COMMUNICATION & COMPUTER SKILLS

COMMUNICATION & COMPUTER SKILLS

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COMMUNICATION &
COMPUTER SKILLS

CAROL

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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
COMPUTER

An electronic machine that works under the control of stored programs to accept process
& output data/information for use by the operator.

A device that accepts data, processes the data in accordance with a stored program,
generates results, and usually consists of input, output, storage, and arithmetic, logic, and
control units.

A functional unit that can perform substantial computation, including numerous
arithmetic operations or logic operations, without human intervention during a run.

It is an electronic device/machine that accepts data (raw facts & figures) as input and
processes (works on it) to produce information (data converted to meaningful form) as
output.
A computer performs a number of functions:
•

•

•

•
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Input (Data)
The computer accepts data from outside for processing. Input is the raw information
entered into a computer from the input devices.
Processing
The computer performs operations on the data that it holds internally. Processing is the
operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally internal process of the computer
system.
Output
The computer produces information for external use. Output is the processed data given
by computer after data processing. Output is also called as Result. We can save these
results in the storage devices for the future use.
Storage
The computer stores data before, during and after processing.
Communication
The computer can send or receive data to or from other computers when it is connected
on a network

The computer is made up of hardware, software and peripheral devices.
Hardware- refers to the tangible, physical and mechanical components of a computer.
Software- refers to the intangible computer components, which are the programs or instructions
of the computer. Everything that a computer does, it acts under instructions written out as
computer programs. The hardware needs these instructions to function

Computer program:
• A set of instructions, written in a specific programming language, which a computer
follows in processing data, performing an operation, or solving a logical problem. See
also software.
• A computer program is a set of statements or instructions to be used directly or indirectly
in a computer in order to bring about a certain result.

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NB:

Software alone is useless, so is the hardware. The two are inseparable.

Peripheral Devices- These are devices that are external (not part of the computer) but can be
connected to a computer. They are not essential for the functioning of the computer but can be
connected to the computer for specific reasons. Examples are scanners, modems, printers,
speakers, digital cameras, etc.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

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DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENT.
INPUT UNIT
• Data and instructions must enter the computer system before any computation can be
performed on the supplied data. The input unit that links the external environment with the
computer system performs this task. Data and instructions enter input units in forms that
depend upon the particular device used. For example, data is entered from a keyboard in a
manner similar to typing, and this differs from the way in which data is entered through a
mouse, which is another type of input device. However, regardless of the form in which they
receive their inputs, all input devices must provide a computer with data that are transformed
into the binary codes that the primary memory of the computer is designed to accept. This
transformation is accomplished by units that called input interfaces. Input interfaces are
designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of input devices to the
requirements of the computer system.
In short, an input unit performs the following functions.
1. It accepts (or reads) the list of instructions and data from the outside world.
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable format.
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.
OUTPUT UNIT
• The job of an output unit is just the reverse of that of an input unit. It supplied information
and results of computation to the outside world. Thus it links the computer with the external
environment. As computers work with binary code, the results produced are also in the binary
form. Hence, before supplying the results to the outside world, it must be converted to human
acceptable (readable) form. This task is accomplished by units called output interfaces.
In short, the following functions are performed by an output unit.
1. It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence
cannot be easily understood by us.
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
3. It supplied the converted results to the outside world.
STORAGE UNIT
• The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system through input units have
to be stored inside the computer before the actual processing starts. Similarly, the results
produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer
system before being passed on to the output units. Moreover, the intermediate results
produced by the computer must also be preserved for ongoing processing. The Storage Unit
or the primary / main storage of a computer system is designed to do all these things. It
provides space for storing data and instructions, space for intermediate results and also space
for the final results.
In short, the specific functions of the storage unit are to store:
1. All the data to be processed and the instruction required for processing (received from
input devices).
2. Intermediate results of processing.
3. Final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

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•

•

The main unit inside the computer is the CPU. This unit is responsible for all events inside
the computer. It controls all internal and external devices, performs "Arithmetic and Logical
operations". The operations a Microprocessor performs are called "instruction set" of this
processor. The instruction set is “hard wired” in the CPU and determines the machine
language for the CPU. The more complicated the instruction set is, the slower the CPU
works. Processors differed from one another by the instruction set. If the same program can
run on two different computer brands they are said to be compatible. Programs written for
IBM compatible computers will not run on Apple computers because these two architectures
are not compatible.
The control Unit and the Arithmetic and Logic unit of a computer system are jointly known
as the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of any computer system. In a
human body, all major decisions are taken by the brain and the other parts of the body
function as directed by the brain. Similarly, in a computer system, all major calculations and
comparisons are made inside the CPU and the CPU is also responsible for activating and
controlling the operations of other units of a computer system.

ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
•

The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual
execution of the instructions take place during the processing operations. All calculations
are performed and all comparisons (decisions) are made in the ALU. The data and
instructions, stored in the primary storage prior to processing are transferred as and when
needed to the ALU where processing takes place. No processing is done in the primary
storage unit. Intermediate results generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back
to the primary storage until needed at a later time. Data may thus move from primary
storage to ALU and back again as storage many times before the processing is over. After
the completion of processing, the final results which are stored in the storage unit are
released to an output device.

•

The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) is the part where actual computations take place. It
consists of circuits that perform arithmetic operations (e.g. addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division over data received from memory and capable to compare
numbers (less than, equal to, or greater than).

•

While performing these operations the ALU takes data from the temporary storage are
inside the CPU named registers. Registers are a group of cells used for memory

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•

addressing, data manipulation and processing. Some of the registers are general purpose
and some are reserved for certain functions. It is a high-speed memory which holds only
data from immediate processing and results of this processing. If these results are not
needed for the next instruction, they are sent back to the main memory and registers are
occupied by the new data used in the next instruction.
All activities in the computer system are composed of thousands of individual steps.
These steps should follow in some order in fixed intervals of time. These intervals are
generated by the Clock Unit. Every operation within the CPU takes place at the clock
pulse. No operation, regardless of how simple, can be performed in less time than
transpires between ticks of this clock. But some operations required more than one clock
pulse. The faster the clock runs, the faster the computer performs. The clock rate is
measured in megahertz (Mhz) or Gigahertz (Ghz). Larger systems are even faster. In
older systems the clock unit is external to the microprocessor and resides on a separate
chip. In most modern microprocessors the clock is usually incorporated within the CPU.

CONTROL UNIT

•

•

How the input device knows that it is time for it to feed data into the storage unit? How
does the ALU know what should be done with the data once it is received? And how is it
that only the final results are sent to the output devices and not the intermediate results?
All this is possible because of the control unit of the computer system. By selecting,
interpreting, and seeing to the execution of the program instructions, the control unit is
able to maintain order and directs the operation of the entire system. Although, it does not
perform any actual processing on the data, the control unit acts as a central nervous
system for the other components of the computer. It manages and coordinates the entire
computer system. It obtains instructions from the program stored in main memory,
interprets the instructions, and issues signals that cause other units of the system to
execute them.
The control unit directs and controls the activities of the internal and external devices. It
interprets the instructions fetched into the computer, determines what data, if any, are
needed, where it is stored, where to store the results of the operation, and sends the
control signals to the devices involved in the execution of the instructions.

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MAIN MEMORY VS SECONDARY MEMORY (RAM VS ROM)
Main memory
Stores programs and data while computer is running
for current use
Main memory is fast and limited in capacity
Cannot retain information when the computer is
switched off - Volatile
Memory directly connected to the CPU - not portable
Primary storage
PROVIDES FAST ACCESS
Temporary
Computer cannot do or work without

Auxiliary or backup storage
Store data or programs for later use
Slow and capacity vary
Non volatile
Portable- can be transported from one
machine to another.
Secondary storage
ACCESS IS SLOW
Permanent
Can do or work without

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to
purpose, data handling and functionality.
• According to purpose, computers are either general purpose or specific purpose.

General purpose computers are designed to perform a range of tasks. They have the
ability to store numerous programs, but lack in speed and efficiency.

Specific purpose computers are designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a
specific task. A set of instructions is built into the machine.
•

According to data handling, computers are analog, digital or hybrid.

ANALOG COMPUTERSwork on the principle of measuring, in which the
measurements obtained are translated into data. Modern analog computers usually
employ electrical parameters, such as voltages, resistances or currents, to represent the
quantities being manipulated. Such computers do not deal directly with the numbers.
They measure continuous physical magnitudes.

DIGITAL COMPUTERSare those that operate with information, numerical or
otherwise, represented in a digital form. Such computers process data into a digital
value (in 0s and 1s). They give the results with more accuracy and at a faster rate.
Hybrid computers incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer and
counting feature of a digital computer. For computational purposes, these computers
use analog components and for storage, digital memories are used.

•

According to functionality, computers are classified as :

Analog Computer
An analog computeris a form of computer that uses continuous physical
phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the
problem being solved

Digital Computer
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system

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Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)
A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both
digital and analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective
method of performing complex simulations.
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF SIZE
Major classes or categories of computers
1.
2.
3.
4.

Supercomputer
Mainframe Computer
Minicomputer
Microcomputer

SUPERCOMPUTER
• The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the
Supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large
organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like NASA
uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them and for space exploration
purpose.
• The supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. It can be accommodated in
large air-conditioned rooms; some super computers can span an entire building.
• Seymour Cray designed the first Supercomputer "CDC 6600" in 1964. CDC 6600 is known
as the first ever Supercomputer.
Exascale Supercomputer
• On 29th July, 2015, President of the United States, Barack Obama, approved the
development of an Exascale Super Computer. The Exascale Super computer will be 30
times faster and more powerful than today’s fastest Super Computers. The need to
develop such a high performance Supercomputer comes after China’s surge in high
performance computing. However, the US still tops the list of Supercomputers with 233
high performance machines. China has 37 Supercomputers but they lead the list of the
most powerful and high performance supercomputers since June 2013.
• Presently, China’s "Tianhe – 2" is the world’s faster Supercomputer.
• The Tianhe – 2 can perform 100 Petaflops, i.e quadrillions of floating point operations
per second.
The following table shows list of top five most powerful Supercomputers in the world.
Top five Supercomputers
RANK SITE

SYSTEM

CORES

RPEAK
POWER
RMAX
(TFLOPS/S) (TFLOPS/S) (KW)

1

National Super computer in
Guanzhou, China

Tianhe - 2
(MilkyWay - 2)

3,120,000 33,862.7

54,902.4

17,808

2

DOE/SC/Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, United States

Titan - Cray XK7,
Cray Inc.

560,640

17,590.0

27,112.5

8,209

3

DOE/NNSA/LLNL, United States

Sequoia BlueGene/Q, IBM

1,572,864 17,173.2

20,132.7

7,890

4

RIKEN Advanced Institute for
Computational Science (AICS)
Japan

K Computer, Tofu
705,024
Interconnect Fujitsu.

10,510.0

11,280.4

12,660

5

DOE/SC/Argonne National
Laboratory, United States

Mira - BlueGene/Q,
Custom IBM

8,586.6

10,066.3

3,945

786,432

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USES OF SUPERCOMPUTERS
In Pakistan Supercomputers are used by Educational Institutes like NUST for research purposes.
Pakistan Atomic Energy commission & Heavy Industry Taxila uses supercomputers for Research
purposes.
• Space Exploration
Supercomputers are used to study the origin of the universe, the dark-matters. For these
studies scientist use IBM’s powerful supercomputer “Roadrunner” at National
Laboratory Los Alamos.
• Earthquake studies
Supercomputers are used to study the Earthquakes phenomenon. Besides that
supercomputers are used for natural resources exploration, like natural gas, petroleum,
coal, etc.
• Weather Forecasting
Supercomputers are used for weather forecasting, and to study the nature and extent of
Hurricanes, Rainfalls, windstorms, etc.
• Nuclear weapons testing
Supercomputers are used to run weapon simulation that can test the Range, accuracy &
impact of Nuclear weapons.
Popular Supercomputers
• IBM’s Sequoia, in United States
• Fujitsu’s K Computer in Japan
• IBM’s Mira in United States
• IBM’s SuperMUC in Germany
• NUDT Tianhe-1A in China
MAINFRAME COMPUTER
Although Mainframes are not as powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are quite
expensive nonetheless, and many large firms & government organizations uses Mainframes to
run their business operations. The Mainframe computers can be accommodated in large airconditioned rooms because of its size. Super-computers are the fastest computers with large data
storage capacity, Mainframes can also process & store large amount of data. Banks educational
institutions & insurance companies use mainframe computers to store data about their customers,
students & insurance policy holders.
Popular Mainframe computers
• Fujitsu’s ICL VME
• Hitachi’s Z800
MINICOMPUTER
Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms. Minicomputers are also called as
“Midrange Computers”. These are small machines and can be accommodated on a disk with not
as processing and data storage capabilities as super-computers & Mainframes. These computers
are not designed for a single user. Individual departments of a large company or organizations use
Mini-computers for specific purposes. For example, a production department can use Minicomputers for monitoring certain production process.
Popular Minicomputers

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•
•
•
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K-202
Texas Instrument TI-990
SDS-92
IBM Midrange computers

MICROCOMPUTER
Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & smartphones are all types
of microcomputers. The micro-computers are widely used & the fastest growing computers.
These computers are the cheapest among the other three types of computers. The Microcomputers are specially designed for general usage like entertainment, education and work
purposes. Well known manufacturers of Micro-computer are Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony &
Toshiba.
Desktop computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation system of a car, Netbooks,
Notebooks, PDA’s, Tablet PC’s, Smartphones, Calculators are all type of Microcomputers.
The main differences among the above computer types are in:
• Processing speed,
• Memory capacity
• Number and capabilities or peripheral devices that can be attached to the computer
• Usage.
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
a) Business- for administration, payroll and accounting.
b) Government- keeping database records.
c) Education- Record keeping, accounting and training in the classroom.
d) Health- Record keeping, life-support systems.
e) Sport- fitness monitoring.
f) Art and Design- desktop Publishing, technical graphics, Computer Aided Design.
g) Homes- PCs for home accounts, games, e-mail, online shopping, home education etc.
h) Banks- Record keeping and updating, on-line Automated Teller Machines (ATMs).
i) Supermarkets- Electronic point Of Sale Machines (EPOS) – tills.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN YOU WANT TO PURCHASE OR BUYA
COMPUTER
1. COST; how much can I afford to pay for a computer? Prices of personal
computers range from a few hundred to thousands of dollars. Faster and more
feature-rich PCs are usually more expensive.
2. AREA OF USE; where will my new PC be used? If you will be using it only in
your home or office, a desktop computer will be suitable. However, if you will need
to take it with you, you should consider purchasing a laptop (notebook) computer.
3. APPLICATIONS PACKAGES; Which application packages will I run on my
computer? Make a list of applications for which you plan to use your PC. For
example, will you use your PC to prepare letters and reports? Analyze numeric and
financial data? Prepare visual presentations? Access the Internet? Listen to music?
Create and work with graphics?

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4. DURATION; How long will I keep this computer?Try to estimate the length of
time (years) you will use your computerbefore BUYING the next one. If you expect
use your PC for several years or if you think you may later want to add new
applications, CONSIDER one that is expandable, so you can add new components,
such as a modem, printer, or add-on boards. Make sure the PC has expansion slots so
you can connect these devices to your PC.
5. MANUFACTURER AND SELLER REPUTATION. Check out the
manufacturers and seller’s reputations.Talk with friends, co-workers, classmates,
teachers, and others about their PCs. Ask about the performance of their PCs and get
recommendations from persons you trust. Eventually you may need to have your PC
serviced. Ideally, the vendor has a service department that can repair your PC. If not,
you may need to locate a third-party to provide this service. Reputable computer
manufactures include:
1. Hewlett-Packard 2. Apple 3. Sun Microsystems 4. Dell 5. Panasonic 6.Sony 7.Toshiba
8. Shuttle 9. IBM 10. Samsung Electronics 11. Hitachi 12. Fujitsu Siemens
6. WARRANTIES & GUARANTEES
7. PC ARCHITECTURE. PC architecture refers to the design and construction of the
PC and its system unit, and not all architectures are the same. For example, the
architecture of an Apple Macintosh differs from that of an IBM or compatible PC.
Therefore, software written for an Apple Macintosh PC may not run on an IBM or
IBM-compatible PC. Although some users prefer a Macintosh PC, more software is
available for IBM and IBM-compatible PCs.
8. MICROPROCESSOR SPEED. Selecting the right microprocessor is extremely
important. Processing speed, measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz), is
probably the first consideration. The higher the number of MHz or GHz, the faster
the processor will manipulate data. If speed is important, consider choosing a
microprocessor with a speed of 2 GHz or more. PCs containing microprocessors with
speeds up to 10 GHz and higher are available.
9. MAIN MEMORY (RAM). Main memory (RAM) is needed for the temporary
storage of programs and data while the data is being processed. Some application
software requires a considerable amount of RAM to function properly, and newer
software versions usually require more RAM than older versions. Typical PCs now
come with 2 gigabytes (GB), 5GB, or more of RAM. Make certain the PC has
sufficient RAM to run the software you will be using.
10. SECONDARY STORAGE (ROM). What type(s) and amounts of secondary
storage are you likely to need? Typical computers come with a floppy disk drive, cd
drive, USB port/ drive and a hard disk drive already installed. A hard disk drive
contains one or more rigid storage platters and provides for the permanent storage of
considerably more data. However, the disk itself cannot be removed from the drive.
The STORAGE CAPACITY of a hard disk is an important consideration because it
is used to store all system and application software. Typical hard disk capacities are
100, 200, 500GB or 2TB and more. Be certain the PC you are considering has
sufficient secondary capacity for your needs

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CD-ROM or DVD drives provide high storage capacities. Most software publishers
store their programs on CD-ROM or DVDs because of the high capacity and because
DVD/CD-ROMs operate faster than floppy disks.
If you will use your PC to play movies, your purchase should include a DVD (digital
video disk) drive. If you will work with large files, consider purchasing a computer
that includes a DVD/CD-RW drive. A DVD/CD-RW disk is a reusable high-capacity
disk that allows you to store huge amounts of data and to erase data no longer
needed.
11. PORTS. The number of ports (slots) available inside the system unit determines the
number of add-on boards that can be installed inside the system unit. For example,
you cannot connect a printer to your computer unless your computer is equipped with
an appropriate port (slot). Be sure the PC contains the necessary slots for the add-on
boards and peripheral devices you will be using with your computer.
12. INPUT DEVICES. Typical input devices are a keyboard and a mouse, although
other kinds of input devices are available. Most keyboards and mice operate
similarly. However, there are slight differences in how each "feels" to the user.
Before buying a PC, you may want to test the keyboard and mouse for comfort and
ease of use. Some sellers will allow you to exchange the keyboard or mouse that
comes with the computer for a different one.
13. OUTPUT DEVICES. Output devices produce output in either soft copy or hard
copy form. Most PCs come with a monitor (for soft copy output), but you may have
to purchase a hard copy device, such as a printer, separately.
14. MONITORS. There are wide differences among PC monitors, with resolution being
perhaps the most important variable.
Resolution refers to the clarity of the text and images being displayed. Before making
a purchase, carefully evaluate the monitor’s resolution. Many vendors allow you to
choose from monitors with varying resolutions. A resolution of 1,024 by 1,024 is
considered high-resolution, in which text and images display exceptionally clearly.
High-resolution monitors are typically more expensive.
Monitor size is another important consideration. Viewing areas range from 15
diagonal inches to 21 inches and higher. Larger monitors are usually more expensive,
but may be worth the extra cost. For example, an individual with weak vision may
prefer a larger monitor. If your desktop space is limited, consider purchasing a flatpanel monitor, which occupies less space. Flat-panels are more expensive than
standard monitors, however.

DATA
 Relationship between Data and Information

Data is raw information

a collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn; "statistical data"
INFORMATION

Data that has been processed to add or create meaning and hopefully knowledge
for the person who receives it. Information is the output of information systems.

Organized data which is understood to have significance and meaning

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DATA PROCESSING
Used specifically, data processing may refer to a discrete step in the information processing cycle
in which data is acquired, entered, validated, processed, stored, and output, either in response to
queries or in the form of routine reports; the processing is the step that organizes the information
in order to form the desired output. Used in a more general sense, data processing may also refer
to the act of recording or otherwise handling one or more sets of data, and is often performed with
the use of computers. The word data is commonly used to mean “information” and often suggests
large amounts of information in a standardized format. Data may consist of letters, numbers,
equations, dates, images, and other material, but does not usually include entire words.
THE DATA PROCESSING CYCLE
The data processing cycle is the order in which data is processed. There are four stages:-

Input
This is the first event in the cycle. This stage involves collection of data from the outside or also
from within the system. One can break this stage into three more stages, namely acquisition, data
entry and validation. After the data has been acquired from the source, it is entered into the
current system, upon which the data is validated, so that correct results are given at the end of the
cycle. The input devices are many. The commonly used input devices are computer keyboard, bar
code readers, scanners, output from another system, etc.
Processing
In this stage the computer processes the minutest details entered. This processing makes the data
entered usable. If the computer was not to process the data, it would not be of any use and it
would also be a big mess of data. For example, if the spreadsheet was not to process the data, then
the data in the spreadsheet would only be a mess of numbers. The spreadsheet is a program which
gives the data out back to the user in the usable form. The system used for processing, along with
the data entered will decide the kind of output, which the user will get.
Output
If you have to look at the diagram of data/ information processing cycle, the step after processing
is the output stage. The processed information is now transmitted to the user. This stage can also
be further divided. After processing the data, there can be further interactive queries asked or
routine reports can be given. There are different forms in which the output can be given to the
user. There can be print report, which may be given to the user. The output can also be given in
the form of audio, video as well. In some cases, the results may only be displayed on the
computer monitor.
Storage

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After the data has been processed, along with the output to the user, the data is also stored.
Different computer storage devices can be used for the same. Some of the commonly used data
storage methods are disk storage, tertiary storage, etc. Storing the data also serves another
purpose. You will not have to repeat the entire cycle again. Often the storage is done in both
digital as well as hard copy format. At the same time, backup of the digital format is also
maintained, which can be retrieved in case of system crash.
The most important advantage of this cycle is that the information is processed quickly. At the
same time retrieving the data is an easy task as well. The processed information can further be
passed unto the next stage directly in case the need be. The necessary data is stored, which helps
in avoiding duplication of data as well as time.
ATTRIBUTES OF GOOD INFORMATION
Quality
Required
Relevant

Commentary

Reliable

Information should come from authoritative sources. It is good practice to quote the source
used - whether it be internal or external sources. If estimates or assumptions have been
applied, these should be clearly stated and explained.

The information obtained and used should be needed for decision-making. it doesn't
matter how interesting it is. Businesses are often criticised for producing too much
information simply because their information systems can "do it". A good way of ensuring
relevance is to closely define the objectives of any information reports. Another way to
improve relevance is to produce information that focuses on "exceptions" - e.g. problems,
high or low values, where limits have been exceeded.
Information needs to be timely if it is to be actioned. For example, the manager of a large
Up-to-date
retail business needs daily information on how stores are performing, which products are
selling well (or not) so that immediate action can be taken. To improve the speed with
which information is produced, businesses usually need to look at upgrading or replacing
their information systems.
As far as possible, information should be free from errors (e.g. the figures add up; data is
Accurate
allocated to the correct categories). The users of information should be informed whenever
assumptions or estimates have been used. Accruate information is usually a function of
accurate data collection. If information needs to be extremely accurate, then more time
needs to be allocated for it to be checked. However, businesses need to guard against
trying to produce "perfect" information - it is often more important for the information to
be up-to-date than perfect.
Meet the needs Users of information have different needs. The managing director doesn't have time to
trawl through thick printouts of each week's production or sales listings - he or she wants a
of the User
summary of the key facts. The quality control supervisor will want detailed information
about quality testing results rather than a brief one-line summary of how things are going.
It is a good idea to encourage users to help develop the style and format of information
reporting that they require.
Information should be clearly presented (e.g. use summaries, charts) and not too long. It
Easy to use
also needs to be communicated using an appropriate medium (e.g. email, printed report,
and
presentation. Businesses should also consider developing "templates" which are used
understand
consistently throughout the organisation - so that users get used to seeing information in a
similar style.
Worth the cost Often forgotten. Information costs money. Data is costly to collect, analyse and report.
Information takes time to read and assimilate. All users should question whether the
information they recieve/have requested is worthwhile

1) Valid

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2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Fit for use
Accessible
Cost effective
Understandable
Time

COMPUTER EQUIPMENT
INPUT DEVICES
These are some devices that feed data into the computer for processing. Some examples
include:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

KEYBOARD
MOUSE
TRACKBALL
LIGHT PEN
TOUCH SCREEN
MODEM
SCANNER
MICROPHONE
BAR CODE READER
DIGITAL CAMERA
VIDEO DIGITISER
MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION (MICR)
MAGNETC STRIPS OR STRIPES READER
KEY TO DISK
GRAPHICS TABLET
OCR
OMR
VOICE RECOGNITION SYSTEM
Storage devices can be used as input devices

MOUSE
The mouse is both input and pointing device. It is a hand held device with a rotating ball
(trackball) underneath and Left & Right buttons, which enable the user to move the
cursor (the blinking item on your screen) around the screen and to click on objects. The
trackball is made from a ball in a socket, which is used to move the cursor on a screen.
The cursor moves in the direction the ball moves as it is rolled.

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JOYSTICK
The joystick is anInput device. A leverinputdevice that can be moved in many directions,
e.g. Up, Down, Left or Right. It is normally used with computer games to control the
movements of objects on the screen.

LIGHT PEN
This is an Input device. An electrical device used with a monitor. It has the shape of an
ordinary pen. One writes on a monitor with it and it senses the light from the position on
the screen and transmits the information to the computer.
TOUCH-SENSITIVE SCREEN/ TOUCH PAD
Input deviceused in public information kiosks. The user simply touches the screen at the
point of interest to get what (s) he wants.
Touchpad
A small pressure- and motion-sensitive area on a portable computer that you can use to
move the mouse pointer. When you move your finger across the pad, the mouse pointer
on the screen moves in the same direction. A touchpad is an alternative to a mouse.
A touchpad is operated by using your finger and dragging it across a flat surface; as you
move your finger on the surface, the mouse cursor will move in that same direction, and
like most computer mice, the touchpad also has two buttons below the touch surface that
enables you to click like a standard mouse.

MICROPHONE
This is Input device. This is used in conjunction with voice recognition programs. It
converts words are into digital mode for storage. The sound can be played back.
DIGITAL CAMERA
This is Input device. It works like a standard camera except that it does not use
photographic film. The images are recorded digitally in the camera’s memory. Images are
transferred onto the computer, and can be printed.
TRACKBALL
• A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball held by a socket containing sensors
to detect a rotation of the ball about two axes—like an upside-down mouse with an

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•

•

exposed protruding ball. The user rolls the ball with the thumb, fingers, or the palm of the
hand to move a pointer.
Compared with a mouse, a trackball has no limits on effective travel; at times, a mouse
can reach an edge of its working area while the operator still wishes to move the screen
pointer farther. With a trackball, the operator just continues rolling, whereas a mouse
would have to be lifted and re-positioned. Some trackballs have notably low friction, as
well as being made of dense material such as glass, so they can be spun to make them
coast. The trackball's buttons may be situated to that of a mouse or to a unique style that
suits the user.
Large trackballs are common on CAD workstations for easy precision. Before the advent
of the touchpad, small trackballs were common on portable computers, where there may
be no desk space on which to run a mouse. Some small thumb balls clip onto the side of
the keyboard and have integral buttons with the same function as mouse buttons.

KEY TO DISK
An early stand-alone data entry machine that stored data on magnetic disk for computer entry.
The key to disk machine was the successor to the key-to-tape machine, which was the first major
breakthrough in data entry since the punch card.
BARCODE READER
A barcode reader, also called a price scanner or point-of-sale ( POS ) scanner, is a hand-held or
stationary input device used to capture and read information contained in a bar code . A barcode
reader consists of a scanner , a decoder (either built-in or external), and a cable used to connect
the reader with a computer. Because a barcode reader merely captures and translates the barcode
into numbers and/or letters, the data must be sent to a computer so that a software application can
make sense of the data. Barcode scanners can be connected to a computer through a serial port ,
keyboard port , or an interface device called a wedge . A barcode reader works by directing a
beam of light across the bar code and measuring the amount of light that is reflected back. (The
dark bars on a barcode reflect less light than the white spaces between them.) The scanner
converts the light energy into electrical energy, which is then converted into data by the decoder
and forwarded to a computer.

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KEYBOARD
This is a flat board that contains a grid of buttons. Each button can be programmed to
follow instructions.
The keyboard is an input device with an arrangement of keys, like those on a typewriter,
and an additional set of keys that fall into 5 basic categories:
1.
2.

3.

4.
5.

Function keys- keys form the first row of keys. They perform special operations in applications e.g. F7 activates
Spell Checking Program in word processing and F1 activates the Help facility in any application.
Alphanumeric keys (like those on typewriter) are arranged in a QWERTY series. First is a row of numbers with
some characters like %^&*()@!~ above them, then letters of the alphabet, the spacebar at the bottom, the Shift
key on both the left and right side of the Spacebar.
Numeric keypad- serves 2 functions. At the top of the keypad is the NumLock key, which locks the keypad into
Number mode when, pressed. When in Number mode, the keys function as number keys arranged like a standard
calculator, otherwise it is in Cursor control mode, which allows you to move the cursor up, down, forward or
backward by pressing the appropriate arrow key. When in cursor mode you can also use the home, page up, page
down, end, delete and insert keys from Num Lock pad.
Cursor control keys are the arrow keys as well as Home, End, Ins, Page Up etc. Their major function is to place
the cursor in an appropriate position for reading, appending or editing text.
Combination keys are the Shift Ctrl andAlt keys. On their own they are ineffective but combined with other keys
they work. E.G. The Shift key, can be used to type to type the $ sign (you would keep Shift pressed as you press
the $ sign key once).

DIGITAL CAMERA
A digital camera allows you to take pictures and to store a digital photographic image
that can be read by a computer. You can then transfer the images directly from your
camera on to your computer.
GRAPHICS TABLET

This consists of a flat pad (the tablet) on which the user draws with a special pen. As the
user draws on the pad the image is created on the screen. Using a graphics tablet a
designer can produce very accurate on-screen drawings.

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MICR (MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER READER)
Magnetic ink characters are the strange looking numbers that appear at the bottom of
cheques. These characters are used because they are very difficult to forge or damage.
Banks use MICR to read the numbers from the bottom of cheques to obtain data such as
account numbers and bank sort codes.

MAGNETIC STRIP (OR STRIPE) READER
Magnetic strips are built into many plastic cards such as cheque guarantee cards, cashpoint cards and personal identity cards. The magnetic strip on the back of the card can
hold the personal details of the card owner and, with the necessary PIN, will allow access
to secure information e.g. bank account details. Data stored on the strip is scanned and
input into a computer system by a reader.
MIDI (MUSICAL INSTRUMENT DIGITAL INTERFACE)
A MIDI system allows you to attach a musical instrument to your computer, for example
a musical keyboard. You can then store a musical sequence on a computer and then have
the computer play it back to you.
OMR (OPTICAL MARK READER)
An OMR reads marks made by pencil on a printed form into the computer. OMR systems
are suited to reading pre-printed forms and check-boxes such as National Lottery number
selection sheets and multiple-choice exam papers.
OMR processing is popular for tests, where students receive a special card containing
several empty circles and a packet that contains the questions and possible answers to
each of the questions. The student must complete the test by using a pencil to fill in each
blank circle with what he or she believes is the correct answer. For example, if the answer
is "B", the student would have to fill in the "B Circle" in order to get the answer correct.

SCANNER
Hardware input device that allows a user to take an image or text and convert it into a
digital file, allowing the computer to read or display the scanned object. A scanner is

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commonly connected to a computer USB, Firewire, Parallel, or SCSI port. Scanners are
now a cheap and common way of getting images into a computer. They can also be used
with OCR (Optical Character Recognition) software to scan in text.
It works like a photocopier but copies an image from text to computer mode. There is
need for OCR (Optical Character Recognition) software to change the text into digital
form, and to be able to modify the scanned image.

TOUCH SCREEN
A touch screen is a special type of VDU, which has a grid of light beams or fine wires
criss-crossing the screen. When the screen is touched (usually to choose an on-screen
option), the computer senses where you have pressed. Due to the vast amount of
information they can store, touch screen operated computers are generally used in the
provision of public information and are found in places such as airports.
VIDEO DIGITISER
A video digitizer takes an image from a video camera or television and converts it so that
it can be used by, and stored on, a computer. Video sequences captured using a video
digitizer is often used in multimedia presentations.
VOICE RECOGNITION SYSTEM
A microphone is used with a voice recognition system. This can be used with a word
processing program to enter text. It can also be used as part of security systems - only
certain digitally stored voices have access.
TEXT INPUT DEVICES

•
•
•

POINTING DEVICES

•
•

GAMING DEVICES
IMAGE, VIDEO INPUT
DEVICES

AUDIO INPUT DEVICES

Chorded keyboard ,GKOS keyboard ,Keyer ,Telegraph key (~20 WPMMorse
code)
Vibroplex (30–80 WPM Morse) ,Keyboard, Typing ,Computer keyboard
Handwriting recognition ,Optical character recognition ,Speech recognition
Light pen,Light gun,Cyberglove ,Touch screen ,Head pointer ,Eye gaze/eye
tracking
Computer mouse ,Trackball ,Touchpad ,Pointing stick ,Graphics tablet (or
digitizing tablet) ,Stylus

•

paddle, Power Pad, Joystick ,Gamepad (or joypad)

•
•

Digital camcorder ,Webcam, Digital video recorder,Image scanner
3D scanner ,Digital camera

•

Microphone (see also speech recognition) ,Digital audio recorder ,Digital
dictaphone

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OUTPUT DEVICES
1. LOUD SPEAKER
Allows a user to hear sounds and music from the computer provided the system has
installed a sound card.
2. MODEM
An Input/ Output electronic device with circuits which changes data to be transmitted
from its machine form (digital form) into a form suitable for transmission over the
telephone line (analogue form). At the receiving end it converts data vice-versa. It is
only necessary when one needs to communicate information over a long distance and
when connected to the internet.
3. HEADPHONES
Headphones give sound output from the computer. They are similar to speakers,
except they are worn on the ears so only one person can hear the output at a time
4. PLOTTERS

A
plotter can be used to produce high
quality, accurate, A3 size or bigger
drawings. They are usually used for
Computer Aided Design (CAD) and
Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM)
applications such as printing out plans for houses or car parts.
Plotters:
How it works:

•
•
•
•

Suitable uses:

•
•
•
•
•

Advantages:

•

A drum plotter prints by moving a pen sideways
over the surface of a sheet of paper.
One high precision motor moves the pen from side
to side.
Another high precision motor moves the paper
backwards and forwards.
An electromagnet lifts and drops different coloured
ink pens onto the paper to draw lines.
A flat-bed plotter uses two high precision motors, one to move the
pen in the X direction and one to move it in the Y direction.
The paper does not move.
Plotters are restricted to line drawing and can only create a solid
region of colour by drawing a number of close, regular lines.
Plotters are often used in science and engineering applications for
drawing building plans, printed circuit boards and machine parts.
They are accurate and can produce far larger printoutsthan

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Disadvantages:

•
•
•

standard printers.
Slow and relatively expensive compared to printers.
They cannot print raster (photographic) images.
They can only fill solid blocks of colour using closely hatched lines.

5. SPEAKER
A speaker gives you sound output from your computer. Some speakers are built
into the computer and some are separate
6. VDU (Visual Display Unit)
The VDU is output device. It displays images and text in colour or black and white as
it. It displays results of processing. It is also called a monitor.
7. PRINTERS
It produces output on paper i.e. hard copy or on other print-key media. The 2 types of
printers are impact and non-impact.

Impact printers
The printing device being a series of pins have a direct impact on the paper. The pins
form characters on the paper by pressing a printing element and an inked ribbon
against paper. An example of such a printer is the Dot Matrix. The printers are
reasonably fast, inexpensive and can produce both text and graphics. They also
accommodate various paper sizes but are however noisy.
Non-impact printers
These are quieter printers and examples include LaserJet and inkjet printers. The
Laser printers are a more popular choice for business use. They use a printing
technique similar to that used in a photocopying machine. A laser beam is used to
form an image onto the paper using toner. The print quality is high. Lasers are fast,
and quiet. They print graphics but are more expensive.
The ink-jet printers are mainly colour printers which mix ink depending on the
image colour and spray it onto the paper. The toner has the 4 basic colours. They are
slow, expensive and have a high print quality.
What is the difference between impact and non-impact printers?
IMPACT

NON IMPACT

Makes noise when printing
Print head makes contact with the paper

Quiet printers
No contact creates an image without striking a
ribbon against the paper.Creates images on a
surface without contacting it.
Use a laser beam which form an image onto
paper using toner
Fast printers
Use toner
Has fewer moving parts hence they are
reliable.
Very expensive computers

Strike ribbon against the paper
Slow printer
Use ribbons or ink
Has too many moving parts hence unreliable
Impact printers are relatively inexpensive, and the
cost of printing is also low because ink ribbons are
inexpensive.

Give two advantages of non-impact printers over impact printers.

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Have high print quality
They are fast and do not make noise
They are reliable because they have less moving parts
See above [non impact section]

Give three examples of impact printers &three examples of non-impact printers.
Impact printers
Non impact printers
Dot matrix
Laser
Daisy wheel printers
Inkjet
Line printers
LED
Chain printers
Thermal
Magnetic
Electrostatic
Xerographic

NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
1 - LASER PRINTERS:
• These print individual pages and work in a
How it works:
similar way to photocopiers.
• A drum is charged to match the image and
powdered ink (toner) sticks to the surface. The
toner is then transferred to the paper and fixed
by heat and pressure.
• A school or business printer would have a
typical speed of 10 to 20 pages per minute
(ppm).
• Common wherever fast, high quality printing is required.
Suitable uses:
Disadvantages:
• Non-colour laser printers are more expensive than ink-jet printers (but
the difference is narrowing).
• Colour laser printers are considerably more expensive. (but their speed
and high quality output means they are becoming more popular).
• They are quiet and fast and produce high quality printouts.
Advantages:
• Running cost are low because although toner cartridges are expensive
to replace, they last a long time.
Laser printer - A type of printer that utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a drum. The
light of the laser alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is then rolled
through a reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the
toner is transferred to the paper through a combination of heat and pressure.
Advantages
-Monochrome or four color
-High-quality print
-Capable of printing an almost unlimited variety of fonts
-Quiet operation
Disadvantages
-Color laser printerstend to be about five to ten times as expensive as

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monochrome
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper
2 - INK-JET PRINTERS:
• The print head contains tiny nozzles
How it works:
through which different coloured inks can
be sprayed onto the paper to form the
characters or the graphic images.
• The ink is forced out by heat or by tiny
piezoelectric crystals which change shape
when an electric current is applied across
them.
Suitable uses:

•

Disadvantages:

•
•
•

Advantages:

A popular choice for home use where small amounts of printing are
done and photographic quality colour printing is needed.
The ink cartridges can be expensive so running costs can be high.
The printing speed is slow compared to a laser printer.
These printers are relatively inexpensive and produce high quality
black and white or photographic quality borderless colour printing.

Ink-jet printer - A type of printer that works by spraying ionized ink at a sheet of paper.
Magnetized plates in the ink's path direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes. Ink-jet
printersare capable of producing high quality print approaching that produced by laser printers
-Inexpensive way to print full-color document
-Easily portable due to smaller mechanical parts than laser printers
-Quiet operation
Disadvantages
-Slow output
-Require a special type of ink that is apt to smudge on inexpensive copier paper
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper
3. THERMAL TRANSFER PRINTERS- A type of printer that applies heat to a ribbon and the
image or barcode is then transferred to labels or tags. This technology produces a higher quality,
longer lasting image on the tag or label.
Advantages
-1 to 2 years media shelf life
-Media is not heat sensitive
-Medium to high image quality
-Wide range of available types
-Recommended for industrial use
Disadvantages
-Special ribbons required
-Average operational cost
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper
-Single-pass ribbons only
4. DIRECT THERMAL PRINTERS - A type of printer that applies heat directly to specially
treated paper, labels or tags to form the image or barcode.
Advantages
-No ribbon required

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-Low operational cost
Disadvantages
-Short media shelf life
-Very heat sensitive media
-Limited image quality
-Limited number of available types
-Not recommended for use in industrial, outdoor, or harsh environments
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper

IMPACT PRINTERS
1 - DOT MATRIX PRINTERS:
How it works: The print head
travels from side to
side across the paper
and is made up of
numerous pins which
are pushed out to
form the shape of each character
The pins hit an ink ribbon against the paper
so the characters are printed out.
The paper is usually continuous with holes
down each side and perforations so the pages
can be easily separated by tearing.
Because the pins make an impact against the
paper the characters can be printed through
several layers of self-carbonating paper to
produce duplicate copies.

Suitable uses:

•
•

Disadvantages
:

•

•

Advantages:

•
•
•
•

Limited to situations where duplicate copies are needed and the quality is
not too important.
Typical uses might be in warehouses where duplicate copies of orders
need to produced quickly and cheaply.
The printing quality is low - these printers produce low to medium
quality black and white printing and can only print low resolution
graphics.
Because of the impact of the pins against the paper, these printers can be
quite noisy.
The purchase cost is low and the running costs are very low.
They can print fairly quickly, particularly if you remember that multiple
copies are being printed in one print run.
They are robust and can operate in harsh environments.
If several sheets of self-carbonating paper are placed into the printer then

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the impact will produce duplicate copies.
Dot-matrix printer- A type of printer that produces characters and illustrations by striking pins
against an ink ribbon to print closely spaced dots in the appropriate shape.
Advantages
-Can print to multi-page forms-Moderately priced
-Multi-pass ribbons (saves money)
Disadvantages
-Noisy operation
-Low-quality output
-Slow print speed
-Multi-pass ribbons (decrease in quality with each pass)
2. DAISY WHEEL PRINTERS
•

•

•

3.

Round disk found on older computer printers t hat extends a portion of the wheel making
contact with ink ribbon that makes contact with paper creating the character. This
procedure is repeated for each key pressed.
Daisy Wheel printer - A printer that uses a wheel with all the characters on it to produce
output. The wheel spins to the desired characterand makes an imprint, then spins to go to
the next character. It sounds like a little machine gun.
These printersgenerally aren't used much anymore due to the decreased cost of other
printers that can produce graphics as well as text. The one good thing about a daisy-wheel
printer is that the text is generally very crisp, but even that advantage is nullified now
with laser printers that can produce very crisp characters as well.
Advantages
-Best print quality of impact printers
Disadvantages
-Very slow
-Only one font can be used at a time because you must change out the Daisy
Wheel to change fonts.
-Cannot print graphics
CHAIN AND BAND PRINTERS - Uses characters on a band or chain that is moved
into place before striking the characters onto the paper.
Advantages
Very fast
Disadvantages
-Very loud
-Very expensive

STORAGE DEVICES
•

•

Alternatively referred to as digital storage, storage, storage media, or storage medium,
a storage device is any hardware capable of holding information either temporarily or
permanently.
There are two types of storage devices used with computers: a primary storage device,
such as RAM, and a secondary storage device, like a hard drive. Secondary storage can
be removable, internal, or external storage.

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Without a storage device, your computer would not be able to save any settings or information
and would be considered a dumb terminal.
Examples of computer storage

MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES
Today, magnetic storage is one of the most common types of storage used with computers and is
the technology that many computer hard drives use.
• Floppy diskette
• Hard drive
• SuperDisk
• Tape cassette
• Zip diskette
OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES
Another common storage is optical storage, which uses lasers and lights as its method of reading
and writing data.
• Blu-Ray disc
• CD-ROM disc
• CD-R and CD-RW disc
• DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-RW, and DVD+RW disc

FLASH MEMORY DEVICES

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Flash memory has started to replace magnetic media as it becomes cheaper as it is the more
efficient and reliable solution.
• Jump drive or flash drive
• Memory card
• Memory stick
• SSD
ONLINE AND CLOUD
Storing data online and in cloud storage is becoming popular as people need to access their data
from more than one device.
• Cloud storage
• Network media
PAPER STORAGE

Early computers had no method of using any of the above technologies for storing information
and had to rely on paper. Today, these forms of storage are rarely used or found.
• OMR
• Punch card
When saving anything on a computer, it may ask you for a storage location, which is the area in
which you would like to save the information. By default, most information is saved to your
computer hard drive. If you want to move the information to another computer, save it to a
removable storage device such as a flash drive.
These are devices that store information permanently. They are also known as Auxiliary storage
devices or Secondary storage devices. They include:a) THE HARD DISK
A fixed device for storing information within the computer system unit. The disk is not
moveable and is also referred to as the C:\ drive. The amount of disk space a computer
has determines the power of a computer. It provides fast access known as Random access
and has high-speed storage.
b) FLOPPY DISKETTE
An external form of storage used for back up. Information can be deleted and rewritten
and re-saved. The storage device is common for microcomputers. The disks are either
High density or double density disks because data is stored more densely/ compactly than
on regular density disks. Common size of disk is 31/2inches.
ADVANTAGES OF FLOPPY DISKETTES
1. They are cheaper than Hard disks and CD-ROMS

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2. They are portable hence used to transfer data or information from one computer to
another
3. They offer direct access and they are faster than magnetic tapes
DISADVANTAGES OF FLOPPY DISKETTES
1. They are prone to viruses
2. They are difficult to handle
3. They can easily be corrupted
4. They have a relatively short life span
5. They hold relatively small amounts of data
6. They are not always 100% reliable
CARE AND HANDLING OF A FLOPPY DISKETTE
1. Don’t put the diskette near any magnetic field.
2. Don’t put the diskette near any electronic motor.
3. Don’t expose the diskette to direct sunshine or heat.
4. Store the diskette in a cool dry dust-free environment.
5. Don’t spill liquid onto the diskette.
6. Don’t use any diskette which has had liquids spilled on it.
7. Don’t bend or fold a diskette.
8. Don’t staple labels onto the diskette.
9. Use a soft pencil or felt-tip pen when writing on diskette labels, as the pressure of a
ballpoint may leave indentations on the magnetic surface.
10. Don’t touch the magnetic surface (the black plastic like plate) of the disk, as your
fingerprints may hinder the drive in reading from and writing to the disk .
c) CATRIDGE TAPE
Data is recorded in the form of magnetized spots on an iron oxide coating of a plastic
tape. Gaps are used to separate individual data records. The tape is similar to audiotapes.
Access of information from the tape is in sequential form and thus slow.
d) CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)
Beams of laser light are used to write on optical disks by magnetic means. After writing,
the disk can only be read from and not written to. Access to information is direct and very
fast.
e) WORM (Write Once, Read Many)
WORM Disks allow microcomputers with the proper drive known as a CD Rewriters (or
a burner) to record own data on a blank CD. Once the recording is done, the disk can only
be read from and cannot be rewritten.
Erasable optical disks are also available and are known as EPROM. The major advantage
of optical disks is their storage capacity. The information on one optical requires multiple
floppies.
f) DVD (Digital Versatile Disks)
A form of optical disks similar to CD ROMS but has much more storage
capacities of up to 3.9GB. They support audio and video as well as
data on the same disk.
g) ZIP DISKS

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These are high capacity removable diskettes. They have gained favor for back-up
purposes. Some zip disks use magnetic technology and others use laser. They have a
capacity of about 100MB.
Storage devices differ in terms of capacity, cost and access methods. For any device to be
used there is a need for the device drive on the computer e.g. A floppy disk drive.
Flash memory / solid state memory
Flash memory is a non-volatile, solid state storage device.(i.e. keeps its data without power and
has no moving parts).
Flash memory is increasingly being used in a wide range of devices. Some examples include:
• Small, lightweight USB memory sticks, available for many Gigabytes.
• Memory cards for digital cameras.
• Main internal storage for tablet computers (SSD)
• Digital audio players.
• Mobile phones.
• Video game hardware.
 Flash memory offers very fast access to data and programs. However, retrieving data from an
external flash memory device such as a USB stick would be slower than an internal hard disk
because the speed of access is restricted by the USB link or connection.
 With the development of tablet computers, flash memory is used as the main form of internal
storage because there is no room for a traditional hard disk. These disks are called SSD (solid
state storage). In this case, access to the data stored in flash memory would be much faster
than from a hard disk because there are no moving parts involved.
 Currently, the down side to using flash memory as the main storage method is that it has a
limited number of read/write cycles which limits its useful life span.
 Flash memory, when packaged in a "memory card", is very resilient to damage, unlike many
other storage devices. It can withstand extremes of temperature, being immersed in water or
being accidentally dropped.
PROPERTIES OF FLASH MEMORY DEVICES
PROPERTY

NOTES

Type of storage

Solid state

Data access

Direct access

Cost of storage

More expensive per byte of storage than hard disk, magnetic tape,
CDs and DVDs

Capacity

2 gigabytes upwards.

