Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Psychology

Definition and Characteristics

Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is an approach to psychology that emphasizes internal mental
processes
OR
Cognitive Psychology the field of psychology that studies how the mind organizes
perceptions, processes information, and interprets experiences.
The field of cognitive psychology is based on following characteristics
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Intelligence
Thinking
Perception
Learning
Memory
Cognitive –Neuro Psychology

A.R Saulat

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Cognitive Psychology

Intelligence

 Intelligence:
The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources
effectively when faced with challenges


Theories of Intelligence:
There are four different theories regarding intelligence:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Triarchic Theory
Raymond Cattell’s Theory
Charles Spearman’s Theory
Howard Gardner’s Theory
Biological Theory

1. Triarchic Theory:
This theory was proposed by Robert J. Sternberg. According to this theory
intelligence is how well an individual deals with environmental changes
throughout their lifespan. He distinguishes among three aspects of intelligence

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Cognitive Psychology

Intelligence

2. Raymond Cattell’s Theory:
Psychologist Raymond Cattell first proposed the concepts of fluid and crystallized
intelligence and further developed the theory with John Horn. He suggests that
their are two different kinds of intelligence
 Fluid Intelligence:
Fluid intelligence involves being able to think and reason abstractly and solve
problems. This ability is considered independent of learning, experience, and
education. Example of the use of fluid intelligence include solving puzzles
 Crystallized Intelligence:
Crystallized intelligence involves knowledge that comes from prior learning
and past experiences. Situations that require crystallized intelligence include
reading comprehension and vocabulary exams.
3. Charles Spearman’s Theory:
In 1927 Charles Spearman proposed a general intelligence factor or g-factor or g,
which underlies all intelligent behavior. He was of the view that intelligence is
general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed.
4. Biological Theory:
Researchers have identified several areas of brain e.g. lateral prefrontal cortex,
which are related to the intelligence referring them as “workspace”. This
workspace is responsible for the organization and coordination of information and
helps to transfer material to other parts of brain. In this view, functioning of the
workspace represent general intelligence.

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Cognitive Psychology

Intelligence

5. Howard Gardner’s Theory:
In the 1980s and 1990s, psychologist Howard Gardner proposed the idea of 8 kinds
of intelligence, which are relatively independent of one another. These eight types
of intelligence are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Linguistic: This area has to do with words, spoken or written
Logical–mathematical: This area has to do with logic, abstractions,
reasoning and numbers
Musical: This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and
music.
Spatial: This area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize
with the mind's eye
Bodily-kinesthetic: It involve skills related with using whole body or its
various parts in the solution of the problem
Interpersonal: This area has to do with interaction with others
Intrapersonal: This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective
capacities
Nature: Ability to identify and classify patterns in nature

Gardner believes that each of these domains of intelligence has inherent value but
that culture and context may cause some domains to be emphasized over others.

 Intelligence Testing
The psychometric approach to intelligence emphasizes people’s performance on
standardized aptitude tests. Achievement tests measure skills and knowledge that
people have already learned. Aptitude tests predict people’s future ability to
acquire skills or knowledge.
Intelligence tests can be given individually or to groups of people. The best-known
individual intelligence tests are the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
a) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
b) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
c) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
A.R Saulat

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Cognitive Psychology

Intelligence

a) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale:

Alfred Binet was a french psychologist whom the french government
commissioned with developing a method of identifying intellectually deficient
children. In 1905 the result was Binet - Simon scale that gives the intellectual
capacity of children through 30 different questions. Binet incorporated the
concepts of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) mental age given by William Stern.
In 1916 it was reviewed by Lewis Terman of Stanford University who proposed
that formula that was (M.A/C.A) should be multiplied by 100 for getting rid of
the decimals. Thus gives the present formula for Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
(M.A/C.A)×100.
The Stanford-Binet was revised in 1937, 1960, 1973, and 1986.
Mental age: an individual's level of mental development relative to others
b) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
David Wechsler published the first test for assessing intelligence in adults in
1939. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale contains many items that assess
nonverbal reasoning ability and therefore depends less on verbal ability that does
the Stanford-Binet. It also provides separate scores of verbal intelligence and
nonverbal or performance intelligence, as well as a score that indicates overall
intelligence.
c) The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children is an intelligence test which
produces an IQ or intelligence quotient. It was developed by Dr. David Wechsler
in 1949. The test measure verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working
memory and processing speed.

 Artificial Intelligence:
It is the capability of a computer to perform functions that are normally associated
with human intelligence, such as reasoning, learning or self-improvement. Scientists
are now-a-days trying to incorporate the field of robotics with AI so the problem of
man power would be solved and efficiency would increase. Robotics is the branch of
technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of
robots

A.R Saulat

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Cognitive Psychology

Intelligence

 Thinking:
Thinking is the manipulation of mantel representation of information. Thinking
transforms information into novel and different forms, permitting people to answer
questions, solve problem and reach goals.
 Kinds of Thinking:
There are two principle kinds of thinking
a) Autistic Thinking
b) Realistic Thinking
Autistic Thinking:
Fantasy dreams and wishful thinking are all examples of autistic or
unrealistic thinking. It is an end in itself and not a mean to an end. There are
two types of autistic thinking:
1. Dreaming
2. Day-Dreaming
Realistic Thinking:
Another name for realistic thinking is reasoning which helps us to adjust to
the world. Reasoning is often motivated to reach solution of problem
involving an individual livelihood. There are three types of reasoning:
1. Deductive
2. Inductive
3. Evaluative
 Problem Solving:
Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and
solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles
and find a solution that best resolves the issue.

