Comp Grammer

A SHORT
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR
OF
GREEK AND LATIN.
PRESS NOTICES OF THE" GRAlJfMAIRE OOMPAREE."
"In Prof. Henry's Precis we have a much needed work. The revo-
lution undergone by comparative philology during the last ten years has
made the old manuals obsolete, more especially those in which it was
called upon to explain the sounds and grammatical forms of Greek and
Latin.
" Prof. Henry has supplied an increasingly felt want. The work could
not have been undertaken by better hands. The author has himself
borne a prominent part in the researches and discoveries of the last few
years, and his "vide kno'wledge and sound judgment make his criticism
of the theories of others exceptionally valuable."-Prof. SAyeE in the
" Academy.."
" No better introduction to classical etylnology than this has yet
appeared. Prof. Henry has the advantage of writing in a language of
such unrivalled lucidity, that in it the most abstruse subjects seeln plain
and silnple; and he is himself a master in whose hands we may feel safe,
'who is conversant 'with the latest philological literature, and can take a
connected view of his science."-Olassical Review.
A SHORT
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR
OF
GREEK AND LATIN
jfor $cbooIs ant) '-tolleges
BY
VICTOR HENRY
11
DeputY-P1'ofessol" of Compayative Philology in the University of Pa1'is, Doctor of Lette1's,
and Doct01' of Laws
AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION FROM THE SECOND FRENCH EDITION BY
R. T. ELLIOTT, M.A..
Late Classical Exhibitione1' of W01'ceste1' College, Oxford;
Lectu1'er in Classics arid Comparative Philology at T1'inity College, Melbourne;
itfembe1' of the Philological Society and of the Societe de Linguistique de Paris
WITH AN INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY
HENRY NETTLESHIP
CM'pUS Professor of Latin in the University of Oxford.
Jnuholt :
SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO.
PATERNOSTER SQUARE
1890
BUTLER & TANNER,
TIm SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS,
FROME, AND LONDON.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
ENGLISH students of Oomparative Philology have
for some tilne felt the need of a manual which
should exhibit, -in a concise form, the main results
of modern research alld the application of modern
method, as bearing upon the scientific gramnlar
of Greek: and Latin. Mucll has been already done
for us by Messrs. King and OOOkSOll in their
valuable work entitled Sounds and Inflexions in
Greelc and L a t i 1 ~ (Olarendon Press, Oxford, 1888).
M. Hellry's volume, no doul)t, presents many of
tIle saIne facts as Messrs. Killg and OOOkSOll'S
book; but it is considerably shorter, it is cast ill
a different mould, and it has a slightly dissimilar
aIm. It is, in the strict· sense of the term, a
Oomparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, and
treats of nothing extraneous to its tbeme. The
Illminousness of arrangement, the clearness of
v
VI INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
exposition, an'd the general mastery of the subject
which it displays are fully wortlly of the distin-
guished and original scholar whose name is so
honourably known in connexion with this branch
of' philology.
HENRY NETTLESHIP.
OXFORD,
Jan. 14th, 1890.
PREFACE.
THE following work is a translation of Professor Victor
Henry's Precis de Grrammairc Comparee du Grec et du Latin.
The translation was undertaken by me mainly at the sugges-
tion of Professor Nettleship and Professor Sayee, and with the
full approval of the author, in the hope that, in the paucity of
English books containing the results qf the latest researches in
Comparative Philology in regard to Greek and Latin, a trans-
lation of a work in which these were lucidly set forth by one
of the acknowledged masters of the science might be of use to
English students.
The translation has been made from the second and re-
vised edition of the originaL I t contains also variou5 later
corrections and additions by the author, e.g. p. 119 note
(EYVWa-{)YJc;) , p. 131 € etc.; some additions by the author
have also been inserted in the Bibliography. A few slight
nlodifications and additions have been made, in order to adapt
the work more directly to the requirements of English students.
Thus in the Bibliography, English translations of 'German books
have been substituted for French translations. Again, in the
original, the explanations of pronunciation and illustrations of
phonetic phenomena were mainly given through the medium of
French examples; in a few such cases, mainly those connected
with pronunciation, English examples have been substituted
jointly by the author and myself, e.g. pp. 18, 21, etc.; in
others, at the author's suggestion, I have added corresponding
English examples within square brackets, e.g. pp. 30 note, 54
note, 185 note, etc. So also, when German words cognate to
Latin and Greek have been given as illustrations, the corre-
sponding English words have sometimes been added in brackets,
vii
VIIi
TRANSLATOR"s PRE}"ACE.
when these could be given with certainty, e.g. pp. 63, 73, etc.
In a few cases references have been added to English books
bearing on the subject under discussion, e.g. pp. 76 note, 186
note, 276 note, etc.; a few additional English books have
also been mentioned in the Bibliography. All such additions by
the translator have been placed within square brackets; none
have been inserted without the author's approval.
In matters of terminology, it has been thought important not
to confuse the English student by the introduction of fresh
terms, where this could be avoided; accordingly, except in a few
special cases where the author wished otherwise (e.g. in regard
to vowel-gradation, p. 47 note 2), the usual English terluinology
has been adhered to, but attention has been drawn to the termi-
nology of the original when divergent, and to that of other
English books, when it seemed likely that the variations in the
usage of English writers might cause perplexity to the beginner
(e.g. p. 22 notes).
I have to express my warm thanks to the author for reading
the whole of the proof-sheets of this translation, and for much
kind assistance; and to Professor Sayee, who, in the midst of
his many labours, has been kind enough to read the greater part
of the proof-sheets, and to make many valuable suggestions. I
wish also to express my obligations to Professor Nettleship;
Dr. J. A. H. l\furray, and Dr. Joseph Wright for some useful
suggestions on points of terminology; and to my friend Mr.
W. Worrall for help in passing the proof-sheets of the intro-
ductory matter through the press. But, while grateful to these
gentlemen for their kind help, I must myself assume the sole
responsibility for everything connected with the English forln
of this book.
R. T. ELLIOTT.
OXFORD,
Dec., 1889.
AUTHOR'S PREFAOE.
