraction of sand and gravel along the shoreline and in nearshore areas needs to be undertaken with considerable care. For instance it should be noted that whilst dunes and beaches may contain valuable resources of sand and gravel, the removal of such materials may adversely affect the stability of the coastal environment and increase the rate of coastal erosion or vulnerability to flooding.

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Aquaculture

The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries do not promote shrimp pond aquaculture. The focus is on other endeavours such as seaweed farming, fish cage culture, crab or mollusc culture. In keeping with this, sufficient area should be set aside for aquaculture development, whilst at the same time ensuring sustainability through appropriate site selection and management.

3.6

Draft Management Objectives Based on the rapid assessment of the shoreline carried out for this study, a number of issues related to shoreline management have emerged, and the general policies outlined above aim to address these issues. To fulfil these policies in the shoreline management planning context, it is useful to have a number of management objectives from which one to several can be applied to a particular stretch of shoreline, based on the existing environmental conditions of that stretch of coast. Although a comprehensive set of management objectives can only really be formulated with a thorough understanding of the shoreline environment which requires detailed studies, a number of generic management objectives have been proposed and may be categorised under the four main environmental sectors: • Physical/Chemical: this sector includes morphology, met-ocean conditions, construction and water quality related objectives. • Biological/Ecological: this sector includes objectives relating to the marine, intertidal and terrestrial habitats and biological resources • Socio-cultural: this sector includes objectives relating to the economic and social welfare of the coastal population • Economic: this sector is primarily related to State-wide commercial objectives Each sector contains a series of subsectors, under which are the Management Objectives themselves. A total of 30 Management Objectives have been proposed for the Cambodian shoreline.

3.7

Draft Management Strategies Two main categories of management strategies are proposed: Category A: Development Permitted Category B: Development Prohibited There are a number of management strategies under Category A, which relate to the types of development activities or landuses that are permissible under certain conditions. There are two strategies under the Prohibited category (B), the first relating to environmental conservation objectives and the second related to risk due to physical constraints. Altogether, 14 management strategies are proposed at present (Table 3.1), however, it must be noted that to develop a full shoreline management plan, a wider range of strategies should be considered, taking into account national development policies and strategies, and with extensive input from the government authorities and other stakeholders. Table 3.1

Management Strategies

Category

Class

Strategy

DEVELOPMENT PERMITTED

Standard Conditions

High Density Tourism Low/ Medium Density Tourism Commercial Development Light Industry

88

Category

Class

Strategy Heavy Industry Housing

Development Area

Small scale development Large scale development

Restricted Development

Industry Housing Tourism Nature Tourism Environmental Protection and Conservation

PROHIBITED DEVELOPMENT

3.8

Active Morphology and Inundation

Shoreline Management Plan Preparation The overall aim of a detailed shoreline management study is to generate an Integrated Shoreline Management Plan, which establishes a clear framework of strategic guidelines and sustainable policies for effective management of Cambodia’s shorelines, which can be put before the environmental and planning authorities for approval and subsequent gazetting and implementation in order to: • Identify areas presently at risk from coastal erosion and/or those areas likely to become endangered by coastal erosion in the future and prioritize the requirement for coastal protection initiatives based upon the magnitude of the erosion and the environmental benefit resulting from the protection works. • Identify areas presently suffering marine pollution or those areas likely to become polluted in the future and prioritize the requirement for intervention at the pollution source and/or other mitigation or abatement strategies • Regulate development in the shoreline area to avoid incremental coastal erosion and other negative environmental impacts • Identify areas of environmental significance that should be protected or otherwise conserved and/or enhanced • Identify hinterland issues that are causing shoreline impacts and the required steps to control or otherwise mitigate these issues • To define objectives within the coastal tourism industry by weighing the benefits of developing this sector against other sector planning issues and environmental considerations • To identify areas most suitable for future expansion of coastal medium and heavy industry in terms of marine access (ports and jetties) and coastal processes, taking into account relevant hinterland planning issues. The steps in the preparation of a shoreline management plan is illustrated in Figure 3.1 below.