Speed

As an external storage device, it is slower than an internal hard disk.
It is faster than magnetic tape, CDs and DVDs.
If it is used as internal storage, it then becomes faster than an
internal hard disk.

Portability

Very portable as it is designed to be fitted into small electronic
devices.

Durability

Very durable. Resistant to pressure, temperature extremes and
accidental damage.
It has a limited number of read/write cycles which limits its useful
life
The part of a USB stick which is inserted into the USB port can be
snapped off or damaged rendering the device unusable.

Reliability

Usually very reliable.

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DISK CARE
1) Do not expose them to sun or a hot environment.
2) Keep them away from moisture or water.
3) Keep them away from magnetic fields i.e. Phones, tops of some monitors, magnetized
items etc..
4) Do not touch the actual tape.
5) Keep them away from dust.
6) Do not place heavy objects on them.
7) Write on a floppy disk label only with a felt-tip pen, or write before sticking the label
8) Avoid using rubber bands, paper clips and erasers on floppy disks
HARDWARE CARE
1) Make sure there is enough space for the machines to breathe. (Fresh air is necessary
to make the fan keep the electronics cool).
2) Do not block air vents with books.
3) Keep the computer dry.
4) House the machine in a dust free environment e.g. 1ST floor carpeted-room (Carpets
suck dust) and, use a vacuum cleaner to clean the carpet. (Dust is the biggest killer of
hard drives).
5) Do not expose the machine to extreme temperatures.
6) Properly shut down the machine before turn-off.
7) Pull the plug out of socket when there is thunder and lightning.
8) Do not move the system when the computer is on. The hard drive can be damaged.
9) Use of UPS- Uninterruptible Power Supply in case of power failures,
10) Use of Surge Protectors against too high voltages.

NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR AN IDEAL COMPUTER ROOM ENVIRONMENT.
1. Cleanliness [books, manuals not encouraged] because they bring dust & caught fire
easily.
2. Air conditioners, which control the room and dehumidates it.
3. It should be dust free; dust is the biggest “killer” of hard drives.
4. No carpets, they caught fire more easily.
5. You are not allowed to eat, smoke or drink in the computer room.
6. No magnetic material should be in the computer room.
7. The computer room should be located in such a way that computers are not exposed
to direct sunlight or hot environments, use curtains if otherwise.
8. The computer room should be fitted with burglar bars, alarm systems, or guarded
24hours to ensure security.
9. The computer room should have surge protectors or suppressors to guard against
electrical faults and high voltages.
10. The computer room should have UPS [uninterrupted power supply] in case of power
failures, which may be fatal.
11. Computer room should be well ventilated, to allow for air circulation,
12. Foreign media, such as floppy diskettes, flash disks should not be allowed in order
to minimize virus spread.
13. Always switch off machines if not in use.
14. Avoid overloading circuits.

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15. All cabling and wiring should not be exposed; it should be covered and should not
criss cross the room.
16. Leave enough space between computers and the walls.
17. Do not use chalk the computer room , dry wipe markers are encouraged.

COMPUTER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
MOTHERBOARD
•
•

The motherboard is a printed circuit board that is the foundation of a computer, located
at the bottom of the computer case.
It allocates power to the CPU, RAM, and all other computer hardware components. Most
importantly, the motherboard allows hardware components to communicate with one
another.
# All components plug into the motherboard either directly (straight into the
circuit board) or indirectly (via USB ports).
# Once connected to the motherboard, the components can work together to form
the computer system.
# Components communicate and send signals to each other via the BUS Network.

•

Overleaf is a picture of the ASUS P5AD2-E motherboard with names of each major
component of the motherboard. Clicking on the image below gives you a larger more
detailed version of the picture below.

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POWER SUPPLY UNIT

PS is short for power supply and sometimes abbreviated as PSU, which is short for Power Supply
Unit. A power supply is an internal hardware component that supplies components in a computer with
power. The power supply converts a 110-115 or 220-230 volt alternating current (AC) into a steady
low-voltage direct current (DC) usable by the computer and rated by the number of watts it generates.
For example, the image to the right, is of an Antec True 330, a 330 Watt power supply and an example
of a computer power supply.
• Caution: Do not open the power supply, it contains capacitors that can hold electricity even if the
computer is off and unplugged for a week.
• Tip: You can protect your power supply and your computer from a surge and voltage drops by investing
in a UPS. If you cannot afford a UPS, you should at the very least have the computer plugged into a
surge protector.
Parts found on the back of a power supply
Below is a list of parts you may find on the back of the power supply.
• A connection for the power cord to the computer.
• A fan opening to draw air out of the power supply.
• A red switch to change the power supply voltage.
• A rocker switch to turn the power supply on and off.
On the front-end, which is not visible unless the computer is opened are several cables that connect the
power supply to each of the devices and the computer motherboard. A power supply connects to the
motherboard using an ATX style connector, other connectors include an auxiliary connector, Berg
connector, Molex connector, and P4
•

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HARD DRIVE
•

•

A hard disk drive (sometimes abbreviated as Hard drive, HD, or HDD) is a non-volatile memory
hardware device that permanently stores and retrieves information. There are many variations, but
their sizes are generally 3.5" and 2.5" for desktop and laptop computers respectively. A hard drive
consists of one or more platters to which data is written using a magnetic head, all inside of an airsealed casing. Internal hard disks reside in a drive bay, connect to the motherboard using an ATA,
SCSI, or SATA cable, and are powered by a connection to the PSU (power supply unit).
A hard drive can be used to store just about any type of data, including pictures, music, videos, and
text documents. Computers have a hard drive and use it to store files for the operating system and
software that run on the computer, as well as files created or downloaded to the computer by a user.

Hard drive components

•

•
•

As can be seen in the picture above, the desktop hard drive consists of the following components:
the head actuator, read/write actuator arm, read/write head, spindle, and platter. On the back of a
hard drive is a circuit board called the disk controller.
Tip: New users often confuse memory (RAM) with disk drive space. See our memory definition for
a comparison between memory and storage.
Note: The above picture is an example of a traditional hard drive and not an SSD.

How is data read and stored on a hard drive?
Data sent to and read from the hard drive is interpreted by the disk controller, which tells the hard drive
what to do and how to move the components within the drive. When the operating system needs to read or
write information, it examines the hard drive's File Allocation Table (FAT) to determine file location and
available write areas. Once they have been determined, the disk controller instructs the actuator to move the
read/write arm and align the read/write head. Because files are often scattered throughout the platter, the

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head needs to move to different locations to access all information.

All information stored on a traditional hard drive, like the above example, is done magnetically.
After completing the above steps, if the computer needs to read information from the hard drive, it
would read the magnetic polarities on the platter. One side of the magnetic polarity is 0, and the
other is 1. Reading this as binary data, the computer can understand what the data is on the platter.
For the computer to write information to the platter, the read/write head aligns the magnetic
polarities, writing 0's and 1's that can be read later.
External and Internal hard drives
• Although most hard drives are internal, there are also stand-alone devices called external hard
drives, which can backup data on computers and expand the available disk space. External drives
are often stored in an enclosure that helps protect the drive and allows it to interface with the
computer, usually over USB or eSATA. A great example of an external backup device that supports
multiple hard drives is the Drobo.
•

•

External hard drives come in many shapes and sizes. Some are large, about the size of a book, while
others are about the size of a cell phone. External hard drives can be very useful since they usually
offer more space than a jump drive and are still portable. The picture to the right is an example of a
laptop hard disk drive enclosure from Adaptec. The user may install a laptop hard drive of any
storage capacity into the enclosure and connect it via USB port to the computer.
•

HDD being replaced by SSD
• Solid State Drives (SSDs) have started to replace hard disk drives (HDDs) because of the distinct
performance advantages they have over HDD, including faster access times and lower latency.
While SSDs is becoming more and more popular, HDDs continue to be used in many desktop
computers largely due to the value per dollar that HDDs offer over SSDs. However, more and more
laptops are beginning to utilize SSD over HDD, helping to improve the reliability and stability of
laptops.

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CD-ROM

Short for Compact Disc-Read Only Memory, a CD-ROM (shown right) is an optical disc which contains
audio or software data whose memory is read only. A CD-ROM Drive or optical drive is the device used
to read them. CD-ROM drives have speeds ranging from 1x all the way up to 72x, meaning it reads the CD
roughly 72 times faster than the 1x version. As you would imagine, these drives are capable playing audio
CDs and reading data CDs. Below is a picture of the front and back of a standard CD-ROM drive.

Interfaces
Below are the different interfaces that allow a CD-ROM and other disc drives to connect to a computer.
• IDE/ATA - One of the most commonly used interfaces for disc drives.
• Panasonic - Older proprietary interface.
• Parallel - Interface used with old external CD-ROM drives.

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PCMCIA (PC Card) - Interface sometimes used to connect external disc drives to laptop
computers.
• SATA - Replacing IDE as the new standard to connect disc drives.
• SCSI - Another common interface used with disk and disc drives.
• USB - Interface most commonly used to connect external disc drives.
CD-ROM transfer speeds
Below is the standard transfer rates and access times for CD-ROM drives. The below figures are averages
you can expect to find on each speed of CD-ROM drive.
•

Drive speed

FDD
•

•

•

Transfer rate (Mbit/s) Access time (ms)

Single speed (1x)

1.2288

400

Double speed (2x)

2.4576

300

Quad speed (4x)

4.9152

150

Six speed (6x)

7.0653

150

Eight speed (8x)

9.8304

100

Ten speed (10x)

12.288

100

Twelve speed (12x)

14.7456

100

Eighteen speed (18x)

21.8343

90

Twenty speed (20x)

up to 24.576

90

Thirty-two speed (32x)

up to 39.3216

85

Thirty-six speed (36x)

up to 44.2368

80

Fifty-two speed (52x)

up to 63.8976

80

Seventy-two speed (72x) up to 88.4736

75

CAV drives (12x - 24x)

150-90

1,843,200 - 3,686,400

A Floppy Disk Drive, also called FDD or FD for short, is a computer disk drive that enables a user
to save data to removable diskettes. Although 8" disk drives were first made available in 1971, the
first real disk drives used were the 5 1/4" floppy disk drives, which were later replaced with the 3
1/2" floppy disk drives.
A 5 1/4"floppy disk was capable of storing between 360KB and 1.2MB of data, and the 3 1/2"
floppy disk was capable of storing between 360KB and 1.44MB of data. For both sizes of floppy
disk, the amount of data that could be stored was dependent on whether the disk was single or
double sided and whether the disk was regular or high density.
Today, due to their extremely limited capacity, computers no longer come equipped with floppy
disk drives. This technology has largely been replaced with CD-R, DVD-R, and flash drives.

Above is an example of each of the different floppy drives. As can be seen, the size of the floppy drive and

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the diskettes they use have decreased over time.

CPU
Alternately referred to as a processor, central processor, or microprocessor, the CPU (pronounced seapea-you) is the Central Processing Unit of the computer. A computer's CPU handles all instructions it
receives from hardware and software running on the computer.
Tip: The CPU is often referred to as the brain of the computer. However, it is more appropriate to refer to
software as the brain and the CPU as a very efficient calculator. A CPU is really good with numbers, but if
it wasn't for the software it wouldn't know how to do anything else.
Note: Many new computer users may improperly call their computer and sometimes their monitor the CPU.
When referring to your computer or monitor, it is proper to refer to them as either the "computer" or
"monitor" and not a CPU.
The picture below is an example of what the top and bottom of an Intel Pentium processor may look. The
processor is placed and secured into a compatible CPU socket found on the motherboard. Processors
produce heat, so they are covered with a heat sink to keep them cool and running smoothly.

As you can see in the above picture, the CPU chip is usually in the shape of a square or rectangle
and has one notched corner to help place the chip properly into the CPU socket. On the bottom of
the chip are hundreds of connector pins that plug into each of the corresponding holes in the socket.
Today, most CPU's resemble the picture shown above. However, Intel and AMD have also
experimented with slot processors that were much larger and slid into a slot on the motherboard.
Also, over the years, there have been dozens of different types of sockets on motherboards. Each
socket only supports specific types of processors and each has its own pin layout.
CPU history
• The CPU was first developed at Intel with the help of Ted Hoff and others in the early 1970's. The
first processor released by Intel was the 4004 processor, shown in the picture to the right.
• CPU history.
Components of the CPU
In the CPU, the primary components are the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) that performs mathematical,
logical, and decision operations and the CU (Control Unit) that directs all of the processors operations.
•

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•

Over the history of computer processors, the speed (clock speed) and capabilities of the processor
have dramatically improved. For example, the first microprocessor was the Intel 4004 that was
released November 15, 1971, and had 2,300 transistors and performed 60,000 operations per
second. The Intel Pentium processor pictured above has 3,300,000 transistors and performs around
188,000,000 instructions per second.

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL STORAGE
External Storage Devices
This takes the form of a stand-alone device that is separate from the computer. External drives are connected
to the computer with a cable plugged into a suitable interface such as an USB port. Data then passes back
and forth across the interface.
Once an external drive is attached to the system, it appears as an extra drive letter in the folder tree, for
example, E drive or K drive. The user can transfer files in the usual way by using the drag and drop method.
The main advantage of external drives is that they are portable and so data is easily moved from one
location to another. External drives also allow safe backup of internally stored data.
The main disadvantage compared to an internal drive is data transfer is slower and they also take up space
around the computer. Constant plugging in and out can also physically wear out the port over time.
External storage takes many forms, for example:
• portable hard disks
• magnetic tape
• memory stick / flash drive
• solid state memory cards
• DVD or CDs
Each type of external storage has to have the correct interface on the computer in order to connect.
Internal Storage Devices
Some storage devices are classed as 'internal' which means they are inside the computer case.
Most computers have some form of internal storage. The most common type of internal storage is the hard
disk.
At the most basic level, internal storage is needed to hold the operating system so that the computer is able
to access the input and output devices.
It will also be used to store the applications software that you use and more than likely, the original copies

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of your data files.
Internal storage allows the data and applications to be loaded very rapidly into memory, ready for use. The
data can be accessed much faster than data which is stored on an external storage device. This is because
internal storage devices are connected directly to the motherboard and its data bus whereas external devices
are connected through a hardware interface such as USB, which means they are considerably slower to
access.
Internal storage also means that if the computer is moved around, it will still retain its most commonly used
data.
The main disadvantage of internal storage is that when the hard disk fails (and it will), all the data and
applications may be lost.
This can be avoided to some extent by using more than one hard disk within the machine. Each hard disk
has a copy of all the data, so if one fails the other can carry on. This is called a RAID array. An alternative is
to use external drives for backup

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COMPUTER SECURITY
DISK CARE
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

Do not expose them to sun or a hot environment.
Keep them away from moisture or water.
Keep them away from magnetic fields i.e. Phones, tops of some monitors, magnetized items etc..
Do not touch the actual tape.
Keep them away from dust.
Do not place heavy objects on them.
Write on a floppy disk label only with a felt-tip pen, or write before sticking the label
Avoid using rubber bands, paper clips and erasers on floppy disks
CARE AND HANDLING OF A FLOPPY DISKETTE

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Don’t put the diskette near any magnetic field.
Don’t put the diskette near any electronic motor.
Don’t expose the diskette to direct sunshine or heat.
Store the diskette in a cool dry dust-free environment.
Don’t spill liquid onto the diskette.
Don’t use any diskette which has had liquids spilled on it.
Don’t bend or fold a diskette.
Don’t staple labels onto the diskette.
Use a soft pencil or felt-tip pen when writing on diskette labels, as the pressure of a ballpoint may
leave indentations on the magnetic surface.
10. Don’t touch the magnetic surface (the black plastic like plate) of the disk, as your fingerprints
may hinder the drive in reading from and writing to the disk

HARDWARE CARE
1) Make sure there is enough space for the machines to breathe. (Fresh air is necessary to make the
fan keep the electronics cool).
2) Do not block air vents with books.
3) Keep the computer dry.
4) House the machine in a dust free environment e.g. 1ST floor carpeted-room (Carpets suck dust)
and, use a vacuum cleaner to clean the carpet. (Dust is the biggest killer of hard drives).
5) Do not expose the machine to extreme temperatures.
6) Properly shut down the machine before turn-off.
7) Pull the plug out of socket when there is thunder and lightning.
8) Do not move the system when the computer is on. The hard drive can be damaged.
9) Use of UPS- Uninterruptible Power Supply in case of power failures,
10) Use of Surge Protectors against too high voltages.

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NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR AN IDEAL COMPUTER ROOM ENVIRONMENT.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Cleanliness [books, manuals not encouraged] because they bring dust & caught fire easily.
Air conditioners, which control the room and dehumidates it.
It should be dust free; dust is the biggest “killer” of hard drives.
No carpets, they caught fire more easily.
You are not allowed to eat, smoke or drink in the computer room.
No magnetic material should be in the computer room.
The computer room should be located in such a way that computers are not exposed to direct
sunlight or hot environments, use curtains if otherwise.
The computer room should be fitted with burglar bars, alarm systems, or guarded 24hours to
ensure security.
The computer room should have surge protectors or suppressors to guard against electrical faults
and high voltages.
The computer room should have UPS [uninterrupted power supply] in case of power failures,
which may be fatal.
Computer room should be well ventilated, to allow for air circulation,
Foreign media, such as floppy diskettes, flash disks should not be allowed in order to minimize
virus spread.
Always switch off machines if not in use.
Avoid overloading circuits.
All cabling and wiring should not be exposed; it should be covered and should not criss cross the
room.
Leave enough space between computers and the walls.
Do not use chalk the computer room , dry wipe markers are encouraged.

DATA SECURITY /PROTECTION
 Data Security/Protection

Refers to keeping data safe from various hazards or dangers like natural hazards,
deliberate corruption or destruction of software & hardware by malicious or terrorist acts,
illegal access to data by hackers [people who break into the system] & accidental
destruction of data by hardware or software failure [operator error].

MEASURES TO ENSURE DATA SECURITY

1. DATA ENCRYPTION/DECRYPTION
Data is coded before transmission over a WAN & decrypted only if you have the key & code to
decrypt the data on the receiving end. The process of transforming a message in ordinary language i.e.
plain text to produce what is called cipher text which is then send along a communication line/link.
The receiving computer uses another transformation to decode the message.
Decryption
• The process of converting encrypted content back into its original form, often the process of
converting cipher text to plaintext. Decryption is the opposite of encryption.

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•

•

Encryption
Any procedure used in cryptography to convert plaintext into cipher text in order to prevent
anyone except the intended recipient from reading that data. There are many types of data
encryption, and they are the basis of network security. Common types include Data Encryption
Standard and public-key encryption.
Cipher text
Data that has been transformed by encryption so that its semantic information content (ie, its
meaning) is no longer intelligible or directly available.
2. FIREWALLa firewall is a software program designed to prevent unauthorized access to a PC or network
through a connection to the Internet. It works by monitoring all data sent to and from the PC
and comparing the data with a set of user-defined security criteria. Any data that does not
meet that criteria is blocked. Firewalls also process encrypted data. They verify the validity of
the user. User would require access to the firewall before they can transmit data. Latest
firewalls also have the ability to detect virus software in packets of data that is sent through
the network. Firewalls disallow data transmission if it detects strains of virus on the data
being transmitted.
3. USERNAMES & PASSWORDSPasswords restrict only authorized personnel/users to have access to the data or computer
rooms [cards]. Passwords bring in an aspect of accountability, if a file is deleted, the person
with the password will be reported as the culprit through logging. Passwords can be
forgotten. Widely used by companies to protect their equipment & data
4. AUTHORIZED ENTRY TO COMPUTER INSTALLATIONSMost installations have card readers, voice recognition systems or keypads on the doors that
prohibit entry to unauthorized personnel.
5. Backing-up files on external disks periodically.
6. Keeping backup copies of files in a different location and making about 3 generations of
backup.
7. Saving work frequently
8. Avoiding viruses.
9. Restricting access to the computer room. Access could be only through codes, voice
recognition etc.
10.
Installing fire alarms.
11.
Lining computer rooms with fire resistant material.
12.
Placing the computer room in upper floors of a building to avoid burglaries.
13.
Having a security guard 24 hours a day.
Summary - Keeping data secure
Measures that can be taken to keep data safe include:
•
•
•

Making regular back-ups of files. (Back up copies should be stored safely in fireproof
safes or in another building.)
Protecting yourself against viruses by running anti-virus software.
Using a system of passwords so that access to data is restricted.

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•
•
•
•
•

Safe storage of important files stored on removable disks - eg locked away in a fireproof
and waterproof safe.
Allowing only authorized staff into certain computer areas, eg by controlling entry to
these areas by means of ID cards or magnetic swipe cards.
Always logging off or turning terminals off and if possible locking them.
Avoiding accidentally deletion of files by write-protecting disks.
Using data encryption techniques to code data so that it makes no apparent sense

MAJOR THREATS TO INFORMATION SYSTEMS/COMPUTERS
Key threats to data security
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data can be lost or damaged during a system crash - especially one affecting the hard
disk.
Data can become corrupt as a result of faulty disks or disk drives, or power failures.
Data can be lost by accidentally deleting or overwriting files.
Data can be lost or become corrupted by computer viruses.
Data can be hacked into by unauthorized users and deleted or altered.
Data can be destroyed by terrorist activities, war, bombs and fire.
Data can be deleted or altered by unpleasant employees wishing to make money or seek
revenge on their employers.

Explain 5 major threats to information systems; for each threat describe its impact and
preventative measure you would adopt to prevent it..
THREAT
Hardware failure

IMPACT
•
You are grounded
•
You cannot access the system
•
Data is incorrectly/
incompletely processed

CONTROL
•
Have spares in the warehouse.
•
Do regular servicing
•
Have a disaster plan
•
Run hardware diagnostics frequently

Electrical faults

•
•
•

Loss of data
Disk crushes
Damage to hardware

Software failures

•

Operations are grounded

Natural disasters/ physical threats

•

Absolute destruction

Viruses

•
•
•

Deletion & corruption of files
Reformatting of documents
System may fail to work

•
•

Hackers, Computer crime

•
•
•
•

Security is breached
Security is bypassed
Destruction of files
Data is stolen

•
•
•
•
•

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Have standby generators
Install UPS [uninterrupted power
supply]
Install Surge suppressors/ protectors
Buy software from reputable vendors.
Do regular back ups
Software diagnostics
Relocate backups to other areas free
from disasters
Install a reliable anti-virus software
Never download unknown e-mail
attachments
Scan unknown diskettes
Change passwords regularly
Employ a security guard
Install a firewall
Prevent unauthorized access to
computer facilities.

War and Terrorist activity
Human error

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Computer abuse
• The willful or negligent unauthorized activity that affects the availability, confidentiality,
or integrity of computer resources. Computer abuse includes fraud, embezzlement, theft,
malicious damage, unauthorized use, denial of service, and misappropriation
Hacking
• Unauthorized use, or attempts to circumvent or bypass the security mechanisms of an
information system or network. Hacking means illegally accessing other people's
computer systems for destroying, disrupting or carrying out illegal activities on the
network or computer systems.

COMPUTER CRIME/FRAUD
 Computer crimes are criminal activities, which involve the use of information technology
to gain an illegal or an unauthorized access to a computer system with intent of
damaging, deleting or altering computer data. Computer crimes also include the activities
such as electronic frauds, misuse of devices, identity theft and data as well as system
interference. Computer crimes may not necessarily involve damage to physical property.
They rather include the manipulation of confidential data and critical information.
Computer crimes involve activities of software theft, wherein the privacy of the users is
hampered. These criminal activities involve the breach of human and information
privacy, as also the theft and illegal alteration of system critical information. The
different types of computer crimes have necessitated the introduction and use of newer
and more effective security measures.
 Computer Fraud/Crime

Criminal actions accomplished through the use of computer systems, especially
with the intent to defraud, destroy, damage, or make unauthorized use of
computer resources.

E.g. improper transfer of funds from one account to another
TYPES OF COMPUTER CRIME/FRAUD
Hacking: The activity of breaking into a computer system to gain an unauthorized access is
known as hacking. The act of defeating the security capabilities of a computer system in order to
obtain an illegal access to the information stored on the computer system is called hacking. The
unauthorized revelation of passwords with intent to gain an unauthorized access to the private
communication of an organization of a user is one of the widely known computer crimes. Another
highly dangerous computer crime is the hacking of IP addresses in order to transact with a false
identity, thus remaining anonymous while carrying out the criminal activities.
Phishing: Phishing is the act of attempting to acquire sensitive information like usernames,
passwords and credit card details by disguising as a trustworthy source. Phishing is carried out
through emails or by luring the users to enter personal information through fake websites.
Criminals often use websites that have a look and feel of some popular website, which makes the
users feel safe to enter their details there.
Computer Viruses: Computer viruses are computer programs that can replicate themselves and
harm the computer systems on a network without the knowledge of the system users. Viruses
spread to other computers through network file system, through the network, Internet or by the
means of removable devices like USB drives and CDs. Computer viruses are after all, forms of

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malicious codes written with an aim to harm a computer system and destroy information. Writing
computer viruses is a criminal activity as virus infections can crash computer systems, thereby
destroying great amounts of critical data.
Cyberstalking: The use of communication technology, mainly the Internet, to torture other
individuals is known as cyberstalking. False accusations, transmission of threats and damage to
data and equipment fall under the class of cyberstalking activities. Cyberstalkers often target the
users by means of chat rooms, online forums and social networking websites to gather user
information and harass the users on the basis of the information gathered. Obscene emails,
abusive phone calls and other such serious effects of cyberstalking have made it a type of
computer crime.
Identity Theft: This is one of the most serious frauds as it involves stealing money and obtaining
other benefits through the use of a false identity. It is the act of pretending to be someone else by
using someone else's identity as one's own. Financial identity theft involves the use of a false
identity to obtain goods and services and a commercial identity theft is the using of someone
else’s business name or credit card details for commercial purposes. Identity cloning is the use of
another user's information to pose as a false user. Illegal migration, terrorism and blackmail are
often made possible by means of identity theft.
The different types of computer crimes involve an illegal exploitation of the computer and
communication technology for criminal activities. While the advancing technology has served as
a boon to mankind, the destructively directed human intellects are all set to turn technology into a
curse. However, crimes are sure to end, as it is truth that always triumphs!

1. Intellectual crime – cracking into a computer system with the sole aim of transferring or
stealing funds, e.g. Salami slicing which is the activity of obtaining or stealing money
repeatedly in extremely small quantities over a period of time
2. Destruction of property
3. Software piracy
4. Deliberate circumvention of computer security systems or unauthorized access to or
modification of computer programs and data; i.e. hacking which attempts to bypass the
security mechanism of a computer system or network
5. Theft of computer hardware and software or taking away software without the owner’s
consent
6. Making and distributing pornography

MEASURES TO COUNTER OR COMBAT COMPUTER CRIME [COMPUTER
SECURITY]

Careful vetting of employees

Separation of duties

Use of passwords

Security manager software-to monitor attempts to access the system whether
successful or not.

Educating staff

Prevention of unauthorized access to the computer operations room

Data Encryption/Decryption

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1. Establish strong passwords
Implementing strong passwords is the easiest thing you can do to strengthen your
security.
Cloutier shares his tip for crafting a hard-to-crack password: use a combination of capital
and lower-case letters, numbers and symbols and make it 8 to 12 characters long.
You should definitely avoid using: any personal data (such as your birthdate), common
words spelled backwards and sequences of characters or numbers, or those that are close
together on the keyboard.
Use their convenient password checker to see how strong yours is.
As for how often you should change your password, Cloutier says that the industry
standard is "every 90 days," but don't hesitate to do it more frequently if your data is
highly-sensitive.
Another key: make sure every individual has their own username and password for any
login system, from desktops to your CMS. "Never just use one shared password," says
Cloutier.
And finally, "Never write it down!" he adds.
2. Put up a strong firewall
In order to have a properly protected network, "firewalls are a must," Cloutier says.
A firewall protects your network by controlling internet traffic coming into and flowing
out of your business. They're pretty standard across the board -- Cloutier recommends
any of the major brands.
3. Install antivirus protection
Antivirus and anti-malware software are essentials in your arsenal of online security
weapons, as well.
"They're the last line of defense" should an unwanted attack get through to your network,
Cloutier explains.
4. Update your programs regularly
Making sure your computer is "properly patched and updated" is a necessary step
towards being fully protected; there's little point in installing all this great software if
you're not going to maintain it right.
"Your security applications are only as good as their most recent update," Watchinski
explains. "While applications are not 100 percent fool-proof, it is important to regularly
update these tools to help keep your users safe."
Frequently updating your programs keeps you up-to-date on any recent issues or holes
that programmers have fixed.
5. Secure your laptops
Because of their portable nature, laptops are at a higher risk of being lost or stolen than
average company desktops. It's important to take some extra steps to make certain your
sensitive data is protected.
Encryption software changes the way information looks on the harddrive so that, without
the correct password, it can't be read.
6. Secure your mobile phones
Cloutier points out that smartphones hold so much data these days that you should

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7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

consider them almost as valuable as company computers -- and they're much more easily
lost or stolen. As such, securing them is another must.
The must-haves for mobile phones:
• Encryption software
• Password-protection (Cloutier also suggests enabling a specific "lock-out" period,
wherein after a short amount of time not being used, the phone locks itself)
• Remote wiping enabled
Backup regularly
Scheduling regular backups to an external hard drive, or in the cloud, is a painless way to
ensure that all your data is stored safely.
The general rule of thumb for backups: servers should have a complete backup weekly,
and incremental backups every night; personal computers should also be backed up
completely every week, but you can do incremental backups every few days if you like
("however long you could live without your data," Cloutier explains).
Getting your data compromised is a painful experience -- having it all backed up so you
don't completely lose it will make it much less so.
Be careful with e-mail, IM and surfing the Web
It's not uncommon for a unsuspecting employee to click on a link or download an
attachment that they believe is harmless -- only to discover they've been infected with a
nasty virus, or worse.
Educate your employees
Teaching your employees about safe online habits and proactive defense is crucial.
"Educating them about what they are doing and why it is dangerous is a more effective
strategy than expecting your IT security staff to constantly react to end users’ bad
decisions," Watchinski says.
It's not easy: "One of the most difficult things to do is protect end users against
themselves," he adds. But ultimately, prevention is the best approach to handling your
data security.
Make sure your employees understand how important your company's data is, and all the
measures they can take to protect it.
Data encryption
Encryption scrambles data, and is used to protect information that is being held on a
computer, stored on external media such as DVDs or transmitted over a network.
Intrusion detection
These products monitor system and network activity to spot potential security breaches.
If a detection system suspects an attack, it can generate an alarm, such as an email alert,
based upon the type of activity it has identified.

COMPUTER VIRUS
What is it?

An executable computer program written intentionally to alter the way a
computer operates without permission, to do harm to the computer.
Types of Computer Viruses
• Macro Viruses – are programmed as macros and embedded into a file or document and
when the document is opened the virus is activated. A macro is a list of commands or
actions that are found under key names of headings. Macro viruses typically infect global

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•

•
•

•
•

•
•
•

settings files such as Word templates so that subsequently edited documents are
contaminated with the infective macros
Boot Sector Viruses – A virus which attaches itself to the first part of the hard disk that
is read by the computer upon bootup. These are normally spread by floppy disks. They
only affect the computer’s boot sector such that the next time you try to start the
computer it fails to boot
Time Bomb – is designed to cause damage to a computer at a specified date and time,
e.g. Friday 13th, March 6th
Logic Bomb – checks for particular conditions or states of the system which when
satisfied triggers the perpetration of an unauthorized and usually destructive act. It lies
dormant for most of the time and is triggered by an event
Memory resident virus – resides in a computer’s volatile memory (RAM).
Polymorphic viruses – a virus that not only replicates itself by creating multiple files of
itself, but it also its digital signature every time it replicates. This makes it difficult for
less sophisticated antivirus software to detect
Program viruses e.g. cascade, pacman 1508, override.
Boot viruses e.g. pasta, pentagon, Michelangelo
Internet Viruses e.g. Trojan horse, Stealth

DEFINITION2.
A virus is acomputer program designed to enter yourcomputer and tamper with your files without
your knowledge. Once the program containing the virus is open, the activated virus can not only
infect other programs and documents on youcomputerr, it can duplicate and transmit itself to
other computers that are connected to yours, just like a physical virus can move from one human
host to another.
Viruses began in the late 1980s as personal computers and electronic bulletin boards became
more common. Back then, operating systems, word processing programs and other programs
were stored on floppy disks. Hidden Viruses were programmed onto these disks; as the disks
were transferred from person to person, the virus spread.
WHO CREATES VIRUSES?
Where do Viruses come from? Every virus is created by an author with a different motive—but
all virus builders feel their actions are justified. For some, a killer virus is the ultimate technical
challenge, like climbing a mountain. For others, creating Viruses is a form of self-expression.
Some disgruntled employees, consumers or citizens turn to virus building as revenge for
perceived injustices. And though it’s a frightening thought, some Viruses are built and aimed by
legitimate (but disreputable) businesses to weaken competitors. Other virus authors want to make
their mark in Internet history; these writers get a thrill out of seeing their virus cause damage
enough to attract news headlines both online and on the evening news.
What Viruses Do? /Signs & symptoms of an infected computer.

Reduced memory or disk space

Files are overwritten or damaged

Hard drive may be erased

Data is modified /corrupted.

Change files & date stamp

Drive lights blink without reason

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Longer times are experienced when loading programs

Slower system operation.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Deletion of data files
The computer completely fails to work
Erasure or deletion of executable files
Formatting of the hard disks
Filling up of disk space
Programs suddenly take longer to load.
The size of a program changes.
The disk runs out of free space when it seems to have plenty.
The CHKDSK command does not show the correct amount of bytes available.
Bit errors frequently occur while running Windows.
The disk drive is active when it should not be.
The hard drive is inaccessible when booting from a floppy drive.
Unrecognized files appear.
File names change.
The keyboard makes a clicking noise.
The screen becomes distorted.
Text on screen does unusual things.
CMOS settings, AUTOEXEC.BAT, or CONFIG.SYS files change unexpectedly
(Symantec).
A large part of detection is anti-virus software. Like a doctor, anti-virus software
often uses the above listed symptoms to identify and eradicate an infection.

What are the symptoms of an infected computer?
• Your computer behaves strangely, i.e. in a way that you haven’t seen before.
• You see unexpected messages or images.
• You hear unexpected sounds, played at random.
• Programs start unexpectedly.
• Your personal firewall tells you that an application has tried to connect to the Internet
(and it’s not a program that you ran).
• Your friends tell you that they have received e-mail messages from your address and you
haven’t sent them anything.
• Your computer ‘freezes’ frequently, or programs start running slowly.
• You get lots of system error messages.
• The operating system will not load when you start your computer.
• You notice that files or folders have been deleted or changed.
• You notice hard disk access (shown by one of the small flashing lights) when you’re not
aware of any programs running.
• Your web browser behaves erratically, e.g. you can’t close a browser window.
How computers are infected with Viruses?

Use of infected floppy diskettes on uninfected computers. Floppy disks or other
media that users can exchange.

Downloading unknown files, when your computer is connected to the Internet.

Opening an E-mail attachment. Email attachments.

Accepting unknown program installations from the internet

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•
•
•
•

•
•


Use of network files/direct connection/through networks.

Software piracy [buying software from unauthorized agents]. Pirated software.

Booting a PC from an infected medium.

Executing an infected program.

Opening an infected file.

Shareware.

Viruses may be sent by opening email attachments,

clicking on spam,

visiting corrupt websites and links online,
Opening spreadsheets or even the original method—infected disks.
But the Internet is now the superhighway for virus transmission.
Sharing of storage media
Through e-mail attachments
Networks – if your computer is connected to a home network or if your work computer is
part of network, you may find yourself with an infection through no fault of your own.
There isn’t much you can do to stop these kinds of infections, short of having your
network administrator ensure that everyone’s antivirus software is up to date so that the
invading bug can be removed as quickly as possible.
Internet downloads including software piracy
Rogue Websites. It is depressing to know that you may become infected with spyware or
a virus by doing nothing more than simply visiting a website, but it is true. Many adult
websites, gambling websites and other less than trustworthy websites will attempt to
automatically access your computer when you visit them. They often install adware bugs
that will cause a flurry of pop ups to appear on your screen. This adware will often allow
for other programs with even more nefarious purposes to be installed and before you
know it, your computer will be swamped. To stop these rogue websites, adjust the
settings on your antivirus software and firewall so that no outside connections can be
made and no programs can be installed without your express permission.

CHARACTERISTICS and ATTRIBUTES OF COMPUTER VIRUSES
The demonstrated characteristics of computer viruses include several remarkable items, including
size, versatility, propagation, effectiveness, functionality, and persistence.
1) Size.The sizes of the program code required for computer viruses has been demonstrated to
be surprisingly small. This has facilitated the ability of these programs to attach themselves to
other applications and escape notice for long periods of time.
2) Versatility.computer viruses have appeared with the ability to generically attack a wide
variety of applications. Many do not even require information about the program they are
infecting.
3) Propagation. Once a computer virus has infected a program, while this program is running,
the virus is able to spread to other programs and files accessible to the computer system. The
ability to propagate is essential to a virus program.
4) Effectiveness. Many of thecomputer viruses that have received widespread publicity have
had far-reaching and catastrophic effects on their victims. These have included total loss of
data, programs, and even the operating systems.

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5) Functionality. A wide variety of functions has been demonstrated in virus programs. Some
virus programs merely spread themselves to applications without otherwise attacking data
files, program functions, or operating systems activities. Other virus programs are
programmed to damage or delete files and systems. The effectiveness of these programs is
enhanced through the use of several phases of operation, in which the virus propagates
through a system or lies dormant until triggered by a specified event. This allows the virus
program increased time to spread before the victim system's user becomes aware of its
presence.
6) Persistence. Even after the virus program has been detected, recovery of data, programs, and
even system operation has been difficult and time consuming. In many cases, especially in
networked operations, eradication of viruses has been complicated by the ability of the virus
program to repeatedly spread and reoccur through the networked system from a single
infected copy.
Attributes of computer viruses
o Auto replicating [self replicating].
o Attaches itself to a program or file
o It infects as it travels
o Reproduces itself
o Distribute itself
o Copies itself
o Duplicate copies of itself
o It spreads
o It is software
o It can destroy
o It hides

DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF COMPUTER VIRUSES
o Cause damage to data
o Extract data from machines for spying or theft
o Slow machine performance
o Corrupt data
o Damage software, hardware and files
o Damage the computer by damaging programs
o Reformatting of the hard disk
o Deletion of files

Top 15 ANTIVIRUS TOOLS/PACKAGES/SOFTWARE
15. ESET NOD32 Antivirus 8
14. Webroot Internet Security Plus 2015
13. Panda Global Protection 2015
12. G-Data Internet Security 2015
11. McAfee LiveSafe 2015
10. AVG Free Antivirus 2016
9. Avast Free Antivirus 2015
8. Panda Free Antivirus 2016

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7. Qihoo 360 Total Security 2016
6. Trend Micro Internet Security 2015
5. BitDefender Antivirus Free Edition 2016
4. Avira Free Antivirus 2015
3. Kaspersky Total Security 2015
2. Bitdefender Internet Security 2015
1. Symantec Norton Security with Backup
MEASURES/FACILITIES PROVIDED BY AN ANTIVIRUS PACKAGE.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Scanning – searching for viruses
Cleaning of the system (removal of viruses)
Rearrangement of corrupted data.
Repairing of corrupted data files.
Quarantine – separation of infected files from uninfected files.
Prevention includes creating user awareness, implementing hygiene rules, using disk
authorization software, or providing isolated 'quarantine' PCs.
7. Detection involves the use of anti-virus software to detect, report and (sometimes)
disinfect viruses..
8. Containment involves identifying and isolating the infected items.
9. Recovery involves disinfecting or removing infected items, and recovering or
replacing corrupted data.

PRECAUTIONS/SAFETY GUIDES AGAINST VIRUSES

Install a reliable antiviral package

Avoid Software piracy thus buy software from authorized dealers.

Never download unknown files from the internet

Boot the system from virus free disks

Using write protect tabs on floppy disks

Scan every floppy diskette for viruses before use. Unknown floppy diskettes
should not be used

Avoid using foreign storage media

Use genuine software

Avoid opening e-mails from suspicious or unknown sources

Write protect disks

Install antivirus software, e.g. Avira, Eset Nod32, AVG, Norton, Dr. Solomon’s
Toolkit
•

•

Install a reliable anti virus program – From the first moment you turn your computer on, you
should have a trusted anti virus program by your side. Even if you have a machine that isn’t
hooked up to the Internet, a reliable anti virus program is a low cost and common sense addition
to any machine. There are even free anti virus programs you can download that work almost as
well as industry giants like Norton and McAfee.
Install anti-spyware and anti-malware programs – As good as the best anti virus programs
are, they sometimes need a little bit of help. Thankfully, many of the top anti-spyware programs
are completely free. Spybot Search and Destroy and CCleaner are just two free programs that can
help prevent computer viruses from doing any damage on your machine. As helpful as these
programs are, however, you must update them and run them on a regular basis for them to do any
good.

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•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•
•

Avoid suspicious websites – A good virus protection program will alert you when you visit a
website that attempts to install or run a program on your computer. Many less than reputable
adult websites do this, so if you get a warning, don’t go back, you may end up with a bug you
can’t get rid of.
Never Open Email Attachments Without Scanning Them First – The most common way
viruses are spread throughout the Internet is still via email. Some attachments, like pictures, now
display in emails and don’t require an attachment to be manually opened, but other documents
do. Make sure you use an email client that scans all email attachments before you are allowed to
open them. This will help prevent computer viruses from getting a foothold on your machine.
Set up Automatic Scans – Many of the top anti virus programs, as well as the best anti-spyware
programs, now have settings that will let them automatically run during down times or in the
middle of the night. Of course, your computer must be on for this to happen, but having daily
scans run when nothing else is going on is a great way to prevent even the latest computer viruses
from sticking around too long.
Watch Your Downloads – Part of the fun of the Internet is downloading music, movies and
other items. However, since these downloads are so massive, it can be easy to sneak a virus along
for the ride. Only download these files from trusted sites that you can count on, or, at the very
least, scan them before you open them.
Updates, Updates, Updates – There is a reason why Windows has a feature called Critical
Updates. There is an entire branch of Microsoft dedicated to staying one step ahead of the
hackers out there so when they manage to fix a possible security loophole, you need to download
the patch right away. Help Microsoft help you prevent computer viruses from causing too much
trouble.
Know What To Look For – Even if you are just a casual computer user, you should have an
idea of how your machine operates, what normal pop up windows look like and what popular
viruses are out there, that way, when your computer begins exhibiting tell tale signs, you’ll know.
You can help prevent computer viruses by staying updated and educated.
Stay Away From Cracked Software – It is so secret that you can download illegal, cracked
versions of some programs online. As tempting as it may be, these files are almost always
infested with advanced and difficult to detect bugs. Play it safe and get your software from the
source.
Install a Firewall – A firewall is a program that screens incoming Internet and network traffic.
Along with your virus program, it can help prevent unauthorized access to your computer.
Be prepared to Lock Down – If you hear of a virus that is spreading like wildfire through the
Internet, make an extra effort to be careful. Don’t open any suspicious emails or accept any
downloads for a week or two until your virus protection program has been updated and you are,
once again, safe.

SOFTWARE
Software
• Are basically programs, which are in a computer system?
• Computer programs and procedures concerned with the operation of a computer system.
Software
• Written coded commands that tell a computer what tasks to perform. For example, Word,
PhotoShop, Picture Easy, and Photo Deluxe are software programs.

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•

Coded instructions (programs) that make a computer do useful work.

Computer software
• Refers to the various programs or instructions that are stored in the computer (stored
program concept) and used to either manage or control the operation of a computer
system or to direct the computer in solving specific problems. Software is divided into
two major types.

SOFTWARE HIERARCHY

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
• Refers to the operating system and all utilityprograms that manage computerresources at
a low level. Programs that control and support operations of a computer system.
• Systems software includes compilers, loaders, linkers, and debuggers.
• System software includes a variety of programs such Operating Systems, DBMS,
Communication control programs. Service and utility programs, and programming
language translators.
•
A term for a complicated set of programs that act together to allow a computer, and other
programs, to function. Different from an page layout application that the user may have,
system software is what allows the page layout application to interact with the monitor
display, the RAM, the hard drive and the rest of the computer.
OPERATING SYSTEM
• The main control of a computer system.
• It is a system of programs that controls & coordinates the execution of computer
programs and may provide scheduling, debugging, input/output control, system
accounting, compilation, storage assignment, data management and related services.
•

The software that the rest of the software depends on to make the computer functional.
On most PCs this is Windows or the Macintosh OS. Unix and Linux are other operating
systems often found in scientific and technical environments.

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•

A computer program that controls the components of a computer system and facilitates
the operation of applications. Windows Me, Windows XP, Linux, and MacOS are
common operating systems.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
o Applications software comprises programs designed for an end user, such as word
processors, database systems, and spreadsheet programs.
o Programs that specify the information processing activities required for the completion of
specific tasks of computer users. E.g. Electronic Spreadsheet and word processing
programs or inventory or payroll programs.
o Software that is designed and written for a specific personal,
organizational, or processing task, such as graphics software.
o These programs accomplish the specialized tasks of the user, while
operating system software allows the computer to work. A computeraided dispatch system is application software, as is each word processing
program.
FREEWARE
 Public domain softwarethat is freely available in magazines and on the internet at
no charge to users though manuals may be offered at a cost. Freeware may or
may not have copyrights and may or may not have distribution restrictions.
SHAREWARE
 Refers to software that is widely distributed in much the same way as freeware
BUT is always copyrighted and includes a software license that requires its users
to pay for the privilege of using the software beyond a certain trial period. If you
decide to use it, you are expected to pay for the license. There is usually a
disabling system in the program after a certain period of time i.e. a month.
OPERATING SYSTEM

Are programs that create an environment, which enables us to use computers?