THIS book contains the substance of four years' lectures
(1884-87), delivered on behalf of the Faculty of Letters of
Douai. More than once, in the course of my lectures, I have
had occasion to regret that the students had not in their hands
some manual of comparative grammar, which might enable
them, either to review ideas which they had' imperfectly
grasped, or to acquire by thelnselves those points ,vhich the
abundance of material forced me to exclude from the year's
course. They at any rate had the opportunity of procuring
the notes of preceding years; but even this precarious and
insufficient resource was lacking to teachers outside, who often,
for of books, treated wrongly or did not treat at all the
questions proposed for their study. For the German vvorks,
in the first rank of which must be placed G. J\feyer's Greek
Grammar, are scarcely accessible to most of thenl, and there is
no French work or translation which puts vvithin their reach
the discoveries of the last ten years, vvhich have been so frui tiul
£01" this science.
1
All these considerations, and, above all, the
kind encouragement of Breal and Bergaigne, have iU
1
duced me to attempt to fill up this gap. l\£ay the book, when
once it has seen the light, prove to be not ull,vorthy of the
welcome that greeted it before its birth!
main object being to write an elementary.,vork, I have
scrupulously avoided controversy. As a general rule, on each
question I have simply point.ed out the solution which seems
to me the best, without attacking, and sometimes vvithollt even
mentioning, the others that have been offered. Many serious
1 I except of course the dictionary of MM. Breal and Bailly, which is
not a grammar, and cannot take the place of one, and the second edition of
1\1. S. Reinach's Manual (vol. ii.), in which comparative grammar naturally
occupies only a limited space.
ix
x
'AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
difficulties have been merely glanced at, SOlne h a v ~ been
avoided, while points too uncertain have been passed over
entirely in silence. At the risk of not doing justice to Inyself .
in details, I have been obliged to resign myself to these
sacrifices. Perhaps they have exceeded due limits; it is for
my critics to warn me of this, and I defer to their judgment
beforehand; but honest and indulgent critics will do me the
honour not to mistake my silence for ignorance.
For the same reason, the reader must not expect to find in
these pages any new idea or anything that has not previously
been published.. Their sole merit, if they have any, is that
they h a v ~ been kept fully in touch with the latest results of
Indo-European philology; and I will disarm the reproach of
plagiarism, which is made so lightly by certain critics, by
stating frankly that I have not claimed to be doing original
work, and that, if I have hardly ever referred to authorities,
it has been for fear of overloading and complicating unduly
a text the look of which already is not too attractive. In
order to make up as far as possible for the lack of references,
I insert after this preface a bibliography, containing a list of
the works to which I am most indebted. This list, incomplete
as it is, will at the same time serve to indicate to students and
teachers the books best calculated either to develop in them the
taste for Comparative Philology in general, or to help them
in working out more fully the particular points of knowledge
which they have derived from my teaching.
l
I must especially remind the latter class of persons that it
would do theln no good, and indeed would rather do them harm,
:iO approach the study of comparative grammar without having
lrst fully mastered the elementary grammar of Greek and
~ a t i n . This being presupposed, I will invite the beginner to
'ead this grammar from beginning to end, omitting nothing,
)ut not stopping too long over passages which may SeelTI to
lim difficult or obscure; it is much more important at the
1 With this object, I have included therein some works which do not
'elate strictly to the comparative grammar of Greek and Latin, but which
. have thought calculated to awaken in the mind of the beginner some
'eneral ideas on the evolution of language, or to provide him with terms of
omparison drawn from the language which is familiar to him,
AUTHOR'S PREFACE. Xl
outset t? gain a good general view than to u n d e r ~ t a n a every
detail. But the second time it will be well for him to read
·with pen in hand, marking occasionally the essential points,
and carefully verifying the numerous cross-references scattered
throughout the work. A.nother method of working, no less
profitable, but reserved for more advanced students, will be to
read through the alphabetical indices, and, whenever any form
atall unfalniliar strikes the eye, to seek the explanation of it
in the body of the book. Lastly, j t will be found useful to pre-
pare any portion whatever of a Greek or Latin author, referring
to the grammar for each of the etymological or grammatical
forms there met with. This exercise has been regularly
practised at my lectures, and has always yielded the best
results.
If the printing of such a work as the present did not involve
quite enough difficulties in itself, I should have liked to dis-
tinguish by two different kinds of type the fundamental facts,
the retention of which is indispensable, from the host of
secondary details for which an attentive reading will suffice.
In this rnatter I am forced to rely upon the discretion of the
student, who will find therein scope for exercising and forming
his judgment. I rely with more confidence on the tact and
judgment of the teachers in our schools and colleges, for the
selection of those elementary principles of comparative gram-
mar- which luay be introduced with profit into their own
teaching. It is of course out of the question to teach even the
outlines of philological methods to pupils in the lower forms.
But if, in the course of an explanation, or during the correction
of an exercise, the teacher finds an opportunity of introducing
a certain, happy, and easily intelligible comparison, he will gain
the advantage of satisfying the young mind, always eager for
clear and logical explanations-and who can tell ?-perchance
even of awakening, unknown to himself, some latent talent.
The important point is, not to initiate the pupil into this or that
detail, which will be forgotten as soon as learned, but to raise
discreetly the veil of the sanctuary, and give him a brief
glimpse of the beauty of this science, which is still too much
ignored, and which, to bOITO"\V the words of one of its most
XII
AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
learned and sympathetic expounders,l "lying on the borders
of the two great. domains of motion and thought, connected
with the natural sciences by its material element., sound, and
\vith the moral sciences by its ultimate object, the expression
of ideas, has its roots fixed in the field of natural history, while
its blossoms expand into psychology."
V. HENRY.
DOUAI, June 5th, 1887.
,Vho \vonld have told me, at the time when.I was "\vriting
these pages, that my dear master and friend, Abel Bergaigne,
,vould not see the second edition of a work which his wishes
had called forth and his kind influence had befriended? Such
as it is, since he was so indulgent as to deem it worthy of him,
I dedicate it to his dearly loved memory, which \vill be reli-
giously treasured by all those who have had the of
knowing him. He was one of those men whose mind and heart
are so noble, that, even at the cost of the bitter pang of separa-
tion, we can never cease to rejoice at having met them on OUT
life's pathway.
This second edition does not differ materially fronl the first.
I have corrected some mistakes, filled up some gaps, and cleared
up some obscurities, which the kindness of colleagues has
pointed out to me. In this respect lowe especial thanks to
F. de Saussure and L. Job. I have put the bibliography
and the text on a level with the works publtshed in 1888, and I
believe that I have left nothing undone in order to continue to
deserve the favour which has greeted the publication of this
unassuming manual. To those \vho have thus honoured me, and
especially Professors Breal, De Harlez, Hiibschmann, Merlo,'2
G. Meyer, Sayee, and my friend M. H. Winkler, I wish to
express my sincere gratitude.