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Cognitive Psychology

Intelligence

The Steps in Problem-Solving
In order to correctly solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps.
Many researchers refer to this as the problem-solving cycle, which includes
developing strategies and organizing knowledge. While this cycle is portrayed
sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution.
Instead, we often skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until
the desired solution is reached.
1.

Identifying the Problem: While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying
the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might
mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to
solve it inefficient or even useless.

2.

Defining the Problem: After the problem has been identified, it is important to
fully define the problem so that it can be solved.

3.

Forming a Strategy: The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the
problem. The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the
individual's unique preferences.

4.

Organizing Information: Before coming up with a solution, we need to first
organize the available information. The more information that is available, the
better prepared we will be to come up with an accurate solution.

5.

Allocating Resources: Before we begin to solve a problem, we need to
determine how high priority it is. If it is an important problem, it is probably
worth allocating more resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly
unimportant problem, then we do not want to spend too much of our available
resources

6.

Monitoring Progress: Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress
as they work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward
reaching their goal, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies.

7.

Evaluating the Results: After a solution has been reached, it is important to
evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem.

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Cognitive Psychology

Perception

 Perception:
Perception is a complex cognitive process that is concerned with selection,
organization and interpretation of stimuli. It can be presented by the following
equation:
P=S+M
Where P stands for Perception, S stands for Stimuli and M stands for Meaning
 Depth/Space/Distance Perception:
Depth perception is the brain tendency to see the world in three dimensions even
though the images that strike our retinas have only two dimensions. In other words
the ability to view the world in three dimensions and to perceive distance is known
as Depth Perception.
Cues of Perception:
There are two cues of perception depending upon the involvement of eyes.
These cues are:

a)
b)

Monocular Cues
Binocular Cues

a) Monocular Cues:
As the name indicates monocular cues are those that can operate when only
one eye is looking. There are different types of monocular cues

Cognitive Psychology

Perception

Linear Perception:
In linear perception parallel lines converge with distance
Relative Clearness:
In relative clearness hazy object seen as more distant.
Relative Height:
In relative height smaller image is more distant.
Interposition:
In interposition closer object blocks distant object
Relative Motion:
In relative motion closer objects seem to move faster
Texture:
In the texture perspective object with coarse texture appear closer and the
objects with fine texture appear distant.
b) Binocular Cues:
Binocular cues are those that can operate when only both eyes are looking.
The types of monocular cues are:
Retinal Disparity:
It is an idea that images of an object from the two eyes differ. The closer the
object, the larger the difference (disparity.)
Convergence:
It is extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object that
the brain keeps track of to measure distance.

Cognitive Psychology

Perception

 Perceptual Constancy:
Another important ability that helps people make sense of the world is perceptual
constancy. Perceptual constancy is the ability to recognize that an object remains
the same even when it produces different images on the retina.
Although perceptual constancy relates to other senses as well, visual constancy is
the most studied phenomenon. Different kinds of visual constancies relate to shape,
color, size, brightness, and location.


Shape constancy:
Objects appear to have the same shape even though they make differently
shaped retinal images, depending on the viewing angle.



Size constancy:
Objects appear to be the same size even though their images get larger or
smaller as their distance decreases or increases.



Color constancy:
People see objects as having the same color whether they are different



Location constancy:
Stationary objects don’t appear to move even though their images on the retina
shift as the viewer moves around.

Cognitive Psychology

Perception

 Illusion
An illusion is a misinterpretation of a sensory stimulus. Usually Visual Illusion
Types of Illusion:
There are different types of visual illusion
a) Muller-Lyer Illusion
An optical illusion in which two equally long line segments are perceived to
differ in length because one of the line segments is braced by inward-facing
arrowhead-shaped diagonal lines, but the other line segment is braced by
outward-facing arrowhead-shaped diagonal lines

b) The Ponzo Illusion
In the Ponzo illusion, two identically-sized lines appear to be different sizes
when placed over parallel lines that seem to converge as they recede into the
distance.

c) Zollner Illusion

Cognitive Psychology

Perception

In the Zollner illusion, straight lines appear to move even though they are static.

d) Kanizsa Triangle Illusion
The Kanizsa Triangle is an optical illusion in which a triangle is perceived even
though it is not actually there.

 Movement

Cognitive Psychology

Perception

There are two types of movement
a) Apparent Movement
b) Real Movement
a) Apparent Movement:
It is the movement present in subjective and illusionary visual perception of
movement in the absence of real movement. Apparent movement can be
generated by rapid succession of motionless stimuli that mimic the changes
that occur in true movement e.g. movies
b) Real Movement
Real movement is the that type of movement in which the physical stimulus is
actually moving and we perceive it as moving
 Extra Sensory Perception:
It is an ability to acquire information by paranormal means independent of any
known physical senses or deduction from previous experience. ESP is also
sometimes casually referred to as a sixth sense
 Apperception:
The mental process by which a person makes sense of an idea by assimilating it to
the body of ideas he or she already possesses

Cognitive Psychology

Learning

 Learning:
Learning is acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or
preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information.
OR
Learning is the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge.

 Conditioning:
It is a behavioral process whereby a response becomes more frequent or more predictable
in a given environment as a result of reinforcement, with reinforcement typically being a
stimulus or reward for a desired response.
Types of Conditioning:
There are two types of conditioning namely:
1.
2.
1.