Is an integrated system of program that manages the operations of the CPU, controls the
input/output and storage resources and activities of the computer system, and provides
various support services as the computer executes the application programs?

Is a set of software routines that communicate between application programs and the
hardware?

All communications go through the operating system.

E.g. when a user issues a command to print, the O/S receives the command &
processes it according to priorities with the use of interrupts.

Once the processor is free to execute the command, the O/S sends the message to
the processor & receives the output, which is then directed to the printer.
MAJOR OPERATING SYSTEMS
MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)
• It has been widely used especially before 1995 when the new Windows 95 took over.
• It is a single user operating system – only one user can be using the system at a given
time.
• It is a single tasking operating system – It allows for the processing of only one task at a
time

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•

•
•
•

Use of short prompt commands – the user interfaces with the computer system through
the use of commands that are fed into the computer usually after the prompt sign (>) e.g.
C:\>cls (Command to clear the screen)
Instructions are put in only through the keyboard
Once a file is deleted it can never be recalled
The operating system is not user-friendly

WINDOWS
• A windows based operating system is more advanced than the MS-DOS based operating
system.
• It features graphical user interfaces (GUIs) – User can feed commands into the computer
through the selection of relevant icons, bars, buttons, boxes or other forms of images
(mostly resembling the intended device or operation).
• True multitasking – the operating system allows for numerous tasks to be done at the
same time.
• Networking – the operating system is multi-usable – many users can use it at the same
time. It is capable of holding a number of computer systems networked together.
• Multimedia Presentations- the operating system allows for the presentation of
information in a variety of media including text, graphic displays, voice and other audio,
photographs and video.
• Virtual Memory – It allows for the use of storage devices as extension of the main
memory thus giving the appearance of a larger main memory than actually exists.
• Deleted files go to the recycle bin
• Makes use of easier input methods, e.g. mouse, joystick
• Windows operating system has MS-DOS option
• Examples of Windows Operating Systems packages, Windows NT (new technology) and
Windows 95.
• In computer terms, a window is one section of a computer’s multiple section display
screen that can have a different display.
OS/2
•
•
•

It is called the Operating System /2
It is an operating system developed by IBM and was introduced in 1994 with the OS/2
Warp version as the latest one.
It provides graphical user interfaces (GUIs), multitasking, virtual memory and
telecommunications.

UNIX
• Originally developed by AT&T but now being offered by many other vendors.
• It is a multitasking, multi-user and net-work managing operating system
• Because of its portability, it can be used on mainframes, midrange computers and
microcomputers.
• It is a popular choice for network servers.
The Macintosh System/Mac OS
• It is an operating system for Apple from Macintosh microcomputers
• It is a popular GUI as well as multitasking and virtual memory operating system.

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Types /EXAMPLES of operating systems
There are several types of operating system, defined according to whether they can
simultaneously manage information measuring 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits or more.
OPERATING
SYSTEM

PROGRAMM
MULTI
SINGLE USER
ING
USER

SINGLE
TASK

1. MS DOS

16 bits

X

X

2. Windows3.1

16/32 bits

X

3.Windows95/98/Me
4.WindowsNT/2000
5.WindowsXP
6.Unix / Linux
7.MAC/OS X
8.VMS
9.Windows Vista
10.Windows 7,8, 10

32 bits
32 bits
32/64 bits
32/64 bits
32 bits
32 bits

X
X
X
X
X
X

MULTI
TASK
not preemptive
cooperative
pre-emptive
pre-emptive
pre-emptive
pre-emptive
pre-emptive

FACTORS ONE SHOULD CONSIDER WHEN
• Making comparisons of the microcomputer operating systems
available in the organization
• Making microcomputer operating system acquisition decision.
 Is the OS a single or multitasking operating system? Many microcomputer OS are
single tasking, meaning they allow only one person to run one program at a time.
Multitasking and multi-user OS permit more than one program to run and more than
one person to use the system at one time. Multitasking OS may allow a user to
receive a fax message at the same time one is searching a database.
 Is it a task switching operating system? A task switching OS lets one load more
than one program at a time and allows switching between the programs. The task that
one is working with is the foreground task and the suspended tasks are background
tasks.
 What utilities are available with the OS? Some of the most commonly used
utilities on microcomputer OS are delete, copy contents of one diskette to another,
format a diskette, delete files stored in a diskette, and compress data.
 Is the OS hardware dependent? An OS may be limited to running on specific
hardware or may have versions that allow it to run on different types of computer
systems.
 What user interface is offered by the operating system? Graphical User Interface
and Command Driven User Interface are examples of user interfaces. See Interface
section.
Types of operating systems

Multiprocessing

Multitasking

Multi-user

Multi programming

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Single user
Modes of operation/ Operating system techniques
Computers can operate in many different ways requiring different and complex operating
systems.
Real time processing
 When the computer has to react within a guaranteed time to an input, a real time
operating system is used. For example, the engine management system within a car
uses a real time operating system in order to react to all the things going on within the
engine. A real time operating system does not necessarily have to be fast. It simply
has to be quick enough to respond to inputs in a predictable way. Embedded
computers often contain an RTOS as many are used to control something.
 Computers operating in real time are often dedicated to the control of systems such
as industrial processes, planes and space flights. Another example of real time
processing is computer games. For example, when an action is selected in a game, the
data is fed back to the computer and the systems updated.
Multi-programming
 Multi-programming is a method of operating such that several programs appear to be
running at once.
 The jobs are usually given priorities. The operating system switches jobs in and out
of processor time according to priority. For example, while one job is being allocated
printer time, another will be being processed in memory. The processor is so fast
that it seems that many jobs are being processed at the same time.
Multi-tasking
 This isn't just about running more than one application at the same time. Multitasking allows multiple tasks to run concurrently, taking turns using the resources of
the computer.
 This can mean running a couple of applications, sending a document to the printer
and downloading a web page.
 However, operating systems are not truly multi-tasking - in order to do this, you
would need parallel processors, which are now appearing on personal computers.
Multiprocessing
 An operating system technique which can manage multiple instruction processors,
assigning each to operate upon a different instruction stream (program or job)
concurrently.
 Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units (CPUs) within a
single computer system. The term also refers to the ability of a system to support more
than one processor and/or the ability to allocate tasks between them.[1] There are many
variations on this basic theme, and the definition of multiprocessing can vary with
context, mostly as a function of how CPUs are defined (multiple cores on one die,
multiple chips in one package, multiple packages in one system unit, etc.).
 Multiprocessing sometimes refers to the execution of multiple concurrent software
processes in a system as opposed to a single process at any one instant. However, the
terms multitasking or multiprogramming are more appropriate to describe this concept,
which is implemented mostly in software, whereas multiprocessing is more appropriate to
describe the use of multiple hardware CPUs. A system can be both multiprocessing and
multiprogramming, only one of the two, or neither of the two.
Multi-access or multi-user
 A multi-access (or multi-user) system is one where a number of users are able to use the
same system together.

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 Modern personal computers can allow multi user access i.e. more than one person can
make use of the computer resources at the same time via a LAN.
 The central processor deals with users in turn; clearly the more users, the slower the
response time. Generally, however, the processor is so fast that the response time at the
most is a fraction of a second and the user feels they are being dealt with immediately.
o Multi-user is a term that defines an operating system or application software that
allows concurrent access by multiple users of a computer. Time-sharing systems
are multi-user systems. Most batch processing systems for mainframe computers
may also be considered "multi-user", to avoid leaving the CPU idle while it waits
for I/O operations to complete. However, the term "multitasking" is more
common in this context.
o An example is a UNIX server where multiple remote users have access (such as
via Secure Shell) to the UNIX shell prompt at the same time. Another example
uses multiple X Window sessions spread across multiple terminals powered by a
single machine - this is an example of the use of thin client.
o Management systems are implicitly designed to be used by multiple users,
typically one system administrator or more and an end-user community.
Single-user
 Is most commonly used when talking about an operating system being usable only by one
person at a time, or in reference to a single-user software license agreement. Multi-user
operating systems such as UNIX sometimes have a single user process available for
emergency maintenance.
Batch processing
 A batch processing system is where programs or data are collected together in a batch
and processed in one go. Typically the processing of payrolls, electricity bills, invoices
and daily transactions are dealt with this way.
 This method of operation lends itself to jobs with similar inputs, processing and outputs
where no human intervention is needed. Jobs are stored in a queue until the computer is
ready to deal with them. Often batch processed jobs are done overnight.
ROLES (functions) OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM
The operating system has various roles:
1.
Management of the processor: the operating system is responsible for managing
allocation of the processor between the different programmes using a scheduling
algorithm. The type of scheduler is totally dependent on the operating system,
according to the desired objective.
The OS is responsible for managing the allocation of processor time to the different
programs that will be using the computer. The processor can only execute one
instruction at a time and in a multi-user system, conflicts are bound to arise when
several user programs request usage of the processor at the same time. The OS
therefore allocates processor time to all users either in a round robin fashion or using
a system of priorities.
2.

Management of the random access memory: the operating system is responsible
for managing the memory space allocated to each application and, where relevant, to
each user. If there is insufficient physical memory, the operating system can create a
memory zone on the hard drive, known as "virtual memory". The virtual memory
lets you run applications requiring more memory than there is available RAM on the
system. However, this memory is a great deal slower.

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The OS is responsible for managing the memory space allocated to each application.
If there is insufficient physical memory the OS can create a memory zone on the hard
drive known as virtual memory which lets you run applications requiring more
memory than is available on the system.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with
memory management.
Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.
Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed
3.

4.

5.

6.

Management of input/output: the operating system allows unification and control
of access of programmes to material resources via drivers (also known as peripheral
administrators or input/output administrators).
Management of execution of applications: the operating system is responsible for
smooth execution of applications by allocating the resources required for them to
operate. This means an application that is not responding correctly can be "killed".
Management of authorisations: the operating system is responsible for security
relating to execution of programmes by guaranteeing that the resources are used only
by programmes and users with the relevent authorisations.
File management: the operating system manages reading and writing in the file
system and the user and application file access authorisations.
The OS manages reading from and writing to files and also controls the creation,
manipulation and access to files.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with
file management:
 File creation and deletion
 Directory creation and deletion
 Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media

7.

Information management: the operating system provides a certain number of
indicators that can be used to diagnose the correct operation of the machine.

8.

ERROR DETECTION
The OS is responsible for detecting and any hardware or software malfunctioning and
reporting them to the user
USER/SYSTEM INTERFACE
The OS acts as an interface between the computer and the user, hiding all the
complexities of the computer from the user and making the computer more user
friendly
PREPARATION OF A SYSTEM LOG
The OS compiles a report on the events that take place in a computer from the time a
user logs on to a computer, what he/she does up to the time he/she logs off

9.

10.

Additional Functions of the operating system:

Controls and coordinates the computer system

Scheduling and loading of jobs to provide continuous processing. So that no parts of the
computer system are idle for any significant period of time.

It is a platform for application programs

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Provides user interface
Acts as an interface between hardware and application programs
Provides error correctional routines
Control over selection and operation of input-output devices & file handling.
Records details of processing for control analysis
File management, control the creation, deletion, saving and access of files
Memory management, allocates memory to various jobs or tasks
Multiprogramming, multiprocessing, multitasking, timesharing, housekeeping &
handling errors.
Resource management manages processor time, memory space, disk space and
peripheral devices.
Reports errors when they occur.
Task management. Manage the accomplishment of the computing tasks of end users. It
may involve multitasking capability where several computing tasks can occur at the
same time.
Minimizes the amount of human intervention required during processing.

COMPUTER INTERFACE

Refers to the type of interaction between two elements.

Is part of the operating system that allows you to communicate with it or the computer so
that you can load programs, access files, and accomplish other tasks?

When a person interacts with a computer he uses a User Interface, which can be a screen,
keyboard, mouse, scanners or other input devices.
Definitions of interface on the Web:
• The interaction between the computer and the user or the control of the flow of data
between a computer and its peripherals.
 Basically the interface can be
 Command driven- include operating systems and database languages that
provide users with flashes of text and in which users would generally type in
their command to perform an action.
 Menu driven
 GUI- point and click
 WIMP interface
1. Command line interfaces (MS-DOS BASED OPERATING SYSTEM)
A command line interface allows the user to interact with the computer by typing in commands.
The computer displays a prompt, the user keys in the command and presses enter or return. A
COMMAND-LINE INTERFACE (CLI) is a mechanism for interacting with a computer
operating system or software by typing commands to perform specific tasks. This text-only
interface contrasts with the use of a mouse pointer with a graphical user interface (GUI) to click
on options, or menus on a text user interface (TUI) to select options.

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Features of a command line interface include:
In the early days of personal computers, all PCs used command-line interfaces.
• Commands - usually abbreviated - must be typed correctly and in the right order or the
command will not work.
• Experienced users who know the commands can work very quickly without having to
find their way around menus.
• An advantage of command driven programs is that they do not need the memory and
processing power of the latest computer and will often run on lower spec machines.
• Command driven programs do not need to run in Windows.
• A command line interface can run many programs, for example a batch file could launch
half a dozen programs to do its task.
• An inexperienced user can sometimes find a command driven program difficult to use
because of the number of commands that have to be learnt.
An example of a common command-driven interface is MS-DOS, the original operating system
for all Microsoft-compatible PCs. The MS-DOS command to display all files on drive a would
be: dir c:\.
2. Graphical user interfaces (WINDOWS BASED OPERATING SYSTEM)
Graphical user interface is sometimes shortened to GUI. The user chooses an option usually by
pointing a mouse at an icon representing that option. A GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE
(GUI) is a type of user interface item that allows people to interact with programs in more ways
than typing such as computers; hand-held devices such as MP3 Players, Portable Media Players
or Gaming devices; household appliances and office equipment with images rather than text
commands. A GUI offers graphical icons, and visual indicators, as opposed to text-based
interfaces, typed command labels or text navigation to fully represent the information and actions
available to a user.

Features of GUIs include:
• They are much easier to use for beginners.
• They enable you to easily exchange information between software using cut and paste or
'drag and drop'.
• They use alot of memory and processing power. It can be slower to use than a CLI if you
are an expert user.
• They can be irritating to experienced users when simple tasks require a number of
operations.
When discussing user interfaces, it is important to note that Windows XP, OS/X and Linux are all
graphical user interfaces.
A good user interface should:
• be attractive and pleasing to the eye
• allow the user to try out different options easily

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be easy to use
use suitable colours for key areas
use words that are easy to understand aimed at the type of user
have online help
It also should consider the needs of the users. For example, young children are likely to prefer
pictures to words and people with disabilities may benefit from particular input or output devices
3. WIMP interface
• Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointer - a method by which a user can interact with a
computer without having to learn lots of special words - it provides a much more intuitive
'view' of the computer and its facilities than non-WIMP operating systems provide
•
•
•
•

"Windows, /images/, Menus and Pointer", or "Windows, /images/, Mouse and Pull-down
menus" This is a graphical interface which makes access to computers much more
straightforward and intuitive than the main alternative, the command-line interface. The
WIMP interface has been used on Apple Macintosh computers since they were invented,
and are coming into use on PCs through Microsoft Windows and on Unix and other
workstations through the X Window system.
4. Menu driven interfaces
The user is offered a simple menu from which to choose an option. One menu often leads to a
further menu. Part of the screen may have an instruction followed by a numbered list of options to
choose from:
•

A full screen menu takes up most of the screen.
A menu bar is the set of options at the top of the screen. When an option is chosen a pull down
menu may be offered.
Features of menu driven interfaces include:
• They are easy to use as the user does not have to remember sets of commands.
• They are user friendly - you can often guess your way around the options.
• They can be irritating if there are too many levels of menus to move around - with a
command line interface you can go to the option required immediately.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
consists of programs that manage and support a computer system and its information processing
activities. These programs serve as a vital software interface between computer system hardware
and the application programs of end users.
System software is computer software designed to operate the computer hardware and to provide
a platform for running application software.
The most basic types of system software are:
• The computer BIOS and device firmware, which provide basic functionality to operate
and control the hardware connected to or built into the computer.
• The operating system (prominent examples being Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and
Linux), which allows the parts of a computer to work together by performing tasks like
transferring data between memory and disks or rendering output onto a display device. It
also provides a platform to run high-level system software and application software.

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• Utility software, which helps to analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer.
In some publications, the term system software is also used to designate software development
tools (like a compiler, linker or debugger).

Computer purchasers seldom buy a computer primarily because of its system software. Rather,
system software serves as a useful (even necessary) level of infrastructure code, generally built-in
or pre-installed.
In contrast to system software, software that allows users to do things like create text documents,
play games, listen to music, or surf the web is called application software.
Types of system software programs
System software helps use the operating system and computer system. It includes diagnostic
tools, compilers, servers, windowing systems, utilities, language translator, data communication
programs, database systems and more. The purpose of system software is to insulate the
applications programmer as much as possible from the complexity and specific details of the
particular computer being used, especially memory and other hardware features, and such
accessory devices as communications, printers, readers, displays, keyboards, etc.
Specific kinds of system software include:
• Loaders
• Linkers
• Utility software
• Desktop environment / Graphical user interface
• Shells
• BIOS
• Hypervisors
• Boot loaders
• Database Management Systems(SQL, NoSQL)
If system software is stored on non-volatile memory such as integrated circuits, it is usually
termed firmware.
3 functional categories of system software
System management programs
 Programs that manage the hardware, software, and data resources of the
computer system during its execution of the various information
processing jobs of users.
 The most important system management programs are operating systems
and operating environments, followed by telecommunications monitors
& Database Management Systems.
System support programs
 Programs that support the operations and management of a computer
system by providing a variety of support services.
 Major support programs are system utilities, performance monitors, &
security monitors.
System development programs

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 Programs that help users develop information system programs
and procedures and prepare user programs for computer
processing.
 Major development programs are language translators,
programming tools and CASE [computer-aided software
engineering] packages.
APPLICATION PACKAGES/SOFTWARE

Are programs that are or were developed to solve specific user problems?

Word processors and spreadsheets fall into this category.

Software application packages can be custom built or they can be bought off the shelf.
#
1

APPLICATION
SOFTWARE
Word processing
software

DESCRIPTION
•

•

•
2

Spreadsheet
software

•

•

•

•

•

3

Database
management
software

•

EXAMPLES

A word processor is used to produce documents such as letters, memos and reports.
The latest versions of word processing software contain many features and can also
be used for "desktop publishing" to create newsletters, brochures, business cards,
signs and more. The latest word processing software will allow you to easily type
into columns, add pictures and charts to your page, create custom borders, and
experiment with a variety of type faces (fonts) in a wide range of sizes. You can even
combine different fonts on the same page.
Word processing software offers many exciting formatting and editing features to
make your work easier. You can easily check the spelling of a word or the entire
document. The built in thesaurus will help you find an alternate word to use. Blocks
of text can be easily moved, copied or erased.
Use this kind of tool to create worksheets, type letters, type papers, etc, e.g. MS
Word, WordPerfect,....

•

A spreadsheet is used to manage, analyze and present numeric information. Some
common uses of spreadsheet software are financial reports, personal finances and
business finances. Spreadsheet programs can also create a chart from the numeric
data.
The working screen is laid out in rows and columns, much like a ledger. The
information is typed into a "cell." A cell is the intersection of a row and a column.
The cell can contain a number, a word or phrase (generally used to identify what the
number represents, such as a column or row heading), or a math function or formula.
Spreadsheets allow you to use simple math expressions such as add, subtract,
multiply or divide, or advanced math such as the type of calculations performed by
architects, engineers, economists and scientists. Spreadsheets also have a special
group of built-in formulas, called functions, that let you perform calculations without
having to type long, complex formulas. Functions are grouped into categories, such
as financial, statistical, engineering, logical, math and trigonometry, database and list
management, date and time, and information.
One of the reasons many people use a computer for their spreadsheet projects is
because it is easy to change your information once it has been entered. If you change
a number, the spreadsheet will automatically recalculate the results. You can also
take advantage of this feature to perform a "what-if" analysis. For example, you input
the data for a small business venture you are considering and the spreadsheet
calculates your net profit for the first year of business. If you are not pleased with the
result, you can change a few numbers to see how the change would affect the
outcome.
Use this kind of tool to compute number-intensive problems such as budgeting,
forecasting, etc. A spreadsheet will plot nice graphs very easily, e.g. MS Excel,
Quattro Pro, Lotus 1-2-3,

•

Ms Excel,
Lotus 1-2-3

Allows user to prepare reports based on data found in different records. DBMS is an
important managerial decision support tool for managers at all levels of the
organization. A database is an organised store of information, for example an address
book, list of employees, list of students, customers or items of assets. Database

•

Ms Access,
DbaseIV,
Oracle

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•

Ms word,
Word
perfect,
Word star,
Ms works
word
processor
,WordPro

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COMMUNICATION & COMPUTER SKILLS

•

package is used to store records. Data can be sorted or filtered for separate viewing.
Also Calculations and comparisons between data items can be done. Popular
database packages are: Microsoft Excel, lotus Approach, Paradox, dBase IV, Data
Ease.
Use this software to store data such as address, membership and other text
information. A database can be used to easily sort and organize records

4

Payroll

5

Accounting

e.g. Pastel, TurboCash, QuickBooks

6

Presentation
graphics software

•

•

Lets users or managers prepare slides containing charts, text and images. Presentation
graphics software usually provides libraries of clip art images that can be cut and
pasted into a slide to make the slide more attractive and informative. These are
applications designed solely for designing graphs and text charts/posters and often
used to produce slides for use on overhead projectors, or presentations on computerprojectors. They can also produce various types of charts. Examples of graphics
packages are: Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance, Harvard Graphics and Corel
Draw, HyperStudio, Flash, Director.
Use this software to create multimedia stacks of cards/screens that can effectively
present a lesson or a sales pitch. The user often clicks on buttons to advance to the
next screen in a sequence

•

Use this software to make signs, banners, greeting cards, illustrative worksheets,
newsletters, etc
Desktop Publishing (DTP) applications give users powerful and versatile page design
capabilities. The user can incorporate text and graphics on very exact page layouts.
These applications produce magazines, catalogues, invitation cards, business cards
and other sophisticated documents. It links up well with other applications as the user
can import text and graphics from the other applications. Examples of DTP packages
are: Microsoft Publisher, PageMaker, Ventura and Frame maker.

•

Ms
publisher,
Aldus

i) Internet Browsers
This software allows one to surf the Web. Often they can read email and create Web pages
too, e.g. Netscape Navigator (or Netscape Communicator), MS Internet Explorer, AOL
Browser....

•

Internet
explorer
Netscape

•

Ms Outlook,
Ms
Exchange

•

AutoCAD,
CAM

•

7

Desktop Publishing

•
•

8

Multimedia

•

Pay plus ,
Pay well
Pastel, Tetra
2000
Ms
PowerPoint,
Lotus
freelance
graphs

ii) Email programs
These programs send and receive email, e.g. Netscape Messenger (part of Netscape
Communicator), MS Outlook Express, MS Outlook, Eudora, AOL browser (has email
built in)....

9

Communication

10

Design

iii) Graphics Programs (pixel-based)
This software allows one to touch up photographs and create graphics from scratch, e.g
Adobe Photoshop, Paint Shop Pro, MS Paint (comes free on Windows PC's), Painter, ....
•
This software allows two computers with modems to communicate through audio,
video, and/or chat-based means, e.g. MS NetMeeting, AOL Instant Messenger, IRC,
ICQ, CU-SeeMe, ...
e.g. AutoCad, Corel Draw

State five advantages of using a word processor (e.g. MS Word) rather than a manual
typewriter in an office [10].

Ability to correct mistakes

Ability to view documents on screen before printing

Ability to incorporate diagrams

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Ability to move parts of text to other sections of the document.
Ability to save or store documents for future reference or use.
Ability to alter or change document layout.
Ability to print a lot of copies [ no retyping]
Ability to insert tables
Ability to format document [font, paragraphs, bullets etc] Spelling and grammar checker
Import files
Mail merge
WYSIWYG capability
Creation of templates
Automatic creation of index and table of contents
o ther - Good reasoning [ 2 marks each for 5 & 1 mark each for more than 5]
a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘word processing package’. [3 marks]
 Is a program or set of programs used to enter, edit, format, store and print
documents. A document may be anything from a single memo to a complete
book.
 An application package that involves the use of computers to manipulate text
data in order to produce office communications in the form of documents.
 Any of many popular application programs designed for composing,
revising, printing, and filing written documents.
 Word Processing is the efficient and effective production of written
communications at the lowest possible cost through the combined use of
systems management procedures, automated technology, and accomplished
personnel. The equipment used in word processing applications includes but
is not limited to the following: dictation and transcription equipment,
automatic repetitive typewriters, visual display text editing typewriters,
keyboard terminals, etc.
b) Give any 2 examples of a word processing package’. [2marks]
 MS WORD
 WORD STAR
 WORD Perfect
 MS WORKS WORD
c)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Briefly describe any 5 important features of a word processor. [5 marks]
Spelling and grammar checker
Import files
Mail merge
WYSIWYG capability
Creation of templates
Automatic creation of index and table of contents

d) List any 10 facilities that spreadsheets offer. [10 marks]
1. Format cells, rows and columns, specifying for example, the alignment of text,
number of decimal points, height and width of a cell.
2. Copy cell contents to other locations
3. Determine the effect of several different hypothetical changes of data
4. Insert, move or delete rows and columns

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5.
6.
7.
8.

Use functions such as SUM, AVERAGE, MAX, MIN in formulae
Create a simple database and sort or query the data to produce a report
Write macros to automate common procedures
Create templates i.e. spreadsheets with formats and formulae already entered, into
which new figures may be inserted.
9. Create multi-dimensional spreadsheets using several sheets, and copy data from one
sheet to another
10. Create many different types of charts and graphs

Criteria for Selecting Applications Software:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Accuracy - it must be free from errors
Flexibility – it must be able to adapt to changing environment.
Compatibility - it must be compatible with available hardware and software
Recency - it must be current
Cost - it must have reasonable cost
Originality - It must be original
Support - consider continued support from the supplier.
Ease of use - it must be user friendly.
Performance - it must have efficiency in both response time and run time.
Memory requirements

Factors to consider when buying application software
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
9.
10.
11.

12.
13.
14.

Cost. This includes the original cost of the package, technical support, and upgrades.
Portability, can it be installed on one type of hardware or a variety
Relevance of the software to the task at hand.
Compatibility with existing hardware & software. Will the package run on existing
hardware? Can files be easily transferred from existing systems without re-keying? Can
files created in the package be exported to other systems in use in the company?
It should be on a media compatible with your computer i.e. if you purchase software
on CD media your computer should have compact disk drive.
Sophistication, simple programs are usually easy to learn, cost less and are appropriate
for those who use the software infrequently.
Should include enough documentation such as installation instructions, system
requirements e.g. Pentium 4, reference manual, registration information, supplier details
and user manual.
Standard software, which is well supported locally i.e. used by most people in that area
Is the application upgradeable and does it support future upgrades.
Easiness of installation
Technical support. Is support available? Is it very costly? Often, technical support
contract can add 50% or more to the price of a package, but without it no support at all
will be given by the manufacturer.
Easy of learning. Are tutorials supplied? Are books on the software available in
bookshops? Are training courses available?
Easy of use and user- friendliness. Is it easy to use, for example using pull down
menus, icons, helpful error messages when you do something wrong?
Is the application from a reputable supplier e.g. Microsoft.

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15. Do you have enough resourceson your PC to install it e.g. it may require 256MB
RAM, 80GB HDD. Memory requirements; software packages vary in the amount of
memory they require. Will the system require expenditure on more powerful hardware?
16. Does the version of the product that I am considering run on my personalcomputer
system? Is it compatible with my platform (PC, Macintosh, Sun, and so on)? with the
processor used in my computer (486, Pentium, Motorola 6040, PowerPC, and so on)?
and with the operating system that I am running (DOS, Windows, NeXT Step, UNIX)?
17. Is the product compatible with other programs, such as extensions and device drivers,
that I have on my personalcomputer system?
18. Does the product do all that I want it to do? Is it simple enough to use immediately but
powerful enough to provide the capabilities that I will want as my familiarity with the
program increases?
19. Is the product an up-to-date, current version or release?
20. Does the product have a clear, step-by-step tutorial? Is the product easy to learn?
21. Is the product accompanied by clear, easy-to-follow instructions, or documentation?
22. Does the manufacturer provide technical assistance? Is a toll-free technical assistance
number included in the software documentation? Does the manufacturer have a bulletin
board or Internet address for technical assistance questions? Does the manufacturer
charge for technical assistance? for product revisions or upgrades?
23. Can I find instruction, or training, in the use of the product?
24. Is the product from a respected, well known manufacturer?
25. Does the program have any known problems, or bugs, and will these affect my use of the
program?
26. Does the product come with a warranty, and what are the conditions of that warranty?
27. Does the product cost more or less than comparable products on the market?

COMPUTER MEMORY
RAM (Random Access Memory)
Also referred to as Main Memory, Primary Memory or Working Memory is memory that
is accessed by the CPU as it processes information. The CPU also places results of
processing on the memory chip. The memory has the following characteristics.
1) can be read from
2) can be changed and can be rewritten
3) used for short-term storage of data i.e. it is temporary storage,
4) is volatile (data lost when power is turned off).
Types of RAM
•

•

•

DRAM (Dynamic RAM) This is the most common type of computer memory. DRAM
needs refreshing and is refreshed hundreds of times each second in order to retain data.
During recharging it cannot be accessed by the CPS
SRAM (Static RAM) SRAM is approximately 5 times faster (and twice as expensive, as
DRAM). It does not have to be constantly refreshed. Because of its lower cost and
smaller size, DRAM is preferred for the main memory, while SRAM is used primarily for
cache memory.
SDRAM (synchronous dynamic RAM) is the standard memory offering in the PC
industry and is faster than DRAM because it's synchronized to the system clock. . It is
designed for mainstream home and business applications, email, and basic audio and
video streaming. It provides single-channel memory and is available on our mainstream
and value desktop system.

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•

•

•
•

DDR SDRAM (double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM) takes all the features of
ordinary SDRAM and increases the frequency bandwidth to improve system performance
and speed.
RDRAM (Rambus dynamic RAM) is able to load a new stream of data before the
previous stream has completed, resulting in faster access speeds. The RDRAM memory
features dual-channel processing which doubles data throughput to further enhance
performance. This type of memory is optimized for high-end multimedia tasks involving
video and audio. Dual Channel RDRAM is shipped on our performance desktop systems
powered by Pentium 4 processors
VRAM: Memory designed for storing the image to be displayed.
CACHE RAM is a small block of high-speed memory located between the Processor
and main memory and is used to store frequently requested data and instructions. When
the processor requests data, it will check in the cache first
The computer has two types of memory chips within the system unit, known as RAM
and ROM.

ROM (Read Only Memory)
This memory chip has essential programs that start up the computer hardwired on the
microchip during the manufacture of the computer. It forms what is known as
FIRMWARE, being a halfway between hardware and software. The characteristics of
this memory are that:1) can be read from,
2) cannot be changed
3) is permanent
4) non-volatile (data not lost when power is turned off).
 ROM

Stores instructions & data which do not change

It is written once during manufacture

It is for holding software such as MS-DOS.Windows 95, 98.XP.

It is programmed by the manufacturer and cannot be altered by the user

It is static & non volatile

It stores control routines for personal computers
VARIATIONS OF ROM
Allow users to store and in some cases to change data stored in ROM

PROM [Programmable ROM] is not programmed during manufacture but can
be programmed by the user. It is programmed according to the needs of the user
organization. If you make a mistake the ROM once programmed will became
permanent to the effect that any errors will never be corrected thus the user will
throw away any chip if errors are made.

EPROM [Erasable Programmable ROM] can be programmed and erased as
many times. This time you don’t have to worry about errors too much because
there is room for correction. The programming is done electronically. Stored data
can be lost by exposing it to Ultra Violet light over a period of minutes.
1) EEPROM [Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM] can be read, erased,
rewritten, without removing from the computer. The erasing & rewriting process
is very slow compared with reading, which limits their use. These can be erased
& programmed with electrical pulses. Can be erased in a few Milliseconds

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MEMORY CAPACITY
Everything entering into the computer is converted into digital (number) form, and is
stored in that form. When one needs to view the information, it is converted into human
sensible text, graphics, audio or video by the operating system. A binary digit is known as
a bit being either a ‘0’(zero) or a ‘1’(one). It is the smallest item that can be stored in a
computer’s memory.
Memory capacity is measured in bytes, a byte being a set of eight(8) bits and the byte often
represents a single character. Measurement units used for computer memory are:o
o
o
o
o
o
o

BIT
1 binary digit (Either a 0 or a 1)
BYTE
Eight bits.
NIBBLE
Half byte/4 bits
KILOBYTE (KB)
1024 bytes
MEGABYTE (MB) Million bytes
GIGABYTE (GB)
Billion bytes
TERABYTE Trillion bytes

NETWORKING

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers
and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow
sharing of resources and information Where at least one process in one device is able to
send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two
devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected
through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer
network.

Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics, such as the
medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, and
organizational scope.

Communications protocols define the rules and data formats for exchanging information
in a computer network, and provide the basis for network programming. Well-known
communications protocols include Ethernet, a hardware and link layer standard that is
ubiquitous in local area networks, and the Internet protocol suite, which defines a set of
protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, as
well as host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats.

Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of electrical engineering,
telecommunications, computer science, information technology or computer engineering,
since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.
Properties
Computer networks:
1. Facilitate communications
Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant
messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.
2. Permit sharing of files, data, and other types of information

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3.

4.

5.

6.

In a network environment, authorized users may access data and information stored on
other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and
information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks.
Share network and computing resources
In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use resources
provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network
printer. Distributed computing uses computing resources across a network to accomplish
tasks.
May be insecure
A computer network may be used by computer hackers to deploy computer viruses or
computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from
normally accessing the network (denial of service).
May interfere with other technologies
Power line communication strongly disturbs certain forms of radio communication, e.g.,
amateur radio. It may also interfere with last mile access technologies such as ADSL and
VDSL.
May be difficult to set up
A complex computer network may be difficult to set up. It may also be very costly to set
up an effective computer network in a large organization or company.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A network topology is the arrangement of elements (such as data links or nodes) in a network. It
is the physical arrangement of terminals in a local area network. The choice of topology is
dependent upon
• type and number of equipment being used
• planned applications and rate of data transfers
• required response times
• cost
Definitions of hub on the Web:
 A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to
connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one
port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets. A
passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one device (or
segment) to another. ...
 Node – a terminal point in a communications network.
 Workstation – A computer terminal or micro- or minicomputer system designed to
support the work of one person.
MESH TOPOLOGY
Mesh topology work on the concept of routes. In Mesh topology, message sent to the destination
can take any possible shortest, easiest route to reach its destination. In the previous topologies star
and bus, messages are usually broadcasted to every computer, especially in bus topology.
Similarly in the Ring topology message can travel in only one direction i.e clockwise or
anticlockwise. Internet employs the Mesh topology and the message finds its route for its
destination. Router works in find the routes for the messages and in reaching them to their
destinations. The topology in which every devices connects to every other device is called a full
Mesh topology unlike in the partial mesh in which every device is indirectly connected to the
other devices.

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STAR TOPOLOGY


Is a network in which nodes are connected to a central component as its hub?

The central component can be a switching device like a switch or PABX [private
automatic branch exchange], a computer [minicomputer to which workstations
or PCs are connected] or just a wiring center that is a common termination point
for the nodes, called a hub.

A HUB is a component that serves as a common termination point for multiple
nodes and that can relay [store & forward] signals along the appropriate paths.
Definitions of star network on the Web:
• A network in which all terminals are connected through a single point, such as a star
coupler.
•

A network topology in the form of a star. At the center of the star is a wiring hub or
concentrator, and the nodes or workstations are arranged around the central point
representing the points of the star.

Advantages of star topology

It is easy to add or remove nodes

Because each node has its own link to the central node, the star is more reliable than other
topologies.

Full utilization of resources i.e. printer, sharing of processor

Direct connection of terminals to the main processor, means that if one terminal breaks
down it won’t affect other terminals.
Disadvantages of star topology

All traffic between two nodes passes through the central node. If the central component
breaks down, the whole network is down.

The number of ports of the central component limits the number of connected nodes.

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A star topology requires a lot of cabling since all data path connections must be to the
central node.

There is no direct communication between or among workstations

Sharing of processor delays in the processing of jobs.
BUS/LINEAR TOPOLOGY



Describes a network in which each node is connected to a common line.
 This is also sometimes called a horizontal, multidrop or multi point network.
 Though it is preferable to use the last terms for connections with a
mainframe/mini computer as in the following diagram.
 In a bus messages travel in both directions and do not go through the individual
nodes but every node can hear each message as it goes past.
 When the signal/message reaches an end of the bus, a terminator absorbs it, to
keep it from traveling back again along the bus line, to avoid interference with
other messages already in the line.
 The data/signals/messages are transmitted in packets along the bus.
 Each packet is send with a receiver identification code that is an address of
destination and all computers on the network are permanently on the alert for any
messages coming to them.
Definitions of bus network on the Web:
• A single-cable LAN, in which all computers on the network are connected in series to a
single cable. On a bus network, each computer hears all of the transmissions going down
the line, and selects only those that are addressed to its location. This is the simplest and
most common LAN technology.
Advantages of Bus Network/topology

When a node breaks down, the network does not break down.

A bus uses relatively less cables compared to other topologies

Direct communication due to direct connection.

Fast processing since there is no Host computer

Once a cable has been laid down any new equipment can easily be
connected to the network by a simple tapping into the cable.
Disadvantages of Bus Network/topology

In a bus topology it is not always easy to add a node. [E.g. installation of extra tap in
thick Ethernet].

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Diagnosis/trouble shooting can be difficult.

Expensive to run [several processors] – Detectors.

Communication between components of the network traveling in opposite direction along
the bus can collide causing loss of transmitted information.

Because of this collision a detection system has to be present to control the retransmission of lost information thereby making it a more expensive option
RING NETWORK






A ring network has nodes connected in a circular way.
Each node has two neighboring nodes
Data flow is unidirectional.
A message is forwarded in one direction until it reaches the destination with
intermediate nodes acting as relay [store & forward] units.
 The destination node copies the message and passes the message again to the
ring.
 This message then continues to circulate around the ring back to the source.

Definitions of ring network on the Web:
• A network topology in the form of a closed loop or circle. Each node in the network is
connected to the next, and messages move in one direction around the system. When a
message arrives at a node, the node examines the address information in the message. If
the address matches the node's address, the message is accepted; otherwise the node
regenerates the signal and places the message back on the network for the next node in
the system. ...
Advantages of ring network

The message return provides the source with a form of
acknowledgement. The node removes its own message from the ring.

Little cabling needed compared to Star.

Each node acts as relay unit.

Packet collisions do not occur because information is traveling in one
direction.

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Relatively cheap to install.

Efficient and accurate means of communication.

There is no dependency on the host computer or file server as each node
controls transmission to and from itself.
Disadvantages of ring network

Adding or removing nodes disrupts the network.

If one of the nodes breaks down, the whole network will be down.

If the network cable breaks the whole network is affected
TREE TOPOLOGY
Tree topologies are comprised of the multiple star topologies on a bus. Tree topologies integrate
multiple star topologies together onto a bus. Only the hub devices can connect directly with the
tree bus and each Hub functions as a root of a tree of the network devices. This bus/star/hybrid
combination supports future expandability of the computer networks, much better than a bus or
star.

Advantages of a Tree Topology
• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
• Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

LANs and WANs
There are two types of network: LAN and WAN.
LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)
A LAN is a high-speed data network that covers a relatively small geographic area. It typically
connects workstations, personal computers, printers, servers, and other devices. LANs offer
computer users many advantages, including shared access to devices and applications, file
exchange between connected users, and communication between users via electronic mail and
other applications. The development of standard networking protocols and media has resulted in
worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations.
 Typically connects computer in a single building or campus.

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 Developed in 1970s.
 Medium : optical fibres, coaxial cables, twisted pair, wireless.
 Low latency (except in high traffic periods).
 High speed networks (0.2 to 100 Mb/sec).
 Speeds adequate for most distributed systems
 Problems : Multimedia based applications
 Typically buses or rings.
 Ethernet, Token Ring
A LAN is a Local Area Network covering a small area such as one building e.g. in a school or a
college.

WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK)
A network consisting of computers of LAN's connected across a distance WAN can cover small
to large distances, using different topologies such as telephone lines, fiber optic cabling, satellite
transmissions and microwave transmissions. Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger
geographic areas. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect this
type of network. Using a WAN, schools in Harare can communicate with places like Pretoria in a
matter of minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A WAN is complicated. It uses
multiplexers to connect local and metropolitan networks to global communications networks like
the Internet. To users, however, a WAN will not appear to be much different than a LAN or a
MAN.
 Developed in 1960s.
 Generally covers large distances (states, countries, continents).
 Medium: communication circuits connected by routers.
 Routers forwards packets from one to another following a route from the sender to the
receiver. Store-and-Forward
 Hosts are typically connected (or close to) the routers.
 Typical latencies : 100ms - 500ms.
 Problems with delays if using satellites.
 Typical speed: 20 - 2000 Kbits/s.
 Not (yet) suitable for distributed computing.
 New standards are changing the landscape.
A WAN is a Wide Area Network covering a large geographical area.

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Advantages and disadvantages of networks
ADVANTAGES OF GROUP WORKING & SHARING RESOURCES OVER A
NETWORK.
ADVANTAGES OF INSTALLING A NETWORK
1. Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Without
a network, copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the disks from one
computer to another shares files. This method of transferring files (referred to as sneakernet) is very time-consuming.
2. Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at
considerable savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies. Besides
monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows for easier upgrading of the
program. The changes have to be done only once, on the file server, instead of on all the
individual workstations. Low cost. Single device shared by several machines reduce the
need to buy many peripheral devices. Resource sharing also serves money. An
installation can have several low-cost work stations accessing a single file-server. That
puts a lot of processing power on the user’s desk without the expense of large mainframe
systems.
3. Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so that
you do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be
established for specific directories to restrict access to authorized users. Security is good
- users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-alone machines.
4. Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of installing a network
at a school is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one computer (the file
server). This eliminates that need to spend time and energy installing updates and
tracking files on independent computers throughout the building. Site licenses are likely
to be cheaper than buying several stand-alone licenses.
5. Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds standalone computers. Some organizations cannot afford enough laser printers, fax machines,
modems, scanners, and CD-ROM players for each computer. However, if these or
similar peripherals are added to a network, they can be shared by many users. Resource
sharing is the primary benefit of networking. It allows users on different machines to
share modems, printers, tape drives and disk space, for example, users can send network
messages requesting to use a central printer, allowing everyone to share that resource.
Users realize the benefit of sharing information. Data files can be shared between
machines on the network, allowing users to see invoices, results of surveys, company
newsletters, and other information.
6. Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to install
an e-mail system. E-mail aids in personal and professional communication for all school
personnel, and it facilitates the dissemination of general information to the entire school
staff. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable students to communicate with teachers and
peers at their own school. If the LAN is connected to the Internet, students can

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communicate with others throughout the world.
7. Flexible Access. Networks allow data & information access from any computer in the
campus.
8. Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice) allows
many users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example, educators
located at various schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas
about new curriculum standards to the same document and spreadsheets.
9. It turns isolated computers into integrated systems, providing an environment where
resources are shared and capacity problems reduced.
10. It allows growth. If more computing resources become a need, a new computer can be
installed, added to the network, and immediately accessed by other machines and users.
11. High reliability. If applications share data, the data can be replicated across several
machines. If one machine goes down, another can take its place and provide the data to
the applications.
12. A file server is easy to back up as all the data is stored in one place
DISADVANTAGES
Disadvantages of Installing a Network
1. Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the
initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are
expensive, and the installation may require the services of a technician. Purchasing the
network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
2. Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable
time and expertise. Many organizations have installed a network, only to find that they
did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
Increased administration. There will be need for a systems administrator to tune the
network, monitor the network, administer database files, and ensure network integrity
(ensure the network runs smoothly)
3. File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any
other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may come to a
halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose access to necessary programs and
files.
4. Cables May Break. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop
the entire network.
5. Security concerns. Some user can gain unauthorized access to private data. There is a
danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security procedures are needed
to prevent such abuse. Of all the disadvantages, the greatest drawback is security
concerns; therefore, network security is a priority in the development of network
applications.
6. Network failure. As applications increase their use of a network, network failures
become catastrophic.

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7. Virus attack. A networked system is vulnerable to destructive network messages. For
example, a message that sparks damaging activity (like erasing files) may enter the
system via the network.Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer
network.
8. Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network manager
usually needs to be employed.
9. If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible. E-mail
might still work if it is on a separate server. The computers can still be used as stand
alones.

INTERNET
 The Internet is the network of networks being a worldwide collection of computers that
communicate with one another over cables, satellites and optical fibers. It is literally the
whole hardware mass. The Internet is the network used to transport information.
Internet, by definition is a network of networks that interact with each other through
exchange of data packets. The Internet hosts an enormous information base and carries
numerous information resources and services..
 When we refer to the Internet we are usually talking about the World Wide Web
(WWW) which is the most used feature of the Internet.
 The WWW stores millions of web pages on web servers. These pages can contain text,
pictures, movies, animation and sound. Web pages are written in a language or code
called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language). A set of web pages is called a website.
 Each web page has its own unique address or URL. The URL will have the format "http"
and a domain (such as ."co.uk"). What goes in between is arbitrary, but often has the term
"www "such as in "http://www.name.co.uk". but it doesn’t have to (e.g.
http://news.bbc.co.uk).
 Most sites have a page that links the user to the other main areas of the site. This is called
the homepage.
 Web pages are connected by hypertext links. When a link is clicked you will be taken to
another page which could be on another server in any part of the world.
 When you move around web pages you are said to be surfing the net. For this you need a
program to read the pages (called a browser), such as Firefox or Internet Explorer.
 To search for a particular item or topic on the net you use a search engine. There are
many different kinds of search engine, each using slightly different ways of searching and
indexing web content. Google, BING and YAHOO are all examples of search engines.
 The World Wide Web Is software that runs on the internet which includes all
documentation that is shared and accessed on the internet.
 A Web page is a document designed to be accessed and read over the WWW. It must
have an address in a recognized format.
DEFINITION OF TERMS

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ISPs (Internet Service Providers)
• An ISP is a company that provides access to the Internet to individuals or companies.
ISPs provide local dial-up access from your personal computer to their computer network
and their network connects you to the Internet.
• An institution (usually a private company) that provides access to the Internet in some
form, usually for money.
• A business that delivers access to the Internet.
• Are the companies who provide you with access to the internet. Commonly used ISPs in
Zimbabwe are:
1. PowerTel
4. Ecoweb
7. BSAT
2. ZOL
5. Telecel
8. Brodacom
3. Africom
6. Comone
9. Mweb
Most offer the same basic package of Internet access, email addresses, web space for your own
pages and local rate call charges.
Browser or web browser
• A web browser is a software application that enables a user to display and interact with
HTML documents hosted by web servers or held in a file system. Popular browsers
available for personal computers include Microsoft Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox,
Opera, and Safari. A browser is the most commonly used kind of user agent. The largest
networked collection of linked documents is known as the World Wide Web.
• Is a program that allows you to view the pages on the Web? The most widely used are
1. Internet Explorer
2. Mozilla Firefox
3. Google chrome
4. Opera
5. Safari
All browsers will have a number of similar features to help you use the Web:
• Forward and back buttons to move between pages
• A history folder which stores details of recently visited web pages
• A stop button if a page is taking too long to load
• Favorites and bookmark options to store often visited pages
• Options to cut, copy, save and print the information viewed
Search engines
Internet search engines help users find web pages on a given subject. The search engines
maintain databases of web sites and use programs (often referred to as "spiders" or "robots")
to collect information, which is then indexed by the search engine. Similar services are
provided by "directories," which maintain ordered lists of websites, eg Yahoo!
• Examples of search engines are: Google, MSN, Bing, Yahoo, AltaVista
•

Internet address
The numbering system used in TCP/IP internetwork communications to specify a particular
network or a particular host on that network with which to communicate. Internet addresses
are commonly denoted in dotted decimal form.
Examples of internet addresses
1. www.facebook.com
2. www.google.com
3. www.yahoo.com

•

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4. www.gmail.com
5. www.herald.co.zw
•

An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique number, a kind of telephone number,
used by machines (usually computers) to refer to each other when sending information
through the Internet. This allows machines passing the information onwards on behalf of the
sender to know where to send it next, and for the machine receiving the information to know
that it is the intended destination.