V. H.
LILLE, Nov. 2nd, 1888.
1 J. Darmesteter, Essais Orientaux, p. 30.
2 Merlo likewise, before these words of recognition could reach him, has
entered, while still young, into eternal rest. Like Bergaigne, and only two
months after him, he met his death during an Alpine excursion.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY PROFESSOR NETTLESHIP.
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
AUTHOR'S PREFACES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CONVENTIONAL SIGNS
(I) GENERAL INTRODUCTION
PA.GE
V
vii
ix
xiii
xix
. xxix
1
(16) FIRST PART.
PHONOLOGY
11
(18) CHAPTER I.-ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PHONETICS. 15
(18) Section I.-The Vocal Apparatus at Rest. 15
(19) Section II.-The Vocal Apparatus in Action 16
(20) Section IlL-Classification of Sounds 20
(20) § I.-Vowels 20
(21) § 2.-Consonant-Vowels
22
(22) § 3.-Consonants •
22
(23) CHAPTER II.-GRAECo-LATIN VOCALISM 25
(23) Section 1.-Vowels and Diphthongs viewed Separately in each
Language
25
(23) § I.-Greek.
25
(26) § 2.-Latin 28
(27) Section II.-Vowels and Diphthongs of the two Languages
viewed in Relation to their .Common Origin 31
(28) § 1.-Vowels. 31
(3
8
) § 2.-Semivowels • 41
(4
1
) Section 111.-Vowel-gradation [Ablaut] 47
(43)
CHAPTER IlL-NASALS AND LIQUIDS 51
(43)
Section I.-Gradation applied to the Consonant-Vuwels 51
(44)
Section II.-Nasals and Liquids considered in each Language
Separately 52
(45)
Section IlL-Nasals considered in Relation to their Common
Origin 53
(4
6
) § I.-Consonants • 53
(49) § 2.-Sonants (Vowels) • 56
.xii
XIV TABLE OF
PAGE
(50) Section lV.-Liquids considered in Relation to their Comnion
Origin 57
(5 I) § 1. - Consonants . 57
(52) § 2.-Sonants (Vowels) . 58
(53) CHAPTER IV.-CONSONANTS • 59
(54) I.-The' Consonants considered in each Language
Separately 59
(54) § I.-Greek • 59
(55) § 2.-L:1tin . 60
(56) Section II.-The Original Explosives and thei1· DevelopnMnt . 61
(57) § 1.-Velars . 61
(58) § 2.-Palatals 63
(59) § 64
(60) § 4.-Labials 66
(61) § 5.-Supplementary Laws . 67
(67) Section Spirants 72
(68) § I.-Initial s 73
(69) § 2.-Medial s 74
(70) § 3.-Final s 78
(71) CHAPTER V.-FURTHER COMBINATIONS OF VOWELS AND CONSONANTS 79
(71) Section I.-Contraction • 79
(72) § I.-Greek • 79
(73) § 2. -Latin . 83
(74) Section II.-Elision. 84
(75) Section III.:-Shortening and Lengthening of Vowels 85
(76) § I.-Greek •
(77) § 2.-Latiu . 86
(78) Section IV.-Asph·ation and Deaspiration 88
(79) . Section V.-Epenthesis and Sy1wope 89
(8o) CHAPTER VI.-AcCENTUATION 92
(81) Section I.-G'I·eek Accent. 93
(82) Section II.-Latin Accent 95
(85)
(86)
(86)
(99)
(
10
4)
(1°7)
(
10
7)
(128)
(137)
SECOND PART.

CHAPTER I.-PRIMARY DERIVATION
Section I.-Verbal Stems.
§ I.-Common Formations .
§ 2.-Greek Formations
§ 3. -Latin Formations
Section II.-Nominal Stems .
§ I.-Common Formations.
§ 2.-Greek Formations
§ 3.-Latin Formations
98
· 103
· 104
· 104
· 117
· 120
· 122
· 122
· 137
· 140
(140)
(140)
(140)
(146)
(147)
(151)
(151)
(166)
(17
1
)
(175)
(17
6
)
(17
6
)
(177)
(178)
(179)
(181)
(182)
(
18
4)
(
18
5)
(186)
(
18
7)
(190)
(19
1
)
(192 )
(193)
(196)
(197)
(198)
(199)
(200)
(201)
(202)
(2°3)
(
20
4)
(2°7)
(2°9)
(210)
(211)
(212)
(
21
3)
(
21
4)
(
21
5)
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER II.-SECONDARY DERIVATION
Section I.-Verbal Stems
§ I.-Common Formations.
§ 2.-Greek Formations
§ 3.-Latin Formations
Section II.-N01ninal Stems .
§ I.-Common Formations.
§ 2.-Greek Formations
§ 3.-Latin Formations
CHAPTER IlL-COMPOSITION
Section I.-Classification of Compounds
§ I.-Morphological Classification
§ 2.-Functional Classification· .
Section IL-Formation of Compound;;
§ 1. -Form of the First Term •
§ 2.-Form of the Last Term
THIRD PART.
MORPHOLOGY
I.-DECLENSION
CHAPTER I. - PARISYLLABIC DECLENSION
Section I.-Stem,') in 0- •
§ l.-Masculines and Feminines.
§ 2.-Neuters
§ 3. - Accidental Modifications .
Section IL-Stems in ii-
§ 1.-Feminines.
§ 2.-Masculines
Section IlL-Stems in i- (Gk. -ya, Lat. -ie-) .
CHAPTER II.-IMPARISYLLABIC DECLENSION
Section Io-Nomin(itive Singular .
§ I.-Sigmatic Noniinative
§ 2.-Nominative formed by Lengthening.
§ 3.-Nominative with Double Case-sign .
§ 4.-Nominative-Accusative of Neuter Nouns .
Section 1L-Case-endings
Section 111.-Variations of the Stem in Declension
§ I.-Stems ending in an Explosive .
§ 2.-Nasal Stems
§ 3.-Liquid Stems
§ 4.-Sigmatic Stems .
§ 5.-Diphthongal Stems .