Classical Conditioning.
Operant Conditioning.\
Classical Conditioning:

Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations
between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus i.e. the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS), having unconditioned response (UCR), is
converted into conditioned stimulus CS having Conditioned response (CR) after
conditioning.
The Unconditioned Stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and
automatically triggers a response.
The Unconditioned Response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in
response to the unconditioned stimulus.
The Conditioned Stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a
conditioned response.
The Conditioned Response is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Cognitive Psychology

Learning

Experiment of Pavlov:
From time to time the dog was given access to food, and each presentation was
accompanied (usually slightly preceded) by the occurrence of a neutral event, such as a
flashing light. After several training trials (pairings of light and food), the dog would
salivate at the flash of light, before any food had appear. Salivation at the presentation of
food is called an unconditioned response (UR) [unconditioned response (UR) evoked by
a stimulus before an animal has received any explicit training with that stimulus], since it
occurs automatically (unconditionally). The food is an unconditioned stimulus (US)
[unconditioned stimulus (US) evokes an unconditioned response]. The animal’s tendency
to salivate when the light flashes is conditional on the light having been paired with food,
so this is referred to as a conditioned response (CR) [conditioned response (CR) evoked
by a conditioned stimulus as a result of classical conditioning] and the event that evokes
it as a conditioned stimulus (CS) [conditioned stimulus (CS) evokes a conditioned
response as a result of classical conditioning].
Behaviorists have described four principles associated with classical conditioning. Some
involves the initial establishment of the response, while others describe the disappearance
of a response. These principles are
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Stimulus Generalization
Discrimination

a) Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and
gradually strengthened.
b) Extinction
Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. In
classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with
an unconditioned stimulus.
c) Spontaneous Recovery

Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period
or period of lessened response.
d) Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar
responses after the response has been conditioned.
e) Discrimination
Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other
stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Cognitive Psychology

Learning

2. Operant Conditioning:
It is the form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences
i.e. it is based on reinforcement, which occur when an event following the response, strengthen the
tendency to repeat that response.
Experiment of Skinner:
B.F Skinner did an experiment in which a hungry rat was placed in the operant conditioning chamber
and every time it pressed the lever it was rewarded with a food pellet in the food dish which was used
to reinforce its behavior. Rats scurried around the box randomly touching parts of the floor and wall.
Eventually the rat accidently touched the lever and a food pellet was released. The same sequence was
repeated and with more trials the time taken to press the lever eventually decreased. The random
movements of the rat eventually became deliberate, rats then ate the food as fast as they could press
the lever. Thus he concludes that the rat operated on their environment to receive a food reward
Reinforcement and Punishment:
These are the core ideas of operant conditioning which are either positive (introducing a stimulus to an
organism's environment following a response), or negative (removing a stimulus from an organism's
environment following a response). This creates a total of four basic consequences
a)
b)
c)
d)

Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment

a) Positive reinforcement:
It occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a favorable stimulus (commonly seen as pleasant)
that increases the frequency of that behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food
or sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever.
b) Negative reinforcement:
It occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus (commonly
seen as unpleasant) thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment,
negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages
in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed.
c) Positive punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation")
It occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as introducing a shock
or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
d) Negative punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal")
It occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a favorable stimulus, such as
taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.

Shaping:
Shaping is a procedure in which reinforcement is used to guide a response closer and
closer to a desired response.

Cognitive Psychology

Learning

Reinforcement Schedules:
A reinforcement schedule is the pattern in which reinforcement is given over time.
Reinforcement schedules are of two types
1. Continuous Reinforcement
2. Intermittent Reinforcement
1. Continuous Reinforcement:
In continuous reinforcement, someone provides reinforcement every time a particular
response occurs.
2. Intermittent Reinforcement:
In intermittent or partial reinforcement, someone provides reinforcement on only
some of the occasions on which the response occurs.
Types of Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules
There are four main types of intermittent schedules,
a)
b)
c)
d)

fixed-ratio schedule
variable-ratio schedule
fixed-interval schedule
variable-interval schedule

Fixed-Ratio Schedule:
In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement happens after a set number of responses, such
as when a car salesman earns a bonus after every three cars he sells.
Variable-Ratio Schedule:
In a variable-ratio schedule, reinforcement happens after a random number of
responses.
Fixed-Interval Schedule:
In a fixed-interval schedule, reinforcement happens after a set amount of time, such as
when an attorney at a law firm gets a bonus once a year.
Variable-Interval Schedule:
In a variable-interval schedule, reinforcement happens after random amount of time.

Cognitive Psychology

Learning

Differences between Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

In classical conditioning, the organism
In operant conditioning, the organism
learns an association between two
learns an association between behavior and
stimuli—the UCS and NS (e.g. food
its consequences. Behavior changes
and tone)—that occurs before the
because of the consequence that occurs
natural response (e.g. salivation).
after it.

Classical conditioning usually deals
with reflexive or involuntary
responses such as physiological or
emotional responses.

Operant conditioning usually deals with
voluntary behaviors such as active
behaviors that operate on the environment.

UCS → UCR
NS
CS →CR
Although classical and operant conditionings are different processes, many
learning situations involve both.