What are the advantages & disadvantages of the Internet? Discuss
These are far too broad and extending to all realms in life. For instance:1) Access to a wide range of information from any location worldwide where there is
internet access. i.e. airlines, resorts, books, authors.
2) Research on any topic i.e. a professor, current affairs.
3) Online Shopping i.e. for cars, specific dress.
4) Online ordering and carrying out other business transactions e.g.. Ordering a cheque
book, advertising a product.
5) Online conferencing – communicating across international boundaries.
6) Ability to access e-mail from any location worldwide.
7) Reading newspapers online.

Disadvantages
Theft of Personal Information
If you use the Internet for online banking, social networking or other services, you may risk a
theft to your personal information such as name, address, credit card number etc. Unscrupulous
people can access this information through unsecured connections or by planting software and
then use your personal details for their benefit. Needless to say, this may land you in serious
trouble.
Spamming
Spamming refers to sending unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no purpose and needlessly
obstruct the entire system. Such illegal activities can be very frustrating for you as it makes your
Internet slower and less reliable.
Virus Threat
Internet users are often plagued by virus attacks on their systems. Virus programs are
inconspicuous and may get activated if you click a seemingly harmless link. Computers
connected to the Internet are very prone to targeted virus attacks and may end up crashing.
Pornography
Pornography is perhaps the biggest disadvantage of the Internet. Internet allows you to access and
download millions of pornographic photos, videos and other X-rated stuff. Such unrestricted
access to porn can be detrimental for children and teenagers. It can even play a havoc in marital
and social lives of adults.
Social Disconnect
Thanks to the Internet, people now only meet on social networks. More and more people are
getting engulfed in virtual world and drifting apart from their friends and family. Even children

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prefer to play online games rather than going out and mingling with other kids. This may hamper
a healthy social development in children

The Web uses three standards namely:
1 URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) – which are web page addresses
2 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) – the language used to design web pages
3 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)
To send e-mail access the Internet, both the sender and receiver need:
WHAT IS NEEDED FOR INTERNET AND E-MAIL SERVICES
1) A computer connected to a network,
2) The windows operating system installed
3) The communication and or browser software such as Ms-Exchange or Ms-Outlook,
Internet explorer, Netscape navigator
4) A modem
5) Telephone line
6) Subscription to an ISP (Internet Service Provider).
What do you need to get connected?
To connect to the internet you need:
1) A computer
2) A telephone line
3) A modem - the type of modem you need to use is dependant on the type of
connection you have. Some of the choices are:
An analogue modem and an ordinary phone line. This type of modem links your
computer to the phone and converts computer signals to analogue phone line
signals - and back again. Typical analogue modem speeds are 56Kbps (bps
stands for bits per second) which means they can receive about 6000 characters
per second. This is the slowest and oldest type of connection and becoming less
common with the introduction of broadband.
An ISDN line and terminal adaptor. This digital connection is slightly faster than
an analogue connection.
An ADSL or cable telephone line and broadband modem. Broadband modems
are much faster than the other two options and their use is increasing.
4) An account with an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
5) Browser software
ISPs are the companies who provide you with access to the internet. Commonly used ISPs
include Freeserve, AOL, Virgin, Tesco, BT and many more. Most offer the same basic package
of Internet access, email addresses, web space for your own pages and local rate call charges.
A browser is a program that allows you to view the pages on the Web. The most widely used
are Internet Explorer and Firefox.
All browsers will have a number of similar features to help you use the Web:
• Forward and back buttons to move between pages

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•
•
•
•

A history folder which stores details of recently visited web pages
A stop button if a page is taking too long to load
Favorites and bookmark options to store often visited pages
Options to cut, copy, save and print the information viewed

ELECTRONIC MAIL
Electronic mail or email is a means of sending messages, text, and computer files between
computers via the telephone network. Because the telephone network covers the whole world,
email enables you to communicate world wide.
Email and web mail
Email
To set up email you need:
• A computer
• An internet connection via an analogue modem (ordinary phone line) or terminal adaptor
(ISDN) or broadband modem (ADSL and cable)
• An account with an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
• Email software
Your Internet Service Provider will give you an email account, a password and a mailbox such as
[email protected]. You can also set up an email account with a mailbox and
passwords with non-ISPs such as Google and Hotmail.
With a dial-up connection, you have to pay the cost of your internet phone calls (local rate), and
in most cases a subscription to your provider (though some are free). A broadband connection is
'always on', with only a flat-rate subscription. Very few people pay by the minute nowadays and
the majority of people pay a monthly fee for broadband access.
Anti-virus scanning is becoming standard on email accounts and many email providers now offer
an anti spam (electronic junk mail) service.
Web mail
Web mail, as its name suggests, is web-based email. To use web mail, you do not need any email
software - just a computer connected to the internet via any one of the connection types listed
above, and a browser.
Users simply sign up to the web mail service of a web portal such as MSN or Yahoo. They are
given a unique user name and a personal mailbox on the portal's email server, and they can then
send and receive messages via a special web page.
A basic web mail account is usually free, although this will have a very limited amount of
storage.
The advantage of web mail is that users can receive and send mail from any computer in the
world with internet access. If you have a dial-up connection you can download your emails and
then read them offline to avoid staying on-line for long periods.
Some ISPs will enable their regular email customers to access their mailbox via web mail as well
as through the email software on their PC.
Features of email
• Automatic reply to messages
• Auto forward and redirection of messages
• Facility to send copies of a message to many people
• Automatic filing and retrieval of messages
• Addresses can be stored in an address book and retrieved instantly
• Notification if message cannot be delivered
• Automatically date and time stamped

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Signatures can be attached
Files, graphics or sound can be sent as attachments, often in compressed formats
Web mail and mobile email can be used to receive and send messages while on the move.
Using email
• Broadband email
- Your connection is always on - so simply write and address your message and hit 'send'
to send your mail and 'receive' to download any incoming messages from your email
provider's server.
• Web mail
- Connect to the internet (if using a dial-up account) and open your browser.
- navigate to your web mail provider's portal and enter your user-name and password.
- all incoming mail will now be visible, and you can also compose and send mail, and
download attachments to your computer.
- When you're done, log out and close your connection.
• Dial-up email
- Prepare your message offline as typing your message online will increase phone
charges.
- Connect to the internet and log on to your email account.
- Send your message and download any incoming mail sitting on your service provider's
computer.
- Log off and close your connection.
Email is evolving...
• Many mobile phones already allow messages to be sent to the recipient's email inbox
while the sender is on the move. The latest generation of mobile phones enables users to
send and receive wireless email in exactly the same way as a static computer.
• Email can be sent and received via digital TV, specially adapted phones, public kiosk
terminals and the latest generation of games console.
• A spreading network of wireless 'hotspots' in public places allows people to send and
receive email via laptop computers.
• A new range of in-car phones will enable motorists to check their email on the road
Benefits and concerns of using email
•
•
•

Email benefits
• Fast delivery of your message
• Available 365 days, 24 hours per day - and, with web mail, wherever you are in the world
as long as you have access to the internet.
• Cheap: when using broadband, individual mail transfers are effectively free. When going
online from a dial-up account, calls are charged at local rates and (for conventional
email) need only last a few seconds.
• Facility to send the same message to more than one person
Email concerns
• It can only be sent to people who themselves have access to the internet.
• Viruses are easily spread via email attachments - anti virus measures must be in place to
avoid this and are now offered by many e-mail providers.
• Phishing - sending an e-mail to a user falsely claiming to be a legitimate company to
scam the user into providing information such as personal information and bank account
numbers on a bogus website. The details will then be used for identity theft.
• No guarantee the mail will be read until the user logs on and checks their mail.
• Spam! Or Junk mail

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HEALTH AND SAFETY
HEALTH PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH COMPUTER USE AND POSSIBLE
SOLUTIONS
1. Eye Strain:
• Position your terminal at right angles to the window if possible; avoid facing directly into
bright light (coming at you from behind your computer screen).
• Install an anti-glare screen.
• Adjust the brightness controls on the screen until they are comfortable to your eyes.
2. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome:
• Adjust your chair or table height to have your elbow angle at 90-100 degrees.
• Position your keyboard so that you don't have to bend your hands uncomfortably upward
to reach the keys; place a raised wrist rest on the table in front of the keyboard if
necessary.
• Clinch your fists, hold for one second, then stretch your fingers out wide and hold for 5
seconds.
• Organize your workday, if possible, to intersperse other tasks with your computer work
so that you're not sitting at the computer for several hours without a break. Variety is key.
• Hold the mouse loosely and click lightly.
3. Neck and Back Strain:
• Check your posture - sit up straight. Thanks Mom.
• The monitor screen surface should be approximately 18-24 inches away from your torso.
• Preferably chairs should be on wheels, have backrest tilt adjustment, and have arms.
• Be sure you have enough desktop space for work papers and other equipment.
4. Conjunctivitis (itchy, bloodshot eyes) and Dermatitis:
• Be sure the screen doesn't flicker or wave - this could indicate that service or adjustment
is needed.
• Look away from the screen periodically.
• Don't forget to blink - your eyes need the moisture.
5. The vision disorder
Due to excessive computer use has been identified as Computer Vision Syndrome. Symptoms are
dry eyes, headaches, blurred vision, eyestrain, and shoulder back pain.
• To alleviate the problem it is suggested that computer users take
regular breaks, blink their eyes frequently, occasionally close their eyes
for a few minutes and every fifteen minutes or so look away from the
computer to stare at an object in the distance.
6. For the back pain and other muscular related problems,
It is suggested that people get up every hour, stretch and move around for about five minutes.
They should also do an activity which moves each foot and leg.
• A computer user should be seated at least two feet away from the
screen with the screen below eye level. Their chair should be
comfortable and they should sit up straight in the chair with feet firmly
on the floor. They should not cross their legs.
7. Posture-related injuries
Back and neck pain, headaches, and shoulder and arm pain are common computer-related
injuries. Such muscle and joint problems can be caused or made worse by poor workstation
design, bad posture and sitting for extended periods of time.

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Although sitting requires less muscular effort, it still causes fatigue and requires parts of the body
to be held steady for long periods of time. This reduces circulation to the muscles, bones, tendons
and ligaments and can result in stiffness and pain. If a workstation is not set up properly, these
steady positions can put even greater stress on muscles and joints.
Prevention tips – muscle and joint injuries
Suggestions to reduce the risk of muscle and joint problems include:
• Use an adjustable desk designed for use with computers; position the monitor so that it is
either at eye level or slightly lower.
• Position your keyboard at a height that allows your elbows to rest comfortably at your
side. Forearms should be roughly parallel with the floor and level with your keyboard.
• Adjust your chair so that your feet rest flat on the floor.
• Use a footstool (if your feet do not rest on the floor when the chair is adjusted for good
arm position).
• Switch to an ergonomic chair, which helps your spine to naturally hold its curve while
sitting.
• Use an ergonomic keyboard to offer your hands and wrists a more natural holding
position.
• Take frequent short breaks and go for a walk or perform stretching exercises at your desk.
Stand often.
8. Overuse injuries of the upper limbs
Muscles and tendons can become painful with repetitive movements and awkward postures. This
is known as ‘overuse injury’ and these typically occur in the elbow, wrist or hand of computer
users. Symptoms of overuse injuries in the upper limbs include pain, swelling, stiffness of the
joints, weakness and numbness.
Prevention tips – overuse injuries
Suggestions to reduce the risk of overuse injuries include:
• Keep your mouse at the same height as your correctly positioned keyboard.
• Position the mouse as close as possible to the side of the keyboard.
• Use your whole arm, not just your wrist, when using the mouse.
• Type lightly and gently.
• Mix your tasks to avoid long, uninterrupted stretches of typing.
• Remove the hands from the keyboard when not actively typing, to allow the arms to
relax.
9. Eyestrain
Focusing your eyes at the same distance point for extended periods of time causes fatigue. The
human eye structurally prefers to look at objects further than six metres away, so any work
performed close-up puts extra demands on the eye muscles.
The illuminated computer screen can also contribute to eye fatigue. While there is no evidence
that eye fatigue is associated with damage to the eyesight, computer users may experience
symptoms such as blurred vision, temporary inability to focus on faraway objects and headaches.
Prevention tips – eyestrain
Suggestions to reduce the risk of eyestrain include:
• Make sure your primary light source (such as a window) is not shining into your face or
directly onto the monitor.
• Tilt the monitor slightly to eliminate reflections or glare.
• Make sure your computer screen is not too close to your face.
• Position the screen so that it is either at eye level or slightly lower.

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Reduce the contrast and brightness of your screen by adjusting the controls on the
monitor.
• Frequently look away from the screen and focus on faraway objects.
• Have regular eye examinations to check that blurring, headaches and other associated
problems are not caused by any underlying disorders.
Pain in the buttocks
Pain in the buttocks radiating down the thigh can be caused by a chair seat that is too long and
causing pressure behind the knees or from inadequate lumbar support.
Pain in the shoulders
 Pain in the shoulders can be caused by having arms on the chair that cannot be adjusted
this causes the user to sit with the arms sticking out.
 Sitting at the desk with one elbow supported on the desk and the other held lower or
twisting the torso to look at the monitor will also cause pain.
Pain in the knees
 Pain in the knees can be caused by the fact that when the chair has been adjusted to the
correct height to allow the fingers to be horizontal to the keys, the feet are left
unsupported, the solution is to purchase a footrest the small step type called (twin plus in
the Lyreco catalogue are best because they do not take up much space under the desk,
they can be adjusted according to the height of the person using them.)
If transcription is carried out it is better to have a large surface area on the footrest and
the ability to keep this level to support the footswitch.
 Pain in the knees can also be caused by a seat that is too long resulting in pressure behind
the knees.
Eye strain
 Eyestrain can be caused by glare from the monitor or from overhead lights. Ideally the
desk should be placed between lights and not directly under them. If this is not possible
you may be able to switch the overhead light off and use an angle poise lamp.
 Glare from windows without blinds or with incorrectly fitted blinds.
 Where there are casement window at the top and blinds cannot be used there is often
glare from the sun on the screen. Some vertical blinds are not efficient and additional
blackout roller blinds would improve efficiency and keep the room cool. If blinds cannot
be fitted it may be possible to fit a tinted transparent film to the window.
•

THREE TYPES OF DATA TRANSMISSION:

1. SIMPLEX
Data in a Simplex transmission is always one way. Simplex transmission are not often used because
it is not possible to send back error or control signals to the transmit end.
It's like a one-way street. An example of simplex is television, or Radio.

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2. HALF DUPLEX
A half-duplex transmission can send and receive in one direction, but not at the same time. It's like a
one-lane bridge where two-way traffic must give way in order to cross. Only one end transmits at a
time, the other end receives. In addition, it is possible to perform error detection and request the
sender to retransmit information that arrived corrupted. In some aspects, you can think of Internet
surfing as being half-duplex, as a user issues a request for a web document, then that document is
downloaded and displayed before the user issues another request.
Another example of half-duplex is talkback radio, and CB Radio (Citizens Band). You might have
seen movies where a truck driver (drivers of very big trucks) communicates to each other, and when
they want the other person to speak they say "over". This is because only one person can talk at a
time

3. FULL DUPLEX
Data can travel in both directions simultaneously. There is no need to switch from transmit to
receive mode like in half duplex. It like a two lane bridge on a two-lane highway. Have you ever
watched these television talk shows where the host has a number of people on the show, and they all
try to talk at once. Well, that's full duplex!
Of course, in the world of data communications, full duplex allows both way communications
simultaneously. An example can be a consumer, which uses a cable connection not only, receives
TV channels, but also the same cable to support their phone and Internet surfing. All these activities
can occur simultaneously.

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PRACTICAL QUESTION
a. Name any 2 word processing packages.
b. What is page break in word processing and why is it used/
c. How do you save a file on a floppy disk using the word processor you have studied?
d. How do you underline a block of previously typed text using the word processor you
have studied?
e. Explain the difference between
i. SAVE & SAVE AS
ii. COPY & CUT
iii. DELETE & BACK SPACE
iv. PORTRAIT & LANDSCAPE
v. TOGGLE CASE & UPPERCASE
f. Briefly outline the procedures for performing the following functions in a windows
environment.
ix.
Arrange icons on the desktop
i.
Creating a folder
x.
Change screen saver
ii.
Opening a folder
iii.
Searching folders or files
xi.
Click
iv.
Renaming a file or folder
xii.
Right click
v.
Creating a shortcut for a file or
xiii.
Double click
folder
xiv.
Drag
vi.
Copy file from one folder to
xv.
Loading windows
another
xvi.
Shutting down a computer
vii.
Move a file from one folder to
xvii.
Emptying recycle bin
another
xviii.
viii.
Deleting a file or folder
g. Briefly outline the procedures for performing the following functions using a
spreadsheet of your choice
i.
Expanding a cell
ii.
Adding a list of figures in the range A10 to D10
iii.
Insert a full border around a document
iv.
Adding and Renaming Worksheets
v.
Resizing Rows and Columns

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Briefly outline the procedures for performing the following functions using a word
processor of your choice
1. Opening a Microsoft word program for typing
2. Saving a document
3. Retrieving a document
4. Setting landscape or portrait orientation
5. Print preview
6. Formatting text into italics
7. Setting left and right margins
8. Inserting a header or a footer
9. Open a document which has been saved before
10. Insert a picture
11. Insert a table
12. Printing a word document
13. Exit MS Word
14. Save a document
15. Copy a document or a word
16. Double line spacing
17. Insert a header
18. Insert page number
19. Save a document onto a floppy disk
20. Mail merge
21. JUSTIFYING TEXT
22. Inserting bullets
23. Indenting text
24. Moving a block of text
25. Copying a block of text
26. Creating a table
27. Adding rows to a table
28. Adding columns to a table
29. Deleting rows of a table
30. Deleting columns of a table
31. Shading a table
32. Merging cells of a table
33. Splitting cells
34. Changing text direction
35. Inserting drop caps
36. Having 2 columns on a word document
37. Bordering and shading a paragraph

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INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION DEFINITIONS:
1. The process by which information, ideas, attitudes and emotions are exchanged between one
person and another by the use of a common system of symbols, signs and behaviour.
(Hammond S 1998:19)
2. The giving, receiving or exchange of information, opinions or ideas by writing, speech or
visual means or a combination of these three- so that the material communicated is
understood by everyone.
3. The transaction (an exchange) whereby participants together create meaning through the
exchange of symbols. (Michael Fielding 1993:4)
4. Communication is a skill acquired by an individual to exchange messages, facts, ideas,
opinions and even express emotions.
5.
The definition stresses 4 major points which are:
•

•
•

•

Communication as a transaction: A transaction involves 2 or more people who
exchange or discuss or construct meaning together, they have to take one another into
account and have to work together according to a set of rules.
People working together: People are central to communication. They should pay
attention to each other and learn to develop mutual expectations.
The creation of meaning: People need to ensure that the others understand what they are
saying. We create meaning because of the words that we say or share i.e. sharing of
meaning.
The exchange of symbols: people exchange verbal (words) non Verbal Gestures Facial
expression and graphic (table) diagrams and symbols.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION:
Communication starts with the transmission of information related to business and ends with the
feedback from the receiver. The sender transmits messages with a view to exchange
understanding with the receiver. This understanding depends on positive response from the
receiver. In business, two-ways communication is always desirable as it ensures feedback from
the receiver. However, the success of business communication depends on some aspects or
elements. The elements are discussed in short below:
1. Two or more parties: Business communication must involve at least two parties. One
party acts as the sender of message and another is the receiver of that message.
2. Meaningful message: The second important elements of communication are message or
information that the sender wants to communicate. Messages may take the form of
feelings, wishes, attitudes, ideas, facts, information or any other perceivable matter. The
messages that a sender wants to send, should be meaningful to the receiver.
3. Business related information: Information that the sender transmits should be related to
business. Similarly the feedback from the receiver should also be business based.
4. Media or channel: Channel of medium is a pre-requisite of communication. It is the
means of transmitting messages from sender to receiver. Communication media can be
verbal and nonverbal. The verbal media may be of oral and written. Verbal media of
communication include telephonic conversation, fax, newspaper, books, journals etc. On

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the other hand, gestures, and body language, facial expression etc. Are the media of nonverbal communication. The sender must select appropriate media for successful
communication.
5. Feedback: The final element of communication is feedback. It is the response or reaction
of the receiver regarding the sender’s message. Feedback describes how the message is
being interpreted by the receiver. It is regarded as the instrument for evaluating the
success of communication process.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION:
Communication is really a different field that has some various objectives. To gain individual
objectives, communication performs quite a few functions. Some of its major functions are as
follows:
1. Informing: The principal function of communication is informing messages to others. It
really is done verbally or non-verbally. Verbal messages might be either oral or written.
Over a other hand, non-verbal messages can be sent via human body language, gestures,
posture etc.
2. Persuading: One more essential functionality of communication is persuading a single
party by another. In business, management persuades the employees to make certain that
employees persuade management so that management accepts their ideas, opinions and
suggestions. The business also communicates with external stakeholders to persuade
them.
3. Integrating various divisions and departments: Attainment of organizational goals
requires integration and coordination of activities performed by various individuals,
groups and departments. Management can put together and coordinate those people
divisions and departments by building a communication network for the whole
organization.
4. Creating relationships through external parties: Communication creates relationships
not just with internal parties but also with the external parties like customers, suppliers,
investors, general community and government. Communication through these external
parties could be the for survival of an organization.
5. Improving labor-management association: There’s no option to excellent labormanagement relationship for achieving organizational goals. Therefore, a significant
purpose of communication is to increase labor management relationship. Communication
helps each party to express themselves and produce an atmosphere of cooperation.
6. Helping in choice making: Management is absolutely nothing but producing decisions
for creating decision, management requirements information. The function of
communication is to supply relevant info on the management in time so that they are able
to make appropriate decisions.
7. Reducing misunderstanding: In the absence of communication, misunderstanding,
distance, conflict, controversies etc. May perhaps a rise inside the organization.
Communication helps to overcome and avoid these misunderstanding, disagreement and
controversies.
8. Solving troubles: Difficulties are favorite to every business. A business faces good deal
of difficulties in its day-to-day operations. Achievement of business depends on timely
items of individual problems. Item of these problems is impossible without the need of
appropriate communication with the concerned parties.

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FIVE MAJOR FORMS OF COMMUNICATION:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Intrapersonal Communication
Interpersonal/Dyadic Communication
Extra personal
Small Group Communication
Public Communication
Mass Communication

INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
 Intrapersonal communication is a communication which happens yourself. Here both
Source (sender) and receiver is only one. so, the feedback works without any interruption.
Example: A person can communicate himself through pain, thinking, feelings and
emotion etc.
 Intrapersonal communication is self-talk or a conversation you hold with yourself
under certain circumstances – for example, when you need to make an important decision
or learn something about yourself. You may wonder whether intrapersonal
communication is just another way of describing the thinking process. In a way, that
would be correct.
 Intrapersonal communication is a form of thinking that goes on inside us which relies on
language to express itself. It is similar to the Shakespearean “soliloquy” where the
character in question engages in self-talk to reflect on events that have. Intrapersonal
communication often increases self-awareness and mindfulness, and hones critical
thinking skills.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION (Dyadic Communication)
 In Interpersonal/Dyadic communication, two persons are involved in this communication
process. Here the Source becomes a receiver and receiver become Source because of
dynamic communication process were the feedback’s are shared between Source and the
receiver.
 Interpersonal communication is communication between several people. This form of
communication may range from the impersonal to the very personal. Impersonal
communication is when you talk with a person you do not really care about – there is
often a coldness or an indifference in your attitude when you engage in this kind of
communication.
 Then, there is social communication where you engage in niceties with people you meet
in a social context. The most personal type of communication occurs when you talk with
people who are close to you, for example, your best friend, family members and
colleagues. Such relationships are interdependent, meaning that the actions of one party

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very often directly affects the other party. Interpersonal communication can take place
face to face as well as through electronic channels like video-conferencing, chat rooms,
e-mail and Twitter.

SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION
 More than two members involved in communication process will become a group
communication. If least number of persons is involved in the group communication is
called as small group communication. In this communication process, everyone becomes
a Source as well as receiver through sharing information and gives feedback to another.
 Small group communication takes place in a group, usually comprising five to 10
people. This form of communication serves relationship needs (like companionship,
family bonding and affection or support) as well as task-based needs, for example,
deciding on disciplinary action or resolving conflict in the workplace.
 In academic institutions, students often form small groups which meet regularly for study
discussions or to work collaboratively on projects. At the workplace, small groups may
meet to discuss issues related to work, or for problem-solving or team-building purposes.
Learning to communicate effectively in teams contributes to success and advancement in
many careers. Small group communication allows you to interact with others, be it at
home, in school, at the workplace or in public. You learn to exchange ideas, solve
problems and share experiences.

PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
 In public communication, Source or messages from a single person will reach or received
by huge number of audience. But in this communication there is no mutual feedbacks
between source and receiver like small group communication and it’s only focused on
Speaker.
 Public communication, also known as public speaking, involves communication
between a speaker and an audience. This audience may range from just a few people to
thousands or even millions of people. The aim of the speaker is usually to inform or to

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persuade the audience to act, buy, or think in a certain way. A teacher may address an
assembly of students on codes of behaviour or school rules. A politician may make
speeches on how he will be dealing with certain issues in order to win their votes. An
executive may give a business presentation to get more sales. It is important to
understand some of the basic principles of effective public speaking so that you are able
to influence, persuade as well as entertain your audience when you communicate with
them.

MASS COMMUNICATION
 In mass communication, basically have a large number of audience and they are all can’t
grouped together in one place so we need certain tool or technology for communication
process. But in mass communication, there is no direct access with receiver. So, for that
they need media like newspaper, radio, television and internet. Here the audience
feedback is very less or delayed.
 Mass communication is communication that is sent out from a source to many receivers
all over the world. It takes place through media like films, radio, videos and television.
Modern avenues of mass communication like the Internet and blogs can be very powerful
indeed as information is disseminated instantly.

EXTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

It is the communication between man and environment i.e. man’s interaction with
environment like interaction with plants and animals.

Communication between human beings and non-human entities is extra personal
communication. For example, when your pet dog comes to you wagging its tail as soon
as you return home from work, it is an example of extra personal communication.

Communication between human beings and non human entities is called as extra personal
communication. For e.g. your parrot responding your greeting. In this type of
communication understanding is required between sender and receiver. Receiver
responds in sign language
Extra Personal Communication is that way of communication in which a human interacts with
other species.
- Like an old lonely woman talking to her cats.

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- Shouting at an inanimate object (Like a toaster) for not working.
- People who are quite mentally stable but talk to themselves when alone.
- Praying to God.
COMMUNICATION THEORIES
******??????

COMMUNICATION MODELS
There are many models of communication developed by noted theorists of different disciplines.
Among the theorists, Aristotle, Lasswell, Shannon, Weaver, McLuhan, MacLean, Rileys,
Westley, Gerbner, Rothstein, Schramn, Berlo, Osgood, Johnson, Cherry are the renowned ones.
Some important and well-known models are discussed below:
1. ARISTOTLE’S MODEL:
Aristotle, your well known Ancient greek thinker, unveiled an operation involving by oral
communication within his / her creating 3 hundred years prior to the birth involving Christ. The
task is regarded worthy inside analyze involving modern day communication. He articulates of
any communication practice consisting of a new loudspeaker, a message and also a listener. The
Aristotelian model of communication can be as follows:

Aristotle pointed out that the person at the end of communication process plays the key role to
whether or not communication takes place.
2. LASSWELL’S MODEL:
Harold Lasswell, a politics scientist, designed a communication exchanges type mixing the main
elements of communication exchanges. His model has become widely discussed given that 1940s.
He or she expressed the actual type because, “Who affirms exactly what, in which funnel, to be
able to which, in doing what effect. ” Which means, Lasswell’s style of verbal exchanges consists
of several parts- Sender (who), Message (what) in addition to receiver (whom). Lasswell included
solely the actual component-channel. The majority of modern-day theorists talk about these
several areas of the actual communication procedure by employing diverse terminology. The
particular Lasswell’s type can be found beneath:

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3. CLAUDE SHANNON AND ALSO WARREN WEAVER MODEL:
United States applied mathematician Claude Shannon and also Industrial engineer Warren
Weaver produced a new mathematical theory regarding conversation within 1949 although
working at bell Mobile phone Laboratories in the United States. Afterwards his / her style has
grown to be well-known because “information theory”. Shannon and also Weaver’s style is
commonly recognized because the course from which communication studies has exploded.
Shannon along with Weaver product contains the subsequent 5 things:
• An data source, which usually yields an email
• Some sort of transmitter, which encodes the particular communication in to indicators
• Some sort of sales channel, to be able to which usually indicators usually are taken for
sign
• Some sort of receiver, which ‘decodes’ (reconstructs) the particular communication from
the indication
• Some sort of desired destination, in which the communication occurs.
In the model, they indicated a sixth element, noise as a dysfunctional factor. The model is shown
below:

Advantages of Shannon and Weaver’s model: The strengths of Shannon and Weaver’s model are:
• Simplicity
• Generality and
• Quantifiability
Such advantages made this model attractive to several academic disciplines.
4. SCHRAMM’S MODEL:
Wibur Scharmm, the well-known communication theorist, designed an easy devices
communication model in his book “The course of action in addition to Effects involving Mass
Communication. ” Within the product, Schramm found because Aristotle would, of which
communication usually requires about three elements-the resource, this communication plus the
desired destination. Ultimately, the original source encodes a communication in addition to direct
that to its desired destination via some programmers, in which the message is usually obtained in
addition to decoded. Schramm’s product is really as comes after:

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5. THE RILEYS MODEL:
John W. Riley and Matilda White Riley, a husband and wife team of sociologists pointed out the
importance of the sociological view in communication. They developed a model to illustrate
sociological implications in communication. The model is shown below:

The mode indicates the communicator (C) emerges as part of a larger pattern , who sends
messages in accordance with the expectations and actions of other persons and groups within the
same social structure. it is also true in the case of the receiver (R) in the communications process.
in addition, both the communicator and receiver are part of an overall social system. The model
clearly illustrates that communication is a two-way process.
6. BERLO’S S-M-C-R MODEL:
David K. Berlo, a communication theorist and consultant developed a model named S-M-C-R
model of communication in 1960 in his book “The process of communication”. Berlo pointed out
the importance of the psychological view in his communication model. The four parts of Berlo’s
S-M-C-R model are S = Source, M = Message, C = Channel and R = Receiver. The model is as
follows:

The elements of Berlo’s model are discussed below:
Source: The first element of Berlo’s communication model is the source. All communication
must come form some sources. The source might be one person, a group of people of a company.
Several things determine how a source will operate in the communication process such as:i.
Communication skills like abilities to think, write, draw and speak.
• ii. Attitudes toward audience, the subject matter etc.
• Knowledge of the subject, the audience and the situation.
• Social background, education, friends, salary, culture etc.
Message: Message is the information, views of thoughts to be sent by the source. The source
must choose the code or language for sending the message.
Channel: The channel is the method such as telegraph, newspaper, radio, letter, poster or other
media through which the message will be transmitted.

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Receiver: Receiver is the final element in the communication process. The receiver is the
audience of the message.
7. CONTEMPORARY MODEL:
The modern day style of communication features developed primarily from the early on work
associated with Shannon along with Weaver along with Schramm. These experts have been
related to expounding on the process of communication in a way that may be useful in most
situations.

Off their work the ultra-modern as well as modern day style of communication developed. The
normal regions of modern day style of communication incorporate communicator, encoding,
information, moderate, recipient, decoding, and suggestions along with sounds.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
In this section, you will learn about three models of communication:
a. Linear model
b. Interactive model
c. Transactional model
LINEAR MODEL
The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker
speaks and the listener listens.

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Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) model includes noise or interference that distorts understanding
between the speaker and the listener. Figure shows a linear model of communication:

A linear model of communication
Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: ThomsonWadsworth

1. Sender : The originator of message or the information source selects desire message
2. Encoder : The transmitter which converts the message into signals
Note: The sender’s messages converted into signals like waves or Binary data which is
compactable to transmit the messages through cables or satellites. For example: In telephone
the voice is converted into wave signals and it transmits through cables
3. Decoder: The reception place of the signal which converts signals into message. A reverse
process of encode
Note: The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is comfortable
and understandable for receiver. Otherwise receiver can’t receive the exact message and it
will affect the effective communication between sender and receiver
4. Receiver : The destination of the message from sender
Note: Based on the decoded message the receiver gives their feed back to sender. If the
message distracted by noise it will affect the communication flow between sender and
receiver
5. Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel. During this
process the messages may distracted or affected by physical noise like horn sounds, thunder
and crowd noise or encoded signals may distract in the channel during the transmission

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process which affect the communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct
message
Note: The model clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or signals
from external sources. For example: If there is any problems occur in network which directly
affect the mobile phone communication or distract the messages

INTERACTIVE MODEL
The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way process where
speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and never speak or send
messages.
Schramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or
listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also
listens to the feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the listener take
turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in
both ways.
This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have common
fields of experience, or fields which overlap

An interactive model of communication
Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: ThomsonWadsworth

TRANSACTIONAL MODEL
The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can
both send and receive messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that
communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.

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The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each
person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously
sending and receiving messages.
There are three implications in the transactional model:
i.
“Transactional” means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing
process. You are changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing,
and your environment is also continually changing as well.
ii.
In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements.
There is this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no
message without a source.
iii.
Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their
background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem.
Figure below shows a transactional model of communication that takes into account “noise” or
interference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate
that communication happens within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common
campus, hometown, and culture) or personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also
takes into account changes that happen in the communicators’ fields of personal and common
experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as receiver
simultaneously.

A transactional model of communication
Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: ThomsonWadsworth.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND COMMUNICATION
MODEL
Communication model and process are closely related to each other. Communication process is
made up of some sequential parts of exchanging information. This process includes sender,
encodings, message, channel, receiver, decoding and feedback. On the other hand,
communication model is the symbolic presentation of communication process. Thus, it seems that
communication process and model are similar to each other. Yet, there exists some differences
between them. The differences are below:
• Nature: Communication process is theoretical in nature and Communication model is the
pictorial presentation of communication process.
• Understandability: Since communication process is a theoretical matter, it requires
descriptive analysis of components and Since model is a symbolic representation, on can
understand the model by simply looking at it.
• Complicacy: The process is descriptive in nature and therefore, it is a complex matter
and The model is relatively less complex as it is presented in the form of picture of
diagram.
• Time involvement: Theoretical analysis of communication process and Developing
communication model requires less time than the process.
• Requirement of expert: There is hardly any need of expert to design a communication
process and Experts are essential to develop a well thought out model.

Limitations of communication model
Though communication model is useful in a variety of ways, it is not free form limitations. The
limitations of using communication model are as follows:
• Rigidity: Communication model is rigid in nature. Communication cannot always be
presented in a rigid model.

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•

•

•

Non-inclusion of some aspects: In a communication model, only the important aspects
of communication process are included and less important aspects are ignored. But in
some cases these unimportant aspects become important.
Lack of detailed explanation: Communication model represents the communication
process through symbols. Elaborate explanation is not always available in the
communication model.
Non-availability of experts: Another limitation in developing a communication model
is that expert hands are not always available. As a result, development of time befitting
model is difficult.

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION MODEL? |
A model can be defined as a visual presentation that identifies, classifies and describes various
parts of a process. In the communication process, sender, message, media and receiver are
associated. Communication process starts with the transmission of message by communicator and
end with receiver’s feedback. When this communication process is represented through a line or
picture, it is called communication model. In other words, pictorial presentation of
communication process is known as communication model.
The simple model of communication consists of a sender, message and receiver. However, this
simple model ignores many other parts of communication process. So by incorporating all parts
of communication process, a comprehensive communication model is presented below:

In communication model, various parts of communication process are depicted in a sequential
and rational way.
In fine, it can be summed up that communication model is a diagrammatical presentation of
communication process. It is the logical settings of the elements of communication process.
Functions of communication model
Communication model refers to the visual representation of communication process.
Communication model performs certain function in developing communication skills and
efficiency. Some important functions of communications model are mentioned below:
1. Teaching the elements of communication process: Communication model represents
various elements involved in sending and receiving message. So from communication
model, one can learn various aspects of communication process. For this reason, it is said
that communication model teaches communication process.
2. Conducting research: The second important function of communication model is to help
in conducting research in the field of communication. Communication model presents

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various aspects of communication logically that help the researchers are in understanding
the pattern of communication. So with the help of communication models, the researchers
can undertake communication research programmers and perform those efficiently.
3. Predicting the success or failure of communication process: Another function of
communication model is to predict or forecast the success or failure of a particular
communication process. Through this model, one can ascertain the causes of success or
failure of communication.
Importance or objectives of communication model:
Communication model has evolved to understand the communication process. It helps to
understand the important aspects of communication. Some points highlighting the importance or
objectives of communication model are given below:
1. Easy understanding of communication process: Communication model helps to
understand the communication process easily and logically.
2. Showing information flow: Communication model shows how information flows form
one person to another in the organization.
3. Introducing the parts of communication process: Communication model is also
helpful to orient the various parts of communication process to its readers.
4. Easy presentation of communication process: Communication process is a complex
issue. Through a model, this complex issue can be presented easily.
5. Understanding the communication complexities: Complex issues of commutation
process cannot be show in the communication model. Comparing these complexities with
the model, one can measure the degree of complexities in a given communication issue.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication process consists of some interrelated steps or parts through which messages are
sent form sender to receiver. The process of communication begins when the sender wants to
transmit a fact, idea, opinion or other information to the receiver and ends with receiver’s
feedback to the sender. The main components of communication process are sender, message,
channel, receiver and feedback

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Steps or elements of communication process
The communication process refers to the steps through which communication takes place
between the sender and the receiver. This process starts with conceptualizing an idea or message
by the sender and ends with the feedback from the receiver. In details, communication process
consists of the following eight steps:
1. Developing idea by the sender: In the first step, the communicator develops or
conceptualizes an idea to be sent. It is also known as the planning stage since in this stage
the communicator plans the subject matter of communication.
2. Encoding: Encoding means converting or translation the idea into a perceivable form that
can be communicated to others.
3. Developing the message: After encoding the sender gets a message that can be
transmitted to the receiver. The message can be oral, written, symbolic or nonverbal. For
example, when people talk, speech is the message; when people write a letter, the words
and sentences are the message; when people cries, the crying is the message.
4. Selecting the medium: Medium is the channel or means of transmitting the message to
the receiver. Once the sender has encoded his into a message, the next step is to select a
suitable medium for transmitting it to the receiver. The medium of communication can be
speaking, writing, signaling, gesturing etc.
5. Transmission of message: In this step, the sender actually transmits the message through
chosen medium. In the communication cycle, the tasks of the sender end with the
transmission of the message.
6. Receiving the message by receiver: This stage simply involves the reception of sender’s
message by the receiver. The message can be received in the form of hearing, seeing,
feeling and so on.
7. Decoding: Decoding is the receiver’s interpretation of the sender’s message. Here the
receiver converts the message into thoughts and tries to analyze and understand it.
Effective communication can occur only when both the sender and the receiver assign the
same or similar meanings to the message.
8. Feedback: The final step of communication process is feedback. Feedback means
receiver’s response to sender’s message. It increases the effectiveness of communication.
It ensures that the receiver has correctly understood the message. Feedback is the essence
of two-way communication

WHAT IS TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION? |
Two-way communication occurs when the receiver sends response or feedback to
sender’s message. In two-way communication process, the sender first transmits the
message to the receiver. After receiving a message, the receiver decodes it and then sends
back his or her reaction to the sender.
• In two-way communication, information flows in two-ways: information form sender to
receiver and response from receiver to sender. So it is regarded as the complete
communication process.
• Two-way communication may occur horizontally or vertically in the organization.
When information is exchanged between superior and subordinate, it is known as vertical
two-way communication. On the other hand, when communication takes place between
persons holding the same rank or position, it is called horizontal two-way
•

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communication. Two-way communication is represented in the following diagrams:

By nature, face-to-face and telephonic conversations are the examples of two-way
communication. In the case of written communication, two-way flow of information will occur
when receiver sends feedback.
In fine, it can be said that the communication process having provision for feedback in termed as
two-way communication.
Importance of two-way communication
Two-way communication is the complete communication process. In this communication,
information flows form sender to receiver and response of the receiver goes back to the sender. In
achieving the organizational goals and facing the personal problems, we need to rely on two-way
communication. The following points highlight the importance of two-way communication:
1. Ensuring smooth how of information: In two-way communication, the receiver can
directly express his response with regard to the message he received. As a result, smooth
flow of information occurs in both directions.
2. Providing acknowledgement: In two-way communication, sender sends information to
the receiver and receiver gives his response or answer to the sender. In this way, two-way
commutation acknowledges the reception of message by the receiver.
3. Implementation of directions: In the organization, superiors convey various orders,
instructions, policies, procedures etc. to the subordinates. If subordinates fail to
understand any instruction, order or policy, two-way communication allows them to ask
for further clarification. Thus, two-way communication helps implementation of
superior’s directions.
4. Encouraging suggestion form employee: In order to enrich organizational plans and
policies, management should encourage suggestions from subordinates. Such
encouragement is possible when there exists two-way communication channels.
5. Increasing job satisfactions: Two-way communication provides employees with a
means to convey their complaints, attitudes, feelings, interests and opinion to their
superiors. Afterwards, superiors can take necessary steps for well-being of the
employees. As a result, job satisfaction of the employees increases.
6. Creating democratic environment: In two-way communication, both communicator
and receiver can freely express their feelings, ideas and views. This mutual exchange of
information creates a democratic environment in the organization.
7. Overcoming ambiguity: Two-way communication is also very useful to overcome any
confusion or ambiguity regarding the message as it allows the receiver to convey his
response.

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8. Creating congenial relationship: Congenial relationship between workers and
management is essential to achieve organizational goals. In order to create such
relationship, management must listen to the opinions and views of employees. Two-way
communication makes it possible.
9. Creating informal relationship: Another positive aspect of two-way communication is
that it enhances informal relationship between sender and receiver. Since two-way
communication allows both the participants to exchange whatever they think, they can
develop a sense of mutual understanding. The result is a better relationship between
them.
10. Increasing effectiveness of communication: Effective communication depends on
proper understanding of message by both sender and receiver. Through two-way
communication, both parties can evaluate each other’s opinion and thus can increase
effectiveness of their communication.
11. Increasing efficiency: Two-way communication also positively contributes to the
efficiency of the receiver. In this communication, the receiver can seek clarification and
analysis of sender’s message that ultimately increases his knowledge, understanding and
efficiency.
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that two-way communication plays vital role in
improving organizational performance. This is the only complete communication process. For
this reason, so much importance is placed on two-way communication
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION FEEDBACK? |
Feedback refers to the response or reaction of receiver to the sender’s message. Feedback is the
essence of communication and is the final step of communication process. Without feedback
from the receiver, communication process remains incomplete. This feedback may be an oral or
written message, or an action or simply a silence.
Transmitting or sending message is half of the communication process. When messages reach to
the receiver, he decodes the message and sends his response to the sender to complete the
communication process. Feedback enables the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of his
message. If the receiver does not understand what the sender wants to convey, then the sender
refines or repeats the message.
Some quotations on feedback are given below:
•
•
•

•

In the opinion of Bartol and Martin, “Feedback is the receiver’s basic response to the
interpreted message.”
Boone, Kurtz and Block defined, “Feedback consists of messages-verbal and non-verbalthat convey a reaction to the communication’s message.”
According to Bovee, Thill and Wood, “Feedback is a response from the receiver that
informs the sender how the message is being interpreted form the receiver that informs
the sender how the message is being interpreted and how the communication is being
received in general.”
Weihrich and Koontz said, “A feedback is an information input in a system transmitting
message of system operation to indicate whether the system is operating as planned,
information concerning any type of planned operations relayed to the responsible person
for evaluations.”