§ 6.-Vocalic Stems •
§ 7.-Heteroclites
xv
PAGE
· 142
· 142
· 142
· 150
· 150
· 153
· 153
· 164
· 166
· 168
· 169
· 169
· 171
· 173
· 173
· 178
· 181
· 186
· 188
· 188
· 188
197
· 198
· 199
· 199
· 204
· 206
· 209
· 209
· 210
· 211
· 213
· 213
• 214
· 223
· 226
· 227
· 229
· 230
· 232
· 234
· 236
xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PA.GE
(2 I 6) CHAPTER 111.- - PRONOMINAL DECLENSION . . 238
(
21
7) Section I. -Demonstratives . 238
(
21
7) § I.-Terminations . 238
(220) § . 242
(222) Section II.-Personal Pronouns . 247
(222) § I.-Stems • 247
(225) § 2.-Terminations • 249
(228) § 3.-The Personal Pronouns in Syntactical Juxtaposition 253
(229) § 4.-Possessives 253'
(230) . 255
(231) CHAPTER I.-AUGMENT AND REDUPLICATION . 256
(232) Section I.-A.ugment . 256
(232) § I.-Form of the Augment . 256
(235) § 2.-Use of ,the Augment • 259
(236) § 3. -Position of the Augment . . 260
(237) Section Ir.-Reduplication . 261
(237) § 1. -Form of Reduplication • 261
(241) § 2.-Use of Reduplication . 264
(242) § 3.-Position of Reduplication. . 265
(243) CHAPTER II-PERSON-ENDINGS • . 266
(244) Section I.-Active Voice . 267
(244) § l.-Secondary Endings • . 267
(248) § 2.-Primary Endings . 271
(252) § 3.-Endings of the Perfect . 275
(254) § 4.-Endings of the Imperative . 278
(258) Section II.-Middle Voice in Greek . 280
(259) § l.'-Secondary Endings • . 280
(263) § 2.-Primary Endings . 283
(265) § 3.-Endings of the Perfect . 284
(266) § 4.-Endings of the Imperative . 285
(267) Section IlL-The Latin Mediopassive . • 285
(268) CHAPTER IlL-VARIATIONS IN THE STEM OF THE TENSES AND
MOODS. . 288
(271) Section I.-Present . 290
(271) § 1.--Indicative • • 290
(274) § 2.-Subjunctive . 292
(276) § 3. -Optative • . 293
(277) § 4.-Imperative . 294
(278) § 5.-Infinitive • 294
(279) § 6.-Partlciple • . 294
(280) Section . . 295
(280) § I.-Indicative. . 295
(281) § 2.-0ther Moods . 296
t28:i) Section III.-Future in all Moods . 296
(283)
(
28
4)
(
28
4)
(
28
7)
(288)
(
28
9)
(2g0)
(291 )
(292)
(292)
(293)
(294)
(2g5)
(296)
(297)
(2g8)
(2g8)
(2g8)
(2g9)
(3
00
)
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Section IV.-Future-perfect .
Section V.-Aorists
§ I.-Indicative •
§ 2.-Subjunctive
§ 3.-0ptative .
§ 4.-Imperative
§ 5 -Jnfinitive .
§ 6.-Participles
Section VI.-Perfect
§ I.-Indicative.
§ 2.-Subjunctive
§ 3.-0ptative .
§ 4.-Imperative
§ 5.-Infinitive •
§ 6. -Participles
Section VII. -Pluperfect
§ I.-Indicative
§ 2. -Other Moods
Section VIII. - Ve'rbal Nouns .
CONCLUSION
INDEX OF WORDS. - I. Greek
II. Latin
INDEX OF TERl\UNATIONS.-I. Greek
II. Latin.
XVII
PAGE
• 298
· 298
• 298
· 300
· 301
· 302
· 302
· 302
· 303
· 303
· 305
· 306
· 306
· .307
· 307
· 308
· 308
· 309
· 309
· 311
· 313
· 320
· 327
· 329
BIBLIOGRAPRY.!
ADAM (L.). Les Classifications, l'objet, la Inethode, les con-
clusions de la Linguistique. Paris, Maisonneuve, 1882.
*AHRENS (R. L.). Griechische Formenlehre des homer-
ischen und attischen Dialektes. 2
te
Auflage. Gottingen, 1868.
American Journal of Philology, vols. I.-IX., 1880-88.
American Philological Association (Transactions of the), vols.
I.--XVIII. Cambridge, J. Wilson, 1869-88.
ASCOLI (G. I.). Lezioni di Fonologia comparata. Torino e
Firenze, 1870.
ASCOLI (G. I.). Studj critici. Milano, 1861 seq.
*ASCOLI (G. I.). Spl"achwissenschaftliche Briefe. Autori-
sierte Uebersetzung von B. Gueterbock. Leipzig, Hirzel, 1887.
BAUDRY (Fr.). Grammaire comparee des Langues classiques,
1
re
partie (the only part published). Paris, Hachette, 1868.
BAUNACK (J. und Th.). Studien auf dem Gebiete des Griech-
ischen und del" arischen Sprachen, I. 1. Leipzig, Hirzel, 1886.
BECHTEL (Fr.). Ueber die Bezeichnungen del" sinnlichen
Wahrnehmungen in den indogermanischen Sprachen. Weimar,
Bohlau, 1879.
2 Beitrage zur Kunde del' indogermanischen Sprachen,
herausgegeben von Dr. A.d. Bezzenberger. Bdd. I.-XV.
G'ottingen, 1877-1889.
Beitrage zur vergleichenden Sprachforschung, herausgege-
ben von Ad. Kuhn und A. Schleicher. Bdd. I.-VIII. Berlin,
1858-76.
1 An asterisk indicates those works which the student will read or con-
sult with most advantage; a double asterisk, those the help of which is
indispensable.
2 Among the articles in this excellent collection, which are mostly very
valuable, I will call special attention to Collitz, die flexion der nomina mit
dreifacher stamm:1ustufung (X. 1).
b
xx DIBLIOGRAPHY.
*BERGAIGNE (A.). Manuel pour etudier la langue sanscrite.
Paris, Vieweg, 1884.
*BERGAIGNE (A.). De Conjunctivi et Optativi in Indoeuropaeis
Linguis informatione et vi antiquissima. Parisiis, Vieweg, 1877.
BERsu (Ph.). Die Gutturalen und ihre Verbindung mit v im
Lateinischen.. Berlin, Weidmann, 1886.