89

Figure 3.1

3.8.1

Steps in the preparation of a Shoreline Management Plan

Baseline study In order to address the aims of shoreline management listed above, a detailed understanding of the shoreline environment and physical processes is required. A baseline study would normally comprise: 1. Data Collection – secondary data collection and field surveys where necessary 2. Numerical Modelling - Numerical modelling is a tool used to supplement and expand upon existing data and as a predictive tool to assess future scenarios. Numerical models are used to obtain a detailed understanding of: • Tide and ocean currents • Nearshore wave conditions • Water quality and riverine sediment plumes (see example of modelling results for Sabah, Malaysia in Figure 3.2). • Littoral processes

90

650 600 550 500

(kilometer)

450 400 350

Kota Kinabalu

300 BOD dissolved (mg/l) Above 0.45 0.4 - 0.45 0.35 - 0.4 0.3 - 0.35 0.25 - 0.3 0.2 - 0.25 0.15 - 0.2 0.1 - 0.15 0.05 - 0.1 0 - 0.05 Below 0

250 200 150

N

100 50 300

400

500

600 700 (kilometer)

800

900

1000

12/01/03 00:00:00

Figure 3.2

3.8.2

Map of simulated BOD concentration around Sabah on the 1 December 2003.

Identification of Management Units Based upon the physical, biological and social characteristics of the shoreline, the boundaries of the management units to be used for the management plan shall be defined.

3.8.3

Setting of Management Objectives Based upon the detailed knowledge of the coastline and existing national development policies, generic shoreline management objectives shall be formulated. Following this, management objectives for each management unit need to be selected. The setting of objectives addresses the often-conflicting issues of development and environmental conservation and thus stakeholder participation is required at this stage.

3.8.4

Setting of Management Strategies Based on the objectives formulated above, a set of management strategies are developed. Following this, one strategy for each management unit is selected, which best fulfils the management objectives selected for that unit.

3.8.5

Plan Preparation Based upon the overall coastal management objectives, management strategies and identified management units, a working plan is prepared. Feedback from relevant stakeholders is essential at this stage. Once consensus on the basic management plan is reached, specific plans (maps) are drawn up. These maps constitute the main point of reference for implementation of the SMP.

3.8.6

Implementation and Review As with coastal zone management in general, implementation of a shoreline management plan requires strong cross-ministry and departmental cooperation and 91

coordination. This may involve publicising the plan to the public, investors, industry, provincial departments and offices and local government administration. An SMP in Cambodia should be incorporated into the Master Plan or Land Use Plans required under the Law on Land management, urban planning and construction (1994).

3.9

Scale Shoreline management plans have been formulated at very different scales, depending on the nature of the study (regional SMP or for example, for one province). In Sabah, Malaysia, the SMP was classified as regional in scale, with 552 management units for 2,474 km of shoreline, including lagoons. A typical extract from the SMP is shown in Figure 3.3. For the North Pahang SMP, Malaysia, a detailed SMP was prepared with 173 management units in 110km of study area, with each unit divided into coastal and backshore units between the shoreline and nearest coastal road. An example of this more detailed planning scale is shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.3

Example of the Spatial Plan produced by the West Coast of Sabah SMP

92

Figure 3.4

Example of the Spatial Plan produced by the North Pahang SMP

From a planning control point of view, the North Pahang SMP detailed approach at the cadastral level is clearly preferable. However, this would depend greatly on the level of detailed data available for an SMP study. In the North Pahang case, cadastral boundaries were available in GIS format, while the Local Plans were already in place, driving much of the management unit delineation. In contrast, a land register system in Cambodia is just being setup, while there are no Local Plans developed for the coastal districts, with the exception of the Sihanoukville Coastal Use Zoning Scheme. It is therefore recommended that a regional SMP be prepared for the entire coastline of Cambodia, at a scale similar to the Sabah SMP. The sample SMP for the Sihanoukville area prepared for the present study is indicative of the scale that may be expected for a regional study, with a total of 23 management units along approximately 35 km of shoreline (Figure 3.5).