Cognitive Psychology

Learning

Operant & Classical Conditioning in Human Settings:
These two conditionings are quite common in human settings some of the
fields regarding these conditioning are:
a) Education
As the child gets good grade in the exams he was reinforced by reward like
trophies, appreciation and cash awards etc i.e. strengthen his/her behavior.
b) Office
When ever an employee show progress in his work owner or boss often
strengthen his/her behavior through bonus
c) Therapy
Operant conditioning techniques are most often used as part of a cognitivebehavioral treatment plan.
d) Child Development
Parents often use operant conditioning, such as rewarding language
Acquisition with hugs and kisses.
e) Advertising
Modern advertising strategies evolved from John Watson's use of
conditioning. The approach is to link an attractive US with a CS (the product
being sold) so the consumer will feel positively toward the product just like
they do with the US.
f) Fear & Anxiety
Many phobias that people experience are the results of conditioning.
For example, while a child rides in a car over a dilapidated bridge, his father
makes jokes about the bridge collapsing and all of them falling into the river
below. The father finds this funny and so decides to do it whenever they
cross the bridge. Years later, the child has grown up and now is afraid to
drive over any bridge. In this case, the fear of one bridge generalized to all
bridges which now evoke fear.

Cognitive Psychology

Learning

 Insight Learning:
This theory was proposed by Wolfgang Kohler. He said that insight learning is a
type of learning or problem solving that happens all-of-a-sudden through
understanding the relationships various parts of a problem rather than through trial
and error.
Sultan, one of Kohler's chimpanzees learned to use a stick to pull bananas from
outside of his cage by putting pieces of stick together. Given two sticks that
could be fitted together to make a single pole that was long enough to reach
the bananas, aligned the sticks and in a flash of sudden inspiration, fitted the
two sticks together and pulled in the bananas. He didn't do this by trial and
error, but had a sort of sudden inspiration or insight
 Observational Learning Theory:
Observational learning, proposed by Albert Bandura, is a type of learning that
occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating novel behavior
executed by others. It is argued that reinforcement has the effect of influencing
which responses one will partake in, more than it influences the actual acquisition
of the new response. Bandura named the process of social learning as
modeling and gave four conditions required for a person to successfully model the
behavior of someone else:
a) Attention to the model-In order for the behavior to be learned, the observer
must be attentive to the modeled behavior.
b) Retention of Details-The observer must be able to recall the modeled
behavior.
c) Motor Reproduction-The observer must have the motor skills to reproduce
the action, the observer
d) Motivation and Opportunity- The observer must be motivated to carry out
the action they have observed and remembered, and must have the
opportunity to do so.
Bobo Doll Experiment
In his famous "Bobo doll" experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and
imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies
observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later
allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions
they had previously observed.

Cognitive Psychology

Learning

 Memory:
Memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and
experiences.
OR
Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain and later
retrieve information.
 The Computer Model:
According to this theory there are three major processes involved in memory
a) Encoding
b) Storage
c) Retrieval
a) Encoding
In order to form new memories, information must be changed into a usable form,
which occurs through the process known as encoding.
b) Storage
Once information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for
later use. Much of this stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the
time, except when we actually need to use it.
c) Retrieval
The retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.

Cognitive Psychology

Memory

 Multi-store Model:
According to the multi-store model of memory proposed in 1968 by Atkinson and
Shiffrin. There are three stages of memory:

a) Sensory Memory:
Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory
information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time,
generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4
seconds for auditory information. We attend to only certain aspects of this sensory
memory, allowing some of this information to pass into the next stage - short-term
memory.
b) Short-Term Memory:
Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are
currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would
be referred to as the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories
generates the information in short-term memory. Most of the information stored in
active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds. While many of
our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information
allows it to continue on the next stage - long-term memory.
c) Long-Term Memory:
Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian
psychology, long-term memory would be call the preconscious and unconscious.
This information is largely outside of our awareness, but can be called into
working memory to be used when needed. Some of this information is fairly easy
to recall, while other memories are much more difficult to access.

Cognitive Psychology

Memory

 Types of Memory:
Psychologists often make distinctions among different types of memory. There are
three main distinctions:
a)
b)
c)
a)

Implicit vs. explicit memory
Declarative vs. procedural memory
Semantic vs. episodic memory

Implicit vs. Explicit Memory
Sometimes information that unconsciously enters the memory affects thoughts and
behavior, even though the event and the memory of the event remain unknown.
Such unconscious retention of information is called implicit memory.
Explicit memory is conscious, intentional remembering of
Remembering a social security number involves explicit memory.

information.

b) Declarative vs. Procedural Memory
Declarative memory is recall of factual information such as dates, words, faces,
events, and concepts. Remembering the capital of Pakistan, the rules for playing
football, and what happened in the last game of the World Series involves
declarative memory. Declarative memory is usually considered to be explicit
because it involves conscious, intentional remembering.
Procedural memory is recall of how to do things such as swimming or driving a
car. Procedural memory is usually considered implicit because people don’t have to
consciously remember how to perform actions or skills.
c) Semantic vs. Episodic Memory
Declarative memory is of two types: semantic and episodic. Semantic memory is
recall of general facts, while episodic memory is recall of personal facts.
Remembering the capital of France and the rules for playing football uses semantic
memory. Remembering what happened in the last game of the World Series uses
episodic memory.