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Feedback in communication is shown in the fallowing diagram

The earlier discussion brings to conclusion that feedback is the return message or reaction of
receiver with regard to the sender’s message.
CAUSES OF POOR FEEDBACK:
Feedback is an essential component of communication process. Without feedback, none can
ensure the effectiveness of communication. However in some cases, proper feedback is hindered
by some causes, factors. These causes, factors are as follows:
1. Reliance only on formal communication channel: Employees in the organization
primarily communicate through normal channels following the organizational hierarchy.
Communication through formal channel is essential to maintain order and discipline.
However, excessive reliance on formal channels discourages feedback.
2. Sanctioned communication: When communication is formalized through rules,
regulations and bindings, it is called sanctioned communication. Such rules and
regulations restrict feedback. Because, employees cannot communicate violating these
roles. So sanctioned communication created by rigid rules and restrictions acts as a major
cause of poor feedback.
3. Negative organizational climate: It internal operational environment, inter-personal
relationship and social climate of organization are unfavorable to free and fair flow of
communication, then the whole communication process will be affected. In such a
situation, normal flow of feedback will also he blocked.
NECESSITY OF FEEDBACK |
Feedback is the essence of two-way communication. In two-way communication, the sender must
wait for receiver’s response before deciding what to say nest and how to say it. Feedback is the
check on how much successful one has been in transferring his message as originally intended. If
there is no feedback. Communication will be incomplete and ineffective. Based on feedback, a
sender may either alter the presentation of the message or cancel it entirely. Thus, there is no
alternative to feedback,. Some points highlighting the importance of feedback are mentioned
below:

Why feedback is necessary for completion of communication process?
1. Completion of communication: Two-way communication requires feedback from the
receiver. Through the feedback, sender can understand the attitude of the receiver. Burton

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and Thakur said, “The receiver’s feedback to the sender completes the communication
process loop.”
2. Measuring the effectiveness of communication: Feedback ensures the sender regarding
the effectiveness of his communication. By means of feedback, sender can be sure that
the receiver received the message and understood it in the proper way. Sender needs
feedback in order to determine the success or failure of communication.
3. Understanding the receiver’s view: Feedback helps to understand the receiver’s view
and opinion about the sender’s message. With this understanding, sender can determine
the next course of action.
4. Measuring the appropriateness of media: Message can be transmitted using various
media. Improper media cannot convey the message to the receiver properly. So proper
understanding of the message by the receiver and his feedback proves that the sender has
selected the right media.
5. Making correct decision: Feedback communicates the receiver’s opinion to the sender.
Considering this opinion, the communicator can take proper decision. Information of the
receiver can also improve the quality of decision.
6. Collection of information: One-way communication only sends information. If
communicator wants to gather information, he must seek feedback.
7. Coordination of activities: Responsibility of performing organizational activities is
assigned to various departments. In this case, organizational success depends on proper
coordination of inter-departmental activities. Feedback helps top management to ensure
proper coordination.
8. Improving labor-management relationships: Healthy labor-management relationship is
essential for organizational success. If management wants to build a congenial
atmosphere, they should encourage two-way communication. That means, management
should seek feedback from employees as well as they should provide feedback to the
employees. Through this practice, managers can create democratic atmosphere in the
organization.
The above discussion reveals that feedback is an essential element of communication process.
Through feedback, the sender and receiver can know each other and accordingly they can decide
their next course of action.

COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN
•
•

A lack of communication; a failure to exchange information
A communication breakdown occurs when communication is incomprehensible to one
party or entirely absent between two people.

CAUSES OF COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN.
What is a communication barrier? |
Sender transmits a message with the expectation that the receiver will receive, understand and act
on it. However, messages do not always reach to its intended receiver in way the sender think.
Some causes or factors impede the flow of message, it’s interpretation and understanding. Such
factors or causes are known as communication barriers. Some definitions on communication
barrier are quoted below:

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•
•

•

According to Dr. Suruj Kumar Debnath, defined, “Barriers to communication mean
obstacles to the process of communication.
In the opinion of Louise E. Boone and Others, “Communication barriers are the problems
that arise at every stage of the communication process and have the potential to create
misunderstanding and confusion.
According to C. B. Mamoria, “Communication, when it is impeded and does not reach
the receiver is often somewhat ineffective and the impediments are known as barriers.”

What is a communication barrier?
By considering the above discussion and definitions, it can be concluded that communication
barriers are the factors that inhibit the effective flow of information that communication barriers
are the factors that inhibit the effective flow of information in the process of communication.
Communication barriers impede the flow of information or create problems in understanding and
acceptance of information.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
Barriers to communication arise from a variety of sources such as complex organizational
structure, sue of ambiguous words, perceptual differences of sender and receiver, status
difference etc. Theo Haimann has classified the main barriers to communication into four major
groups. These are:
• Barriers caused by organizational structure.
• Barriers caused by status or positions.
• Barriers caused by language.
• Barriers resulting from the general inclination to resist change.
McFarland has classified the communication barriers into the following four groups:
• Unsound objectives
• Organizational blocks
• Semantic blocks
• Human relations problems
Ricky W. Griffin has classified the communication barriers into two broad groups such as (a)
Individual barriers and (b) Organizational barriers.
For convenience of discussion we can classify the barriers to communication in the following
four categories:
• Organizational barriers
• Individual barriers
• Semantic barrier
• Other barriers
These four categories of communication barriers are shown in the following diagram:

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1. ORGANIZATIONAL BARRIERS: The barriers that generate form within the organization
are known as organizational barriers may be of the following types:
o Negative organizational climate: The main aspect of organizational climate that
acts as communication barrier is the negative attitude of top management. Negative
attitude of top management discourages communication initiative of the employees.
o Absence of communication policy: Well-designed communication policy
encourages communication in the organization. In the absence of such policies,
employees fail hesitate to communicate.
o Excessive authority layers: Excessive authority layers acts as a severe impediment
to successful communication. In the case of excessive authority impediment to
successful communication. In the case of excessive authority layers, information
reaches to its final destination passing through several hierarchical levels. As a result,
information may be distorted or lost. Excessive authority layers also causes delay in
communication.
o Filtering: Filtering implies willful distortion of information. This problem usually
arise in upward communication. In upward communication, employees tend to pass
only those messages that create positive impression about them.
2. INDIVIDUAL BARRIERS: Barriers created by the sender and receiver are known as
individual barriers. Such barriers include the following:
o Differences in personality: Personality is the set of attributes that define a person.
Every person holds a distinct personality. This individual nature of personality acts as
barrier to communication.
o Perceptual differences: Perception is the unique way in which people respond or
interpret an object. Difference in perception is a very common problem in effective
communication. It for example, a subscriber of BTTB’s land phone in Bangladesh

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o
o

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may positively react to the government’s move to privatize BTTB expecting a better
service. But an employee of BTTB might view this as step to cut jobs and retrench
existing employees.
Fear: Fear of reprisal or attack, fear of criticism for knowing very little etc. may
create problem in communication.
Stereotyping: Stereotyping is generalizing about a class of people or events that is
widely held by a given culture. In case of stereotyping, people develop
communication statements and mindsets about others. This orientation exposes itself
in such statements and mindsets. For example, “All used car salesmen are dishonest,”
or “All foreign recruiting agents are liars.” Such all inclusive perceptions not only are
seldom correct but they also block mental activity that is necessary for successful
communication.
Halo Effect: The halo effect is the tendency to use a general impression based on one
or a few characteristics to judge other characteristics of that same individual. For
example, a manger might identify one trait of an employee, such as an excellent
attendance record, and perceive that the employee’s productivity and quality of work
must also be outstanding.
Inattention: Sometimes communication does not reach due to the inattention of the
receiver. Such inattention may result from busyness, lack of interest about subject,
suffering from disease or family problem etc.

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3. LANGUAGE OR SEMANTIC BARRIER: A common barrier to effective communication
is semantic distortion, which can be deliberate or accidental. Semantic problem arises when
words and symbols have different meanings for different people that lead to a
misunderstanding. For examples, an advertisement states, “we sell for less.” It is ambiguous
and raises the question: less than what? In another case, during meeting, a male colleague
said to one of his female colleague, “Why don’t you dye it?” meaning her hair. The female
colleague thought he said, “Why don’t you diet?” she did not speak to him for a month.
Semantic barrier presents difficult challenge when people from different cultures
communicate with each other.
4. OTHER BARRIERS: The following factors also act as the barrier to effective
communication:
o Information Overload: Information overload may also be a problem of effective
communication. Information overload is the situation when a person is given too
much information at a time.
o Faulty expression: Faulty expression of message fails to convey exact meaning to
the receiver. It happens due to lack of clarity, use of vague terms, badly expressed
information, improper organization of ideas etc.
o Status or power difference: Communication problem may arise when people of
different power or status try to communicate with each other. For example, the
manger of a company may neglect suggestion from his subordinates simply because
of difference in their status. This under treatment of people makes the communication
ineffective.
o Negative attitudes to change: Some people always resist any kind of change in the
organization. They think that ‘old is good, and are fearful about the changes.
Therefore, they create problems in communication through inattention, false
interpretation, rumor, resistance and non-cooperation.
o Noise: Environment factors may also disrupt effective communication. One such
factor is noise. For example, in oral communication, noise hiders smooth flow of

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information or message. In factories, loud noise of machines makes oral
communication very difficult.
GUIDELINE TO OVERCOME COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
Overcome the communication barriers are essential to ensure effective communication. Although
it is not possible to eliminate all the barriers, they can be minimized to a great extent. The
following guidelines are offered in this regard:
1. Clear organizational policy: Organization should have adequate, clear and explicit
communication policies. Such policies will reduce confusion and promote the flow of
communication.
2. Provision for feedback: In order to make communicate effective, mangers should
actively seek feedback from subordinates. Feedback reduces the chance of
misunderstanding and disparity between the messages sends and received.
3. Reorganization: In order to create a favorable communication climate, complex
organization structure should be reorganized. Reorganization may involve reducing
authority layers and establishing clear authority and responsibility relationship.
4. Management development: For improving communication skills, management
development is necessary. This development is possible through delegation of authority,
decentralization, arranging seminars and workshops, providing training on computers and
other electronic means of communication.
5. Orientation: Orientation refers to introducing the newly appointed employees with the
company mission, goals, policies, rules and regulations, procedures etc. this can greatly
enhance the effectiveness of communication in the organization.
6. Promoting informal relationship: Informal relationship can play a vital role in
promoting communication. Hence, management should use informal communication
channel along with the formal channels.
7. Selecting proper media: Effectiveness of communication largely depends on
appropriateness of media. Therefore, media should be selecting considering some factors
such as importance of message, communication environment, knowledge of the receiver
etc.
8. Communication training: To make the employees efficient communicator,
organizations can arrange various training programs for them.
9. Reducing information overload: Communication system becomes defective if more
information flows at a time than is necessity. To resolve this problem, only necessary
information should be conveyed. Moreover, separate messages should be communicated
after certain intervals.
10. Communication audit: According to Howard H. Greenbaum, one way to improve
communication in organization is to conduct a communication audit. Communication
audit means examining and evaluating communication networks, communication
functions and communication principle. If communication audit is undertaken after
certain intervals, communication will obviously improve.
OVERCOMING THE COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
The following measures can be taken to overcome the communication problems that exist in the
business enterprises of any country:
• Developing flat organization structure: In modern time, organizations prefer flat
structure to tall one. Flat structure has fewer heretical levels that reduce communication
gap between superiors and subordinates. Therefore, business enterprises in any country
should design flat structure in place of the traditional tall structure.

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Specifying objective of communication: In order to overcome the problem of
ambiguity, communicator should specify the objective of communication. This will help
him to arrange the message concisely and clearly.
Clear-cut message: Top executives should send clear orders, instructions, policies,
procedures and directions so that misunderstanding and confusion do not arise. This will
enhance the effectiveness of communication.
Using simple language: Language creates numerous communication problems in
organization. Employees in the organization are neither equally educated nor trained.
Therefore, the communication should use simple and common words. At the same time,
they should avoid technical jargons so that everyone can understand it.
Selecting proper media: Appropriate media should be used for effective
communication. Management should decide when to use oral medium and when to use
written medium. While selecting media, management must consider the nature of the
message, its importance and complexity.
Encouraging feedback: Managers should encourage feedback from subordinates to
attain the objective of communication. This will help the manager to know the reaction of
subordinates and to take proper action.
Providing communication training: Organizations can provide training to enhance
communication skills of their employees. In this regard, organizations can arrange
seminars, symposiums or institutional training programs.
Creating congenial labor management relationship: Harmonious relationship between
labors and management is essential for successful communication. Relationship between
them affects the level of importance one party gives on the message of other. Therefore,
management and labor should cooperate with each other to create a favorable
communication climate.
Using modern communication technologies: In order to facilitate speedy and regular
communication, organizations need to use modern communication devices.
Encouraging informal communication: To make formal communication effective,
organizations can arrange informal channels. This will obviously promote good
relationship among the participants in the organization.
Unbiased attitude of management: Management should be free from political, regional
and religious biasness. Their neutral attitude will bring a fair environment of
communication in the organization.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its
context in which it is being sent. Choice of communication channel and your style of
communicating also affects communication. So, there are variety of types of communication.
Types of communication based on the communication channels used are:
1. Verbal Communication
2. Nonverbal Communication

VERBAL COMMUNICATION:

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When messages or information is exchanged or communicated through words is called verbal
communication. Verbal communication may be two types: written and oral communication.
Verbal communication takes place through face-to-face conversations, group discussions,
counseling, interview, radio, television, calls, memos, letters, reports, notes, email etc. some
definitions of verbal communications are as follows:
• According to Bovee and others: Verbal communication is the expression of information
through language which is composed of words and grammar.”
• According to Penrose and others, “Verbal communication consists of sharing thoughts
thought the meaning of words.”
So, verbal communication is the process of exchanged of information or message between two or
more persons through written or oral words.
Verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages through
written or oral words. Forms of verbal communication are as follows:
1. Oral communication: Oral communication is the process of communication in which
messages or information is exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver
through the word of mouth. It can be divided into two ways: a. Speaking b. Listening.
2. Written communication: Written communication is the process of communication in
which messages or information is exchanged or communicated within sender and
receiver through written form. It can be divided into two ways: a. Writing b. Reading.
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION:
Nonverbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages through
without using any spoken or written word. Some of the forms of non-verbal communications are
as follows:
1. Facial expression 2 . Gestures 3. Body language 4. Proximity 5. Touch 6. Appearance 7.
Silence 8. Paralinguistic 9. Eye Gaze or eye contact etc.
• Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say
that communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body language,
posture, tone of voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal communication.
Nonverbal communication is all about the body language of speaker.
• Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received. Often,
nonverbal signals reflects the situation more accurately than verbal messages. Sometimes
nonverbal response contradicts verbal communication and hence affect the
effectiveness of message.
• Nonverbal communication have the following three elements:
Appearance
Speaker: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics
Surrounding: room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings
Body Language
facial expressions, gestures, postures
Sounds
Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Advantages of written communication or importance of written communication and
Disadvantages of written communication. There are some advantages of written communication.
They are discussed below:

Advantages of written communication:

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Easy to preserve: The documents of written communication are easy to preserve. Oral
and non-verbal communication cannot be preserved. If it is needed, important
information can be collected from the preserved documents.
Easy presentation of complex matter: Written communication is the best way to
represent any complex matter easily and attractively.
Permanent record: The documents of written communication act as a permanent record.
When it is needed, important information can be easily collected from the preserved
documents.
Prevention of wastage of time and money: Written communication prevents the waste
of money and time. Without meeting with each other the communicator and
communicate can exchange their views.
Accurate presentation: Through the documents of the written communication top
executive can present the information more accurately and clearly. As it is a legal
document everybody takes much care does draft it.
Use as a reference: If it is needed, written communication can be used as future
reference.
Delegation of authority: Written communication can help the authority to delegate the
power and authority to the subordinate. It is quite impossible to delegate power without a
written document.
Longevity: Written document can be preserved for a long time easily. That is why; all
the important issues of an organization should be back and white.
Effective communication: Written communication helps to make communication
effective. It is more dependable and effective than those of other forms of
communication.
Maintaining image: Written communication helps to maintain the images of both the
person and the organization. It also protects the images of the company or organization.
Proper information: It is a proper and complete communication system. There is no
opportunity to include any unnecessary information in a written document.
Less distortion possibility: In this communication system information is recorded
permanently. So, there is less possibility of distortion and alteration of the information.
No opportunity to misinterpret: there is any opportunity to misinterpret the information
or messages of written communication.
Controlling tool: Written communication can help to control the organizational activity.
The written document may be used as a tool for controlling.
Easy to verify: The information and messages that are preserved can be verified easily.
If there arises any misunderstanding any party can easily verify the information.
Others: Clear understanding, Legal document, Acceptability, Reduction of risk, Creating
confidence, Easy circulation, Wide access or coverage etc.

Disadvantages of written communication
The limitations and disadvantages of written communication are given below:
• Expensive: Written communication is comparatively expensive. For this communication
paper, pen, ink, typewriter, computer and a large number of employees are needed.
• Time consuming: Written communication takes time to communicate with others. It is a
time consuming media. It costs the valuable time of both the writer and the reader.
• Red-Taoism: Red-Taoism is one of the most disadvantages of written communication. It
means to take time for approval of a project.
• Useless for illiterate person: It messages receiver is illiterate, written communication is
quite impossible. This is major disadvantage written communication.

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Difficult to maintain secrecy: It is an unexpected medium to keep business secrecy.
Secrecy is not always possible to maintain through written communication. Because here
needs to discuss everything in black and white.
Lack of flexibility: Since writing documents cannot be changed easily at any time. Lack
of flexibility is one of the most important limitations of written communication.
Delay in response: It takes much time to get a response from the message receiver;
prompt response is not possible in case of written communication that is possible in oral
communication.
Delay in decision making: Written communication takes much time to communicate
with all the parties concerned. So the decision maker cannot take decisions quickly.
Cost in record keeping: It is very difficult and expensive to keep all the records in
written communication.
Complex words: Sometimes the writer uses complex words in writing a message. It
becomes difficult to meaning out to the reader. So the objectives of the communication
may lose.
Lack of direct relation: If there is no direct relation between the writer and the reader,
writer communication cannot help to establish a direct relation between them.
Other: Prompt feedback is impossible, Slowness, Bureaucratic attitude, Understanding
problem between boos and subordinates, lack in quick clarification and correction,
formality problem, lack of personal intimacy, etc.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
A. Media of written communication to management:
1. Special management bulletin: The bulletin which is issued for emergency matters
related to management is called special management bulletin. This kind of bulletin must
be published promptly.
2. Management news copy: The less important management issues are published in this
news copy. Generally this new copy is published weekly.
3. Formal management report: Formal management report is one of the most important
media of written communication to management. It emphasizes the upward
communication.
4. Officer’s notebook or handbook: Sometimes high officials are given handbooks by the
company in which rules, procedures, principles, work facilities are stated. It acts as a
guide of the officer.
5. Publications: Some organizations publish special journals or publications for the high
level officer. It provides officers information about lost-reduces, safety system, decreases
of accident, improvement of quality etc.
B. Media of written communication for employees:
1. Bulletin for employees: Bulletin is published to inform the employees of emergency and
important matters within a very short time. Generally it is hanging on a notice board.
2. Newspaper: Newspaper is a wide used medium to communicate with employees.
Company’s planning, policy, procedure objectives, problems is published in it to inform
employees. Generally it is published weekly.
3. Publication of monthly paper: Some large companies publish it to inform everything to
the employees. The company’s role and plan are also stated here.
4. Letters: Letter is one of the most important media of written communication for
employees. Sometimes the higher authority sends letter to the employee without asking
any response.

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5. Employee’s notebook: Sometimes the management supplies notebook to the employees
in which speech of executives, history of the organization, planning, policy, order for the
work are stated.
6. Reading rack: Necessary books for the employees can be arranged on the shelf so that
they can read and get knowledge.
7. Notice: Notice is an important medium to communicate with employees. By which the
employees are invited to attend a special meeting.
8. Internal circular: It is one of the most important media of written communication. It is
used for internal communication. When all the employees are informed at a time, internal
circular is used.
9. Daily Newspaper: Daily newspaper is used to warn the employees due to a long absence
from the organization. Sometimes it is used as a precious notice before termination.
10. Complain Book: A complains book can be kept in a definite place so that the employees
can write their complaints with it.
11. Memo: Memo is a popular medium of internal written communication. The memo is a
short form of letter usually used to communicate with the employees of the same
organization.
12. Report: Report is an organized statement of facts and findings that contains information
obtained by proper inquiry and examination and evaluation of any past event relating to a
particular subject or problem that helps to decision making.
13. Other media: Salary envelope, annual financial reports or statements, Note sheets,
Question box, Essay competition etc.

ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication is the process of communication in which message or information is
exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver through the word of mouth.
Medias or ways or techniques or channels of oral communication
The channels or methods or oral communication may be classified broadly in two categories non
mechanical channels and mechanical channels which are described below:
A. Non mechanical channels
• Conversation: conversation means the informal discussion among the people. When one
person discusses his views, opinion to another person and exchanges their views in the
presence of both then it is called face to face conversation. It also includes the face-toface discussion on a particular issue. In this method both the information receiver and
sender can exchange their views freely and fairly.
• Interview: It suggests a meeting between two or more persons for the purpose of getting
a view of each other or for knowing each other. When we normally think of an interview,
we think a situation in which an employer tries to size up an applicant for a job. The
employer’s aim is to know whether the applicant can be fit for service to this organization
and the applicant’s aim is to find whether the job being offered by the organization can be
suitable to him. Its first, the speaker asks questions to the listener and then the listener
answers the question. There are three major techniques of interview. They are as follows:
o Direct questioning
o Non-directive interview and
o Guided interview

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Does speech: Speech means what the speaker says in front of the audience. It is fully
audience-oriented system. Generally the political leaders, the managers, the business man
or the workers’ leaders use this system sometimes. It can build tension or it can relax
tension. This system is practiced in public gathering at company meetings, inauguration
and seminars etc. In needs to considerable skills otherwise it is not effective.
Group discussion: Group discussion is a popular method of oral communication.
Management arranges group discussion to take a decision on a special matter. Group
discussion is very helpful to human relation, idea getting an idea development and
training.
Formal training courses: Effective communication can be performed through formal
training courses. It is a wide used technique of oral communication. Both the trainer and
the trainee can exchange their views directly.
Meeting: Meeting means the formal group discussion about a specific predetermined
topic or subject. Meeting members to get together and discuss about a problem or issue or
a special matter. There are several types of meeting such as –
o Security meeting
o Minutes meeting
o Social meeting
o General meeting itself
Counseling: Counseling is an effective medium of oral communication. Generally it
held yearly or bi-yearly. It is adopted by the higher authority for their followers.
Committee: Committee is an organization. The committee meeting is a popular
technique of oral communication. Special decision is taken through face to face
discussion of a committee meeting.
Special prize-giving ceremony: Sometimes the businessmen can meet with others
arranging a special prize giving ceremony for the workers. In this ceremony the
businessmen can exchange their views and ideas orally.
Conference: Conference is a kind of meeting at which participants exchange views and
talk together. A conference may be held to exchange views on some problem being faced
by the organization or some other issue related to it and it may even suggest a solution
but the suggestions from a conference are not binding. They are more in the nature of the
recommendation.
Lectures: Lecture is used to create an understanding of a topic or to influence behavior,
attitudes of the trainee through spoken words. The lecture is telling someone about
something. The method is an effective way to introduce new information or concepts to a
group of learners who gathered at on place. A lecture is given to enhance the knowledge
of the listener or to give him the theoretical aspect of a topic.
Informal communication: Informal communication is another technique to exchange
information orally. It can be occurred in the playground, tea table etc. In those situations
both the boss and subordinate can exchange their views informally.
Others: Invitation to a lunch, Brainstorming, Advisory board, Inspection of factory and
office.

B. Mechanical channels
Telephone: Telephone set is an instrument that converts voice and other sound signals into a form
that can be transmitted to remote locations and that receives and reconverts waves into the waves
into sound signals. The telephone plays a vital role in communication when the two persons stay
in different places they communicate with each other by telephone. Their exchange information
and their views and immediate feedback are possible under this system. Now-a-days we can see
that every organization is using the telephone to exchange the information and views orally.

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Mobile or cell phone: A mobile phone (also known as a cellular phone, cell phone and a
hand phone) is a portable telephone that connects to the telephone network over the radio
wave transmission. It connects to a wireless communications network through radio wave
or satellite transmissions.
Radio: Radio is the indirect media of oral communication. It is a one-way
communication system. The receiver can only hear the message from the sender. The
receiver cannot reply.
Television: Television is also the indirect media of oral communication. It is a one-way
communication system. Here, receiver cans here the messages and side by side see the
sender. The receiver cannot reply.
Video conference: Video conference is a kind of teleconferencing communication where
people staying in different corner or locations and participate in a face-to-face group
meeting or group discussion through the help of electronic video camera technology.
Teleconferencing: Teleconferencing is a kind of communication where people staying in
different corner or locations and participate in group meetings or group discussion
through electronic telephone technology.

Advantages and disadvantages of oral communication
Advantages of oral communication
Oral communication involves many advantages. In a recent survey about communication it is
clear that more than 55% of the executives choose this communication. The advantages of oral
communication are as follows:
1. Time saving: When action is required to be taken immediately it is best to transmit a
message orally. If the executives work load is high then they stop writhing and by oral
instructions they complete their message transmission and released their work load and
also it saves time.
2. Cost savings: Cost is involved in any communication. When the communication is
needed within the organization and if it and is completed in orally, it has not needed any
paper, pen or stamp or computer. So it saves the money of the organization.
3. More powerful: Speech is a more powerful means of persuasion and control. Therefore,
executives often prefer to transmit messages orally.
4. Effectiveness: With the help of variations in the tone, pitch and intensity of voice, the
speaker can convey shades of meaning. This factor also contributes to the effectiveness of
oral communication.
5. Immediate feedback: The speaker can get immediate feedback on whether it is creating
a favorable impression on the receiver or whether the receiver will protest or whether the
receiver has receiver has clearly understood his meaning or is feeling perplexed or
baffled and he can mold and adjust his message accordingly.
6. More suitable: The employees felt more suitable when the message transmits in orally.
They get an opportunity for feedback and clarification.
7. A relationship develops: Oral communication is mostly carried out helps to promote
friendly relations between the parties communicating with each other.
8. Flexibility: By the demand of the situations, oral instructions can be changed easily and
for these cases maintain the formalities are not necessary. So it is very much flexible and
effective.
9. Easiness: It is so easy method of communication. It needs little preparation to send a
message. No need of pens, pencils and other writing equipment’s which are needed in
written communication.

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10. Correction of errors: If any error is expressed at the time of oral communication. It was
possible to rectify at that time or within a very short time.
11. Informal communication: In oral communication, no need to maintain such formalities
which are needed in written communication. So it is easy and helpful to any organization.
12. Motivation: In oral communication system, top executives and sub ordinates staff can sit
face-to-face and exchange their views directly, so sub-ordinates are motivated day by
day.
13. Special applications: Oral communication is more helpful in communicating messages
to groups of people at assembly meetings etc.
14. Maintaining secrecy: Interested parties of oral communication can maintain the secrecy
of messages easily.
Disadvantages of oral communication
Oral communication contains many advantages. In spite of this, there are oral some
disadvantages which are given below:
1. No record: In oral communication, messages are difficult to record. So it is impossible to
preserve the message for future.
2. Expensive: It is also expensive media of communication. Sometimes the audience can be
managed by paying T. A and D. A. On the other hand Technological devices that are
used in this system are costly.
3. Distortion of the word: If distortion of the word occurs in oral communication, then
main goals of the organization may be filed.
4. Inaccuracy: There is very possibility of inaccurate messages to reach the destination. So,
the reverse result of expected plan may be occurred.
5. Limited use: The scope of usage of oral communication is limited. It is not suitable for
lengthy messages. It should be sued for short message.
6. Probability of omitting main subject: Sometimes, main subject may be omitted to
express a word for communicating. So, expected result may not be achieved.
7. Confused speech: Sometimes the receiver fails to understand the meaning of a message
due to habitual productions of the speaker.
8. No legal validity: there is any legal validity of the oral message. As, the oral messages
are not taped and kept records, so it can be denied easily if the situation goes against the
speaker.
9. Late decision: It takes time to reach a decision. At the beginning stage, sometime is
killed in the discussion of any personal matters. Besides some time is also wasted for
irrelevant discussion. In this way decision making is delayed.
10. Less important: In oral communication, meaningless speech can mislead the main
effects of the communication. But when the information comes out in written, we take it
seriously.
11. Lack of secrecy: In oral communication, the important and secret information may be
disclosed.
12. Defective: Oral communication is defective for company’s policy, procedure, programs,
law and other important information.
13. Creates misunderstanding: The speaker often gives message without having properly
organized it earlier. So, it is possible that he may not be able to make himself properly to
communicate with the receiver. As a result, misunderstanding May develops.

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NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Meaning of non-verbal communication: When messages or information is exchanged or
communicated without using any spoken or written word is known as nonverbal communication.
Non-verbal communication (NVC) is usually understood as the process of communication
through sending and receiving wordless messages.
Non-verbal communication is a powerful arsenal in the face-to-face communication encounters,
expressed consciously in the presence of others and perceived either consciously or
unconsciously. Much of non-verbal communication is unintentional people are not even aware
that they are sending messages. Non-verbal communication takes place though gestures, facial
expressions, eye contact, physical proximity, touching etc. some important definitions of nonverbal communication are as follows:
• According to L. C. Bove and others, “Non-verbal communication is communication that
takes place through non-verbal cues: through such form of non-verbal communication as
gesture, eye contact, facial expression, clothing and space; and through the non-verbal
vocal communication known as Para-language.”
• According to Lesikar and Pettit, “Nonverbal communication means all communication
that occurs without words (body movements, space, time, touch, voice patterns, color,
layout, design of surroundings.)”
• According to Himstreet and Baty, “Non-verbal communication includes any
communication occurring without the use of words.”
So, non-verbal communication is the exchanged of information or message between two or
more persons through gestures, facial expressions eye contact, proximity, touching etc. and
without using any spoken or written word.
Characteristics of non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication is any information that is communicated without using words. The
important characteristics of non-verbal communication are as follows:
• No use of words: Non-verbal communication is a communication without words or
language like oral or written communication. It uses gestures, facial expressions, eye
contact, physical proximity, touching etc. for communicating with others.
• Culturally determined: Non-verbal communication is learnt in childhood, passed on to
you by your parents and others with whom you associate. Through this process of
growing up in a particular society, you adopt the taints and mannerisms of your cultural
group.
• Different meaning: Non-verbal symbols can many meanings. Cross-culture aspects give
various meanings to same expression in respect of non-verbal communication.
• Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. Since in
this communication there is no use of words or language which expresses clear meaning
to the receiver.
• May conflict with verbal message: Non-verbal communication is so deeply rooted, so
unconscious, that you can express a verbal message and then directly contradict it with a
nonverbal message.
• Largely unconscious: Non-verbal communication is unconscious in the sense that it is
usually not planned nor rehearsed. It comes almost instantaneously.
• Shows feelings and attitudes: Facial expressions, gestures, body movements, the way
you use your eyes – all communicate your feelings and emotions to others.

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Informality: Non verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or structure
like other communication. Most of the cases people unconsciously and habitually
engaged in non-verbal communication by moving the various parts of the body.

Advantages and disadvantages of non-verbal communication
There is a proverb “Actions speak louder than words.” In essence, this underscores the
importance of non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is especially significant in
intercultural situations. Researches in communication suggest that many more feelings and
intentions are sent and received non-verbally than verbally. Meharabian and wiener following
suggested that only 7 % of message is sent through words, with remaining 93% sent non-verbal
expressions (depending on author, verbal part goes up to 35%). It has multiple advantages or
functions:
1. Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement a verbal message by adding to its
meaning. You can pat someone you offended at the back as you say sorry to him or her.
2. Easy presentation: Information can be easily presented in non-verbal communication
through using visual, audio-visual and silent means of non-verbal communication.
3. Substituting: Non-verbal message may substitute for the verbal message especially if it
is blocked by noise, interruption, long distance etc. for example: gestures-finger to lips to
indicate need for quite, facial expressions- a nod instead of a yes.
4. Accenting: Often used to accent a verbal message. Verbal tone indicates the actual
meaning of the specific words.
5. Repeat: Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. point in a direction while stating
directions.)
6. Help to illiterate people: This type of communication use gestures, facial expressions,
eye contact, proximity, touching etc. and without using any spoken or written word. So, it
is very much helpful for illiterate people.
7. Help to handicapped people: Non-verbal cues of communication greatly help in
handicapped people especially to deaf people. Deaf people are exchange message through
the movements of hands, fingers, eye ball etc.
8. Attractive presentation: Non-verbal communication is based on visual, picture, graph,
sign etc. that can be seen very much attractive.
9. Reducing wastage of time: The message of non-verbal communication reached the
receiver very fast. For this reason it reduces the wastage of valuable time of the
communicator.
10. Quick expression of message: Non-verbal cues of communication like sign and symbol
can also communicate some messages very quickly than written or oral messages.
Disadvantages or limitations of non-verbal communication:
Despite of advantages of non-verbal communication, it is not free from its limitations or
disadvantages which are:
1. Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. Since in
this communication there is no use of words or language which expresses clear meaning
to the receiver. No dictionary can accurately classify them. Their meaning varies not only
by culture and context but by degree of intension.
2. Continuous: It is possible to stop talking in verbal communication, but it is generally
not possible to stop nonverbal cues. Also, spoken language has a structure that makes it
easier to tell when a subject has changed, for instance or to analyze its grammar.
Nonverbal does not lend itself to this kind of analysis.

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3. Multi-channel: while watching someone’s eyes, you may miss something significant in a
hand gesture. Everything is happening at once and therefore it may be confusing to try to
keep up with everything. Most of us simply do not do so, at least not consciously.
4. Culture-bound: Non-verbal communication is learnt in childhood, passed on to you by
your parents and others with whom you associate. A few other gestures seem to be
universal. Evidence suggests that humans of all cultures smile when happy and frown
when unhappy. However, most nonverbal symbols seem to be even further disconnected
from any “essential meaning” than verbal symbols. Gestures seen as positive in one
culture (Like the thumbs-up gesture in the USA) may be seen as obscene in another
culture.
5. Long conversations are not possible: In non-verbal communication, long conversation
and necessary explanations are not possible. No party can discuss the particular issues of
the messages.
6. Difficult to understand: Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions in nonverbal communication. Since it uses gestures, facial expressions eye contact, touch etc.
for communicating with others which may not be understandable for the simple and
foolish people.
7. Not everybody prefers: Everybody not prefers to communicate through non-verbal
communication with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or
listeners. It is less influential and cannot be used everywhere. It is cannot be used as a
public tool for communication.
8. Lack of formality: Non-verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or
structure like other communication. Most of the cases people unconsciously and
habitually engaged in non-verbal communication by moving the various parts of the
body.
9. Costly: In some cases non-verbal communication involves huge cost. For example, neon
sign, power point presentation, cinema etc are very much costly compared to others form
of communication.
10. Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch,
sign, sound, paralanguage etc. for communicating with others, there is a great possibility
in distortion of information in non-verbal communication.
Kinds of Non-Verbal Communication
Differences between verbal and non-verbal communication:
Verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages through
written or oral words.
On the other hand, non-verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or
messages through without using any spoken or written word. The important differences between
verbal and non-verbal communication are as follows:

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Medias or ways or methods or kinds of non-verbal communication:
Non-verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages through
without using any spoken or written word. Several symbols can be used in non-verbal
communication. We will discuss here only the following types of communication that occur
without words.
A. Body language: Some parts of our body can express many indications without any sound.
Message can be transmitted with the help of our body movements which is called body language.
Body language is a form of non-verbal communication, which consists of posture, gestures, facial
expressions, eye movements etc.
1. Facial expression: A facial expression is one or more motions or positions of the
muscles in the skin of face. These movements convey the emotional state of the
individual to observers. Facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger and fear are
similar throughout the world. Proverb says, “Face is the index of mind.”Example: By
waving our hands we express ‘good-bye’; by shaking our head from side to side we
express “we do not know”.
2. Gestures: Gestures refers to visible bodily actions communicate particular messages
which include movement of the hands, face, eyes, head or other parts of the body.
Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric
amounts. Culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such as the
hand wave used in western cultures for “hello” and “goodbye”.

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3. Posture: Posture indicates the position in which we hold the body when standing or
sitting. It can help to communicate non-verbally. Consider the following actions and note
cultural differences:
o Bowing not done criticized or affected in US; shows rank in Japan.
o Slouching rude in most Northern European areas.
o Hands in pocket-disrespectful in Turkey.
o Sitting with legs crossed-offensive in Ghana, Turkey.
o Showing soles of feet-offensive in Thailand, Saudi Arabia.
4. Eye Gaze or Eye contact: Eye contact indicates looking, staring and blinking etc. which
is important in nonverbal behaviors. Looking at another person can indicate a range of
emotions, including hostility, attention, interest and attraction, defines power and status
and has a central role in managing impressions of others.
5. Appearance and dress: External appearances also play a vital role to communicate
others. Our clothes an dresses provide a good visual signal to our interest, age,
personality, taste and sex. Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles and other factors
affecting appearance are also considered a means of nonverbal can evoke different
moods. Consider differing cultural standards on what is attractive in dress and on what
constitutes modesty. For example, seeing the dress of army officers, we can easily
determine the job status.
6. Touch: Touch is culturally determined. But each culture has clear concept of what parts
of the body one may not touch. Basic message of touch is to affect or control-protect,
support and disapprove (i.e. hug, kiss, hit, kick)
• USA-Handshake is common (even for strangers), hugs and kisses for those of opposite
gender or of family (usually) on an increasingly more intimate basis.
• Islamic and Hindu- Typically don’t touch with the left hand. Left hand is for toilet
functions.
• Islamic cultures generally don’t approve of any touching to opposite genders (even
handshakes). But consider such touching (including hand holding, hugs) between same
sexes to be appropriate.
7. Silence: Silence is another form of non-verbal communication which expresses the positive or
negative meanings of particular messages. In a classroom, silence indicates that students are
listening carefully and attentively.
B. Space or proximity: People often refer to their need for “personal space”, which are also
important types of nonverbal communication. The physical distance between you and others
signals your level of intimacy and comfort. If someone you don’t know stand too close or touches
too often, you will probably begin to feel uncomfortable.
C. Time: Another type of non-verbal communication involves time. Thant is how we give
meaning to time communicates to other. For example, begin late in work everybody a worker can
be considered as a man of carelessness but if a manager does it; we say it is a symbol of power.
We know, time can play a vital role to reduce tension, conflict among groups. It is said that- “Kill
the time to delay the justice”.
D. Paralinguistic (Tone and volume of voice): Paralinguistic refers to vocal communication that
is separate from actual language. Paralanguage also include such vocal characteristics as rate
(speed of speaking), pitch (highness of lowness of tone), inflection, volume (loudness) and
quality (pleasing or unpleasant sound).
• Vocal characterizers (laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch and yawn). These send
different message in different cultures (Japan- giggling indicates embarrassment; Indiabelch indicates satisfaction)

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•

•

Vocal qualifiers (volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo and tone). Loudness indicates strength in
Arabic cultures and softness indicates weakness; indicates confidence and authority to the
Germans; indicates impoliteness to the Thai; indicates loss of control to the Japanese.
(Generally, one learns not to “shout” in Asia for nearly any reason). Gender based as well
women tend to speak higher and more softly than men.
Vocal segregates (UN-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh, hummm, eh mah, lah). Segretates
indicate formality, acceptance, assent, uncertainty.

E. Visual communication: When communication takes place by means of any visual aid, it is
known as visual communication. Such as facial expression, gesture, eye contact, signals, map,
chart, poster, slide, sign etc. for example, to indicate ‘danger’, we use red sign, to indicate ‘no
smoking’, we use an image showing a lighted cigarette with across mark on it etc.
NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION TYPES
Non Verbal Communication Types It is a way of making others react with ideas, thoughts,
feelings and values transmitting the information or conveying the message. Here are seven other
nonverbal communications that, if you do correctly, will improve your chances of landing the
job.Communication is the exchange of information between people by means of speaking, writing
or using a common system of signs or behavior.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Tone of Voice: On the other hand, speaking up and changing the tone of your voices
makes you appear engaging. During phone interviews, for example, the only way your
interviewer can get an idea of your personality is whether or not you change the tone of
your voice. Dull, monotone talking has a tendency to make you appear unexciting. The
tone of your voice also acts as a form of nonverbal communication.
Hands: Also, does not talk too much with your hands or it may take away from the
content of your answers? Your hands should sit on the table, maybe gentle clasp together.
They should not fidget, nor should you do the “power pyramid” since you do not want to
be seen as intimidating. Hand gestures can portray a lot of information.
Leaving Space: You always want to be far enough that the interviewer is comfortable,
but you do not want to be too far either or you will give the impression you are distancing
yourself from the individual. Nonverbal communications occur all of the time. A perfect
example is with the personal space you give your interviewer.
Smile: smile during your interview is a good way to build points with the interviewer.
Smiles are addicting and disarming. A good smile will relax your interviewer just as
much as it conveys a positive attitude.
Ticks: Interviewers do expect nervousness, but when you are answering an important
question, you do not want to appear nervous, which can take away from the strength of
your answer. You do not want to appear nervous and awkward. If you have nervous ticks,
such as shaking your leg up and down, clearing your throat, etc., try to do your best to
avoid them.
Good Posture: Keep your back straight and sit in your chair. Proper posture also displays
confidence. There is a certain aspect of trustworthiness that interviewers pick up on as
well.
Eye Contact:Eye contact shows confidence and clarity, and is also useful for building
rapport with your interviewer. Eye contact should be personable, but there is no need to
stare. Eye contact is a major part of nonverbal communication.

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Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style
Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both bears
their own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:
1. Formal Communication
2. Informal Communication
1. Formal Communication
In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while
communicating message. Formal communication occurs in formal and official style.
Usually professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal
pattern.
In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct
pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal
communication.
2. Informal Communication
Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal
communication channels. It’s just a casual talk. It is established for societal affiliations of
members in an organization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and
family. In informal communication use of slang words, foul language is not
restricted. Usually. informal communication is done orally and using gestures.
Informal communication, Unlike formal communication, doesn’t follow authority
lines. In an organization, it helps in finding out staff grievances as people express more
when talking informally. Informal communication helps in building relationships.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL COMMUNICATION
Horizontal communication occurs between people holding the same hierarchical position. Both
written and oral methods are used to make horizontal communication effective. The methods or
media or horizontal communication are discussed below:
• Oral Method: Horizontal communication is most effective when it is done through oral
means. Telephonic conversation, face-to-face discussion, meetings, interviews, seminars,
conferences etc. are the widely used oral means of horizontal communication.
• Written communication: Horizontal communication also takes place through written
media; the written means of horizontal communication include letters, memos, reports
etc.
At last, it can be concluded that the efficacy of horizontal communication primarily depends on
verbal means, yet written methods can be used to transmit important messages.
Differences between horizontal and vertical communication

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Horizontal and vertical communications are the two different types of internal communication.
These two types of communications differ in the following ways:

•

•

•

•

Meaning: When information flows between persons holding the same position in the in
the organization, it is called horizontal communication. When communication occurs
between superior and subordinates, it is called vertical communication.
Purpose: The purpose of horizontal communication is to coordinate the activities of
various departments and divisions of the organization. The purpose of vertical
communication is to provide necessary orders, instructions, and directives to the
subordinates in downward direction; and receiving suggestion, opinion and feedback
from the subordinates in upward direction.
Information flow: In this communication, information flows between people holding
same rank and status. In this communication, information flows form superior to
subordinates and vice-versa.
Degree of formality: Horizontal communication enjoys greater degree of informality.
Vertical communication is more formal than horizontal communication.

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•
•
•

Method of communication: Horizontal communication is mostly done through oral
media. Vertical communication is mostly done through written media.
Possibility of distortion: Message of horizontal communication are usually free form
distortion. Message of vertical communication may suffer from distortion.
Length of communication line: Horizontal communication occurs in short line as it
happens directly between sender and receiver. Vertical communication passes through a
long line of communication.

What is Upward Communication? | Media or ways of upward communication
When information flows form subordinated to superiors, it is called upward communication. The
purpose of upward communication is to provide information to the managers form subordinates.
Through this communication, subordinates convey their opinions, suggestions, complaints etc. to
their superiors. The lower-level employees initiate up-ward communication and the message
ultimately reaches to the upper-level management. It may take place in the form of feedback of
downward communication. Some definitions of upward communication are mentioned below:
According to Ricky W. Griffin, “Upward communication consists of messages from subordinates
to superiors.”
• In the opinion of Weihrich and Koontz, “Upward communication travels from
subordinates to superiors and continue up the organizational hierarchy.”
• Boone, Kurtz and Block said, “Communication that flows form a supervisee to a
supervisor, is known as upward communication.”
• According to L. C. Bovee and Others, “Upward communication is the flow of
information from lower to higher levels in the organization.”
• Bartol and Martin defined, “When the vertical flow of communication is form a lower
level to one or higher levels in the organization, it is known as upward communication.”
The following figure represents the upward flow of information:

From the above discussion, it can be concluded that the communication where information flows
form subordinates to superiors is known as upward communication. Upward communication
conveys information related to periodic updates, requests for data, clarification of directives and
requests for additional financial support.
Media or ways of upward communication
The subordinates can communicate their problems, attitudes, complaints and suggestion to their
superiors through various ways. That means, there are a number ways or means or methods of
upward communication. The important media of upward communication are mentioned in the

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followed table:

1. Written media of upward communication: The popular written media of upward
communication are discussed below:
o Report: Report is one of the most important a widely used media of upward
communication. Subordinates prepare reposts periodically or regularly on various
routine issues. They also prepare special report when need arises. Reports are then
submitted to the higher authority for supplying necessary information.
o Memo: Memo is the short form of memorandum. A memo is a short piece of
writings generally used to exchange information among the persons within the
organization. Superiors usually send information to their subordinates through memo.
However, subordinates can also write memos to convey essential information to their
superiors for making decisions.
o Suggestion and complaint boxes: Some organizations install suggestion and
complaint boxes at some convenient places in the office or factory through
suggestion box, management invites the employees to submit their suggestions for
improving the efficiency of organizational operations. On the other hand, complaint
box is placed to submit any complaint of the employees regarding any aspect of their
employment.
o Direct letters: Subordinates can write letters directly to their superiors at their
superiors at their own initiation or they may be asked by their superiors write about
any directed matter.
o Questionnaire: Sometimes managers encourage upward communication by asking
questions to their subordinates. For this purpose, they distribute questionnaires to the
employees. Through questionnaires, management can know the attitudes, feelings
and complaints of the employees.
2. Oral media of upward communication: The oral media of upward communication are as
follow:
o Grievance procedure: Grievance is the employee dissatisfaction over any aspect of
their employment. Grievance procedure provides the employees with a formal
channel of appeal to their superiors. In modern organizations, there is wellestablished procedure for handing employee grievances that acts as a mode of
upward communication.
o Joint setting of objectives: In participative organizations, superiors and subordinates
sit together for setting objectives. In this case, the superiors seek information and
suggestions from the bottom-level managers and employees.

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Employer-employee meeting: Meeting between employer and employees is a very
useful medium of upward communication. In the meeting, the superior can raise
problems and seek information, guidelines or suggestions from the subordinates.
3. Other Media: In addition to written and oral media, superiors can encourage upward
communication through the following symbolic medium.
o Open-door-policy: Open-door-policy of management inspires the employees to feel
that the manger’s doors are always open to them. Whenever they want they can enter
into the manager’s room and talk everything to the superiors without any fear or
hesitation.
These are the commonly used media of upward communication. However, all the media
are not suitable for every message. Selection of a particular medium in a particular
situation depends on the nature and importance of the message.
o

What is downward communication? | Methods of downward communication
Downward communication is the communication where information or messages flows from
the top of the organizational structure from the bottom of the organizational structure. Downward
communication occurs when information flows down the hierarch form superiors to subordinates.
This type of communication may forms such as staff meetings, company newsletter, company
policy statement, information memos, e-mail, face-to-face contact, orders, instruction etc. some
important definitions of downward communications are given below:
• According to Bartol along with Martin, “Downward communication is a vertical
communication which streams style an increased levels to help more than one cheaper
levels within the organization. ”
• According to Medical professional. Urmila Rai, “Message which in turn should go in the
increased authority levels to the cheaper levels is actually downward communication. ”
• According to Ricky W. Griffin, “Downward communication happens any time facts
streams lower the actual power structure style finer quality than subordinates. ”
• According to Newstorm along with Davis, “Downward communication within an
organizastion is the flow involving facts style increased in order to lower levels of
authority. ”.
The graphical presentation of downward communication is as follows:

So, downward communication is the communication where information or messages flows from
the top level of the organizational structure form the bottom level of the organizational structure.