. *BLASS (F.). Ueber die A.ussprache des Griechischen. 2
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*BLOOMFIELD (M.). The Origin of the Recessive Accent in
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BIBLIOGRAPHY. XXI
BRUGMAN (K..).-See under OSTHOFF.
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xxii
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
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*DARMESTETER (A.). De la Oreation actuelle de mots nou-
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*DARMESTETER (J.). Essais Orientaux. Paris, A.. Levy,
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BIBLIOGRAPHY. xxiii
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**HAVET (L.). Cours elementaire de Metrique grecque et
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1 This work, which is a real mine of learning, is prefaced by a general
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BIBLIOGRAPHY. xxv
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xxvi
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1 Notice especially: O. Riemann, le Dialecte attiq.lle d'apres les inscriptions,
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BIBLIOGRAPHY.
xxvii
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VVINDISCH (E.).-See under DELBRUCK.
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1 Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Sprachforschung, herausge-
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1 In tbis imposing collection,which reflects the whole progress of Com.
parative Philology during the period which it covers, the student will find it
most profitable to consult the volumes of the last ten years, and especially
the articles of J. Schmidt, Wackernagel, Hiibschmann, Osthoff, Brugmann,
and K. Verner.
CONVENTIONAL SIGNS.
voc.
vb.
Ved.
masc.
mid.
1Jwd.
instr.
Ion.
Lflt.
Lfsb.
loco
instrumental.
Ionic.
Latin.
Lesbian.
locative.
masculine.
middle.
modern.
nominative.
neuter.
Oscan.
passive.
perfect.
plural.
1st, 2nd, Brd person
plural.
plup. pluperfect.
pres. present.
Sct. Bacch. Senatusconsultum de
Bacchanalibus.
sing. singular.
sing. 1, 2, 3. 1st, 2nd, 3rd person
singular.
Sk. Sanskrit.
subj. subjunctive.
su.bst. substantive.
Tab. Mumm. triumphal tablet of the
consul Mummius.
verb.
Vedic.
vocative.
nom.
neut.
Osc.
pass.
perf·
pl.
pl. 1,2,3.
ablative.
accusative.
adverb.
Aeolic.
Anglo-Saxon.
aorist.
archaiq.
Attic.
Boootian.
Song of the Arval
Brothers.
compare.
Inscription of the Co-
lumna Rostrata.
Cyprian.
dative.
Doric.
for example.
Epitaphs of the Scipios.
feminine.
French.
future.
genitive.
German.
Gothic.
Greek.
Homeric.
Indo-European.
imperative.
imperfect.
indicative.
infinitive.
cl·
Col. Bostr.
am".
arch.
AU.
Beeot.
Carm. Arv.
able
acc.
adv.
A::eol.
A.-S.
Oypr.
date
Dor.
e.g.
.Ep. Scip.
fern.
Fr.
lut.
gen.
Germ.
Goth.
{J-k.
Hmn.
I.-E.
imper.
impf·
indo
info
All other abbreviations- will be self-explanatory.
xx.ix
xxx
CONVENTIONAL SIGNS.
The sign of equality between tW0 forms implies their identity: ¢€Pw =
!e1'o. When used in conjunction with the sign (:), it denotes a proportion,
e,g., urbibus : urbi = avibus : av"i, (to be read "'ltJ bibu; is to urbi as avibus is
to avi ").
An asterisk before a form denotes that it is not actually found, but is
restored by conjecture.
A hyphen, placed before or after a form, denotes a form which never
appears by itself in language, namely, either a suffix separated from its
stem, or a stem deprived of its suffix: e.g. -fJ-€1I, termination of the 1st per-
son plural of Greek verbs, ¢€P-o-, stem of the verb €
In Sanskrit transcriptions, a line above a vowel denotes an unaccented
long vowel, bluiriinti (I bear); the circumflex accent denotes an accented
long vowel, veda (I know); c and j are to be pronounced like English ch
and j respectively; 8 is always equivalent to English sh; 1 the cerebrals
(cacuminals) are denoted by a dot underneath the letter in question, e.g. n.
In Greek, the quantity is marked throughout except when it
coincides with the accent, in which case it has gen'erally been thought best
to sacrifice it to the accentuation (€AvO"afJ-€v).
Tbe work has been divided into 300 sections, each of which forms as
hOlllogeneous a whole as possible. It is to these that all the references
introduced by the words supra and infra refer.
[Square' brackets denote additions by the translator.]
See the indices at the end of the volume.
1 And so also zis equivalent to Frenchj [English s in pleasure]
A SHORT COMPARATIVE
OF GREEK AND LATIN.
,t
GENERAL INTRODUOTION.
(1) THE grammar of every language, taken by itself, seems
like a purely empirical collection of arbitrary rules, subject
to still more arbitrary exceptions, which it confines itself to
stating, without being able to afford us even an inkling of their
explanation. Thus French grammar teaches us that the plural
of substantives is formed by adding an s to the singular.
Whence comes this s? and how is it .that it has the property
of changing a singular into a plural? To this question French
gramlnar can give no answer. It teaches that adverbs are
derived from adjectives by adding to the feminine the termina-
tion ment, e.g. long, longtternent, but that those in ent are
exceptions, changing the termination before rnent into em, e.g-.
prudent, What is the nleaning of this syllable
1nent? why does it require the feminine of long, but not of
pr,ttdent? On this point French grammar by itself cannot
enlighten us.
But if we go back to Latin, we see there an accusative
singular cabdllum and an accusative plural cabdllos, which
throw light on the origin of the s in the plural les chevals.
We see there a word l1u!nte, ablative of a feminine noun, which,-
in such an expression as langa mente (literally "in a long
manner "), required the feminine of the adjective l6ngus, which
had different forms for masculine and feminine, but could
naturally cause no variation in the adjective prudens, which
had the same form for masculine and feminine. Thus the
benefit which we derive from the scientific comparison of two
1 B
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
languages more or less closely related to one another consists
in a knowledge of the reason of rules and the reason of ex-
ceptions, which latter, when properly understood, will be seen
to really fall under the rule; 1 and from the mere fact that
grammar thus understood requires less exertion of the memory
and more of the reasoning powers, it can at the same time be
more easily retained and more surely investigated.
This is the aim of what is called Historical or Compara-
tive Grammar.
(2)' Relationship between several languages may be due
either to the fact that one is descended from the other (e.g.