Cognitive Psychology

Memory

 Biological Basis of Memory:
fMRI shows that when people memorized the label “dog” with the sound of a bark
the auditory cortex activated when they retrieved it. Those memorized the label
“dog” to a picture activated their visual cortex when they retrieved it. Retrieving a
memory reactivates the sensory area of the cortex that was involved in the initial
perception of the event.
 Biochemical Basis of Memory:
There are two hypotheses concerning the biochemical basis of memory
The 1st hypothesis is that the basic event of conditioning or learning is the transfer
of RNA molecules from surrounding glial cells into conducting neurons and the
subsequent transformation of the protein synthesizing apparatus of the neuron. The
transfer of RNA across membranes (of activated neurons only) is presumed to be
due to electrophoretic migration in the reversed potential gradient during impulse
conduction.
The 2nd hypothesis is that information is coded for storage in the CNS in the form
of frequency characteristics of spreading action potentials to which a neural
membrane can become tuned by alteration of its protein structure.
 Forgetting:
Forgetting refer to apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in an
individual's long term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which
old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage.
Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first person who studied the phenomenon of
forgetting. Using himself as the sole subject in his experiment, he memorized lists
of three letter nonsense syllable word. He then measured his own capacity to retain
a given list of words after a variety of given time period. He found that forgetting
occurs in a systematic manner, beginning rapidly and then leveling off. Plotting the
result a curve was obtained. This curve was named as forgetting curve.

Cognitive Psychology

Memory

 Theories of Forgetting:
The four main theories of forgetting apparent in the study of psychology are as
follows
a)
b)
c)
d)

Cue-dependent forgetting
Decay theory
Motivated Forgetting
Interference theory

a) Cue-dependent forgetting:
The inability to retrieve information stored in memory because of insufficient cues
for recall. A proper cue can reverse the phenomenon of forgetting. It is also known
as retrieval failure.
b) Decay Theory:
According to decay theory, memory fades with time. Decay explains the loss of
memories from sensory and short-term memory. However, loss of long-term
memories does not seem to depend on how much time has gone by since the
information was learned.
c) Motivated Forgetting:
Sigmund Freud proposed that people forget because they push unpleasant or
intolerable thoughts and feelings deep into their unconscious. He called this
phenomenon repression. The idea that people forget things they don’t want to
remember is also called psychogenic amnesia.
d) Interference Theory:
According to this theory, people forget information because of interference from
other learned information. There are two types of interference: retroactive and
proactive.


Retroactive interference happens when newly learned information makes
people forget old information.



Proactive interference happens when old information makes people forget
newly learned information.

Cognitive Psychology

Memory

 Memory Improvement
There are number of techniques that are used for memory improvement. Some tips
regarding to it are:
a) Focusing attention
b) Avoid cramming by establishing regular study sessions.
c) Structure and organize the information you are studying.
d) Utilize mnemonic devices to remember information.
e) Elaborate and rehearse the information
f) Relating new information to things already know.
g) Visualize concepts to improve memory and recall.
h) Teach new concepts to another person.

 Schema Theory:
Concept of schema theory was firstly introduced in 1932 through the work of
British psychologist Sir Frederic Bartlett. According to this theory, knowledge is
a network of mental frames or cognitive constructs called schema (pl. schemata).
Schemata organize knowledge stored in the long-term memory.

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

 Cognitive Neuropsychology:
Cognitive neuropsychology is a branch of cognitive psychology that aims to
understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific
psychological processes.
&
Cognitive Neuropsychology that investigates human cognitions based on
neuropsychological causes through brain pathology, recording, stimulation or
imaging.
 Studying Brain
There are two types of method for studying brain
a) Invasive Methods
b) Non-Invasive Methods
Method
Computerize
d
Tomography
(CT) scan

Positron
Emission
Tomography
(PET) scan

Magnetic
Resonance
Imaging
(MRI)

How It Works







Non-Invasive Methods
Advantages

X-ray cameras
rotate around
head, combining
images into 3D
picture of brain
structure



High resolution images
of brain structure



Allows direct view of
level of interest

Tracks brain’s
consumption of
radioactive glucose
injection, providing
images of brain
function



Allows researchers to
examine which brain
areas consume most
energy in a given task,
thus providing info
about brain function

Strong magnetic
field causes
disorientation of
atoms in brain;
reorientation =
signal as to soft
tissue density
(picture of brain
structure)





Allows researchers to
examine brain
structure without
exposure to radiation
involved with CT scan
Non-invasive, painless
procedure

Disadvantages



Potential damage
due to high radiation
levels



No information about
brain function





Radiation injection



No information about
brain structure





Lengthy process
Expensive
equipment needed
to create radioactive
isotopes

Can be an
uncomfortable,
claustrophobic
experience
No information about
brain function

Cognitive Psychology
Functional
Magnetic
Resonance
Imaging
(fMRI)

Method
Stereotaxic
Apparatus
(usage of
electrodes)

Stereotaxic
Surgery
(Lesions,
Histology,
Pharmacolo
gy)








Stereotaxic
Atlas



Type of MRI that
detects amount of
blood flow in
different brain
regions (proxy for
oxygen
consumption; brain
function)

Cognitive Neuropsychology





High spatial resolution
(3-6 millimeters)



Non-invasive, painless
procedure

Can be
uncomfortable,
claustrophobic
experience

Quick imaging process

Invasive Methods
How It Works
Advantages
Examine an
 Allows the stimulation
individual’s
of different parts of
behavior after the
brain
electrical
 Allows research on
stimulation through
fluke circumstances
placing conductors
that are difficult to
in their brain
observe in natural
settings
Examine an

Allows for educated
individual’s behavior
guessed about links
after psychosurgery
between brain areas &
creating lesions and
function
effects of certain

Full experimental
drug
control.
Slide studies of the
particular
affected
area.
Different maps of

One can approach
the brain areas are
to any area with the
developed by
help of these maps
examining in detail