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Downward communication is that communication in which information flows form superior to
subordinates. Through downward communication, managers communicate organizational goals,
policies, procedures, orders, instructions, decisions etc. to their subordinates.
In the process of downward communication, messages of the top executive reach to the lower
levels moving through the chain of hierarchy. Downward communication can be of written or
oral. Written forms of downward communication are manuals, handbook, notices, electronic
news displays etc. whereas, face-to-face conversation, telephonic conversations, speeches,
meetings etc. are the oral media of downward communication. In the following, some quotations
on downward communication are cited:
• In the opinion of Weihrich and Koontz, “Downward communication flows from people
at higher levels to those at lower levels in the organizational hierarchy.”
• Newstrom and Davis defined, “Downward communication in an organization is the flow
of information from higher to lower levels of authority.”
• According to Ricky W. Griffin, “Downward communication occurs when information
flows down the hierarchy form superiors to subordinates.”
• L. E. Boone, Kurtz and Block said, “A message that flows form a supervisor to a
supervisee is known as downward communication.”
• Bartol and Martin opined, “When vertical communication flows form a higher level to
one or more lower levels in the organization, it is known as downward communication.”
• According to Himstreet and Baty, “Downward communication is that form superior to
subordinate-from boss to employee and from policy makers to operating personnel.”
The flow of downward communication is shown below:

In conclusion, we can say downward communication occurs when messages flow form upper
level of lower levels by following the organizational hierarchy. The objective of downward
communication is to carry organizational objectives, plans, policies and procedures form higher
level to lower levels of the organization.
Methods of downward communication
Both written and oral methods are used in transmitting messages of downward communication.
Actually, section of media depends on the nature, urgency and importance of the message to be
communicated. The followings are the frequently used media or methods of downward
communication.
1. Oral Media or Method: Downward communication is mainly done by means of oral
media or method. Usually, the supervisors give instructions to their subordinates through
face-to-face and telephonic conversation. Beside this, managers also exchange relevant
information to their subordinates through meetings, conferences, lectures etc.

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2. Written Media or Method: Organization of any size and nature sends important
information to its employees in written forms through letters, circulars, manuals,
bulletins, posters annual reports etc. generally, letters and memos communicate important
organizational directives; circulars, manuals and bulletins communicate policies and
procedures and annual report communicates organizational activities and performance at
the end of the year.
3. Other Media or Method: In addition to oral and written media or method, audio, visual
and audio-visual media are also used in downward communication. Radio, television,
poster, signal, symbol, graphs etc. some of the commonly used instruments that convey
messages to the subordinates.
Objectives or purpose of downward communication
It is a system of communication where communication takes place form upper level to downward
or form the superior to subordinate level. The following objectives are available in downward
communication.
1. Supply information: Work style, method, responsibility, duties etc. are supplied to
subordinates by this communication system.
2. Assigning work: Through downward communication, superior assigns different works to
their subordinate.
3. Explaining policies and plan: The objective of an organization is to inform institution’s
plan, policy, program etc. to lower level by this communication system.
4. Responsibility and duty: Inter departmental duties and responsibilities are distributed by
this communication system.
5. Directing subordinates: Downward communication is directive in nature. To give
directions to the subordinates, top executives use this communication method.
6. Evaluation of performance: Top executives evaluate the performance of their
subordinate through this communication method. After evaluation of workers work, the
analyzed result is informed to others for incentive.
7. Explain the change environment: Any change or organization’s plan, policy, method
and program are informed to all employees with the help of this communication system.
8. Coordination and cooperation: To coordinate and cooperate of the subordinates of their
works downward communication is needed. For achievement of expected result,
downward communication is the best method.
9. Delegate authority: In large organization, it is very much essential to delegate some
authority to their subordinates. Without downward communication delegation of
authority is impossible.
10. Establish discipline: Top level hierarchy of the organization try to maintain
organizational discipline through downward communication to their subordinates by
issuing job related rules and regulation.

What is vertical communication? | Types of vertical communication
Within an organization when communication occurs among persons of different positions,stage
system vertical communication. It is a kind of internal communication. In this type of
communication, information moves completely and from bottom to top. When information moves
all the way through or from superiors to subordinates, it really is known as downward
communication. On the other hand, when information flow form bottom to top or form
subordinates to superiors, stage system upward communication. Here information may be
transmitted through formal or informal channels.

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In the following, we are quoting some definitions of vertical communication;
L. C. Bovee and his associates opined, “Vertical communication is a flow of information up and
down the organizations hierarchy.”
According to Stoner and Freeman, “Vertical communication consists of communication up and
down the organization’s chain of command.”
Ricky and W. Griffin defined, “Vertical communication is communication that flows both up and
down the organization, along formal reporting lines.”
The following diagram represents the vertical patterns of communication:

In conclusion, we can say that vertical communication occurs when information flows either form
superior to subordinates or form subordinates to supervisor within an organization structure.
Types or Varieties of vertical communication
When information flows from superiors to subordinates or from subordinates to superiors,
method Vertical communication. In accordance with its nature, vertical communication is
especially classified inside the following 2 types:
• Downward communication and
• Upward communication
These two types of communication are explained below:
1. Downward communication: Downward communication occurs information flows much
better than subordinates. Superiors send information, orders, instructions, decisions etc.
for their subordinates through downward communication. Downward communication
could possibly be of written or oral. Written forms of downward communication are
manuals, handbook, notices, electronic news displays etc. whereas, face-to-face
conversation, telephonic conversation, speeches, meetings etc. include the oral media of
downward communication.
2. Upward communication: Upward communication occurs when information flows from
subordinates to superiors in the organization hierarchy. The aim of upward
communication is usually to provide information for the managers from subordinates.
Generally, subordinates convey their fallings, attitudes, opinions, suggestions, complaints
etc. making use of their superiors through this communication. Upward communication is
initiated with the lower to the next stage the organization and reaches the content up
management hierarchy.

SPOKEN COMMUNICATION

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TELEPHONE SKILLS
Effective Telephone Communication
With more and more business being done over the telephone and the increasing use of 24 hour
professional call centres to handle customer enquiries, knowing how to to have both face to face
and effective phone communication skills is vitally important. To help you get your message
across clearly, politely and efficiently recruitment experts Kelly Services highlight some common
problems and provides some techniques to put them right. This fact sheet brings you essential
know-how on the different ways you can polish up your communication.
Customer clout
We live in an era where the customer is king. Gone are the days when customers were thought of
as an interruption or that answering their queries was doing them a favour. Nowadays good
customer service provides an organisation with its competitive edge and customers expect to be
dealt with professionally and competently. Whether you are involved with customers on the
telephone or deal with them direct, the following common sense guidelines will help you to make
the right impression and give your customers what they are looking for.
Image wreckers
If you answer the telephone or if you greet visitors you need to beware of ruining professional
images with comments that often give the wrong impression such as:
• They are still at lunch (they're taking a long break)
• They are not in yet (they're late)
• They have left already (they've slipped off early)
• She's at the dentist (this is too personal)
• He's just popped out (and does so all the time)
• I don't know where he is (internal communication is bad)
• They are tied up (they are too busy to talk to you)
It is far easier and much more professional to say...
"She's not available at the moment - may I get her to call you back etc."
Top six telephone frustrations!
•
•
•
•
•
•

Being cut off or put through to the wrong person
Being left hanging on with no explanation
Not knowing who you are talking to and if they can help
Being asked lots of questions
Not being given the chance to explain yourself
Being called at an inconvenient time

Service standards
Think about what is meant by good service. It involves many different qualities and will depend
on the circumstances involved but whatever business you are in, there are a number of basic good
practices which should be taken on board.
Be courteous
• Identify yourself and listen without interrupting

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•
•
•
•

Respond as necessary
Stop talking if interrupted
Give prompt service with the minimum of delay
Don't keep the caller hanging on the line without going back to them

Be friendly and helpful
• Speak clearly and with a smile (yes, you can "hear" a smile!)
• Be aware of how important your voice is in conveying a friendly personality
• Be enthusiastic and show an interest
• Be sincere in your attempts to help
• Never lose your cool
• If you promise to take certain action do it as agreed
• Deal with any problems diplomatically
Learn to listen
Improving your listening skills can make a huge difference to having effective phone
communication skills - people need to know that you fully understand their case.
• Don't interrupt unnecessarily
• Don't switch off half way through
• Don't hurry people
• Try putting yourself in the caller's place
Information
When you are recording or giving information remember that it must be precise and detailed.
• Be clear and accurate
• Make sure that any information you give is correct
• Avoid jargon
• Talk with confidence
• Get the facts and record the information
• Confirm your caller understands the information you have supplied
• Answer questions if you can or offer to find out the information
Message taking
It is vital to collect all the relevant information when you are taking messages for other people.
The following checklist will help you to make sure you haven't forgotten anything.
• Who the call is for
• The date and time of the call
• Name of caller and company
• Their telephone/fax number
• Reason for the call / is the call urgent?
• A convenient time to return the call
• Your name
• Details of anything you have agreed with the caller

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Handling problems and complaints
When you are handling difficult situations it is important to keep calm and not let your emotions
get the better of you. In many ways a complaint is an opportunity - the chance to show you can
put things right. A customer whose complaint is successfully resolved will have a strong sense of
loyalty.
• Try and establish some rapport with the caller
• Use their name and recognise their importance
• Let the person explain and listen carefully
• Get all the facts and take notes
• Direct the conversation away from emotion
• Avoid defensive reactions
• Try and develop a solution giving a time frame and your actions
• Make a commitment to follow up
• Get agreement to your solution
• Thank the person for calling
Be positive
If you are in the front line of communication then it is vital that you have a positive attitude
because it is clearly reflected in both your voice and in the way you behave with others. Not only
will a positive approach make you feel good it will also get a positive response from others.
A well known business guru was recently asked what the three most important factors were for a
business to be successful. His reply was 'Communication, Communication and Communication.
How to Use the Telephone More Effectively
The telephone is effective when used efficiently, sparingly, and within the framework of a plan.
This list includes some tested guidelines for making the phone a tool that works best for you!
1. Know the purpose of your call.
Most of us talk on the phone too long. Have the purpose of your call clearly in mind before
dialing. If helpful, write down a "statement of purpose", together with 3 main points you want to
make on a scratch pad prior to dialing. Then "go for it"!
2. Know the audience you are calling.
Unless you're conducting "cold calling" for marketing or polling research, you probably know
something about your "audience" on the other end. Think of the needs of the person/people you
are calling. Then revise your "statement of purpose" accordingly prior to making the call.
3. Start off right!
State your purpose at the outset, and always ask if it is a good time for the other person to talk. If
not, set a specific time to call back.
4. Use names whenever possible.
Identify yourself at the outset of each call. Spell it out, or sound it out, if necessary (e.g. I always
tell people "My last name is Vuocolo; Vuh-co-lo; think "Coca-Cola!"). Establish the other
person's name early in the conversation, and use it often throughout the call!

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5. Pay attention and be aware of your tone.
Ask open-ended questions that invite response. Give the conversation your undivided attention don't be tempted to do two or three things at once and expect it to be a productive call. Smile!
This helps to make your voice sound friendly. If you're angry or anxious - put off the call until a
later time, unless it's an absolute necessity to conduct it now.
6. Listen carefully.
Pay attention to the first words spoken by the person called. You can learn a lot in the first few
seconds by listening carefully. Did you catch the person eating, arguing, gardening or partying?
Decide whether to proceed with the call or to call back, depending upon what you hear in the
background of the call. It's better to arrange to call back another time than to interrupt - and you'll
probably get a better audience!
7. Avoid initiating major business, if possible.
Always save the most important business to be conducted in person, if possible. If not, make a
careful transition from introduction to purpose of the call. Remember that a ringing phone
virtually always interrupts the party being called - so give them time to adjust before hitting them
with something major.
8. Avoid confrontation.
If you have bad news, or a difficult issue to discuss with someone, don't do it by phone unless it's
the only way.
9. Be assertive - not aggressive!
Always present your point of view in an assertive, positive, way. If you have difficulty being
assertive, try making your point while standing during the call. This helps you be more animated
and direct, even if the other person can't "see you" ... Although, with fiber-optics, they probably
soon will! (If you're an extrovert - please remain seated!)
10. Conduct a verbal review.
Before concluding the call, go over all agreed upon points. Repeat necessary dates, times places
and how and when you may be reached

INTERVIEWS
What is interview? |
Meaning of interview: The word interview comes from Latin and middle French words meaning
to “see between” or “see each other”. Generally, interview means a private meeting between
people when questions are asked and answered. The person who answers the questions of an
interview is called in interviewer. The person who asks the questions of our interview is called an
interviewer. It suggests a meeting between two persons for the purpose of getting a view of each
other or for knowing each other. When we normally think of an interview, we think a setting in
which an employer tries to size up an applicant for a job.
• According to Gary Dessler, “An interview is a procedure designed to obtain information
from a person’s oral response to oral inquiries.”
• According to Thill and Bovee, “An interview is any planed conversation with a specific
purpose involving two or more people”.

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According to Dr. S. M. Amunuzzaman, “Interview is a very systematic method by which
a person enters deeply into the life of even a stranger and can bring out needed
information and data for the research purpose.”
So, an interview is formal meetings between two people (the interviewer and the interviewee)
where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information, qualities, attitudes, wishes
etc. Form the interviewee.
•

Types of interviews: There are many types of interviews that an organization can arrange. It
depends on the objectives of taking the interview. Some important types of interviews are stated
below:
1. Personal interviews: Personal interviews include:
o Selection of the employees
o Promotion of the employees
o Retirement and resignation of the employees
Of course, this type of interview is designed to obtain information through discussion and
observation about how well the interviewer will perform on the job.
2. Evaluation interviews: The interviews which take place annually to review the progress
of the interviewee are called the evaluation interviews. Naturally, it is occurring between
superiors and subordinates. The main objective of this interview is to find out the
strengths and weaknesses of the employees.
3. Persuasive interviews: This type of interview is designed to sell someone a product or
an idea. When a sales representative talk with a target buyer, persuasion takes the form of
convincing the target that the product or idea meets a need.
4. Structured interviews: Structured interviews tend to follow formal procedures; the
interviewer follows a predetermined agenda or questions.
5. Unstructured interviews: When the interview does not follow the formal rules or
procedures. It is called an unstructured interview. The discussion will probably be free
flowing and may shift rapidly form on subject to another depending on the interests of the
interviewee and the interviewer.
6. Counseling interviews: This may be held to find out what has been troubling the
workers and why someone has not been working.
7. Disciplinary interviews: Disciplinary interviews are occurring when an employee has
been accused of breaching the organization’s rules and procedures.
8. Stress interviews: It is designed to place the interviewee in a stress situation in order to
observe the interviewees reaction.
9. Public interviews: These include political parties’ radio-television and newspaper.
10. Informal or conversational interview: In the conversational interview, no
predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable a possible to
the interviewee’s nature and priorities; during the interview the interviewer “goes with
the flow”.
11. General interview guide approach: The guide approach is intended to ensure that the
same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee this provides more
focus than the conversational approach but still allows a degree of freedom and
adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee.
12. Standardized or open-ended interview: Here the same open-ended questions are asked
to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews faster interviews that can be
more easily analyzed and compared.
13. Closed or fixed-response interview: It is an interview where all interviewers ask the
same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives.
This formal is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.

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A set of questions for the interviews
• Question about the job and organization:
o Why do you choose the organization?
o Can you work independently?
o Would you work overtime if necessary?
o When could you start work?
• Questions about ambitions:
o Why did you take up this career?
o What do you look for in your job?
o Would you like to enter management?
o Will you be able to work in this job for 5 years?
• Questions about hobbies and interests:
o What do you do in your leisure time?
o How long have you been interested in this hobby?
o Are you attending any part-time job at present?
o Is there any course you wish to attend?
o What are your greatest strengths and weaknesses?
• Situation question:
o You have an urgent piece of business after work but your employer asks to stay
late. What will you do?
o What would you do? If you realize that your employer has left for an overseas
business leaving some important documents.
o Entering into your room, you found your desk broken. What will you do? Etc.
Anticipate questions for the interview process:
It is difficult to list the questions that might be actually asked at an interview. However, we give
below a sample of possible questions that are asked during the employment interview:
1. What is your name?
2. Please brief us your academic background shortly?
3. What is your future plan?
4. How do you spend your spare time?
5. In what type of positions are you most interested?
6. Why do you think you would like to work for our company?
7. What jobs have you held? How were they obtained and why did you have?
8. What courses did you like best? Why?
9. Why did you choose this particular field of work?
10. What do you know about our organization?
11. What qualification do you have that make you feel that you will be successful?
12. What salary do you expect to receive for this job?
13. Do you prefer any specific geographic location?
14. How much money do you hope to earn at age 25, 35?
15. How did you rank in your graduating class?
16. What do you think determines a person’s progress in a good company?
17. What personal characteristics are necessary for success in your chosen field?
18. Why do you think you would like this particular job?
19. Are you looking for a permanent and temporary job?
20. Do you prefer working with others or by yourself?
21. What kind of boss do you prefer?
22. Can you take instructions without felling upset?

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23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

How did previous employers treat you?
Do you like routine work?
What is your major strength and weakness?
Do you have an analytical mind?
How long do you expect to work?
What size city do you prefer?
Will you fight to get ahead?
Moreover the employer asks the questions about word work experience, education and
training, leadership, initiative, persistence, motivation and communication skills etc.

APPRAISAL
Employees need to know how well they’re communicating and dealing with others so that they
can effectively carry out their responsibilities and meet their short-term and long-term objectives.
Ironically, some managers have difficulty communicating assessments in these two areas,
especially when it comes to written comments. The managers are concerned that their feedback
on communication won’t be communicated clearly, and they worry that providing feedback on
interpersonal relations will actually strain the working relationships instead of improving them.
When written comments focus on vague and general trends and themes, these outcomes are the
most likely.
Written and Verbal Communication
Exceptional: Consistently exceeds expectations
• Is a master of written communication
• Is the go-to person when others need help with writing
• Has the most readable writing in the company
• Keeps e-mail messages on target and to the point
• Has clear, direct, and concise writing
• Writes without grammatical errors
• Creates reports and documentation that are consistently outstanding
• Is a compelling speaker
• Says more by saying less
• Actively listens to others
• Thinks before he talks
• Uses captivating language
• Gives highly organized presentations
• Is a superb public speaker
• Is totally comfortable in front of a group
• Is known as the company wordsmith
• Is a great debater
• Is a great communicator
• Is an enthralling speaker who easily holds the attention of others
• Reads other people well
• Senses when others are on data overload and when they need more information
Excellent: Frequently exceeds expectations
• Has very readable writing
• Hits the perfect level of detail
• Writes to the point, rather than around it
• Is a gifted writer
• Has raised the writing in her department to a new level

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Sets the standard for excellent business writing
Proofreads carefully
Carefully crafts all his writing
Is always well organized with her written work
Selects the appropriate writing style for different readers and situations
Holds the interest of others in his writing
Is a clear and articulate communicator
Has an outstanding vocabulary, but never overdoes it
Generates a great deal of interest whenever she speaks
Communicates easily with everyone
Is an excellent writing coach
Effectively reads subtle cues and body language
Is smooth without being slick
Fully competent: Meets expectations
• Is confident and comfortable with writing projects
• Is at ease and effective in front of a group
• Prepares thoroughly before making presentations
• Communicates easily with employees at all levels
• Is not inclined to talk for the sake of talking
• Is a good listener
• Uses words effectively and economically
• Is clear and informative when speaking or writing
• Avoids excessive use of jargon
• Writes with very few grammatical errors
Marginal: Occasionally fails to meet expectations
• Uses a writing style that can be difficult to understand
• Hasn’t shown interest in becoming a better writer
• Procrastinates on projects that involve writing
• Sends e-mail messages that are unclear
• Writes too much on every project
• Has writing that lacks adequate detail and specificity
• Doesn’t listen carefully enough, and communication suffers as a result
• Speaks without organizing his thoughts
• Provides too much detail
• Doesn’t provide enough detail
• Uses e-mail style for formal written business communications
• Needs to listen more and talk less
Unsatisfactory: Consistently fails to meet expectations
• Writes with numerous grammatical errors and typos
• Takes a long time to get to the point
• Ignores punctuation
• Is a grammatical nightmare
• Tends to ramble
• Tends to mumble
• Uses inappropriate terms and expressions
• Is insensitive to others in her comments
• Is unaware of messages that his body language is sending
• Produces work that always needs significant editing
• Often uses the wrong words
• Rushes when writing, and it shows
• Doesn’t pay attention to the cues and body language of others
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

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•

Doesn’t listen

REWARD
Reward has a key role to play in employee engagement, but many employees
underestimate the full value of their reward package. Employers could therefore be losing
out on the full benefit of the investment in their employees.
• In many cases, a communication exercise could ensure that employees are fully briefed
on what pay and benefits are available to them, and what those benefits are worth.
• Below, we have highlighted a number of issues that you should think about when putting
together a reward communications plan.
1. Set aside a budget
• This is often overlooked, but is likely to represent only a small proportion of the overall
spend on pay and benefits. For only a small investment, employers may be able to make a
big difference to how employees perceive the value of their pay and benefits.
2. Identify your audience
• Employees will be the key audience for pay and benefits communications, but employers
should also bear in mind anyone who may have a role in delivering the communication,
such as line managers and HR.
• It may also be beneficial for the employer to segment its audience, in order to tailor the
communication to suit different groups. There are several ways of doing this, for example
by level of interest in the subject, or by attitudes and behaviours.
3. Choose your communication media
• There are numerous different ways to communicate with employees, but employers
should consider what they are trying to achieve when choosing the most appropriate
method – posters are good for generating general awareness, for example, but leaflets are
better for passing on more detailed information. Organisations will also need to decide
how creative they want their communication campaign to look – and maybe draft in help
from a consultancy with this.
4. Plan your communications
• The communication plan will need to fit in with other key pay and benefits milestones
throughout the year, such as the annual pay review, flexible benefits enrolment window
and the bonus date. Employers should put these dates into a calendar, along with the
messages they want to communicate and how they will go about it.
•

COUNSELLING
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (9th Edition) gives at least two definitions of counselling, which
appear to be conflicting, adding to potential confusion:
• “give advice to (a person) on social or personal problems, especially professionally.”
and
• “the process of assisting and guiding clients, especially by a trained person on a
professional basis, to resolve especially personal, social, or psychological problems and
difficulties.”
Counselling is:
• The process that occurs when a client and counsellor set aside time in order to explore
difficulties which may include the stressful or emotional feelings of the client.

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The act of helping the client to see things more clearly, possibly from a different viewpoint. This can enable the client to focus on feelings, experiences or behaviour, with a
goal to facilitating positive change.
• A relationship of trust. Confidentiality is paramount to successful counselling.
Professional counsellors will usually explain their policy on confidentiality, they may,
however, be required by law to disclose information if they believe that there is a risk to
life.
Counselling is Not:
• Giving advice.
• Judgemental.
• Attempting to sort out the problems of the client.
• Expecting or encouraging a client to behave in a way in which the counsellor may have
behaved when confronted with a similar problem in their own life.
• Getting emotionally involved with the client.
• Looking at a client's problems from your own perspective, based on your own value
system.
Counselling Skills
• Communication skills are obviously of utmost importance to counsellors, we have lots
of further pages covering these skills including: active listening, clarification, reflection
and effective questioning skills.
• The counsellor will attempt to build a certain amount of rapport with their client, but not
to an extent that would allow them to become emotionally involved.
• Counsellors need to be empathetic, seeing things from the client’s point of view, rather
than sympathetic (feeling sorry for their clients). Empathy can help the counsellor to ask
appropriate questions and lead the client to positive conclusions.
Basic communication skills
Since counselling is a conversation or dialogue between the counsellor and client, the counsellor
needs certain communication skills in order to facilitate change.
The counsellor needs the following basic communication skills to do effective counselling:
•

1. Attending
•
Attending refers to the ways in which counsellors can be “with” their clients, both
physically and psychologically. Effective attending tells clients that you are with them
and that they can share their world with you. Effective attending also puts you in a
position to listen carefully to what your clients are saying. The acronym SOLER can be
used to help you to show your inner attitudes and values of respect and genuineness
towards a client (Egan.)
• S: Squarely face your client. Adopt a bodily posture that indicates involvement with your
client. (A more angled position may be preferable for some clients - as long as you pay
attention to the client.) A desk between you and your client may, for instance, create a
psychological barrier between you.
• O: Open posture. Ask yourself to what degree your posture communicates openness and
availability to the client. Crossed legs and crossed arms may be interpreted as diminished
involvement with the client or even unavailability or remoteness, while an open posture
can be a sign that you are open to the client and to what he or she has to say.
• L: Lean toward the client (when appropriate) to show your involvement and interest. To
lean back from your client may convey the opposite message.
• E: Eye contact with a client conveys the message that you are interested in what the client
has to say. If you catch yourself looking away frequently, ask yourself why you are

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•

•

reluctant to get involved with this person or why you feel so uncomfortable in his or her
presence. Be aware of the fact that direct eye contact is not regarded as acceptable in all
cultures.
R: Try to be relaxed or natural with the client. Don't fidget nervously or engage in
distracting facial expressions. The client may begin to wonder what it is in himself or
herself that makes you so nervous! Being relaxed means that you are comfortable with
using your body as a vehicle of personal contact and expression and for putting the client
at ease.
Effective attending puts counsellors in a position to listen carefully to what their clients
are saying or not saying.

2. Listening
Listening refers to the ability of counsellors to capture and understand the messages clients
communicate as they tell their stories, whether those messages are transmitted verbally or
nonverbally.
Active listening involves the following four skills:
• Listening to and understanding the client's verbal messages. When a client tells you his or
her story, it usually comprises a mixture of experiences (what happened to him or her),
behaviours (what the client did or failed to do), and affect (the feelings or emotions
associated with the experiences and behaviour). The counsellor has to listen to the mix of
experiences, behaviour and feelings the client uses to describe his or her problem
situation. Also “hear” what the client is not saying.
• Listening to and interpreting the client's nonverbal messages. Counsellors should learn
how to listen to and read nonverbal messages such as bodily behaviour (posture, body
movement and gestures), facial expressions (smiles, frowns, raised eyebrows, twisted
lips), voice
related behaviour (tone, pitch, voice level, intensity, inflection, spacing of
words, emphases, pauses, silences and fluency), observable physiological responses
(quickened breathing, a temporary rash, blushing, paleness, pupil dilation), general
appearance (grooming and dress), and physical appearance (fitness, height, weight,
complexion). Counsellors need to learn how to “read” these messages without distorting
or over
interpreting them.
• Listening to and understanding the client in context. The counsellor should listen to the
whole person in the context of his or her social settings.
• Listening with empathy. Empathic listening involves attending, observing and listening
(“being with”) in such a way that the counsellor develops an understanding of the client
and his or her world. The counsellor should put his or her own concerns aside to be fully
“with” their clients.
Active listening is unfortunately not an easy skill to acquire. Counsellors should be aware of the
following hindrances to effective listening (Egan, 1998):
• Inadequate listening: It is easy to be distracted from what other people are saying if one
allows oneself to get lost in one's own thoughts or if one begins to think what one intends
to say in reply. Counsellors are also often distracted because they have problems of their
own, feel ill, or because they become distracted by social and cultural differences
between themselves and their clients. All these factors make it difficult to listen to and
understand their clients.
• Evaluative listening: Most people listen evaluatively to others. This means that they are
judging and labelling what the other person is saying as either right/wrong, good/bad,
acceptable/unacceptable, relevant/irrelevant etc. They then tend to respond evaluatively
as well.

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•

•

•

•

•

Filtered listening: We tend to listen to ourselves, other people and the world around us
through biased (often prejudiced) filters. Filtered listening distorts our understanding of
our clients.
Labels as filters: Diagnostic labels can prevent you from really listening to your client. If
you see a client as “that women with Aids”, your ability to listen empathetically to her
problems will be severely distorted and diminished.
Fact
centred rather than person
centred listening: Asking only informational or factual
questions won't solve the client's problems. Listen to the client's whole context and focus
on themes and core messages.
Rehearsing: If you mentally rehearse your answers, you are also not listening attentively.
Counsellors who listen carefully to the themes and core messages in a client's story
always know how to respond. The response may not be a fluent, eloquent or “practised”
one, but it will at least be sincere and appropriate.
Sympathetic listening: Although sympathy has it's place in human transactions, the “use”
of sympathy is limited in the helping relationship because it can distort the counsellor's
listening to the client's story. To sympathise with someone is to become that person's
“accomplice”. Sympathy conveys pity and even complicity, and pity for the client can
diminish the extent to which you can help the client.

3. Basic empathy
• Basic empathy involves listening to clients, understanding them and their concerns as
best as we can, and communicating this understanding to them in such a way that they
might understand themselves more fully and act on their understanding (Egan, 1998).
• To listen with empathy means that the counsellor must temporarily forget about his or her
own frame of reference and try to see the client's world and the way the client sees him or
herself as though he or she were seeing it through the eyes of the client.
• Empathy is thus the ability to recognise and acknowledge the feelings of another person
without experiencing those same emotions. It is an attempt to understand the world of the
client by temporarily “stepping into his or her shoes”.
• This understanding of the client's world must then be shared with the client in either a
verbal or non-verbal way.
Some of the stumbling blocks to effective empathy are the following:
• Avoid distracting questions. Counsellors often ask questions to get more information
from the client in order to pursue their own agendas. They do this at the expense of the
client, i.e. they ignore the feelings that the client expressed about his or her experiences.
• Avoid using clichés. Clichés are hollow, and they communicate the message to the client
that his or her problems are not serious. Avoid saying: “I know how you feel” because
you don't.
• Empathy is not interpreting. The counsellor should respond to the client's feelings and
should not distort the content of what the client is telling the counsellor.
• Although giving advice has its place in counselling, it should be used sparingly to honour
the value of self
responsibility.
• To merely repeat what the client has said is not empathy but parroting. Counsellors who
“parrot” what the client said, do not understand the client, are not “with” the client, and
show no respect for the client. Empathy should always add something to the
conversation.
• Empathy is not the same as sympathy. To sympathise with a client is to show pity,
condolence and compassion - all well
intentioned traits but not very helpful in
counselling.
• Avoid confrontation and arguments with the client.

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4. Probing or questioning
Probing involves statements and questions from the counsellor that enable clients to explore more
fully any relevant issue of their lives. Probes can take the form of statements, questions, requests,
single word or phrases and non-verbal prompts.
Probes or questions serve the following purposes:
• to encourage non-assertive or reluctant clients to tell their stories
• to help clients to remain focussed on relevant and important issues
• to help clients to identify experiences, behaviours and feelings that give a fuller picture to
their story, in other words, to fill in missing pieces of the picture
• to help clients to move forward in the helping process
• to help clients understand themselves and their problem situations more fully
Keep the following in mind when you use probes or questions:
• Use questions with caution.
• Don't ask too many questions. They make clients feel “grilled”, and they often serve as
fillers when counsellors don't know what else to do.
• Don't ask a question if you don't really want to know the answer!
• If you ask two questions in a row, it is probably one question too much.
• Although close-ended questions have there place, avoid asking too many close-ended
questions that begin with “does”, “did”, or “is”.
• Ask open-ended questions - that is, questions that require more than a simple yes or no
answer. Start sentences with: “how”, “tell me about”, or “what”. Open-ended questions
are non-threatening and they encourage description.
5. Summarising
It is sometimes useful for the counsellor to summarise what was said in a session so as to provide
a focus to what was previously discussed, and so as to challenge the client to move forward.
Summaries are particularly helpful under the following circumstances:
• At the beginning of a new session. A summary of this point can give direction to clients
who do not know where to start; it can prevent clients from merely repeating what they
have already said, and it can pressure a client to move forwards.
• When a session seems to be going nowhere. In such circumstances, a summary may help
to focus the client.
• When a client gets stuck. In such a situation, a summary may help to move the client
forward so that he or she can investigate other parts of his or her story.
6. Integrating communication skills
Communication skills should be integrated in a natural way in the counselling process. Skilled
counsellors continually attend and listen, and use a mix of empathy and probes to help the client
to come to grips with their problems. Which communication skills will be used and how they will
be used depends on the client, the needs of the client and the problem situation.

GRIEVANCES
Grievance procedure is a formal communication between an employee and the management
designed for the settlement of a grievance.
The grievance procedures differ from organization to organization.

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1. Open door policy
2. Step-ladder policy
Open door policy:
• Under this policy, the aggrieved employee is free to meet the top executives of the
organization and get his grievances redressed. Such a policy works well only in small
organizations. However, in bigger organizations, top management executives are usually
busy with other concerned matters of the company. Moreover, it is believed that open
door policy is suitable for executives; operational employees may feel shy to go to top
management.
Step ladder policy:
• Under this policy, the aggrieved employee has to follow a step by step procedure for
getting his grievance redressed. In this procedure, whenever an employee is confronted
with a grievance, he presents his problem to his immediate supervisor. If the employee is
not satisfied with superior’s decision, then he discusses his grievance with the
departmental head. The departmental head discusses the problem with joint grievance
committees to find a solution. However, if the committee also fails to redress the
grievance, then it may be referred to chief executive. If the chief executive also fails to
redress the grievance, then such a grievance is referred to voluntary arbitration where the
award of arbitrator is binding on both the parties.

REPRIMANDS
ORAL REPRIMAND
• The Oral Reprimand is the least severe form of formal discipline. Prior to the Oral
Reprimand, the supervisor should meet with a member of the Employee Relations
Services team to discuss the situation and determine the appropriate course of action. A
Record of Oral Reprimand Form should be completed and the supervisor should have a
meeting in private with the employee. The supervisor should inform the employee that
this is an oral reprimand; should cite the specific standard of conduct being violated;
explain the necessary corrective action; and advise the employee of possible future action
if the problem is not corrected. The supervisor should have the employee sign the oral
reprimand form to acknowledge receipt, not agreement with the action, and should send a
copy to Employee Relations for inclusion in the employee's personnel file.
WRITTEN REPRIMAND
• A written reprimand is a more severe form of discipline. Prior to the written reprimand
the supervisor should meet with a member of the Employee Relations Services team to
discuss the situation and determine the appropriate course of action. Employee Relations
will assist the supervisor in preparing and writing the written reprimand. The supervisor
informs the employee in writing of the specific offense(s) warranting disciplinary action
and states in the written reprimand that further disciplinary action may occur if the
problem is not corrected. The supervisor should meet in private with the employee to
discuss the disciplinary action. The supervisor should inform the employee that this is a
written reprimand; should cite the specific standard(s) of conduct being violated; explain
the necessary corrective action; and advise the employee of possible future action if the
problem is not corrected. The supervisor should have the employee sign the written
reprimand to acknowledge receipt, not agreement with the action, and should send a copy
to Employee Relations for inclusion in the employee's personnel file.
SUSPENSIONS

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A suspension is a severe form of discipline usually following one or more written
reprimands or as a result of a very serious offense. Suspension is an action taken by the
University to temporarily relieve the employee of duties and place the employee on leave
without pay. Prior to the proposed suspension the supervisor should meet with a member
of the Employee Relations Services team to discuss the situation and determine the
appropriate course of action. Employees receive written notice of a suspension from the
President, Provost or Vice President to whom the employee reports. The notice shall
include the specific action taken, the specific offense for which the employee is being
suspended; the reason for the suspension; the dates of the suspension; the consequences if
the offense is repeated; and the right to file a grievance (grievance form). The supervisor
should have the employee sign the suspension to acknowledge receipt, not agreement
with the action, and should send a copy to Employee Relations for inclusion in the
employee's personnel file.
TERMINATIONS
• Termination is the final and most severe form of discipline. Prior to the proposed
termination the supervisor should meet with a member of the Employee Relations
Services team to discuss the situation and determine the appropriate course of action.
Employees receive written notice of a termination from the President, Provost or Vice
President to whom the employee reports. The notice shall include the specific action
taken, the specific offense for which the employee is being terminated; the reason for the
termination; the effective date of the termination; and the right to file a grievance
(grievance form). The supervisor should have the employee sign the written reprimand to
acknowledge receipt, not agreement with the action, and should send a copy to Employee
Relations for inclusion in the employee's personnel file.
•

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MEETINGS
•

•

A meeting is a group communication in action around a defined agenda, at a set time, for
an established duration. Meetings can be effective, ineffective, or a complete waste of
time. If time is money and effectiveness and efficiency are your goals, then if you arrange
a meeting, lead a meeting, or participate in one, you want it to be worth your time.
Meetings can occur face-to-face, but increasingly business and industry are turning to
teleconferencing and videoconferencing options as the technology improves, the cost to
participate is reduced, and the cost of travel including time is considered. Regardless how
you come together as a team, group, or committee, you will need to define your purpose
in advance with an agenda.

Meaning of meeting: Generally meeting means an occasion when people come together to
discuss or decide something. Meeting member to get together and discuss about a problem or
issue or a special matter. It is also defined as a situation in which two or more people meet
together in order to take decision. It is an effective and important tool in the communication
process. Meeting enables face to face contact of a number of people at the same time. Many
meetings take place in business organization. Some definitions of people at the same time. Many
meetings take place in business organization.
Some definitions of meetings are as follows:
•
•

According to Denyer, ”Company means an organized assembly of persons according to
law for transaction of business of common interest.”
According to Thill and Bovee, “Meetings are called to solve problems or share
information’s.”

So, meeting is a situation in which two or more people meet together for formal group discussion
about a specific problem, issues, predetermined topic.
Advantages of meetings:
In the business organizations meetings are used for a variety of purpose. There are some
advantages of meeting which are stated below:
1. Democratic process: Meeting is a democratic process of taking decision. None can
blame other for the decision because it is taken in presence of all the members.
2. Improve decision: Improve decision can be taken through meeting. Because every
matter is discussed pros and cons and nothing is left over unconsidered. Proverb says
”Two heads are better than one.”
3. Participative management: Participative management can be materialized through
meeting. Al the departmental heads and supervisors may sit together for taking decision.
4. Help in co-ordination: Meeting can help for co-coordinating the work as a whole
because all the parties or members are presented in the meeting.
5. Covey information to a large gathering: Meeting can convey information for all
departments. Besides the presented members exchange their views, idea, opinion and
feeling at a large gathering.
6. Others: Provide necessary information to a group of people, report on some incidents or
activities, create involvement and interest, formulate policies etc.

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Disadvantages of meetings:
There are some limitations and disadvantages of meeting. These limitations and disadvantages are
discussed below:
1. Time consuming: Meeting takes much time to take decision. We know that to hold a
meeting is very time consuming.
2. Costly: It is too much expensive. Because the company has to decorate the conference
room, pay the T.A. and D. A. to the members, pay for cards etc.
3. Formalities: There are many formalities to hold on a meeting. Agenda, minutes,
regulations are needed for a valid meeting.
4. Difficult to control: Sometimes it becomes very difficult for the speaker or chairman to
control over the meeting because proverb says, “Many men many minds.”

Preconditions of a valid meeting:
A valid meeting should have the following elements:
1. Legal objectives: Any meeting must have legal objectives. Meetings on illegal or
unethical purposes cannot be valid in the eye of law.
2. Convened by proper authority: A valid meeting should be contended by the proper
authority of the company.
3. Serving proper notice in proper time: Notice of a meeting must be served timely by
maintaining rules and regulations of the companies act.
4. Presence of authorized persons: To make a meeting valid person who is entitled to
present in a particular type of meeting should be present in the meeting.
5. Presided over by a chairman: A valid meeting should be presided over by a chairman
who will be selected by the members.
6. Specific agenda: A detail agenda should be prepared before the meeting and the meeting
should be operated by following agenda.
7. Quorum: Quorum is the minimum number of persons that must be present in the meeting
to make it valid.

Types of company meetings
Several types of meetings take place in the business organizations. Especially the company
meetings can be shown by following diagram:
1. SHAREHOLDERS MEETING: When the meeting is held with the shareholders of the
company it is called shareholders meeting.
• Statutory meeting: According to company laws, after getting the letter of commence, the
company arranges a meeting after one month of six months. This is the first general
meeting of the company and during the life of the company this type of meeting held
once. The company gives the circular before 21 days of the meeting. The decisions of the
meeting are called statutory decision.
• Annual general meeting: After registration of the company, the company is bound to
invites the first general meeting with in eighteen months. Then the general meeting will
be held in every year. The differences of the two general meeting cannot be more than
fifteen months. The decisions of the meeting are called general decision.
• Extra-ordinary general meeting: If necessary of the company this type of meeting can
be held on any time. The director or some shareholders can invite this meeting one tenth
of the shareholders may give the requisition to the Board of directors to arrange this type
of meeting. After getting the requisition of the board of Directors fail to arrange a

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meeting with in twenty one days, the shareholder can invite the meeting within three
months. The decision taken by the meeting is called special decision.

2. DIRECTORS MEETING: When the meeting is held among the directors of the company it is
called directors meeting. It is classified into two parts. They are:
• Board meeting: According to article of association. The board of directors meeting is
called Board Meeting. If nothing about this type of meeting in the article of association,
then by Table- A rules of the company law this type of meeting can be held on.
According to rules of company law the company is bound to arrange the meeting once in
one month and at least four times within a year the Quorum: is filled up by 3/1 rd of the
directors present or at least two directors present. Each director is preserved one vote and
if any case the directors vote can be divided equally, then the president give the casting
vote and take the decision.
• Committee meeting: According to article of association the Board of Directors
sometimes make special committee to complete in any special work among some
directors of the company. This committee member sometimes meets together for
coordinating the work properly. This type of seating is called committee meeting
3. SPECIAL MEETING: For any special situation, when the meeting is arranged by the
company, it is called special meeting. The types of the special meetings are as follows:
• Class-meeting: The Company has different kinds of shares. When the meeting is
arranged by any one kind of shareholders it is called class meeting.
• Creditors meeting: The directors or their appointed lower can invite this type of
meeting. Moreover this type of meeting may be arranged by the order of the court. If
necessary to reconstruct or to dissolve or to any amalgamate the company to preserve the
rights of the creditor this type of meeting is invited by their proper authoritative person.
The creditors who will be present in the meeting or the presence of three-fourth credit

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holders of the total credit can take the decision and the court will give the instruction on
the basis of this decision and the creditors are bounded to abide by the decision.

Essentials of a valid meeting | Conditions of valid meeting
Requirement or essentials of a valid meeting or, necessary conditions of a valid meeting:
There must be some requisites in order to validate the meeting. The necessary pare-conditions of
a valid meeting are stated below:
1. Right convening authority: A valid meeting must be convened by the proper authority
otherwise it wills loss its validity. Company’s secretary is the proper authority to call a
formal meeting.
2. Proper notice: Duty signed notice must be submitted to members before meeting. The
place of meeting, time and date must be stated on the notice.
3. Proper publicity of agenda: Every member of the meeting should be properly informed
of the agenda.
4. Legal purposes: Every meeting must have a legal purpose. Any meeting should be
properly informed of the agenda.
5. Requisite quorum: For valid meeting requisite quorum is necessary. The meeting should
not be stared until the requisite members of member s are resent.
6. Presence of right persons: Only legal members can present in the meeting. If there is an
unauthorized person in the meeting, the meeting will lose its validity.
7. Proper presiding officer: The chairman of a valid meeting must be a proper person.
8. Conducting meeting according to the agenda: A valid meeting must be conducted
according to the agenda. No decision will get validity, if it is not related to the agenda.

Role or function or duties of chairmen of a meeting:
In all types of meetings, you have the following responsibilities as a presiding officer.
• Arranging the time and place
• Preparing and serving an agenda.
• Calling the meeting to order on time
• Making clear the purpose of the meeting
• Keeping the discussion on course
• Controlling over enthusiastic members
• Electing contributions from each member
• Creating a good atmosphere
• Summarizing the discussion form time to time
• Working to end the meeting on schedule
• Thanking to the members
Secretarial work relating to statutory meeting
1. Functions before the meeting:
• Maintaining time for statutory meeting,
• Preparing statutory statement or report,
• Drafting a notice for the meeting,
• Collecting the auditor’s certificate,
• Selection the place of the meeting,
• Preparing agenda of the meeting,
• Listing the name of members who will attend the meeting,
• Calling on board of directors meeting,

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Preparing final notice of the meeting.
Serving the notice to the concerned members.
2. Functions at the meeting:
• Determining the quorum of the meeting,
• Stating or reading the agenda,
• Supply of the necessary explanations,
• Giving the explanations,
• Writing the rough minutes
3. Functions after the meeting:
• Preparing final minutes and resolutions,
• Submitting the statutory report
•
•

What is notice? |
A notice is a written or an oral statement that contains the particulars of holding a meeting. When
a circular is served among the members of the meeting to attend the meeting, it is called a notice.
It is letter of invitation that carries the request to the members to attend a meeting. A notice
includes time, place, date and agenda of a meeting. The notice should be sent by the proper
authority in due time so that the members can attend the meeting in time.
So, notice is formal written or formal information, notification or warning about a fact or an
invitation to the concerned person for attending the meeting.

Essential elements or factors of a valid notice:
The essentials or elements or factors of a valid nonce are given below:
1. Signature: The notice must be signed by the proper authority. Only the legal authority
should serve the notice.

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2. Proper time: The notice must be served in proper time. It should be circulated according
to the rules and regulations of the company or the organization.
3. Time date and place: The time, date and place of the meeting must be stated in the
notice.
4. Unconditional: There must be no condition or complexity in the notice about attending
meeting. Always a notice is unconditional.
5. Agenda: Agenda means topics to be discussed in a meeting. A valid notice should
contain the agenda of the meeting.
6. Conciseness: The notice must be short in size. It should be clear, simple and easy.
7. Proper persons: Notice should be served to the proper persons who are entitled to attend
the meeting.
8. Enclosure: An explanatory statement should be sent with the notice.
Specimen of notice:
Notice of statutory meeting of a company
Eastern Jute Mails Ltd.
102, New York C/A
New York-1000
Date: March 20, 2013
NOTICE FOR STATUTORY MEETING
Notice is hereby given that the statutory meeting of the company will be held on March 30, 2012
at 12 p.m. in the registered office of the company according to the section ……………. Of
company Act. 1994.
Concerned shareholders are requested to attend the meeting.
Mr. John
Secretary
On behalf of the board Of directors.
Notice of the meeting of the board of directors
Supto and Co. Ltd.
12 KDA- New York
New York- 9002
Date: March 10, 2013

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NOTICE OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTOR’S MEETING
Dear Sir,
Being authorized I am informing you that the second meeting of the Board of Directors will be
held at the head office of the company on March 20, 2013 at 10 a.m.
You are duly requested to attend the meeting.
Sincerely yours
John
Secretary
Agenda:
1. ……………………………
2…………………………….
3……………………………

AGENDA
Agenda means things to be done. It is usually sent along with the notice of the meeting. It is a list
of the topics to be discussed in a meeting.
Sometimes the agenda is prepared after the circulation of the notice in order to include the
member’s opinion. If the subject matter of the meeting is secret, the agenda may not be
circulated. Some definitions of agenda are as follows:
• According to Rajendra pal and Korlahalli, “Agenda is document that outlines the
contents of a forth coming meeting.”
So, agenda is an items or issues prepared by the secretary and which are to be discussed or
transacted in a forth coming mitten.
Features or characteristics of agenda:
The features of agenda can be state as follows:
1. Generally, agenda is sent along with the notice of the meeting.
2. It is written at the end but before or after the signature of the convener of the meeting.
3. It is arranged according to the importance of the end.
4. Controversial topics should be written at the end.
5. The topics are determined by the secretary with consulting the higher authority or the
convener of the meeting.
6. It written in brief but explicit manner.
Specimen of Agenda:

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Importance or necessities of agenda:
Agenda is the explicit topics to be discussed in a meeting the members. No one can ignore the
importance of an agenda. The necessity or importance’s of an agenda are as follows:
1. As it is circulated in advance, the members of the committee or meeting can take
preparation to discuss the topics accurately.
2. It helps to take prompt decision.
3. Since it has a set of order, it helps the chairperson to conduct the meeting smoothly.
4. It can ensure covering all the topics that will be discussed in a meeting.
5. It helps to control the unnecessary talking in the meeting.
6. It is helps to write the minutes and resolution of the meeting.
7. As it is served earlier, the members of the meeting can exchange their thought and ideas
informally before holding the meeting.