French from Latin), or to the fact that they are all descended
from a common ancestor (e.gJ French, Italian, Spanish, and
Roumanian, all descended from Latin).2 In the latter case, the
ancestor may be known, and may have left a more or less exten-
sive literature, or at any rate some written documents, throwing
light on the chief features of its grammar; or, on the other
hand, it may have perished, without leaving any trace of its
existence except the languages derived from it, which it is
proposed to study. It is in the latter sense that we must
understand the affinity of Greek and Latin, which are not
descended from one another, nor indeed from any language
historically known,3 but are, in common with other European
and Asiatic tongues, derived from a language long since dead,
Vjhich never had any written characters, and was spoken
1 A perfect grammar would be one which contained not a single excep.
tion. The science of language has not yet reached this stage; but it is'
drawing nearer and nearer to the desired end, though this end can never be
attained.
2 Strictly speaking, these expressions borrowed from every-day life are
inexact. No language is descended from another; French is, not descended
from Latin, for it is impossible to fix any precise moment in history in which
men ceased to speak Latin and began to speak French. As a matter of fact,
French is still Latin, though modified from age to age by changes of which
successive generations had no consciousness. The gap only becomes
apparent when we contrast two periods separated from one another by a
long interval.
3 Hence we must avoid the erroneous expression still too often used by
learners, " This Latin form comes from Greek," or " This Greek form comes
from Sanskrit." Sanskrit is not the ancestor of the other languages; it is
at most their elder brother, and has been subject to quite as many alterations
as its brothers, if not more.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
3
by a tribe about which we do not know enough even to say
precisely where it origirially lived. This pro-ethnic language,
which can only be restored by a comparison of the different
g ~ a m m a t i c a l forms which have sprung from it, has received
the conventional name of the common Indo-European
language or Parent-speech.!
(3) The Indo-European family comprises, in the first place,
two main divisions: an Asiatic or Aryan branch, and a
European branch. The essential mark of distInction be-
tween these two groups lies in the fact that pro-ethnic e and 0
were preserved without corruption in the European languages,
whereas in the Asiatic languages they were both confused with
long or short a. Thus the primitive *bheromes (we bear) is
represented very exactly by the Greek eplpop.£s (Doric), but very
imperfectly by the Sanskrit bhdramas.
(4) I.-The Asiatic branch in its turn is divided into two
groups:
1. Indian group, comprising (a) Sanskrit, which has long
been a dead language, but is still preserved with jealous care
in the liturgical schools of the Brahmans, and was early analysed
by the most minute grammarians that any literature has ever
known. Its oldest remains (certain hymns of the Veda) may go
back to the tenth century B.C., or even earlier. (f3) Prakrit, or
more accurately the Prakritic languages, consisting of popular
dialects which, many centuries before our era, superseded
Sanskrit in every-day life. The best kno\vn of these is Pali,
the sacred language of Buddhism. (y) The modern dialects,
still spoken in many parts of India, such as Hindi, Hindustani,
Bengali,etc.
(5) 2. Iranian group, comprising (a) Zend or Avestic,
c"ertainly as old as Sanskrit, preserved in the Avesta and other
sacred books attributed to the legislator Zoroaster, the mythical
founder of fire worship. (f3) Old Persian, the language of the
losers of Marathon, of which only a few scanty relics survive
in some cuneiform inscriptions of the Achremenid kings. (y)
1 [German philologists generally prefer the term "Indo-Germanic";
many English writers use the term" Aryan," or mOl'e correctly" Arian," in
this sense.]
4
GREEK AND LATIN GRA1\fMAR.
The modern Iranian languages, the most important of which
is Persian, much corrupted by the introduction of Arabic alid
Turkish words.
(6) II.-The European branch is divided into seven main
groups: Armenian, Hellenic, Italic, Celtic, Germanic, Letto-
Slavonic, and Albanian. The first and last have but recently
come within t h ~ range of Indo-European comparison, and hold
only a very subordinate position therein. The second and third
require special consideration.
(7) 1. At first sight the Hellenic group seems to include
only one language, Greek, represented in the most ancie,nt
times by the Homeric poems, of which certain parts at least go
back to the ninth century B.C.; in the period which precedes
and follows the age of Pericles by the brilliant Ionic, Attic, and
Alexandrian literatures; in the l\liddle Ages by the ByzantIne
"\vriters; at the present day by modern Greek. But it would
be a great mistake to suppose that all these records belong to a
single language, or that they each reflect fai thfully the current
speech of the time and country to which they belong. The
language of the Homeric poems is a purely artificial mixture of
Bolic and Ionic forms; that of the tragedians certainly differs
greatly from that spoken by the Athenian spectators; the
Byzantines wrote in Greek in the same way that the Schoolmen
wrote in Latin; and at the present time Greek newspapers are
written in a language which would be more easily understood by
Pericles himself than by a contemporary vvho is at all illiterate.
The real form assumed by the language at a particular period
and in a particular part of Greece has fortunately been revealed
to us by infallible witnesses, namely, inscriptions, which, apart
from the necessarily limited num1?er of mistakes on the part of
the writers, give us absolutely accurate information; from them
a rich harvest has already been gathered. By the light of
these sources of information, snppielnented by the hints of the
ancient grammarians, it has become possible to distinguish at
the outset in the Hellenic unity two groups, which may be
distinguished by this fundamental difference, that one, the
Non-Ionic group, always keeps primitive a, whereas the Ionic
group changes it to e. Thus, Indo-European *sistami (I place;
GENERAL
5
cf. Lat. stare) is represented in Doric by la-Tap-I-, in the Ionic-
Attic group by la-TYJJLL'l
I will mention briefly the dialects which belong to these two
groups, and their chief surviving monuments.
(8) A.-The N on-Ionic group comprises:
(a) The Doric dialects, of which literature furnishes some
specimens, necessarily more or less corrupt, in the Odes of
Pindar, the fragments of Aleman and other lyric
writers, the Idylls of Theocritus (Doric, of Sicily), and the
choruses of Greek tragic and comic poets (Yery impure Doric).
These dialects are: (n) Laconian-stela of Damonon, etc.,
various glosses in Hesychius ; still surviving in the dialect called
Tsaconian. (f3) Doric of Magna Grrecia-tables of Heraclea.
(y) Messenian-inscription of Andania. (8) Argive. (e) Corin-
thian. (,) Megarlan. (YJ) Cretan, known mainly through the
long and very important inscription recently discovered, called
the Table of Gortyna. (()) Doric of the islands (Rhodes, etc.).