Disadvantages
Ethical Issue
Injurious to brain

Damage to brain
Issues
associated with
the subject

-----------

 Sleep
Sleep is just one of many types of consciousness we experience, and sleep itself
comprises several states of consciousness. Even when we’re sleeping, our brains
and bodies continue to work.
Biological Rhythms
Sleep is affected by biological rhythms or periodic physiological changes.
Biological rhythms are regular, periodic changes in a body’s functioning. There are
three types of biological rhythms:

Cognitive Psychology

a) Circadian rhythms
b) Infradian rhythms
c) Ultradian rhythms

Cognitive Neuropsychology

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

a)

Circadian rhythms:
It is a biological cycles that occur about every twenty-four Sleep follows a
circadian rhythm. Hormone secretion, blood pressure, body temperature, and urine
production also have circadian rhythms.

b)

Infradian rhythms:
Biological cycles that take longer than twenty-four hours

c)

Ultradian rhythms:
These are the Biological cycles that occur more thaSleep follows an ultradian
rhythm of about ninety minutes as well as a circadian rhythm. Alertness and
hormone levels also follow ultradian rhythms
Biological rhythms usually synchronize with environmental events such as changes
in daylight. However, experiments have shown that many biological rhythms
continue to have the same cycle even without cues from the environment. Such
biological rhythms are endogenous, which means that they originate from inside
the body rather than depend on outside cues.
The Function of Sleep
Although everyone sleeps, no one really knows why people sleep. Researchers
have proposed several theories to explain how sleep evolved to be a necessary
behavior:
b)

People conserve energy by sleeping periodically.
Sleep has a protective function, as it keeps people tucked away at night, safe
from predators.

c)

Sleep restores body tissues that are depleted during daily activities

a)

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

Sleep Stages
There are five distinct stages of sleep in each cycle:
1↔ 2↔3↔4↔REM
a) Stage 1 Sleep
When people fall asleep, they enter into stage 1 sleep, which lasts just a few
minutes. In this stage heart rate, breathing rate, and body temperature drop, and
muscles relax.
b) Stage 2 Sleep
Stage 2 lasts about twenty minutes and is characterized by short bursts of brain
waves called sleep spindles.
c) Stages 4-3 Sleep
After stage 2 people then pass into slow-wave sleep i.e. stages 3 and 4. In these
stages lasting about thirty minutes, show slow breathing and pulse rates, have limp
muscles, and are difficult to rouse.
d) REM Sleep
At the end of stage 4, people go back through the stages in reverse, from stage 4 to
3 to 2 to 1. When they reach stage 1, instead of waking up, people go into REM, or
rapid eye movement, sleep. REM sleep is a stage of deep sleep in which, brain
wave activity resembles that of an alert person. During REM sleep, pulse rate and
breathing become irregular, eyes move rapidly under closed lids, and muscles
remain very relaxed
The REM stage of sleep gets longer and longer as the night passes, while stage 3
and 4 sleep gets shorter and shorter. During the night’s first sleep cycle, the REM
stage lasts about ten minutes. During the night’s last sleep cycle, people may spend
about forty to sixty minutes in REM sleep. Non-REM sleep becomes shallower as
the night goes on, and eventually the sleeper awakens.

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

Sleep Disorders
Disruptions of sleep or excessive amounts of daytime sleepiness are called sleep disorders.
These may be caused by physiological or psychological factors. Some of the more common
sleep disorders include:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Sleep Apnea
Insomnia
Parasomnia
Sleep Paralysis
Somnambulism
Narcolepsy

a) Sleep Apnea
Snoring may represent a difficulty in keeping the throat open while one sleeps. Its more serious
companion is a chronic medical condition where the affected person repeatedly stops breathing
during sleep. These episodes last 10 seconds or more and cause oxygen levels in the blood to
drop. It can be caused by obstruction of the upper airway, resulting in obstructive sleep apnea, or
by a failure of the brain to initiate a breath, called central sleep apnea
b) Insomnia
Insomnia is an inability to obtain a sufficient amount of sleep to feel rested and can be
characterized either by difficulty falling or staying asleep. It is the most common sleep disorder,
with many potential causes.
c) Parasomnia
Parasomnia is a sleep disorder characterized by abnormal sleep behaviors. Parasomnia involves
unconscious complex, semi-purposeful, and goal-directed behaviors that have meaning or
importance to the individual.
d) Sleep Paralysis or Cataplexy
Sleep paralysis is characterized by a temporary inability to move while transitioning from sleep
to wakefulness, such as when falling asleep or waking up. It may be frightening as one may seem
to be awake, but unable to move. It is common, but may also be a symptom of narcolepsy.
e) Somnambulism
This disorder is characterized by Sleepwalking in which individual become physically active,
they may get up and walk around their room or even carry on a conversation, but they remember
nothing of their actions when they wake up.
f) Narcolepsy
A condition characterized by an extreme tendency to fall asleep whenever in relaxing
surroundings

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

 Eye:

Parts of Eyes:
a) Sclera
It is a tough white layer of connective tissue that covers the entire eyeball except the cornea.
External cover of the sclera keeps the eye moist.
b) Cornea
The cornea is the clear bulging surface in front of the eye. It allows for the passage of light into
the eye and functions as a fixed lens.
c) Iris
It is the colored part of the eye containing a ring of muscles
d) Pupil
The iris surrounds an opening called the pupil, which can get bigger or smaller to allow different
amounts of light through the lens to the back of the eye. In bright light, the pupil contracts to restrict
light intake; in dim light, the pupil expands to increase light intake.
e) Lens
It lies behind the pupil and iris. It can adjust its shape to focus light from objects that are near or far
away.
f) Retina
It is a thin layer of neural tissue that contain rod and cones that helps in establishing an image
g) Fovea
It is the center of the retina where vision is sharpest.
h) Blind Spot
It is the point of entry of the optic nerve on the retina, insensitive to light. It is an area where a
person's view is obstruct
Function of Eye:

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

Light enters the eye through a small hole called the pupil and is focused on the retina. Eye had a
focusing lens, which focuses images from different distances on the retina. The colored ring of
the eye, the iris, controls the amount of light entering the eye. It closes when light is bright and
opens when light is dim. A tough white sheet called sclera covers the outside of the eye providing
moisture. Front of sclera is transparent, known as the cornea, in order to allow the light to enter
the eye. Ciliary muscles in ciliary body control the focusing of lens automatically. Inverted
image formed on the retina is transmitted to brain by optic nerve. The image is finally perceived
by brain through visual cortex

Colour Perception:
Color perception is the capacity of an individual to distinguish objects based on the wavelengths
(or frequencies) of the light they reflect, emit, or transmit.

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

Theories of Colour Perception:
There are two theories of colour perception
a) The Trichromatic Theory
b) The Opponent Process Theory
a) The Trichromatic Theory
Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz proposed the trichromatic theory,
or Young-Helmholtz theory. This theory states that the retina contains three types
of cones, which respond to light of three different wavelengths, corresponding to
red, green, or blue. Activation of these cones in different combinations and to
different degrees results in the perception of other colors.
b) Opponent process theory
Ewald Hering proposed the opponent process theory. According to this theory, the
visual system has receptors that react in opposite ways to three pairs of colors. The
three pairs of colors are red versus green, blue versus yellow, and black versus
white. Some receptors are activated by wavelengths corresponding to red light and
are turned off by wavelengths corresponding to green light. Other receptors are
activated by yellow light and turned off by blue light. Still others respond
oppositely to black and white. Opponent process theory also accounts for
complementary or negative afterimages. Afterimages are colors perceived after
other, complementary colors are removed. When one member of the colour pair is
"fatigued" by extended inspection, inhibition of its corresponding pair member is
reduced. This increases the relative activity level of the unfatigued pair member
and results in its colour being perceived.
Color Blindness
Color blindness, or color vision deficiency, refers to the inability of a person to
correctly distinguish certain colors. Color vision problems range from the inability
to see different shades of a color to not being able to see certain colors at all.

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

Causes of Color Blindness:
Color blindness is caused by cells in the retina that incorrectly process colors.
Specialized cone cells, which are responsible for color vision, lack the ability to
send the correct signals to the brain. Color blindness is usually hereditary. About
eight percent of men and one percent of women are color vision deficient. More
males are affected by the disorder than females.
Occasionally, certain eye diseases cause color blindness, referred to as "acquired
color blindness." Aging can also cause the disorder; as the lens darkens with age,
older people may find it difficult to distinguish colors.
Stroop effect
The Stroop effect is a demonstration of the reaction time of a task. When the name
of a color (e.g., "blue," "green," or "red") is printed in a color not denoted by the
name (e.g., the word "red" printed in blue ink instead of red ink), naming the color
of the word takes longer and is more prone to errors than when the color of the ink
matches the name of the color. The effect is named after John Ridley Stroop who
first published the effect in English in 1935. This phenomenon occur as our right
hemisphere try to read colour and our left hemisphere try to read the written word.

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

 Language:
Language is a system of symbols and rules that is used for meaningful
communication. A system of communication has to meet certain criteria in order to
be considered a language:
a) A language uses symbols, which are sounds, gestures, or written characters
that represent objects, actions, events, and ideas. Symbols enable people to
refer to objects that are in another place or events that occurred at a different
time.
b) A language is meaningful and therefore can be understood by other users of
that language.
c) A language is generative, which means that the symbols of a language can
be combined to produce an infinite number of messages.
d) A language has rules that govern how symbols can be arranged. These rules
allow people to understand messages in that language even if they have
never encountered those messages before.
The Building Blocks of Language
Language is organized hierarchically, from phonemes to morphemes to phrases and
sentences that communicate meaning.
a) Phonemes
These are the smallest distinguishable units in a language.
b) Morphemes
These are the smallest meaningful units in a language. In the English language,
only a few single letters, such as I and a, are morphemes.
c) Syntax
Syntax is a system of rules that governs how words can be meaningfully arranged
to form phrases and sentences.

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

Stages of Language
Children go through a number of different stages as language develops, from the
earliest stage of producing cooing sounds through being able to produce complex,
multi-word sentences.
a) Babbling:
The first stage of language development is known as the prelinguistic, babbling or cooing
stage. During this period, which typically lasts from the age of three to nine months,
babies begin to make vowel sounds such as oooooo and aaaaaaa. By five months, infants
typically begin to babble and add consonant sounds to their sounds such as ba-ba-ba, mama-ma or da-da-da.
b) Single Words:
The second stage is known as the one-word or holophase stage of language development.
Around the age of 10 to 13 months, children will begin to produce their first real words.
While children are only capable of producing a few, single words at this point, it is
important to realize that they are able to understand considerably more.
c) Two Words:
The third stage begins around the age of 18 months, when children begin to use two
word sentences. These sentences usually consist of just nouns and verbs, such as "Where
daddy?" and "Puppy big!"
d) Multi-word Sentences:
Around the age of two, children begin to produce short, multi-word sentences that have a
subject and predicate. For example, a child might say "Mommy is nice" or "Want more
candy."