93

Figure 3.5

3.10

Management units for Cells 6 & 7 in Sihanoukville.

Responsibilities Due to the level of detail and technical considerations, management plans in most parts of the world are prepared by private consultants, facilitated or commissioned through a key government agency. For example, the shoreline management Plan study for Sabah, Malaysia, was commissioned by the State government through the Environment Protection Department, while in Pahang, West Malaysia, the facilitating body was the Department of Irrigation and Drainage, which has responsibilities for coastal engineering. In both cases, however, several other agencies are involved both in the process of plan preparation and implementation. In other areas such as the UK, where there has been a long history of shoreline management planning, SMP studies are generally commissioned by the local authorities (town councils). In Cambodia, the most likely implementing agency would be the Ministry of Environment, as a Coastal Coordinating Unit has already been established. The shoreline study and preparation of the plan would also most likely involve the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Ministry of Meterology and Water Resources, Ministry of Public Works and Construction, Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction and the provincial departments.

4

FOCUS AREA SIHANOUKVILLE Shoreline management units and a sample shoreline management plan for Cells 6 and 7 within the Sihanoukville area have been formulated. Preparation of a full shoreline management plan takes full consideration of adopted policies and regulatory system, extensive data collection, including land use and environmental conditions. Clearly the present initial assessment carried out in preparation of the shoreline management strategy cannot be comprehensive, however, effort has been made to tie in with local 94

strategies and policies for Sihanoukville and to obtain some information with respect to the biological/ecological and socio-economic aspects.

4.1

Management Unit delineation The management units for the Sihanoukville area are established on the basis of coherent: • • • •

Coastal processes (littoral drift, sediment type, etc.) Erosion threat and coastal protection requirements Beach quality Hinterland land use

In addition, existing development proposals and the Sihanoukville coastal zoning scheme were also taken into consideration. There are a total of 23 management units within Cells 6 and 7 (see Figure 3.5 above).

4.2

Selection of Management Objectives Management objectives applied are as described in Section 3.6. In addition, the overall policies contained in the Sihanoukville Coastal Strategy and Coastal Use Zoning Scheme were taken into account. In order to develop specific objectives for the management units, a matrix was used to identify the objectives for a particular coastal feature within a management unit as well as to rank them in terms of importance. Where multiple objectives, or resource use conflicts exist, the matrix provides a more transparent method by which one objective may be given precedence over another. As for most decision making processes, prioritisation of issues is subjective. The selection of management objectives for each management unit would thus normally be carried out with stakeholder consultation, especially to determine the local perception of each feature/benefit. Due to time constraints, this was not carried out for the sample area.

4.3

Selection of Management Strategies Based on the critical issues identified along the coastline and the management objectives, a list of management strategies has been formulated as described in Section 3.7. For each management unit, the management strategy that best fulfils the highest ranked objective is selected. The management units and strategies for Cell 6 and 7 are shown in Figures 5.1 and 5.2 below.

95

Figure 4.1

Management units and strategies in Cell 6, Sihanoukville

96

Figure 4.2

4.4

Management units and strategies in Cell 7, Sihanoukville

Management Unit Descriptions There are 23 Management Units for the focus area in Sihanoukville, encompassing Cells 6 and 7. These are described in detail in Volume I, Section 5. For each management unit, a general description of the environment is provided; followed by a short-list of the ‘benefits’ and the main issues identified within the unit. Benefits may include for example: • A beach: • landscape value • recreational amenity • potential for tourism development • A headland with a small resort: • Geomorphological value • Landscape value • Small scale tourism development Issues within a particular management unit may include for example, erosion, water pollution, land-grabbing, etc. 97

The management objectives identified for each unit and their ranking are also listed. Each management unit has one identified management strategy, and, where relevant, a setback distance from the high water line has been recommended.

98

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