(L) Achrean.
(b) The dialects of Northern Greece, Phocian, Locrian,
J.Etolian, Acarnanian, etc., which had no influence on the
Iiterary language of Greece.
(c) Thessalian: little known, some curious peculiarities.
Cd) Elean: inscriptions of Olympia.
(e) Arcadian-Oyprian, which a considerable amount of
epigraphical evidence (inscription of Tegea, Table of Idaliunl)
justifies us in regarding as a single dialect, in spite of the dis-
tance and geographical obstacles separating its two varieties.
(f) Pamphylian (Asia l\JIinor): very little known.
(g) Lesbian, the language of the oldest lyric poets, A.lcreus
and Sappho: numerous testimonies of ancient grammarians.
2
(h) Brnotian, which seems to have some affinity to Lesbian.
1 Hence we must not say that " Doric changes 'YJ to a," or, worse still, "to
a." Doric changes nothing; corresponding to Attic rl0'YJluL, where the e is
primitive, it has rl0'YJlu. On the contrary, Doric keeps unchanged the vowel
which ordinary Greek has corrupted.
2 The grammarians invented a linguistic category called "the
dialect," to which they referred everything that was not Ionic or Doric. If
this name is to be retained, it must at any rate only be applied to Lesbian,
Bceotian, and certain forms in the Homeric p _ems.
6
GREEK AND LATIN _GRAMMAR.
(9) B.-The Ionic group, which is by far the most im."
portant from a literary point of view, has only a few varieties. \
(a) First comes the Old Ionic of Asia Minor (Smyrna,
Chios, etc.), the oldest Greek known, which' forms the basis
or the language of the Homeric poems (at any rate of such as
have come down to us), and of the epic poems of all his later
imitators.
(b) The New Ionic of Asia as known to us from'
the writings of Herodotus and Hippocrates, seems to differ
from the preceding dialect only in a few trifling points;- but
inscriptions prove the existence of more decided differences.
(c) The Ionic of the islands (Cyclades, Eubma) seems to be
the connecting link between the dialects of Asia and Europe.
(d) The Ionic of Athens, or Attic, differs from ordinary
Ionic only in one essential point: it keeps or restores primitive
ii arter Lor p. E.g. Dor. i(jTiiJLL, Ion. and Att. ta-TYJJ1-L; Dor. K6JLii,
Ion.-Att. K6JLYJ; but Dor. (joep{ii uJL€pii 7rpa(j(jw, Ion. a-oep{YJ €
Att. a-oep{ii € 7rpaTTw. Pure Attic is naturally found,
only in inscriptions, of which a large number have been dis-
covered; but the literary language which comes nearest to it
is that of the comedies of Aristophanes and especially that of
the dialogues of Plato.
(e) During the period of Athenian supremacy, the poli-
tical influence of Athens caused the Attic dialect to spread
throughout all Greece, and this expansion gave birth to an
artificial language, the S"aA€KTOS, which served as a common
bond between all parts of the Hellenic world, and from the
time of Alexander began to supersede the local dialeets.
1
The
with the exception of a few sounds or forms exclusively
confined to the language of Athens (TT for (j(j, etc.), is essentially
identical with Attic. 'This is the taught by our
ordinary grammars. It is the language in general use by prose
writers subsequent to the age of Pericles, so far, that is, as
they do not, like Lucian, affect to imitate Attic; it was COfr-
I In the same way, from the time that France became united under one
monarchy, the language of the centre (Ile-de-France, Orleanais, and Tou-
raine) having become the only literary andofficiallanguage, gradually super-
seded Picardian, Norman, Burgundian, Provenyal, and other provincial
dialects.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
7
tinned in Byzantine and still survives in contemporary Greek.
But the dialects long maintained themselves by its side or
beneath its surface, and during this long period they no doubt
introduced into it a certain nUlnber of forms which helped
to modify it. At least one of these dialects, the Laconian, has
survived up to our own day, being continued in the mountain
dialect called Tsaconian.
. (10) 2. The chief representative of the Italic group is'
Latin, of which the earliest known record 1 (the
obscure Duenos inscription,2 recently discovered) goes back
to the fourth century B.C. Owing to the conqu.ests of Rome,
Latin, which was originally the dialect of a small town in
Latium, spread over Europe and Africa, and under the form of
Portuguese, Spanish, Provenyal, French, Rhrntian, and Italian;
is still spoken throughout all Western Europe, while in the
valley of the Lower Danube it is represented by Roumanian.
At first sight t4e unity of the Italic group seems greater than
that of the Hellenic; but this is a mere illusion, arising
the fact that only one of the Italic dialects, so far as we know,
attained the rank of a literary language, the others being
known only to the student of inscriptions. As a luatter of.
fact, several languages were spoken in Italy, namely., goi
l1
g
fronl north to south:
A.-Oisalpine Gallic, of the same family as Transalpine
Gallic, belongs to the eeltic groups.
B.-Etruscan, the language of a brilliant civilization '\vhich
Roman barbarism destroyed, survives in numerous inscriptions,
of which at present only the speHing can be deciphered, the
meaning remaining unknown. It is however becoming more
1 The Song of the Arval Brothers is generally given as such. This song is
certainly very old; but the text in our possession was only written in A.D.
218, by some one who did not understand it in the least. The epitaphs of
the Scipios are more than a century later than the Duenos inscription, and
accordingly are more intelligible. The Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus,
a long and interesting document, is still later.
2 [For an account of this inscription see a paper by the translator in the
Transactions of the Oxford Philological Society for 1888-9 (Clarendon Press,
1889), where allusion is also made to a Praenestine inscription since dis-"
covered, and thought by Biicheler to be still older. Cf. Journal of Philology
196.J
8
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
and more probable that Etruscan, so far from belonging to the
Italic group, is not even an Indo-European language at all.
C.-Umbrian, an Italic dialect spoken in the plateau of
the Apennines, is known chiefly from the Eugubine Tables, the
mutilated remains of a great liturgical code, which have for
the most part been translated.
D.-The dialects of Central Italy, occupying an intermediate
place bet,veen Umbrian and Latin (Picenian, Sabine, Pelignian,
Marsian, Volscian, £quian, Faliscan, etc.), are still almost
unknown. The essential characteristic of all these dialects,
which is observable also to a less extent in popular Latin, is
the weakening and loss of final syllables, which were preserved
in classical Latin; e.g. Umbo pihaz==piatus or katel=catulus
already has quite the appearance of a word belonging to one of
the Romance languages.