What is minute? |
•

•

•

Minute is an official written statement of the motions and resolutions taken in a meeting.
It is brief but a complete record of all discussions held among the members of the
meeting. It is also defined as the official record of the proceeding of a meeting that
should be needed to approve by the participating members of the meeting.
An accurate written record of meetings is essential not only for all those who attended the
meeting but also for those who were unable to attend. Some definitions of minute are as
follows:
According to Rajendra Pal and Korlahalli, “Minutes are the official records of the
proceedings of meeting.”

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•

So, minutes are the brief and complete official written record of all discussion which is
held among the members of the meeting.

Types of minute:
Generally the minutes of a meeting can be divided into two groups. They are the follows:
1. Minutes of narration: These minutes will be a concise summary of all discussions which took
place, reports received, actions to be taken and decisions made. It includes:
• Names of the participating members.
• Name of the proposer and supporter.
• Discussion summary. Resolutions.
2. Voting pattern etc.Minutes of resolution: Minutes of resolution means the written statement
of the decisions that have been taken and approved by the participating members of the meeting.
Only the main conclusions which are reached at the meeting are recorded in minutes of
resolution. These are usually used for minutes of AGMs and other statutory meeting.
• Example: Purchase of photocopier- the company secretary submitted a report from the
administrative manager containing full details of the trial of the AEZ photocopier. It was
resolved that the AEZ photocopier be purchased at a cost of $250

Difference between agenda and minute:
Both agenda and minutes are the important documents of a meeting. But they differ from each
other in respect of the following points:

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Factors considered in drafting minute:
The following factors should be considered in drafting minutes of a meeting:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Name and address of the organization
Name of the meeting
Date, time and venue of the meeting
Name of the chair person
Name and signature of the participating members
Serial number
Following of the rules and structure of minutes
Name of the prosper and supplier of resolutions
Number of regret letters
Easy and understandable language
Divisions
Proper data
Signature of the president

Strategies for Effective Meetings
You want an efficient and effective meeting, but recognize that group communication by
definition can be chaotic and unpredictable. To stay on track, consider the following strategies:
• Send out the last meeting’s minutes one week before the next meeting.
• Send out the agenda for the current meeting at least one week in advance.
• Send out reminders for the meeting the day before and the day of the meeting.
• Schedule the meeting in Outlook or a similar program so everyone receives a reminder.
• Start and end your meetings on time.
• Make sure the participants know their role and requirements prior to the meeting.
• Make sure all participants know one another before discussion starts.
• Formal communication styles and reference to the agenda can help reinforce the time
frame and tasks.
• Follow Robert’s Rules of Order when applicable, or at least be familiar with them.
• Make sure notes taken at the meeting are legible and can be converted to minutes for
distribution later.
• Keep the discussion on track, and if you are the chair, or leader of a meeting, don’t
hesitate to restate a point to interject and redirect the attention back to the next
agenda point.
• If you are the chair, draw a clear distinction between on-topic discussions and those that
are more personal, individual, or off topic.
• Communicate your respect and appreciation for everyone’s time and effort.
• Clearly communicate the time, date, and location or means of contact for the next
meeting.

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OTHER IMPORTANT TERMS
Constitution:

The Quorum:

The Chairperson:

The Secretary:

The Treasurer:

A set of rules and regulations which govern the organisation. These have
been accepted by members during the inaugural (very first) meeting. The
constitution is that which prescribes to the members how they must
behave and which decisions are legally binding.
A minimum of members, as prescribed by the constitution, must be
present during a meeting before a legally binding decision may be taken.
Voting on issues, therefore, presupposes that the prescribed minimum
number of members should be present (before any legally binding
decision may be made.)
This person presides at the meeting. The chairperson’s duty is to
maintain order during the meeting and to control the procedure. The
chairperson's role is to run meetings in a way that encourages decisions.
The chairperson should allow fair and open discussion of matters and
stick to the agenda, so that decisions can be made. If there is no
committee, the owners corporation chairperson must be a lot owner.
The role of the Secretary is to support the Chair in ensuring the smooth
functioning of the Management Committee. In summary, the Secretary
is responsible for: Ensuring meetings are effectively organised and
minuted. Maintaining effective records and administration.
The main duties of a treasurer are to oversee the financial
administration of the organisation, review procedures and financial
reporting, advise the board on financial strategy, and advise on
fundraising. A treasurer is in charge of the organisation’s financial
matters.

This is a suggestion made by someone during the meeting. If a proposal
is given to be discussed before the meeting, then we call it a motion. A
motion becomes a resolution when the motion is either accepted or
rejected.
Ad hoc Committee: During a meeting, it may become clear that certain issues have to be
attended to. The appointment of members on the committee is then done
on a temporary basis: they are expected to conduct investigations into the
matters and then report back to the members at another meeting after the
completion of the investigation.
Voting:
It is sometimes necessary to vote ( to reach a decision on a matter).
Voting procedures have their own terminology:
Ballot:
Voting in secret, either by ballot (putting votes in a ballot- secretly- or
voting anonymously.
Deadlock:
Sometimes a situation rises where equal numbers of votes are for and
against a proposal.
Casting vote
if a deadlock exists, then the chairperson may have the casting vote, in
other words, the deciding vote.
Nemine despentiente:(nem.dis)
No one disapproves of a motion, everyone approves of
it: this is called unanimous approval.
Proposal:

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Nemine controdicente:(Nem.con.):
No one votes, against the motion but a few people
abstain from voting.
Abstain:
To refuse to vote.
Proxy:
The permission given to a person by another member (who cannot be
present at the meeting) to vote on his behalf.
Resolution:
Agreement by a majority of the members at a meeting on a motion – this
agreement may be positive or negative (for or against the motion).
Unanimous;
When all members vote in favour of a motion.
Motions
each item to be discussed will have a proposal, normally called a motion
to which members will speak. A motion is a proposal put forward for
discussion and decision at a meeting. It can be in writing before the
meeting or may be a proposal during the discussion.
Changes
motions may be changed before they are voted upon by amendment or
addendum. An amendment is a proposal to alter a motion which has
been submitted to a meeting e.g. by adding, inserting or deleting words
of the original motion.
Addendum:
is the addition of words to a motion and is treated in the same way as an
amendment.
Closure:
End of a meeting.
Guillotine ruling:
This is a specific time restriction placed on a discussion of a proposal or
the time given to a speaker or on the actual duration of a meeting.
In camera:
When the proceedings for a meeting take place behind closed doors. It is
of a sensitive, confidential nature.
Attendance Register: The actual record of numbers attending a meeting.
Point of order:
The chairperson has to decide if a member’s contribution to the meeting
is in line with the constitution or relevant to the point on the agenda.
Verbatim:
The exact words of a speaker.
Second:
To second a proposal, means that another person agrees with the
original proposal, necessitating the meeting’s attention to the matter.
Precedent:
When something that occurred in the past is used as a basis for future
actions.
Suspension:
The prohibition of a member from taking part in the activities of an
organisation.
Honorarium:
An honorarium is paid to any person for recognition of duties performed
during a year, e.g. the treasurer, for accounting duties.
Status quo:
The current situation.
Ex officio:
the authority which a person has as result of his or her position.
Adjournment:
When a meeting is closed before all the topics on the agenda have been
discussed, the discussion, however, will resume after a break. This is not
an official closure.
Co-option
being invited to join the deliberations of a meeting, but not allowed to
vote.

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TYPES OF MEETINGS
a) Public meeting - every member of the public is allowed (to discuss, e.g. political issues.)
b) Private meeting – Only the members of the organisation are allowed to attend the
meeting.
c) Management Meetings (command meetings) – are attended only by management;
general meetings are attended by members of staff on a regular basis (annually, weekly,
monthly) and on special occasions (special meetings).
d) Committee meetings are attended only by members serving on a specific committee.
Meetings are governed by the following:
Common Law:

Constitution:

Common law refers to the unwritten laws which are applied by the courts
as just, It is common law that a quorum must be present before a decision
made during a meeting can be legally binding; it is also common law that
members must be notified of forthcoming meetings.
The rules and regulations which govern the organisation and its meeting
procedures are known as the constitution.

The following is expected from:
The chairperson:

Secretary:

He she plays a key role in the success of the meetings: The chairperson
should therefore be tactful, diplomatic, sincere, a good communicator
and above all a respectable leader. The main function of the chairperson
is to maintain order during the meeting.
The secretary must be well organised and attend to matters such as the
venue for the meeting, the drafting of the notice and agenda and taking
down the minutes of the meeting, The secretary should therefore, be well
skilled in communication,

NOTICES, AGENDA AND MINUTES
1. NOTICE
A notice can be formal or informal.
MUTARE POLYTECHNIC
Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education
NOTICE OF A MEETING
Notice is hereby given of a monthly academic board meeting. It is to be held in the
boardroom on the 21st of June 2012 at 0900 hours.
The minutes of the meeting held on the 20th of May 2012 are attached.
C Gatsi
Chairwoman
Cell: 0772 950 037
10 June 2012
Notice of a monthly meeting is given above. If you are requested to write the notice of an annual
meeting, then it is obvious that you’ll replace monthly with annual.

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Below is the agenda of the monthly meeting. N.B points 1-7 on the agenda are standard for most
meetings for all organisations. Points 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3 are specific “new Business” matters
pertaining to the specific organisation. Points 8 and 9 are standard.
AGENDA
1. Attendance Register.
2. Apologies.
3. Opening and Welcome.
4. Finalisation of the agenda.
5.Minutes of meeting held on 20 May 2012
6. Matters arising.
7.New business:
7.1 Symposium and Miss Poly
7.2 Main Graduation
7.3 MOTION; That the Symposium invitation letters to High Schools be sent to the
Regional offices of Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture Offices.
PROPOSAL: Ms G Sithole
SECONDED: Ms T Mawoyo
8. Date of next meeting.
9. Closure.

The main parts of an agenda for a standard meeting are BELOW
Meeting Agenda Elements
Term
Definition
Title, time, date, location, phone number, e-mail contact, and any other
Title Header
information necessary to get all participants together.
Participants
Expected participants
Subject Line
Purpose statement
Call to Order Who will call the meeting to order?
If everyone is new, this is optional. If even one person is new, everyone should
Introductions
briefly introduce themselves with their name and respective roles.
Roll Call
This may quietly take place while introductions are made.
Notes from the last meeting are read (if applicable) with an opportunity to
Reading of the
correct. These are often sent out before the meeting so participants have the
minutes
opportunity to review them and note any needed corrections.
Term
Definition
List any unresolved issues from last time or issues that were “tabled,” or left
Old Business
until this meeting.
New Business This is a list of items for discussion and action.
This is optional and applies if there are subcommittees or groups working on
Reports
specific, individual action items that require reports to the group or committee.
Good of the
This is the time for people to offer any news that relates to the topic of the
Order
meeting that was otherwise not shared or discussed.
Note time, date, place meeting adjourned and indicate when the next meeting is
Adjournment
scheduled.

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BUSINESS LETTERS
The letter that contains business related issues and information is called business or commercial
letter. It refers to the letter in which business people or person exchange information with various
business firms, customers, suppliers, employees, banks, insurance, companies, government
agencies, business associations with aimed at selling or buying goods, obtaining information,
placing orders, making inquiry etc and other related issues. Some important definitions of
business letter are given below:
• According to Hanson, “The letters which are exchanged among businessmen connected
with business affairs are called business or commercial letters.”
• According to M. Omar Ali, “Any letter designed and directed to the exchange of
information connected with trade and trade related activities is known as a business
letter.”
• According to W. J. Weston, “Business letter is the process of accomplishing a business
transaction in written form.”
So, Business letter refers to formal written letter where business related issues and information is
exchanged with the suppliers, customers, clients, banks, insurance companies, government
agencies or other external parts of the organization.
Essentials of a good business letter
The following are some of the important characteristics of a business letter.
1. Well defined objectives: There is an old saying an aimless ship never able to reach the
destination. In case of business letter-a letter without specific objectives is meaningless. Thus
to be effective business leaders need to have well defined objectives.
2. Contact information: The header of the business letter includes the senders name, phone
number, address and email address, which may be left or right justified or centered at the top
of the page. This is followed by the date the letter was sent, which in turn is followed by the
“inside address.” The inside address contains the recipient’s name, job title and company
address.
3. Benefits: Discuss the benefits offer to the receiver or customer before the nuts-and-bolts
basic information. Benefits to the customer could be tangible, such as saving money and
having more choices in service packages or intangible but still more choices in service
packages, or intangible but still valuable, including gaining peace of mind.
4. Brief description: Any business letter must be short. The significance of a short letter is that
the person reading the letter must understand the significance of the letter in the minimum
possible lines. This is usually done in order to save time and energy of the receiver of the
letter.
5. Definite structure: The structure or main text of a business letter is typically divided into
three sections: the introduction, the body and the closing. Introductory paragraphs should be
brief and explain the letter’s intent. The body should elaborate on that intent and may include
facts and statistics, descriptions and or explanations. The closing should thank the recipient
for his time and include a ”call to action,” which indicates the next step in the communication
process, such as a phone call or a scheduled meeting.
6. Positive approach: The writer has to be optimistic regarding the achievement of the goal.
Thus throughout the letter a positive tone must be present. Positive approach not only helps to
convince the reader but also express the confidence of the writer.

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7. Courtesy: The tone of the letter is another very important aspect of the letter. The letter must
sound polite, courteous and firm. The letter should also sound convincing the must have a
polite tone.
8. Coherence: Factually the business letter must be relevant and the facts and thoughts should
be presented in a very systematic manner.
9. You-attitude: To ensure effective writing the writer should put himself or herself in the
reader’s place and then try to realize how the reader will respond to the letter. The ‘you
attitude’ emphasis on the readers rather than the writer. Example of you-attitude is as follows:
I or we attitude: I will give you a 10 % discount. You-attitude: You can get a 10 % discount.
10. Clearness: A business letter must be readable and clear. If the reader of a business letter fails
to understand the message, it will matter little to him. So the messages of the letter must be
clear in meaning.
11. Relevance: One of the important qualities of a business letter is relevance. The writer of a
business letter should avoid the irrelevant matter that can vex the reader’s mind. So,
unnecessary words should be avoided.
12. Simplicity: A good business letter should be simple and easy. The writer of a business letter
should use simple language in drafting a letter so that the reader can easily understand the
meaning and significance of the letter.
13. Free from error: A business letter should be free from all kinds of errors. So, the writer
should be aware of spelling, grammatical sense and letter style in drafting a business letter.
14. Appropriate timing: Appropriate timing is one of the important qualities of a good business
letter. All letters must be sent and replied at the most appropriate time.
15. Clear concept: If the writer does not have a clear concept about the subject matter then it
will be very difficult on his or her part to make the subject matter understandable to the
reader.
16. Evaluation of the reader’s position: This is perhaps the most important thing that should be
taken into consideration to draft an effective letter. The attitude, cultural and religious
background, educational level, level of understanding etc. If the reader is likely to be different
from those of the writer. That is why to be successful the writer must try to get an idea about
the aforesaid aspects of the reader.
17. Accuracy or correctness: There is nothing painful than preparing a letter with wrong
information. It not only fail to achieve the goal but also detrimental for the goodwill of the
firm. Thus correctness of the message must be ensured.
18. Completeness: It means messages should be presented in such a way that helps the reader to
understand what the writer actually wanted to convey. Incomplete messages not only create
confusion but also can damage the mutual relationship.
19. Persuasion: To convince the reader or to motivate him or her to do some favor business
letters must be written in a persuasive tone.
20. Use of simple language: To be effective business letter should avoid the use of difficult
words and jargon’s. Simple and plain language should be used to clarify the message.
Business letters are often the common form of communication that people have in an
organisation. The basics of good business letter writing are easy to learn. The following guide
provides the phrases that are usually found in any standard business letter. This basic of business
letters are important because certain formulas are recognized and handled accordingly.

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TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS
INQUIRY LETTER
Make an inquiry when you are requesting more information about a product or service. This type
of business letter tends to include specific information such as product type, as well as asking for
further details in the form of brochures, catalogues, telephone contact, etc. Making inquiries can
also help you keep up on your competition!
What is business status inquiry letter? | Objectives of business status inquiry letter
The letter that is written for obtaining information about a business enterprise is termed as
business status inquiry letter. Generally, one business enterprise writes this letter to another
business enterprise for collecting information about a prospective customer.
When a business firm wants to buy goods on credit, it gives one or more reference to which the
seller can ask for some information about the credit seekers. Usually banks, trade associations or
competing business firms are mentioned as references. The seller then writes the inquiry letter to
the referees requesting them to provide some information about the customer.
The purpose of writing this letter is to obtain information relation to:
• Financial capability or credit worthiness
• Goodwill
• Nature of business dealings
• Honesty
• Relationship with business association, etc
In light of the above discussion, we can conclude that when a business enterprise writes an
inquiry letter to another business enterprise, financial institution or trade association to obtain
information about credit worthiness or financial capability of a customer who has applied for
credit purchase, it is called business status inquiry letter. Basing on the information supplied by
the referees, the seller decides whether to establish business transactions with the firm.
Objectives or importance of business status inquiry letter
Business status inquiry letter plays an important role in modern business. The following are the
major objectives of writing this letter:
• Obtaining information about financial capability of prospective customers.
• Determining the risk of credit sales.
• Deciding whether to enter into credit transactions.
• Getting information about honesty, goodwill and business morality of the probable buyer.
• Knowing about the relationship of the prospective buyers with other business community
and associations.
• Enhancing sales with various parties by evaluating their financial and business viability.
How can inquiry letter be made effective?
A letter that asks information about persons, products or services or other matters is an inquiry
letter. The questions to be included in a good inquiry letter should be carefully planned.
Following are the suggestions for making inquiries effective.
1. Make questions specific, clear and courteous.
2. State each question in a separate paragraph and number the questions if appropriate.
3. Use a separate sheet of paper for listing the questions if they are in large number.
4. Carefully arrange the questions – generally with the easiest to answer sheet.

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5. Word the questions in neutral way to that the reader is not influenced.
6. Word the questions to get more than ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer if details are needed.
7. Word the question to get ‘yes’, ‘no’ or ‘don’t know’ answers, if numerous questions are to be
tabulated.
8. Express confidence in the reader.
9. Assure secrecy.
Contents or elements of business status inquiry letter
Every time a business enterprise writes letter to an alternative business enterprise for collecting
information regarding some sort of future customer, the idea is referred to as Business enterprise
status inquiry letter. Even though creating that letter, this articles or contents should be bundled:
1. Name along with address in the business: This enquirer must speak about name along
with address in the company regarding which usually data is actually asked.
2. Cause of inquiry: In the letter, your article writer must make clear the cause of
producing the idea. This enables your recipient to provide required along with relevant
data.
3. Making specific inquiry: This letter of business inquiry must contain distinct inquiries in
order that the receiver provides the required information. Questions tend to be asked
associated with fiscal ability, goodwill, character of business deals, along with credibility
in the organization.
4. Promising to maintain secrecy of information: An important area of inquiry letter is
to reassure your receiver that will data furnished by them will be retained magic formula.
5. Assuring further cooperation: This article writer in the letter should reassure your
receivers them to would be offered identical help in future if they need.
6. Expressing gratefulness: This sender should convey gratitude or even on account of
your receiver for co-operation. This article writer can certainly convey gratefulness by
means of several warm and friendly reviews similar to “Any co-operation will be
remarkably appreciated”, or even “Thank an individual ahead of time to your reply. ”
7. Enclosure: This sender should enclose some sort of give back package with the letter.
The idea facilitates speedy reply from the receiver.
8. Signature: Towards the end in the letter, sender should place his / her unique along with
his full name along with position.
KINDS OF INQUIRY LETTERS:
Inquiry letters fall in three categories:
1. Trade inquiry, 2. Status inquiry and 3. General inquiry
1. Trade Inquiry:A trade inquiry (or sales related inquiry) is written with the intention of making business deals
with the addressee. Such inquiry letters are written regarding products or services purchased or
being considered for purchase. The trade inquiries ask information about the supply of goods,
availability of goods, delivery time, leaflet or catalogue, quotations or price, method of transport,
insurance, samples and terms and discount, etc.
2. Status Inquiry:Status inquiry is written to know the financial position of some individual or firm usually

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prospective buyer. Inquiries about the character, qualifications, experience and performance of
the applicant for job or membership may also be termed as status inquiries.
3. General Inquiries:General inquiry is made to get information about rules and procedures used in other
organizations, government policies, market conditions etc. General inquiry may also seek
information for private or business research. For example a firm may receive injuries for various
data from students, teachers or executives of other organizations.
Negative response to business status inquiry letter | Overview of inquiry letter
Negative response to business status inquiry letter (Unfavorable reply to the inquiry letter given
in specimen)
Overview of inquiry letter: Inquiry letter is a tool of collecting information about people,
products and prices. It plays vital role in making decisions relating to employments, purchase and
sale of goods. Prospective employers extensively use inquiry letter to collect information about
job candidates. In modern time, it is very customary that job applicants mention one or more
references in their job application. Prospective employers write inquiry letters to those referees
mentioned by the applicants. In addition to employment purpose that want to make credit
purchase. Sometimes, inquiry letter is also written to obtain price quotation, catalogue, terms and
conditions of sales etc. with the growth and expansion of a business, utility of inquiry letter
increases.
M/s. Anna Trade international
54, Washington, New York
Phone: 8993498433
Ref………………………………..

Date: November 31, 2013

Manager
Mr. Michel Trading Agency,
302, TUCSON AZ 85705
USA
Subject: Reply to financial status inquiry of John and company, 14/1, Taxes, Washington.
Dear Sir,
Thank you for your letter of November 28, 2013. We have a long business relation with John and
company, 14/1, Taxes, Washington, about you have sought information.
Expecting success of your business.
Thanking you
Sincerely yours,
(Mr. Jonson)
Manager
M/s. Anna Trade international
Sample of reply letter to business status inquiry letter

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Assume that you are the manager of Mr. Anna Trade International, 54, Washington, New York.
Mr. Michel Trading Agency, 302, TUCSON AZ 85705 USA has a letter to you inquiring the
financial solvency of John and company, 14/1, Taxes, Washington. Write a positive response to
this business status inquiry letter. (Favorable reply to the inquiry letter given in specimen).

Anna Trade International
54, Washington, New York
Phone: 914554656 Fax: 099-9152752568
Ref………………………….
Date: November 31, 2013
Manager
Mr. Michel Trading Agency
302, TUCSON AZ 85705
USA.
Subject: Reply to financial status inquiry of John and company, 14/1, Taxes, Washington.
Dear Sir,
Thank you for your letter of November 28, 2013. We have regular and satisfactory business
relation for long time with John and company, 14/1, Taxes, Washington about whom you have
sought information. They are doing business in this line since long ago with utmost sincerity and
honesty. Their financial capability and business goodwill are highly appreciable. Their business
dealings and payment records with us during the last several years can be held in high esteem.
You can supply them goods worth 1300$ on credit in a single consignment without any
hesitation.
We feel proud to provide information about the firm and we think our confidence on this firm
will never be misplaced. Expecting your business success.
Thanking you.
Sincerely yours.
(Mr. Jonson)
Sample of reply letter to business status inquiry letter
Contents or elements of reply letter to business status inquiry letter
The particular answer business standing inquiry letter can be sometimes positive as well as
negative. Regardless of the characteristics associated with response is actually, its full of a
number of normal information as well as unique positive as well as negative view. This items are
likely to be a part of an answer to business standing inquiry letter:
• Acknowledging this notice from the inquirer. This means, acclaim with the notice
associated with request should be mentioned.
• Name, address along with points with the corporation regarding which usually
information is actually provided.
• Giving certain information as questioned through the inquirer. Data delivered should be
appropriate in addition to applicable whether it’s positive as well as negative.
• The particular replier must not fit his or her own assumptions while using the
information.

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Any affirmation producing this intention to never take any legal responsibility resulting
from long term orders while using the likely shopper.
• Requiring this enquirer to keep up secrecy with the information delivered.
• Offering warranty associated with providing additional help out with long term.
• Producing ache if the information delivered is going from the possible shopper.
• Making use of basic in addition to unambiguous words and phrases in addition to
paragraphs.
• Wanting inquirer’s business success along with thank you.
• Mentioning this name, location in addition to address with the information provider
Specimen or Sample of business status inquiry letter
Specimen: John House, Washington, New York, has applied for credit purchase form Anna
Enterprise, 20, TUCSON AZ 85705 USA. In the letter, John House has mentioned the name of
Mr. Michel, Manager, Mahan Boutiques and Fabrics of Taxes, as reference. Write business status
inquiry letter on behalf of Anna Enterprise.
•

Anna Enterprise
(Wholesaler of Quality Fabrics)
20, TUCSON AZ 85705 USA
December 07, 2013
Mr. Michel
Manager
Mahan Boutiques and Fabrics,
Texas.
Sub: Inquiring the financial status of John House, Washington, New York.
Dear Mr. Michel,
Will you please respond to the following questions about John House, Washington, New York,
which has listed your name as a credit reference on its letter for credit purchase?
1. How long John House has a credit account with your company?
2. What is the credit limit you currently extend to them?
3. What is the maximum amount of credit you have ever extended to them?
4. Has it ever been delinquent in paying his dues?
I assure you that information provided by you will be treated confidentially. If you send answers
to the above questions with December 25, 2013 will be highly appreciated. We will be highly
glad to provide you any such help in future.
Sincerely,
(Mr. Michel Jackson)
Manager, Credit Division
Specimen of business status inquiry letter-Sample of business status inquiry letter

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SALES LETTERS
Sales Letters are used to introduce new products to new customers and past clients. It's important
to outline an important problem that needs to be solved and provide the solution in sales letters.
This example letter provides an outline, as well as important phrases to use when sending out a
wide variety of sales letters. It is a piece of direct mail which is designed to persuade the reader to
purchase a particular product or service.
It should:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Have a clear and powerful headline
Have an immediately clear benefit for the intended audience or target.
Must build the readers’ trust
Have the customer’s needs coming first, not your desire to sell something
Be upfront and bold about promising a prize or a tangible reward in exchange for time
and attention
Explain “WIFM” or “what is in for me”.

Before writing a sales letter one must acquire and analyse appropriate lists of targeted customers.

Replying to an Inquiry
Replying to inquiries is one of the most important business letters that you write. Customers who
make inquiries are interested in specific information, and are excellent business prospects. Learn
how to thank the customers, provide as much information as possible, as well as make a call to
action for a positive outcome.

Account Terms and Conditions
When a new customer opens an account it is essential to inform them of account terms and
conditions. If you run a small business, it is common to provide these terms and conditions in the
form of a letter. This guide provides a clear example on which you can base your own business
letters providing account terms and conditions.
Letters of Acknowledgment
For legal purposes letters of acknowledgment are often requested. These letters are also referred
to as letters of receipt and tend to be rather formal and short. These two examples letters will
provide you with a template to use in your own work and can be easily adapted for a number of
purposes.

COLLECTION LETTER
Meaning of collection letter: Letters written for realizing payments from the debtors are known
as collection letters. The need for writing collection letters arises from credit sales. Selling on
credit is a traditional business policy that enhances volume of sales. Under the credit sales policy,

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the sellers allow the customers a definite period for payment of dues. However, sometimes the
buyers make unexpected delay in paying their dues. Even, some custom stances, the sellers write
letters reminding and requesting the customers to pay the due bills. Instead of sending one letter
or repeated copies of the same letter, credit departments send a series of letters.
•
•
•

In the opinion of Kitty O. Locker, “Collection letters ask customers to pay for the goods
and services they have already received.”
Quibble and others defined, “Collection letters are used by an organization to entice its
charge customers to pay an outstanding charge-account balance.”
Collection letters are written in a series. When collection letters are written in a series
beginning with a simple reminder and end with a warning letter indication legal action
the dues promptly by retaining the customers with the company.

Features of collection letter
Collection letters possess some distinct features that differentiate them from other business
letters. Some of the features of collection letter are as follows:
1. Parties involved: Buyer who buys on credit and seller are involved in collection letter.
Seller writes this letter to the buyer for payment of dues.
2. Series of letter: Collection letters are written in a series. The series includes remainder
letter, inquiry letter, appeal and urgency letter and warning letter.
3. Objective: The prime objective of writing collection letter is to realize the dues from the
customers.
4. Governing principle: The governing principle of the letter is to collect the dues by
retaining the customers with the company.
5. Referring the previous letter: When dunning letters are written in a series, every
subsequent letter mentions the reference of immediate earlier letter.
6. Threat for legal action: The last letter of collection letter series warns the customer that
the matter has been handed over to the lawyers for taking necessary legal action.
7. Sent through registered post: The seller sends collection letter especially, the lat letter
of the series though registered with acknowledgement to avoid unnecessary delay, or
missing of the letter or denial from the part of the customer.
8. Language: The letter is written by using friendly, persuasive but straightforward
language.
Sample of collection letter | Specimen of collection letters
Stage -1: SENDING STATEMENT OF ACCOUNT
Specimen: Assume that one of you customer has purchased goods having value of TK. 1, 00, 000.
The last date of payment is November 25, 2013. Send a statement of account to his customer.
Sending statement of account

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Sending statement of account-Sample of collection letter
Stage-2: REMINDER LETTER (FIRST REMINDER LETTER)
Specimen: Assume that a customer has purchased goods having value of TK. One lakh (1, 00,
000). The due date of payment was November 25, 2013. The customer did pay though one two
weeks have passed after the due date. Send a reminder letter to the customer.

Reminder letter (First Reminder letter)-Sample of collection letter

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Stage 2: REMINDER LETTER (SECOND REMINDER LETTER)
Specimen: Assume that a customer did not pay his outstanding amount in spite of sending
reminder letter. Draft a second reminder letter requesting him to pay the dues.

Reminder letter (Second reminder letter)-Sample of collection letter
STAGE 3: INQUIRY LETTER
Specimen: A customer has not yet paid his dues even though a statement of bill and two reminder
letters were sent to him. Draft an inquiry letter asking for payment and explanation for nonpayment.

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Inquiry letter-Sample of collection letter

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ORDER LETTER
Placing an Order
As a business person, you will often place an order - especially if you have a large supply chain
for your product. This example business letter provides an outline to make sure your order
placement is clear so that you receive exactly what you order.
What are main points of a good order letter?
Mention the circumstances under which an order letter needs reply.
An order letter needs to be correct, complete and definite so that the reader may fill it exactly.
Incompleteness or errors may mean further correspondence, shipping delays, complicated billing,
repacking and reshipping and loss of business.
Therefore, a good order letter should:
1. Include full details of quantities, prices, colors, sizes etc.
2. Quote catalogue number if any.
3. State the requirements as to delivery – date, place, mode of transport etc.
4. Confirm the terms of payment agreed in preliminary negotiation.
5. Refer to the enclosure of cheque, pay order or draft or samples or colour of material if any.
Replying of Orders:
Ordinarily order letters need to reply. But replies should be written under following circumstance.
1. When a customer requests for acknowledgement in confirmation of the order.
2. When an order is incorrect incomplete or vague.
3. When an order cannot be complied with.
4. When extra time is needed to fill the order.
The letter that is written by a potential buyer to the seller requesting him to deliver goods is
known as order letter. By writing inquiry letters, buyers can collect necessary information about
the price, quality of goods and terms of sale. If the buyer finds the quoted price, quality of goods
and terms of sales satisfactory, he places an order to supply goods in his address. The seller
delivers the good according to the buyer’s order.
In modern time, sellers supply printed orders forms to the customers and customers place orders
by filling up those printed order blanks. In this case, the printed order sheet or blank is considered
as the order letter.
Factors to Be Considered In Writing Order Letter or, Contents of Order Letter
Through order letter, the potential buyers request the suppliers to deliver goods to them. In
modern time, printed order blanks or purchase order forms supplied by the seller are typically
used for placing orders. However, in absence of order blanks and purchase order forms, order
letters are written. Such letters contain three major categories of information:
• Information about the items being ordered;
• Information relating to shipping; and

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• Information relating to payment.
1. Information about the items being ordered: An order letter must contain full particulars of
goods ordered. Such information include the followings:
• a. Product name
• Brand name
• Quantity
• Catalog number
• Model number
• Color
• Size
• Weight
• Unit price
2. Information relating to shipping: Shipping information is very important. In absence of
shipping information, there can arise misunderstanding between buyer and seller. Shipping
information may include the followings:
• Desired receipt date;
• Desired shipping location; and
• Mode of shipping (rail, road, or waterways).
3. Information relating to payment: Mode of payment of prices for the ordered items must be
clearly indicated. The seller will accept the order letter only when both of them come to a
common ground relation to payment of price. Payment information include the following:
• Mode of payment (cash, cheque, draft)
• Payment data
The above stated factors are usually included in order letter. However, the buyer can include any
other instruction or element if he thinks necessary.

CLAIM LETTER
What is claim letter? | Type of claims
When affected buyer writes a letter to the seller raising complaints and demanding compensation,
it is known as clam letter. Generally, a losing buyer writes claim letters to the seller. However,
sometimes the buyer writes the letter to the transportation authority if any damage is caused by
their negligence. Again, seller or transportation authority may also write claim letter to the buyer
claiming their demand.
• Quible and Others defined, “A claim letter is a message designed to inform its recipient
about the writer’s dissatisfaction with a product or service.”
• According to Himstreet and Baty, “A claim letter is a request for adjustment. When
writes ask for something to which they think they are entitled refund, replacement,
exchange, payment for damages and so on the letter is called a claim letter.”
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that when customer writes a letter expressing his
dissatisfaction with the purchased product and claims compensation, it is called claim letter.
Although a phone call or personal visit may solve the problem, a written claim letter is better as it
is a document of customer dissatisfaction. As the volume of operations of a business increases,
the frequency of claims letters may also increase. The manner in which an organization deals with
the claims of customer affects its reputation.

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Mode of claims or Type of claims
Although claim letters are written for possible compensation or adjustment but the mode of
claims asked for are not always same. Depending on the nature of damage or loss, the buyer can
claim one or more of the followings:
• Partial or full refund of purchase price of the product or service.
• Future delivery of the products with correct items.
• Replacement of defective products.
• Repair of the damaged products.
• Reduction in the price.
• Credit the amount to purchase account.
• Cancellation of order or portion of order.
• Rescheduling the payment installments.
• Correction of error in bill.
Making a Claim
Unfortunately, from time to time it is necessary to make a claim against unsatisfactory work. This
example business letter provides a strong example of a claim letter and includes important
phrases to express your dissatisfaction and future expectations when making a claim.
What are contents of claim letters?
A dissatisfied party may either discontinue business contact or may complain through a claim
letter. The former option can never be recommended. Complaint is basically unpleasant,
therefore, should be based on the following points:
1. Statement of claim, supported by facts and figures.
2. Indication of loss and inconvenience.
3. Request for explanation of the cause.
4. Emphasis on quick action.
5. Suggestion for reasonable adjustment.
6. Courteous and non-accusatory words.
Adjusting a Claim
ven the best business may make a mistake from time to time. In this case, you may be called upon
to adjust a claim. This type of business letter provides an example to send to unsatisfied
customers making sure that you address their specific concerns, as well as retain them as future
customers.

Sample of claim letter | Specimen of claim letter
SAMPLE: M/s. Anna cloth store, House no. 07, Road no. 14 North 302, TUCSON AZ 85705,
USA has purchased 2000 miters of suit cloths with a total cost of 12000$. Form Michel
enterprise. : M/s. Anna cloth store has returned the shipment as quality does not match with the
order specification. Write a claim letter to the manager, Michel enterprise, 20, Kualampur,
Malaysia. Claiming full refund of the purchase price.

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M/s. Anna cloth store
House no. 07, Road no. 14 North 302, TUCSON AZ 85705, USA
Ref. ……………………………
November 27, 2013
Manager
Michel enterprise
(Wholesaler of quality fabrics)
20, Kualampur, Malaysia
Dear Manager,
On November 07, 2013 we purchased 2000 meters suit cloths. The quality of your shipment does
not match with our order specification. Since the use of low quality cloth will damage our
business goodwill, we have returned your shipment along with a request for cash refund of
12000$.
We believe that your company has deep concern for its customers. We are also convinced with
the earlier dealing of your company.
Refunding the money within the next 10 days will be highly appreciated. We are looking for
future business.
Sincerely,
(Mr. Jonson)
Purchase Manager
Sample of claim letter

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SAMPLE 2: The Bangladesh Commerce College, Road No 7, Uttara, Dhaka has purchased some
books from Jamuna Publishing Pvt. Ltd. Bangla Bazar, Dhaka. The publisher has sent older
edition of the books. Write a claim letter for replacing the books with the new edition.
The Bangladesh Commerce College
ESTD. 1992
Road No. 7, Uttara, Dhaka. Phone————————
Ref. ………………………………
November 25, 2013
Manager
Jamuna Publishing Pvt. Ltd.
Bangla Bazar, Dhaka
Dear Sir,
In response to our November 10, 2013 order letter, you have sent the ordered books. You delivery
has reached to us on November 20, 2013. We have got all the books. But you have sent the older
edition of some books.
Books of older edition are being returned. We are requesting for replacing the books with 2013
edition.
Your replacing the books soon will be appreciated
Sincerely
(Mr. Jonson)
Principal
Specimen of claim letter
Suggestions for improving the effectiveness of claim letter | Characteristics of good claim
letter
A claim letter possesses the general qualities of a good commercial letter like completeness,
conciseness, use of easy and simple language etc. however, a good claim letter is one that has the
following characteristics:
1. Fair claim: An effective claim letter contains a realistic, fair and honest claim or request.
If the buyer makes any unfair claim, it proves his dishonesty. As a result business
relationship between buyer and seller may end.
2. Showing confidence upon the seller: The buyer should be confidant that seller will
accept his claim. Such confidence will motivate the seller to settle the claim with due
consideration.
3. Free form anger: An effective claim letter never shows anger to the recipient. Anger or
antagonism reduces the chance of getting compensation.
4. Inclusion of facts courteously: A good claim letter states all relevant facts logically.
Courteously and impersonally. It includes neither exaggerated nor irrelevant facts.
5. Definite request: An effective claim letter makes a definite request. Such request may
be of the followings:
o Replacement of the product or service.
o Partial or full refund of the purchase price of the product or service

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Replacement of shipments
Cancellation of an order or part of the order
Correction of an error in bill
6. Free from guess and opinion: It is unwise to guess or to give opinion holding any
specific person responsible for the damage. The letter should be written impersonally and
the charge of detecting the responsible persons should be given to the seller.
o
o
o

COMPLAINT LETTER
What is complaint letter? | Cause of drafting complaint letter
•

Meaning of complaint letter: In a simple way, the letter written by the customers to
convey their complaints to the seller of goods or to the transport authority is termed as
complaint letter. In the process of supplying ordered goods to the customers, different
persons and parties are involved. Therefore, there is every possibility of inadvertent
mistakes being committed by someone. This may create inconvenience to the customers
and even cause them financial loss. Therefore customers write letter to inform their
inconveniences to the seller or to the transport authority.

The letter written for this purpose is known complaint letter.
•

In business, occurrence of mistakes is common and natural even though the parties are
causations and careful. Some of the customary mistakes are supplying low quality
products, charging high prices, low quality packaging, damage of products due to poor
packaging etc. so complaint letter is drafted by the buyer mentioning the mistakes
occurred or claiming for the damage to the seller or to the transportation authority.

Cause of drafting complaint letter
After placing orders, customers expect that sellers will deliver the products accordingly. If the
seller fails to do so, customers write complaint letter. Such letter is usually written for the
following reasons or causes:
• Merchandise not received.
• Part of the merchandise not received
• The merchandise received was not received
• Delivery of defective products
• Goods received in a damaged condition
• Quantity of good is not what was ordered
• Goods delivered to wring address
• Delivery of goods is delayed
• Impoliteness of office staff of the seller
• Delivery of mix-up products
• Clerical or book keeping errors
• Mistakes in the bill
• Charging high price
• Price included for goods returned
• Reminders for payment of bill already paid
• Poor quality of packaging
• Faulty insurance coverage
• Missing of products during transportation

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•
•

Carelessness of transportation authority
Ignoring the provisions regarding brokerage, commission and discount

Factors to be considered while drafting complaint letter
A complaint letter should be written in a polite and considerate way by incorporating the
following factors or elements:
1. Specific cause of complaint: In a complaint letter, the customer should mention the
specific cause of complaint. This will help the seller to understand his fault and to take
necessary step for adjustment.
2. Nature of loss: Complaint letter must specify the nature and extent of damage caused in
terms of money, loss of sales, loss of service or goodwill.
3. Amount of loss: If any financial loss has to fault to the seller or transport authority,
actual amount of loss should be mentioned with supportive documents.
4. Possible remedy: A complaint letter should clearly indicate the probable remedies for
setting the complaint.
5. Avoiding assumptions: In the letter, the buyer should include only the actual event.
There should not be any assumption on the part of the buyer.
6. Courteous language: Language of complaint letter should be simple, easy, courteous
and friendly. However, its tone should be straightforward.
7. Documentary proof: Sufficient documents should be enclosed as proof of complaint.
Without necessary documents, the letter may have no value to the recipient.
8. Controlling anger: Though anger is a natural reaction of the affected buyer, it is not wise
to express anger. Rather, the buyer should make the complaint in a respectful and
considerate way.
9. Art of presentation: Complaint should be made artfully. That is the buyer should raise
the complaint in a way that does not hurt the seller. Artful presentation requires raising
the complaints passively rather than directly.
10. Mentioning preventive measures for future: For preventing the mistakes in future, the
buyer can suggest the seller some alternative course of actions.
Sample of complaint letter | Specimen of complaint letter
SAMPLE 1: M/s. Anna Food Products Ltd. has placed an order on December 05, 2013 to Mr.
Michel Flour Mills Ltd. For 2000 bags of flour to be sent within December 15, 2013. Mr. Michel
Flour Mills has accepted the order but the delivery of shipment was delayed for 3 (three) days, for
the a complaint letter to the Manager, Mr. Michel Flour Mills Ltd. 10, Washington, New York,
for the delay.

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M/s. Anna Food Products Ltd.
302, TUCSON AZ 85705, USA
Ref. ………………………………

December 20, 2013

Manager
Michel Flour Mills Ltd.
10, Washington, New York
Dear Manager,
We have placed an order on December 05, 2013 for 2000 bags of flour to be sent within
December 15, 2013. You have sent an order acknowledgement letter and promised to deliver the
shipment within the stipulate time. But it is unfortunate that the actual delivery was delayed for
03 (Three) days.
Due to your delay in sending the shipment, we could not maintain promise with our customers.
Recurrence of this problem will force us to business elsewhere.
We expect that you will take the matter seriously and will take necessary step to prevent its
recurrence. We are looking for future business.
Thanking you,
(Mr. Jonson)
Manager
Sample of complaint letter

Sample of complaint letter 02
SAMPLE 2: M/s. Anna enterprise, House no. 07, Road no. 14 North 302, TUCSON AZ 85705,
USA, is the seller of high quality local and foreign furniture for home and office. It has purchased
100 nos. office desks from Michel furniture Ltd. Kualalampur, Malaysia, on February 10, 2013.
After receiving the shipment, some of the desks were found defective. Write a complaint letter to
the manager of Michel furniture Ltd.

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M/s. Anna enterprise
House no. 07, Road no. 14
North 302, TUCSON AZ 85705, USA
Ref. …………………………..

February 25, 2013

Manager
Michel furniture Ltd.
Kualampur, Malaysia.
Dear Manager,
We have purchased 100 nos. of office desks on February 10, 2013 and the shipment reached to us
on February 22, 2013. After inspection of the shipment, we have found 20 (Twenty) defective
desks. Sale of the defective desks will have a negative impact on our reputation. Therefore, we
have kept those desks in the storeroom.
We believe that it was an inadvertent mistake and you will take necessary step to stop its
recurrence.
We are waiting for your decision regarding the defective desks.
Thanking you,
(Mr. Mr. Jonson)
Manager
Specimen of complaint letter

ADJUSTMENT LETTER
•

•
•

•

Adjustment letter is a reply letter to the buyer’s complaint or claim. In other words, when
seller or transportation authority writes letter in response to the complaint or claim letter
of the buyer, it is known as adjustment letter. This letter informs the customer either
acceptance or rejection of their complaints and claims. Acceptance of the claims may
take different forms such as simply regretting for the mistakes, or making correction to
the mistakes through payment of compensation. Reply to complaint letter plays a vital
role in enhancing the goodwill of a company and maintaining relationships with the
customers.
According to Murphy and Hilderbrandt, “An adjustment letter is the reply to a
compliant or claim letter”.
Finally, we can say that an adjustment letter gives answer to the customer’s claim letter.
Though this letter, the seller notifies the customer whether his claim is granted or
rejected. Since this letter settles the claims of the customers, it is also termed as letter of
claim settlement. This letter helps to build and maintain goodwill with the customers.
An adjustment letter is a reply to a complaint (claim letter). It is better to make
adjustment than to risk losing a customer. Complaints should not be discouraged, because
(1) they provide a means of discovering and correcting poor service, and (2) They
provide an opportunity to win back goodwill.