 Theories of Language:

There are four basic theories for language acquisition
a) Environmental Influences on Language Acquisition
A major proponent of the idea that language depends largely on environment was
the behaviorist B. F. Skinner. He believed that language is acquired through
principles of conditioning, including association, imitation, and reinforcement.
According to this view, children learn words by associating sounds with objects,
actions, and events. They also learn words and syntax by imitating others. Adults
enable children to learn words and syntax by reinforcing correct speech.
b) Biological Influences on Language Acquisition

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

The main proponent of the view that biological influences bring about language
development is the well-known linguist Noam Chomsky. Chomsky argues that
human brains have a language acquisition device (LAD), an innate mechanism or
process that allows children to develop language skills. According to this view, all
children are born with a universal grammar, which makes them receptive to the
common features of all languages. Because of this hard-wired background in
grammar, children easily pick up a language when they are exposed to its particular
grammar.
c) Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis:
Benjamin Lee Whorf proposed the linguistic relativity hypothesis. He said
language determines the way people think. For example, Whorf said that Eskimo
people and English-speaking people think about snow differently because the
Eskimo language has many more words for snow than the English language does.
d) Interactionist Theory:
Lev Vygotsky being the brightest among Interactionists argue that language
development is both biological and social. He argues that language learning is
influenced by the desire of children to communicate with others.
e) Brain and Language
At the left inferior frontal cortex lies Broca's area, which is usually associated with
the production of language, or language outputs. At posterior portion of the left
temporal lobe lies Wernicke's area, which is associated with the processing of
words that we hear being spoken, or language inputs.
Multilingualism:
Multilingualism or bilingualism is the act of using, or promoting the use, of
multiple languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers.
People sometimes assume that bilingualism impairs children’s language
development; there is no evidence to support this assumption. Bilingual children
develop language at the same rate as children who speak only one language

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

 Emotions:
Feelings that generally have both cognitive and physiological elements and that
influence behavior
OR
A natural instinctive state of mind deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or
relationships with others
Theories of Emotion:
There are three different popular theories of emotion
a) James-Lange Theory of Emotion
b) Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
c) Schachter-Singer Theory
a) James-Lange Theory of Emotion
The James-Lange theory of emotion suggests that emotions occur as a result of
physiological reactions to events. According to this theory, you see an external
stimulus that leads to a physiological reaction. Your emotional reaction is
dependent upon how you interpret those physical reactions. For example, suppose
you are walking in the woods and you see a snake. You begin to tremble and your
heart begins to race. The James-Lange theory proposes that you will interpret your
physical reactions and conclude that you are frightened.
b) Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
This theory states that we feel emotions and experience physiological reactions
such as sweating, trembling and muscle tension simultaneously.
c) Schachter-Singer Theory
Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed a different theory to explain
emotion. They said that people’s experience of emotion depends on two factors:
physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal. When people
perceive physiological symptoms of arousal, they look for an environmental
explanation of this arousal. The label people give an emotion depends on what they
find in their environment.

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

Neurological basis of Emotion:
The amygdala, in the brain’s temporal lobe is important in experience of emotions,
as it provides a link between the perception of an emotion-producing stimulus and
the recall of that stimulus later as it was evident from the P.E.T of several people
inducted in an experiment, in which are asked to recall some sad and some happy
moments in their life, while they were recalling the functionality of amygdala was
observed being varied with the intensity of the stimulus subjects are recalling. As
the neural pathway connect the amygdala, hippocampus and visual cortex scientists
believe that all these three are some how related with emotions.

Aggression:
Aggression refers to a range of behaviors that can result in both physical and
psychological harm to oneself, other or objects in the environment
OR
Aggression, is behavior, or a disposition towards behavior, that is forceful, hostile
or attacking

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology

Theories of Aggression:
There are three theories regarding the aggressive behavior
a) Frustration-Aggression Theory
b) Social Learning Theory
c) Aggression as an instinct
a) Frustration-Aggression Theory:
When people perceive that they are being prevented from achieving a goal, their
frustration is likely to turn to aggression.
b) Social Learning Theory:
Social Learning Theorists, such as Bandura (1965), claim that aggressive behavior
is learned through observing and imitating aggressive models. Aggressive behavior
is strengthened and maintained if it has a desirable outcome (reinforcement).
Bandura's series of Bobo doll experiments showed that aggressive behavior is
imitated
c) Aggression as an instinct
The theory suggests that human aggression is an innate biological drive similar to
sex and As such, it cannot be eliminated, but must be controlled, for the good of
society. The theory is based on observations of non-human species in which
aggression is used to maintain territory and fighting is necessary for survival. The
theory supports the contentious notion that sport acts as a catharsis providing a safe
and socially acceptable outlet for aggression.
Brain and Aggression:
It is suggested that relatively minor damage to the pre-frontal cortex and the
amygdala in the limbic system may cause increased aggression
Neurotransmitters and Aggression:
It is suggested that lower level of serotonin and higher level of dopamine causes
increased aggression
Hormones and Aggression:
Testosterone is clearly related to aggression in humans. Not only does more
testosterone result in more aggression; successful aggression (winning a fight)
results in more testosterone. Estrogen on the other hand works to normalize it, as
male have higher level of testosterone so they are more aggressive.