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Analysis of Complaint:
In dealing with a complaint all related facts should be investigated to determine (a) whether the
complaint is justified and (b) whether, and how, adjustment is to be effected.
Justification of Complaint:
Experience proves that most of the complaints are justified. They are usually a result of fault on
the part of the seller or third party (transporter, etc.). A complaint is considered unfair when buyer
is at fault and the request is for undue advantage.
Grant of Adjustment:
A justified complain needs proper adjustment, e.g., refunding money, replacing merchandise,
performing additional service, admitting fault and assuring care in future, and taking rightful
action against third party responsible for the damage. Proper explanation is necessary if buyer is
at fault or complaint is based on misunderstanding.
Adjustment Principles:
1. Answer promptly to avoid further complaint. When immediate adjustment is not possible, an
acknowledgement letter assures that the complaint is being conserved.
2. Give the customer the benefit of doubt by assuming that the customer is right, unless the facts
prove him/her wrong.
3. Accept blame gracefully when it is justified: to beg pardon or be unnecessarily humble is
considered poor acceptance that may result in loss of goodwill.
4. Be diplomatic, especially when the addressee is at fault or complaint is based on
misunderstanding. A diplomatic writer can say anything without insulting the reader.
Organizing the Adjustment Letters:
The ideas in an adjustment letter are ordinarily arranged as follows:
1. Conciliatory Statement:
• Expression of regret even if the customer is at fault or appreciation for having been
informed is an effective start of an adjustment letter.
2. Explanation of Facts:
• Explaining the facts relating to complaint, clarifying the position in case of
misunderstanding or indicating the customer’s fault (if any) should be the next step.
3. Statement of Adjustment:
• Grant of the adjustment (if any), suggesting a substitute for requested adjustment (when it
cannot be granted) or a mere acceptance of fault with assurance of taking care in future,
should be stated as the third step.
4. Statement of Goodwill:
• A last paragraph may be added (if appropriate) for rebuilding of goodwill and renewal of
business relations.

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Factors to be considered while drafting Adjustment Letter Or, Contents of Adjustment
Letter
In drafting adjustment letter, the following points should be kept in mind so that in can convince
the affected buyer:
1. Acknowledging the claim letter: At the begging of the adjustment letter, seller should
acknowledge the claim letter of the cstuomer and thank the customer for pointing out the
mistakes.
2. Regretting for mistakes: Reply letter should regret for the mistakes and inconvenience
of the seller sincerely. If the seller is definitely at fault, he can apologize by saying,” I am
sorry”, “We apologize” etc.
3. Immediate reply: After receiving the complaint from the buyer, the seller should give its
reply immediately. Delay in reply may create further arrogance.
4. Granting immediate promise: If the customer demanded for something specific like a
refund or replacement, the seller should grant the promise immediately.
5. Assuring preventive measures: After receiving the claim from the customers,
preventive measures taken by seller should be indicated. Seller must also assure the
customer that he will not face any such inconvenience in future.
6. Offering further cooperation: In order to promote goodwill of the company and sustain
relationship with customers, the seller should offer further cooperation and assurance of
satisfaction.
7. Convincing customer: If the claim of the customer is unfair, unreasonable and unjust,
the seller should not react violently. Rather, he should convince the buyer to consider the
matter from the seller’s angle.
8. Courteous and friendly language: The language of adjustment letter must be
courteous and friendly. Such language will cool down the anger of the buyer.
SAMPLE of Adjustment Grant letter-01: Rafee Enterprise, 33, Islamia Market, Nowabpur
Dhaka, wholesaler of fluorescent marker, has received a claim letter from Nujhat Stationaries,
Nilkhet, dhaka for replacing one packet of marker. Write an adjustment grant letter informing
the customer that he will get the new supply within next two days.
Overview of Adjustment Grant Letter
Dissatisfied customers write complaint and claim letters either to the seller of goods or to the
transportation authority, while the recipient of complaint and claim letters writes adjustment
letter. A customer writes complaint letter if he finds anything unsatisfactory with the product he
purchased. In the complaint letter, the customer simply expresses his cause of dissatisfaction. But,
the customer writes a claim letter if he suffers from any financial loss. In the claim letter, the
customer makes specific claim along with his logical cause behind the claim. After receiving the
claim letter from affected customer, the seller will write the adjustment letter either granting or
rejecting the claim. In both the cases, letter should be written in a friendly and wormy tone.

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Specimen of adjustment grant letter-Overview of adjustment letter
Types of Adjustment Letter | Alternative Principles to Write Adjustment Letter
Every company adjusts the claims and complaints of the customers based on predetermined
principles. The following are the alternative principles in this regard:
• Customers are always right: Under this principle, a company accepts all the claims of
the customers. This principle is adopted when a company thinks the customers will never
complain if there is no genuine reason to complain. If the company follows this principle,
all claims are granted. This policy is not always considered to be best as it encourages the
greedy customers to make false complaints.
• Fair clam, fair adjustment: This principle implies that only the genuine or valid claims
will be accepted. In this case, false claims are denied.
• Buyer bewares or caveat emptor: This policy implies that the buyer should be careful
enough in buying and receiving the product. Product once sold, will never be retuned.
When a company follows this principle, it dose not entertain any claim from the
customer. This is regarded as the most nu-business like policy.

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Types of Adjustment Letter
Adjustment letter can take many different forms. The actual from of adjustment letter is governed
by many factors like adjustment policy of the company, responsibility of fault relationship with
the customers etc. However, the following are the general forms of adjustment letter:
1. Letter granting adjustment: When the seller grants full adjustment to the claim
assuming he is at fault, then it is called adjustment granting letter. In this letter, the seller
frankly admits his fault and assures the buyer that such problem will not arise in future.
Nevertheless, sellers will occasionally grant a buyer’s claim even though the buyer or a
third party is at fault.
2. Letter refusing adjustment: When claim is refused assuming the buyer is at fault, is
called adjustment refusing letter.
3. Letter offering a compromise or a partial adjustment: Thought this letter, a
compromise is offered in order to maintain good relation, or avoid litigation. This letter is
written when there exists some differences of opinion about the standard of service, or
quality of goods, or when some fault was outside the control of either party.
4. Letter apologizing mistake: This letter is written by expressing regret for the customers
inconvenience and thanking him for pointing out the error.
5. Letter offering adjustment on the assumption is dissatisfied: If any customer is
dissatisfied with the company, he may stop giving further order to the company.
Therefore, the seller writes this letter offering adjustment of previous claims and thus
maintains business relationship with him.
6. Letter informing the customer that cause of error is being investigated: In some
cases, the final adjustment decision cannot be made until the seller determines who is
responsible for the mistake. In this case, an interim reply is sent to the customer
informing that his claim is under investigation. Through this letter, the seller neither
grants nor refuses the claim.

COVER LETTERS
Cover letters are extremely important when applying for a new position. Cover letters should
include a short introduction, highlight the most important information in your resume and elicit a
positive response from your prospective employer. These two examples of cover letters are part
of a larger section on the site providing all the information you will need on taking an interview
in English during your job search.
Think of a basic business letter in three steps:
1. Introduction - The reason for writing
The introduction helps the reader understand in which context the letter should be considered.
Possibilities include job interview inquires, business opportunity requests, complaints, and more.
Each type of business letter has its own standard phrases which you can find in this guide to
different types of business letters.
2. Details - What you would like to accomplish
The detail section of a business letter is extremely important. This is where you achieve your
goals in writing a business letter.

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3. Conclusion / Next Steps - What you would like to happen in the future
Provide a call for future action. This can be a chance to talk in person, a follow-up letter or more.
It's important and expected to make it clear what you would like for the next step from the person
reading your business letter.
a) The start of any business letter begins by addressing the recipient of the letter.
-Dear Personnel Director,
-Dear Sir or Madam: (use if you don't know who you are writing to)
-Dear Dr, Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms Mbona: (use if you know who you are writing to, and have a
formal relationship with - VERY IMPORTANT use Ms for women unless asked to use Mrs or
Miss)
-Dear Jill : (use if the person is a close business contact or friend)
Note: If you are unsure how formal you should be, always choose a more formal form. Writing to
a specific person is always preferred if at all possible.
b) The Reference
Begin by referencing a specific conversation or other contact means. If this is the first letter in
a conversation, you can also provide the reason for writing.
-With reference to your advertisement in the Times, your letter of 23 rd March/ or your phone
call today,
-Thank you for your letter of March 5 th.
c) The Reason for Writing
I am writing to:... inquire about
...
apologize for
... confirm
... comment on
... apply for
Examples:
I am writing to inquire about the position posted in The Daily Mail.
I am writing to confirm the shipment details on order # 2346.
I am writing to apologize for the difficulties you experienced last week at our branch.
Once you have introduced the reason for writing your business letter, move on to stating more
specifically the purpose of your letter.
Here are a number of possibilities:
1. Requesting e.g. Could you possibly forward your job requirements?
I would be grateful if you could
2. Agreeing to Requests e.g. I would be delighted to...............
3. Giving Bad News e.g. Unfortunately/ I am afraid that I will be able to attend the conference
next week.
4. Enclosing Documents e.g. I am enclosing/ Please find enclosed/ Enclosed you will find
5. Closing Remarks e.g.Thank you for your help, Please contact us again if we can help in any
way / there are any problems/ you have any questions.
6. Reference to Future Contact e.g. I look forward to / hearing from you soon/ meeting you
next Tuesday/ seeing you next Thursday.

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a) The Finish
Yours faithfully, (If you don't know the name of the person you're writing to)
Yours sincerely, (If you know the name of the person you're writing to)
Best wishes/ Best regards, (If the person is a close business contact or friend)
SAMPLE LETTER (Here is a sample letter using some of these forms)

Mutare Polytechnic
P O Box 640
Mutare
Tel:
Fax:
Email: Emman @cheese.com
October 23, 2016
Garwe Restaurant
P.O Box 3240
Eastlea
Harare
Dear Ms Mvukwe:
With reference to our telephone conversation today, I am writing to confirm your order for:
120 x Cheddar Deluxe Ref. No. 856
The order will be shipped within three days via UPS and should arrive at your store in about
10 days.
Please contact us again if we can help in any way.
Yours sincerely,
Nyaradzai Mazaiwana
Director Garwe Restaurant

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DELIVERY LETTER
What is order execution letter? | Delivery Letter
The letter through which the seller informs the customer that the ordered goods have been
delivered is called order execution letter. Once seller receives order from customer, he can
accept or reject it. Whether the order is accepted or rejected, the seller must inform it to the
customer. When the seller accepts the order and delivers the ordered items, he writes the order
execution letter. The purpose of writing this letter is to inform the customer about the date of
delivery, mode of transportation used, the probable date at which customer will get the shipment
and the total price. The invoice is usually enclosed with this letter.
Contents of order execution letter
Generally, and order execution letter conations the following points:
• Reference number of order letter with date
• Name, brands and quality of products
• Quantity of products
• Date of delivery of goods
• Expected date of reaching goods to the buyer’s address
• Nature of packing of goods
• Transportation used for delivering goods
• Total price of the products and
• Expected date and mode of payment
Specimen of order execution letter
Specimen: Assume that you are the manager of M. H. Publication (Pvt.) Ltd. 38 Bangla Bazar,
2nd Floor, and Dhaka. The Bangladesh Commerce College has placed an order for some books
to your company. Write an order execution letter addressing the librarian of the Bangladesh
Commerce College.

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What is order execution Or delivery letter? | Specimen of order execution letter

ORDER CANCELLATION LETTER? |
•

Meaning of order cancellation letter: When the buyer writes letter to the seller
requesting him not to deliver the ordered goods, it is called letter of order cancellation.
Generally, customer places orders for delivering some specific goods in his address.
Having been received an order from customer; the seller takes step to deliver goods
immediately. Because, delay in delivery can cause the customer to do business elsewhere.
However, after placing the order, the customer may be unwilling to get the delivery. In
this situation, the customer writes a letter to the seller canceling the previously placed
order. This letter is known as letter of order canceling the previously placed order. This
letter is known as letter of order cancellation.

Causes of order cancellation
A potential buyer may cancel his order on the following grounds:
• I f the seller fails to deliver goods within the specified time
• If the prices of ordered products continues to decrease
• If the demand of the ordered items declines gradually

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•
•

If the customer gets an offer from elsewhere to buy the same product at a lower price
If the customer decides to discontinue his business

Contents of order cancellation letter
A letter of order cancellation usually conations the following:
• Date and reference of the order letter placed earlier
• A direct request to cancel the order
• Cause of canceling the order
• A declaration stating his unwillingness to receive goods if the seller delivers
• Regretting for any inconvenience of seller caused due to cancellation of order
• Expressing the hope of maintain business relationships in future
• Assuring to compensate any loss suffered by the seller due to order cancellation through
future business dealings
Specimen of order cancellation letter
Assume that you have placed an order to A. K. Electronics (Pvt. ) Ltd. 33, Nowabpur, Dhaka, to
supply some electronic goods. Write a letter canceling your order as you have decided not to do
business in this line.

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What is order cancellation letter-Specimen of order cancellation letter
COLLECTION LETTER
Sample of collection letter | Specimen of collection letters
Stage -1: Sending statement of account
Specimen: Assume that one of you customer has purchased goods having value of TK. 1, 00, 000.
The last date of payment is November 25, 2013. Send a statement of account to his customer.
Sending statement of account

Sending statement of account-Sample of collection letter
Stage-2: Reminder letter (First Reminder letter)
Specimen: Assume that a customer has purchased goods having value of TK. One lakh (1, 00,
000). The due date of payment was November 25, 2013. The customer did pay though one two
weeks have passed after the due date. Send a reminder letter to the customer.

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Reminder letter (First Reminder letter)-Sample of collection letter
Stage 2: Reminder letter (Second reminder letter)
Specimen: Assume that a customer did not pay his outstanding amount in spite of sending
reminder letter. Draft a second reminder letter requesting him to pay the dues.

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Reminder letter (Second reminder letter)-Sample of collection letter
Stage 3: Inquiry letter
Specimen: A customer has not yet paid his dues even though a statement of bill and two reminder
letters were sent to him. Draft an inquiry letter asking for payment and explanation for nonpayment.

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Inquiry letter-Sample of collection letter
Factors to be considered in writing collection letter
Collection letters are written in series. Each successive letter comes stronger in tone. However,
letters should be written in such a way so as to collect the dues promptly by maintaining
relationships with the customers. A thorough consideration of the following factors may help the
seller to achieve the goal of writing collection letters:
• Expressing regret: In collection letter, the seller should regret that the account of the
customer is still unsettled.
• Mentioning the dues: The amount of dues, due date of payment, terms of sales etc.
should be clearly included in the collection letter.

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•
•

•

•
•

•

•

Persuading the customer: In writing an effective collection letter, an attempt is to be
taken to persuade the customer to pay the bill promptly.
Honour to the customer: The language of this letter should be courteous, polite and
gentle. It should be written in a motivating tone. No such word that can hurt the customer
should be used.
Considering the nature of customer: In writing collection or dunning letter, focus
should be given on the particulars of customers like their previous dealings, position in
credit rating, goodwill, business honesty, size of business, present circumstance of the
customers etc.
Mentioning the reference: If collection letter are written in a series, every subsequent
letter should mention the reference of the previous letter.
Giving importance to the customer: In order to realize the dues, the seller needs to put
importance and value upon the customers. For doing so, the seller can use some
motivating words or phrases.
Indicating legal action: If the customers do not pay the dues after sending reminder and
appeal letters, the final letter of the series should be written by indicating that necessary
legal action would be taken against them.
Sending through post: The seller should send collection letters especially, the last letter
of the series through registered with acknowledgements. It helps to avoid unnecessary
delay or missing of the letter, or denial from the part of the customer.

Finally, we can conclude that the ultimate goal of a collection letter is to maintain goodwill
while getting overdue payment form the customers. Lack of concern about customer’s goodwill
cause them to do business elsewhere. Therefore, collection letter should always rely on the art of
persuasion.

MEMORANDUM
What is memo or memorandum?
Memorandum is popularly known as memo. The literal meaning of the word memorandum is a
note to assist the memory. Memos are the written internal communication means for exchanging
information relating to day-to-day functions within the organizations.
•
•
•

According to Lesikar and pettit, “Memorandum is a form of letters written inside the
business”.
According to Stewart and Clark, “Memos are used to communicate with other
employees, regardless of where the employees may be located in the same organization.”
According to S. Taylor, “Memo is a written communication form one person to another
(or a group of people) within the same organization.”

So, memorandum or memos are an internal short note or letter in which information exchanged
among superiors and subordinates or same potion of employees in the organizational structure.

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Advantages of memo
We know memorandum serves various purposes. it is a common means of writer, communication
within the organization. The main advantages of memos are discussed below:
1. Time saving: We can see that may organizations use printed memo. As it is usually
printed, it takes less time to draft it.
2. Less formality: No formality is necessary in drafting a memo, usually inside address,
salutation and complimentary closing is omitted in it.
3. Maintenance good relationship: It can help to maintain the good relationship among the
boss and subordinates, because the bossing attitude is absent here.
4. Low cost: The cost of communication through a memo is less than those of others.
5. References: Memo is a written document. So, it can be used for future references.
6. Inform the decisions and actions: The main objective of memo is to inform the
decisions and actions. For this purpose, it should be written by the higher authority.
7. Request the decisions and actions: The objective of memo is to request the decisions
and actions. For this objective, it may be drafted by the sub-ordinate.
8. Provide information: Another important objective of the memo is to provide
information form one level to another within the business.
9. Remain someone of action: Memo is also written to remind someone of action, if
requires.
10. Others: Issuing orders and instructions, providing response, providing suggestions,
presenting informal report, solving problems.
Disadvantages of memo
There are few limitations or Disadvantages of memos they are:
1. Limited application: It is not widely used means of communication. Memorandum is
mainly used in business firms. It maintains communication only among the employees of
the same firm regardless of distance.
2. Time consuming: It takes time to be sent to a distant branch or office.
3. Expensive: As usually a memo is a per-printed form, it is expensive than other means.
Sometimes huge printed memos remain unused.
4. Lack of formality: It provides only informal communication.
5. Lack of explanation: Memo is written in a short form. So the meaning of it may not be
cleared to the reader.
6. Less important to the reader: As it is an informal means of communication, it can be
less important to the reader.
7. Not suitable for illiterate people: Office memo is a one kind of written communication.
So, illiterate people are not able to read and understand it.
Guidelines for writing effective memos or drafting memos
In order to make interoffice communication easier, please adhere to the following guidelines for
Writing effective memos:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Summarize the conclusions in the introduction paragraph
State the basis for conclusion in the introductory paragraph
Begin each subsequent paragraph with a thesis statement
Support the thesis statement in the body of the paragraph
Be concise
Know the audience

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7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Avoid jargon
Stay objective
Use active verbs
Anticipate counterarguments
Provide “road signs” as needed
Cite the sources
Number the pages
End with a concluding paragraph

Different Parts of a Business Memo | Sample Memo
Here you will get Different structure or parts of a memo. There are usually three main parts to a
memo:
1. The heading
2. The subject and date
3. The message.
1. The Heading: The heading of a memorandum is usually printed. It contains the name of the
organization and ‘To’ and ‘From’ sections. Make sure you address the reader by this or her
correct name and job title. Be specific and concise in your subject line.
In section ‘To’, a courtesy title – Miss, Mrs., Mr., Dr. is often included. But in section ‘From’ the
write does not use a courtesy title. The heading segment follows this general format:

2. The subject and Date: The subject is a brief statement telling what the memo is about. The
subject line is not a complete sentence but rather a concise phrase which indicates some specific
information. The date of writing memo is also important to take action in time.

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3. The message: Message is the main body of a memo. The message contains the following
matters:
(a) Introduction: The message represents the main idea in the first paragraph. it is called the
background of the information.
(b) Details: In the second paragraph you should write details about information to support the
introduction. It should be logical and separate into paragraph.
(c) Response: It is called the action statement. In this paragraph you should state: action you want
to reader to take, Action you will take, Action that you are requested to take, Dead line etc.
Specimen copy of memo

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RESUME | CURRICULUM VITAE |
Since the contents and layout of resume or curriculum vitae vary widely, there is no best way to
write it. However, depending in the background and career goal, there can be three formats of
resume. These are:
1. Chronological format resume: The chronological format is the most common way to
organize a resume, as most employers prefer it. In this format, work experience dominates the
arrangement of information. Work experience in usually placed after the opening section.
This format is suitable for experienced job seekers. In this format, employment information
like duration of employment, company name and job title etc. are listed by dates, chorological
format may be of two types:a. straight chronological order and b. reverse chronological
order.
2. Straight chronological order: In straight chronological order, experience is listed with the
sequence of date. That is the most recent employment is placed in the last. An example of

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straight chronological order of experience is shown below:

3. Reverse chronological order: In this approach, list of experience is given in the reverse way
where the most recent employment appears in the first. An example of reverse chronological
order of experience is show below:

4. Functional order: A functional resume or curriculum vitae focuses on the academic
qualifications, skills and accomplishments of the applicant. Therefore, academic
achievements, skills and accomplishments section appears at the beginning of the resume. It
is useful for candidates who have outstanding academic record and possess special skills for
performing a job. Fresh graduates who have little or no experience usually follow this format.
5. Combination approach: It is the combination of the previous two approaches. It combines
the best features of chronological and functional approaches. Combination approach
emphasizes on job skills and special capability that differentiate the application from others.
Therefore, this approach is suitable for persons whose job related skills and capabilities are
superior to academic attainments. It also lists company names and dates of previous
employments.

Contents of resume/ CV
Contents of resume: Contents and layout of resume or curriculum vitae vary widely. There is no
single best way to write resume. However, a factual and effective resume usually contains the
following contents:
1. Opening section: Opening section of a resume generally includes following two items:
o Identifying information: Identifying information includes name, contact address
(both present and permanent), e-mail address and telephone number of the applicant.
o Career objective: A modern resume includes a statement of immediate and longterm career objective of applicant. This statement helps the employer to evaluate
what type of job the applicant likes. Career objective also helps the employer to
categorize the applicants.

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2. Education or academic qualification: This section of resume contains a list of degree
achieved along with name of the in situation granting the degree, year of obtaining the
degree, courses taken, position obtained etc.
3. Work experience: In this section, a list of employment and description of work experience
are incorporated by following a reveres chorological order. It mentions employer’s name and
location, duration of employment and position held.
4. Achievements and awards: This section includes school and community memberships,
offices held, honors, publications, language skills etc. of the applicant.
5. Personal data: Personal data include applicant’s age, religion, gender, nationality, marital
status, hobby, height, date of availability etc.
6. Reference: Most resumes mention references from which the employer can seek information
about the applicant. Generally, name of the former employers and teachers are mentioned as
reference.

Contents of resume

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REPORTS
-are fixed format documents. They are written as a result of instructions given to someone to
investigate and report on a problem.
A report is written for a clear purpose and to a particular audience. Specific information and
evidence are presented, analyzed and applied to a particular problem or issue. The information is
presented in a clearly structured format making use of sections and headings so that the
information is easy to locate and follow. When you are asked to write a report you will usually
be given a report brief which provides you with instructions and guidelines. The report brief may
outline the purpose, audience and problem or issue that your report must address, together with
any specific requirements for format or structure. This guide offers a general introduction to
report writing; be sure also to take account of specific instructions provided by your department.
Purposes or Objective of Business Reports
Reports are the primary means of communication in organization. In large-scale organizations,
there is no alternative to use reports. Reports also play an important role in small-scale
organizations. Some points highlighting the purposes or objectives or important of business report
are presented below1. Transmitting Information: Business report is very important for transmitting information
from one person to another or form one level to another. Although a manager can personally
collect required information in a small scale enterprise, it is not possible in the context of a
large scale organization. In the latter case, the managers rely on reports for obtaining
necessary information.
Interpretation and Explanation of event: Report provides interpretation and explanation of
information. As a result, readers can easily understand it.
2. Making decisions: A report is the basic management tool for making decisions. The job of a
manager is nothing but making decisions. Reports supply necessary information to managers
to solve problems.
3. Communication with external stakeholders: In addition to internal use, reports also
communicate information to the external stakeholders like shareholders, creditors, customers,
suppliers, government officials and various regulatory agencies. In the absence of formal
business report, such stakeholders would remain at dark about the organizations.
4. Development of information base: Reports also contribute to the development of
information base in organization. It develops information base in two ways. Firstly, day to
day information is recorded permanently for writing reports. Secondly, the written reports are
preserved for future reference. In these ways, reports help in developing a strong and sound
information base.
5. Developing labour management relationship: Reports also help to improve labour
management relationship particularly, in large organizations. In a large organization, there is
little opportunity of direct communication between top-level management and employees. In
this case, report is used as mechanism of keeping both sides informed about each other and
improving their relationships.
6. Controlling: Controlling is the final function of management. It ensures whether the actual
performance meets the standard. In order to perform the managerial function of controlling,
report serves as a yardstick. It supplies necessary information to impose controlling
mechanism.
7. Recommending actions: Reports not only supply information but also recommend natural
actions or solutions to problem. When someone is given the charge of investigating a

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complex problem and suggesting appropriate remedy, the investigator usually submits a
report to the concerned manger.
Above discussion makes it clear that reports are the commonly used vehicles that help mangers in
planning, organizing, staffing and controlling. In a nutshell, report is indispensable for carrying
out the management functions. Report is the nerve of an organization that circulates information.
The major purposes of reports are to -:
• Inform
• Record facts
• Persuade
• Help in decision making
• Recommend action
Reports are widely used in organisation for making decisions:
1. They should be based on careful research.
2. Clearly and logically written in an objective, impersonal style.
3. Constructed with the appropriate sections.
4. Well presented with high readability.
5. Written with a specific audience in mind.
Characteristics of Report
•
•

•

•

•

•

•

Complete and Compact Document: Report is a complete and compact written
document giving updated information about a specific problem.
Systematic Presentation of Facts: Report is a systematic presentation of facts, figures,
conclusions and recommendations. Report writers closely study the problem under
investigation and prepare a report after analyzing all relevant information regarding the
problem. Report is supported by facts and evidence. There is no scope for imagination in
a report which is basically a factual document.
Prepared in Writing: Reports are usually in writing. Writing reports are useful for
reference purpose. It serves as complete, compact and self-explanatory document over a
long period. Oral reporting is possible in the case of secret and confidential matters.
Provides Information and Guidance: Report is a valuable document which gives
information and guidance to the management while framing future policies. It facilitates
planning and decision making. Reports are also useful for solving problems faced by a
business enterprise.
Self-explanatory Document: Report is a comprehensive document and covers all
aspects of the subject matter of study. It is a self-explanatory and complete document by
itself.
Acts as a Tool of Internal Communication: Report is an effective tool of
communication between top executives and subordinate staff working in an organization.
It provides feedback to employees and to executives for decision making. Reports are
generally submitted to higher authorities. It is an example of upward communication.
Similarly, reports are also sent by company executives to the lower levels of
management. This is treated as downward communication. In addition, reports are also
sent to shareholders and others connected with the company. It may be pointed out that
report writing / preparation acts as a backbone of any system of communication.
Acts as Permanent Record: A report serves as a permanent record relating to certain
business matter. It is useful for future reference and guidance.

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•

Time Consuming and Costly Activity: Report writing is a time consuming, lengthy and
costly activity as it involves collection of facts, drawing conclusion and making
recommendations.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A REPORT
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

They have clearly defined sections.
They are based on facts.
They are used for making decisions.
They often give detailed technical information.
They should be set out in a highly readable way.
They should be written in a formal, impersonal style.
They are often accompanied by a letter of transmittal. This letter records that the work
has been done.

Reports are written for a variety of audiences. Major types are:
•
•

•

Informative report (stresses about facts) –give the facts of a situation. The writer will
also stress the procedures
Investigative Reports (gives results of an investigation and recommends action) – are
written because the writer has been instructed to investigate the problem, draw
conclusions from the facts and recommendations. The writer for example has been asked
to investigate the causes of the factory fire, draw conclusions and recommendations

•
•
•
•

Feasibility Reports (examines whether something can be done or not and recommend
action) are related to investigation reports. They are written because someone has been
instructed to investigate whether something can or should be done or not.
Evaluative reports – investigation and feasibility reports evaluate the facts.
Technical reports – contains large amounts of technical information. Information often
set in tables, graphs e.tc
Interim reports - Are written to inform managers of the progress of a project.
Self-inaugurated reports
Investigative reports
Annual reports to shareholders and employees

•

Organisation and method studies

•

Work studies.

•
•

PROGRESS REPORTS
Progress reports are common and critical documents in science and engineering. The basic point
of a progress report is to summarize the status, progress, and likely future for a particular project.
In a progress report you are often expected to commit to an exact schedule for the project
completion, discuss the status of the materials being used and account for the money spent, and
summarize concretely both the current findings and the predicted results. The professionalism of
the progress report is often vital to the future of the project.

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Style for Progress Reports
The following stylistic advice can be applied to most progress reports you write:
• Include a working title and the words “Progress Report” at the top of the page.
• Use section headings in the report to simplify both the writing and reading process.
• Open the report with a “Scope and Purpose” section, where you give a condensed version
of your future report’s introduction and objective.
• Always include a section entitled, for example, “Progress,” which summarizes the work’s
pace and progress and explains any snafus, dilemmas, or setbacks.
• Always include a section entitled, for example, “Remaining Work,” which honestly
assesses the work that must still be completed. Think right on the page in this section,
posing questions, speculating meaningfully, exploring your options.
• Always include a section that projects the expected results. Commit to a schedule for
obtaining those results if possible.
• If necessary, include a section in which you directly solicit advice from your teacher or
advisor. Be forthright and professional about the nature of the advice you need.
• Keep your paragraphs short and focused—just a few paragraphs per section, typically.
• Your tone can often be straightforward and familiar—therefore, as a rule, you can use “I”
and “you” freely—but do not lapse into informality.
• Avoid being overly optimistic, pessimistic, apologetic, cocky, or self-deprecating.

RECOMMENDATION REPORT
OVERVIEW
A recommendation report proposes a solution to a problem or evaluates possible solutions and
recommends one. Before proposing or recommending a solution, the report needs to identify the
problem.
Think about the various problems you encounter everyday or read about in the paper.
EXAMPLE: A HEALTH CARE/ECONOMIC PROBLEM
For instance, Parliament is trying to figure out how to control the ever-increasing cost of
Medicare/Medicaid. The problem seems to be that if we don't reform the system, part of Medicare
(health insurance for seniors) may go broke in ten years (though such predictions have existed
ever since Medicare was created). But reforming the system may require some seemingly
unpleasant lifestyle changes: seniors may have to enroll in managed care plans (HMOs); in the
case of a terminal illness, no extreme measures would be taken to effect an (unlikely) cure or to
extend life. This would mean that certain conditions--like liver failure late in life due to
alcoholism--would be treated with measures less expensive than a liver transplant, while other
conditions, such as hypertension would get more, and faster, treatment. Are HMOs the solution?
A feasibility study would evaluate this solution *among others* as a way to respond to the
problem of rising Medicare costs.
EXAMPLE: TECHNOLOGY UPGRADE
In technology, problems are often resolved with a technical upgrade. For instance, you put dual
airbags in cars because people too often don't use seat belts, and airbags prevent further injury
even when seat belts are used. The problem here, which motivates people to improve a process, is
that people continue to sustain severe injuries despite the availability of seat belts and dual
airbags. Taking this one step further, some car companies (like Volvo) are not installing side

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airbags, in addition to the two in front, to protect people against side impacts, which often do not
activate the two front airbags.
EXAMPLE: SOCIAL SCIENCE/COMMUNICATION
In the areas of social science and communication, a "technical upgrade" might exist in the field of
small-business management, where many researchers are discovering that a business will run
more efficiently if the employees are asked for their advice about how to improve processes.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN DEVISING A SOLUTION
1. Be SITE SPECIFIC. That is, don't propose a general solution; propose one that is
specific to your situation.
2. Survey what is currently known about your subject through research. SUPPORT your
recommendations with RESEARCH.
3. Consider ECONOMIC ASPECTS. Since money is involved in the improvement of
almost anything, you must take into account the economic aspects. Do a long-term cost
analysis. Will the improvement, over time, be worth the increased cost? How would one
determine that?
4. Consider CHANCE and human nature. Try to anticipate the unexpected. For instance,
Corridor H in WV may not be built--not because of all the environmental studies, but
because we have now learned that there are Civil War sites along the route--which no
one, apparently, knew about before.
ORGANIZING THE REPORT
The PROPOSAL FORMAT will probably fit most topics better than the feasibility study format.
If you want to adapt either of these patterns, discuss your plans with your professor.
In brief, here are the basic elements of each pattern. Please be sure to look at the book to see the
sub-sections for each of the main points outlined here.
PATTERN 1: FEASIBILITY STUDY
1. Introduction
2. Comparison of Alternatives
3. Conclusions
4. Recommendations
PATTERN 2: PROPOSAL REPORT
1. Problem
2. Proposed Solution
3. Needed Equipment/Personnel
4. Schedules
5. Budget
6. Evaluation System
7. Expected Benefits
8. Summary/Conclusions
TIP
1. Establish credibility:
o Demonstrate knowledge of the problem
o Show expertise in your recommendation(s)
o Integrate research
2. Show an awareness of readers' needs in your decisions about organization
3. Show an awareness of readers' needs in your decisions about content. Specifically:
o in your decisions about tone and style

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in your decisions about the amount of detail you provide in descriptions,
explanations, or analyses of the problem, solution, costs or effects.
o in your decisions about what points you will emphasize (through graphics,
placement in your text, use of supporting documentation, etc.)
4. Demonstrate your attention to format:
o Set up the recommendation report as a short memo report addressed to the person
whom you hope will act on your proposal. (Since this memo is not addressed to
your professor, attach a simple cover sheet to the top of your report. List your
professor's name, your name, and date just to be sure your paper ends up in the
right mailbox)
o Use headings, paragraphing, spacing, and typography well
o Include a graphic if relevant
5. Demonstrate your ability to document a source.
o Use parenthetical documentation in the text.
o Use accurate APA style to list only the references cited in the text of your report.
o Integrate at least three current sources (nothing older than two years).
6. Demonstrate attention to fine-tuning revisions..
o Improve SENTENCE STYLE
o Attend to WORD CHOICES
o Avoid WORDINESS
o Use ACTIVE VOICE when possible
o Avoid SUBJECT-VERB disagreements
o Attend to COMMA USE after introductory clauses
o Avoid SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
o Avoid RUN-ON (OR "FUSED") SENTENCES
o Use APOSTROPHES accurately
o Use PARALLEL STRUCTURE
o Avoid other errors in GRAMMAR AND PUNCTUATION)
o PROOFREAD carefully
o

INVESTIGATION/ EXAMINATION REPORT

CONFIDENTIAL INVESTIGATION REPORT- Department of <NAME>
Allegation/Issue
Name/Designation of employee
<Name, Job title>
subject to investigation (if
appropriate)
Name of complainant
(if appropriate)
Investigator(s)
<Name 1, Job title, Department>, <Name 2, Job title,
Department (if appropriate)>
HR Support/Link
<Name, Job title, contact number>
Background
 Identify how the situation came to light (based on the factual information provided by
the instigating manager); what actions have already been taken prior to the
investigation commencing; what communications have taken place.
 Provide brief details of the ‘subject’ of the investigation, their employment history,

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current role and how long held etc.
Note if employee suspended and when, whether redeployed for duration of investigation
or if there are any specific changes in place to allow the investigation to take place i.e.
line management responsibility removed, budget responsibility suspended, taken off
usual duties but still within department etc.

Executive Summary (Optional - delete if appropriate)
 This may be suitable for complex investigations and should provide a brief summary of
the main findings/conclusions.
Remit of Investigation
 Define remit of investigation, i.e. what allegations/concerns were identified as in need
of investigation (provide concise bullet points list of all allegations, that will be
expanded upon in “Findings” section).
 State policy under which the investigation was carried out (e.g. University Disciplinary
Policy, Research Misconduct etc).
Investigation Process
Explain how the investigation progressed, including reasons for decisions which were made and
the direction the investigation went including:






A brief description of the method(s) used to gather information.
Use table template ‘Appendix 1’ to record what interviews/statements were undertaken,
when, and their appendix number within the bundled of evidence
If the investigator has not interviewed all individuals suggested by the ‘subject’ of the
investigation the decision should be recorded in this section (including reasons e.g.
character reference only).
A timetable of events. (Detailing any delays in the investigations).
What documents/evidence were reviewed (Appendix 2: Record of Evidence)

Findings
Provide a summary of the findings and observations:
 Present the findings separately for each point/allegation/issue of concern in turn, by
confirming the facts established by the investigation, identifying the sequence of events,
cross-referencing any documentation and highlighting any mitigating factors e.g. lack
of procedural guidance, management action or expected documentation and any other
actions / behaviours which may have compounded or aggravated the situation
• Avoid using vast extracts from statements - only quote directly from the statements
where it is necessary. It is the investigator’s responsibility to analyse all the statements
and draw out all corroborative evidence. Interviewees are not always articulate during
interviews and the investigator should therefore use their own words to concisely
convey the findings.
• If the evidence is inconclusive or there is no evidence to substantiate an allegation - say
so. The instigating manager wants to know whether there is any evidence to support the
allegations - it is also the investigator’s responsibility to explain how significant the
evidence is - this should come across throughout the report.
 Note any specific actions that demonstrate a breach of policy or standards of
conduct/performance that did not meet those normally expected.

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Refer back to the agreed remit of investigation, ensuring that you cover all the points.

Conclusion
NOTE: When reviewing the evidence, investigators need to aim to demonstrate a reasonable
belief as to what happened, based on their assessment of the evidence available. The standard
of proof for internal investigations and any subsequent disciplinary hearing or grievance
meeting is based on the “balance of probabilities”, i.e. that on the basis of the evidence it was
more probable than not that the alleged misconduct was committed. Investigators are not
required to demonstrate beyond reasonable doubt, unlike in criminal investigations, but do need
to act reasonably on behalf of the employer.
•
•
•

•


For each allegation/concern/issue provide an overall fact based opinion on a) whether
there is any evidence to support the allegations and b) the strength of the evidence.
Support the conclusions with the strongest evidence without repeating the text in the
main body of the report (where possible) - the conclusions should be clear and concise.
Identify to the reader the strengths and weaknesses in the evidence - emphasising the
importance of any issues and where evidence can be open to different interpretation /
scenarios.
Draw out key facts which demonstrate particular breaches of policy e.g. Code of
Conduct, Harassment, Financial Regulations, service policies & procedures etc
If there are any special circumstances/mitigating factors ensure that they are clear
within the conclusions and it is important to explain their significance.

Appendices
 Chronology of events; witness statements; investigatory interview notes; about the Job
documents; organisational structure; medical advice etc.
Signed by Investigatory Officer
Date
Appendix 1:
The following table gives the names of the people who provided statements for this
investigation.
Name
Post
Reason
Date
Appendix

Appendix 2: Record of Evidence
Date
Item
Investigation Statements

Appendix

Supporting Documentation

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ACCIDENT REPORT
Accident Report Form
What is an Accident Report Form?
All accidents are considered as incidents; however an accident report form focuses more on the
injury whereas the incident report form is intended to focus on the cause and prevention of further
occurrences.
The Accident Report Form is in 2 parts. The first part is completed by the employee who suffered
the accident, and the second part is completed by the supervisor.
An accident report is an important tool used to document the accident and assist in investigating
the cause. It also assists to develop procedures that may be put in place to prevent it from
happening again.
The supplied template calls on the employees, with the assistance of a manager, to fill in the first
page details including:
 employee details,
 injury details- including date, time and expected time off,
 medical treatment required, and
 events leading up to the injury- this is important to gain the employees perspective of
what actually happened.
The second section of the form is to be completed by the manager and requires the manager to
identify the following:
 witness details,
 how the accident happened, and
 how a recurrence can be prevented.
It is important to show outcomes of the investigation, and to document what actions can or will be
taken to prevent another injury occurring in a similar scenario.
The Manager should decide, or, if requested by employees, whether or not the accident should
also be documented as an incident needing further investigation. This may well be the case
depending on the cause of the accident and the possibility of it happening again due to job design,
system or procedural faults needing additional investigation and control.
Should your company decide to merge both the accident and incident form together into one
document then the suitability of this should be assessed at senior management level to ensure that
a detailed and documented approach to both matters is still achieved.

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EMPLOYEE DETAILS
Name: ____________________________ Position:_____________________________
Address: _______________________________________________________________
INJURY DETAILS
Date of accident: ___________ Time: ________ Date Reported: __________ Time: _________
Date ceased work: __________ Time: __________ Supervisor: __________________________
Time lost (to date): ___________________ Time lost (anticipated overall) __________________
Medical Treatment required:
______________________________________________________________________________

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Nature and extent of injury

Part of body injured

Nature of injury

□

Head

□

Trunk

□

Multiple

□

Eyes

□

Arm

□

General

□

Neck

□

Leg

□

Unspecified

□

Sprain

□

Laceration

□

Burn

□

Fracture

□

Concussion

□

Superficial

□

Multiple

□

Dislocation

□

Amputation

□

Contusion

□

Other

□

Flying
object

□

Manual handling

□

Electricity

□

Struck by

□

Poisons

□

Fall

□

Caught in

□

Temperature

□

Other

Type of incident

Describe the events leading up to the injury and how the injury occurred (witness or
injured person’s statement).

Witness Details

How did the accident happen

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What caused the
accidents

□

Ineffective
guarding

□

Lack of protective
equipment

□

Lack of training

□

Lack of
maintenance

□

Safety rules not
followed

□

inexperience

□

Unsafe work
methods

□

Misconduct

□

Workplace design
(equipment, design,
layout)

□

Weather

□

Poor housekeeping

□

Language
difficulties

Explain

How can a recurrence be prevented?

Supervisor’s name: _______________________________________________________
Signature: _____________________________________ Date: ____________________
Appropriate Government/insurance bodies Advised? (If applicable)

Yes/No

Date :_________________________
Is this a Work-related injury?

Yes/No

Employer/Supervisor comments:

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COMPILING A REPORT: SCHEMATIC REPORT
BODY OF REPORT
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Introduction
Procedure for gathering
Conclusions (insight and implications)
Recommendations (the action to be taken)
Findings (the Facts)
Bibliography
List of references
Appendices

THE PURPOSE
• It is important to establish immediately the exact purpose of the report. Think of who is
to read it, what is it intended to achieve and how it will be used.
FORMAT OF A REPORT
1. COMPANY NAME
2. REPORT TITLE
3. TERMS OF REFERENCE.
• They form the opening of the report.
• They should include the following:
(a) By whom the report has been requested e.g.
At the request of a sales director or as directed by the board.
(b) The precise areas to be covered e.g.
To enquire into present procedures of.................
To examine how the................................................................................
To carry out a feasibility study into the...................................................
(c) What is intended should be the outcome of the report e.g.
To establish the nature and extent of existing problems and make recommendations for their
solution.
To inform shareholders of plans for rationalisation.
(d) Establishing the limits of the report, such as recognition of financial or economic
constraints, company policy, union, agreements or factors external to a department which
partially determine the working method.
4. PROCEDURES
This element concerns the method of investigation to be adopted. Methods which might be
mentioned include:
(a) Experiment
(b) Observation – observation of customer of staff behaviour

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(c) Survey
(d) Consultation
(e) Research
5. FINDINGS – Found when the procedures are analysed.
6. CONCLUSION - These are the solutions.
The derived from findings.
7. RECOMMENDATIONS - These are suggestions.
They are derived from the conclusions.
8. SIGNATURE.
9. NAME – His /Her name full.
10. DESIGNATION – His / her post or position in the organisation.

EXAMPLE OF A SCHEMATIC REPORT
Terms of Reference
Margaret
Anderson, Director of Personnel has requested this report on employee benefits satisfaction. The
report was to be submitted to her by 28 June.
Procedure
A representative selection of 15% of all employees was interviewed in the period between April
1st and April 15th concerning:
1. Overall satisfaction with our current benefits package
2. Problems encountered when dealing with the personnel department
3. Suggestions for the improvement of communication policies
4. Problems encountered when dealing with our HMO
Findings
1. Employees were generally satisfied with the current benefits package.
2. Some problems were encountered when requesting vacation due to what is perceived as
long approval waiting periods.
3. Older employees repeatedly had problems with HMO prescription drugs procedures.
4. Employees between the ages of 22 and 30 report few problems with HMO.
5. Most employees complain about the lack of dental insurance in our benefits package.
6. The most common suggestion for improvement was for the ability to process benefits
requests online.
Conclusions
1. Older employees, those over 50, are having serious problems with our HMO's ability to
provide prescription drugs.
2. Our benefits request system needs to be revised as most complaints concerning in-house
processing.
3. Improvements need to take place in personnel department response time.
4. Information technology improvements should be considered as employees become more
technologically savvy.

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COMMUNICATION
Recommendations
1. Meet with HMO representatives to discuss the serious nature of complaints concerning
prescription drug benefits for older employees.
2. Give priority to vacation request response time as employees need faster approval in
order to be able to plan their vacations.
3. Take no special actions for the benefits package of younger employees.
4. Discuss the possibility of adding an online benefits requests system to our company
Intranet.
Important Points to Remember
• A report is divided into four areas:
o Terms of Reference- This section gives background information on the reason
for the report. It usually includes the person requesting the report.
o Procedure- The procedure provides the exact steps taken and methods used for
the report.
o Findings- The findings point out discoveries made during the course of the
report investigation.
o Conclusions- The conclusions provide logical conclusions based on the findings.
o Recommendations- The recommendations state actions that the writer of the
report feels need to be taken based on the findings and conclusions.
• Reports should be concise and factual. Opinions are given in the "conclusions" section.
However, these opinions should be based on facts presented in the "findings".
• Use simple tenses (usually the present simple) to express facts.
• Use the imperative form (Discuss the possibility ..., Give priority ..., etc.) in the
"recommendations" section as these apply to the company as a whole.

INTERVIEWS
It is a planned conversation between two partners during which questions are asked and
answered. A job interview is aimed specifically at trying to find the suitable interviewee for the
job.
Purpose
•
•
•
•
•

The interviewer wants to form an impression of the interviewee.
Interviewer wants to confirm the accuracy of information supplied in the application
letter and CV.
The interviewer is given a chance to explain the job in detail.
Interviewer also gets to form an impression for the organisation.
Facilitates the selection of the best candidate.

Types of Interviews
Structured Interviews are carefully planned in advance and questions asked are usually closed
ones where one word answers are required.
Unstructured Interviews
They offer more flexibility, more scope is allowed to the interviewee to answer questions, Open
ended questions are asked.

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Interviewee ‘s preparation
• Gain as much knowledge as possible about the company.
• Study the job specifications closely.
• Prepare to sell yourself i.e. state what you can do for the company.
• Think carefully about your career objectives.
• Draw up a list of questions that colud be asked and plan how to answer them.
• Drw up a list of questions that you would like to ask.
Interviewers Preparation
• Prepare a job description.
• Prepare a range of general and specific questions suitable for each candidate.
• Prepare the room well.
• prepare a checklist for the desired characteristics.
• Prepare a score sheet so that each candidate can be rated on a set of characteristics.
Questions asked may cover the following:
• Home background
• Education and Training
• Work history
• Career Plans
• Reasons for applying the job.
• Leadership
• Initiative
• Flexibility
• Independence
• Ability to get on with others
• Motivation
• Communication skills
Examples of interview questions include;
• Why have you applied for this job?
• Why are you here/ Why did you pick the organisation?
• What kind of a person are you?
• Assuming you can do the job what distinguishes you from 10 other people who can do
the same job?
• What have been your achievements so far?
• What preparations did you make before coming for this interview?
• When can you start?
• Do you have any challenges?
• What qualities will you bring into this organisation if offered a job?
• For how long do you intend to stay with us?
• Where do you see yourself in 5 years time?
• What do you think of this organisation?
• What is it that you least enjoy about your job?
• What qualities do you think a Marketing Manager should possess?

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