E.-Latin is revealed to us in its minutest details by an
abundant literature, extending over eight or nine centuries, by
a large number of inscriptions from all parts of the Roman
world, and by the numerous testilnonies of grammarians. The
'Romance languages and the excavations at Pompeii enable us
even to penetrate the secrets of spoken or popular Latin.
F.-Oscan, or the Osco-Samnite group (Southern Italy), is
only represented by about 200 inscriptions, of which two only,
the Cippus of Abella and the Table of Bantia, are of any length.
It was formerly supposed that there was a closer connexion
between the Hellenic and Italic groups than between these
and the other groups, and hence it was assumed that within the
main Indo-European unity there was a secondary Grreco-Latin
unity. This view is now generally abandoned; possibly it may
be revived some day. However this may be, that which cannot
be asserted of Greek and Latin is certainly true of Latin and
Celtic, and very probably of German and Slavoilic also.
(II) 3. The Celtic group comprises (a) In antiquity,
Gallic, the language of the ancient inhabitants of France,
w·hich, after Cresar's conquests, fell into disuse, and became so
completely forgotten that, with the exception of a few words
borrowed by Lat.in, it has left no trace of its existence save
about thirty mutilated inscriptions, which can" only be imper-
GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 9
fectly translated. (f3) In the J\iiddle Ages (from the eighth
tury), Old Irish and Cymric, which possessed a literature, still
partially preserved. (y) At the present time several dialects,
such as Gaelic (Scotland), Erse (Ireland), Cymric (Wales), and
Breton (extreme \vest of Brittany). .
(12) 4. The Germanic group is divided into four secondary
groups: (a) Gothic, which has long been a dead language, but
is-known to us by a translation of the Bible, made by Bishop
Ulfilas in the fourth century. (f3) Norse, which still extends
over all the extreme north of Europe (Icelandic, Norwegian,
Swedish, Danish). (y) Low German, represented at the present
time by Flemish, Dutch, Low German (dialects of northern
Germany), and English (called A.nglo-Saxon up to the twelfth cen-
tury); the vocabulary of English however has been much altered
by the introduction of French words, imported by the Norluan
conquerors. (0) High German, the language of Central Europe
nearly the whole of S"ritzerland, and the German
districts of Austria), is distinguished, according to its age,
as Old High German (eighth century), Middle High German
t\velfth century), and Modern High German (sixteenth century).
Its oldest document, the Nibelungen-lied, belongs, in its present
form, to the twelfth century.
(13) The Letto-Slavonic group is divided in the first
place into Lettie and Slavonic. The Lettie or Baltic divi-
-sion consists of three languages (Lithuanian, Lettish, and Old
Prussian); of these the last is extinct, and the two others,
having no distinct nationality to support them, are already on
the road to extinction. In spite of this however, and of the
fact that Lettic is only known to us in its modern form, it is
a most valuable ai.d to the study of Indo-European philology.
The Slavonic branch is represented in the l\fiddle Ages by Old
Slavonic or Old Bulgarian, an ecclesiastical language, of which
one of the oldest records is the celebrated Gospel of Ostromir
(ninth century)} At the present time it is represented through-
1 This is the date of the translation into Old Slavonic, but the manuscript
itself only belongs to the eleventh century. Other documents, including the
gospel known as Codex Zographensis, now hold a higher place in the esti-
mation of students of Slavonic.
10
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
out the whole eastern half of Europe by Russian and Polish, iIi
part of the south-east by the languages of the South Slavonic
conntries bordering on Turkey or forming part of the Austrian
empire (Bulgarian, Servian, Croatian, Slovenian, Bosnian, Dal-
matian, etc.), and it even penetrates to Bohemia, right in the
centre of Europe (Czech and 1\1:oravian). All the Slavonic
dialects have striking points of resemblance to one another,
which greatly facilitate their study.
(14) Before approaching,the comparative study of Greek and
IJatin, it seemed advisable to assign them their proper place
in the family of languages to which they belong. But the con-
sideration of the various European and Asiatic languages
mentioned above does not fall within the narrow range of
the present work; at the most, they can only be occasionally
referred to for the sake of some simple and striking illus-
tration. Even the Hellenic and Italic dialects can only occupy
a very subordinate position in this grammar, which is con-
cerned primarily with the Greek K O L V ~ and with classical Latin.
(IS) The grammar of any single language, viewed by itself,
includes four divisions: Phonology, or the study of sounds;
Etymology, or the study of the formation of words; Mor-
phology, or the study of grammatical forms (declension and
conjugation); and lastly Syntax, or the study of the way in
which these forms are employed and grouped together in sen-
tences. Such also are the objects of comparative grammar,
and such ought to be the plan of this book. But comparative
syntax cannot yet be regarded as a science; and, moreover, a
complete treatlnent of it "vonld require a volume as bulky as
the other three parts put together; hence it must be laid aside
for the present. Moreover phonology, etymology, and morpho-
logy form a homogeneous ","'hole, which can be treated quite
satisfactorily by itself.
FIRST PART.
PHONOLOGY.
(16) By Grreco-Latin phonology is meant the study of
the Greek and Latin sounds,l and of their regular
relations to one another.
The first thing necessary, in order to obtain an accurate view
of the sounds of a language, is to think of them as they are or
were actually pronollnced, and not merely as they appear when
viewed through the distorting medium of writing. Writing,
even supposing it were strictly phonetic, must always be a some-
what clumsy representation of the extremely delicate and varied
mechanism of human speech. But, as a matter of fact, writing
never' is phonetic; for, being fixed at a time when a certain
pronunciation was current, the spelling reluains unchanged long
after the pronunciation has been altered.
53
For example, the
French word loi seems to contain a diphthong; and it does, but
not the one indicated by the spelling, for the word is not pro-
nounced loy, but lwa.
3
In other words, the semivowel, which
is really not ~ but u,4 precedes, instead of following, the prin
cipal vowel, which is rea.lly not 0 but a. No representation
could be more inexact. In the word autre there is no diphthong
at all (the word having long ceased to be pronounced al.,vtre),
1 [Here and in similar cases the author uses the word phoneme, which
he prefers as being more definite than" sound," the word generally adopted
by English writers.] .
~ Thus English was formerly pronounced as it was written; but, while
many changes have been made in its pronunciation, its spelling has re-
mained almost the same. Hence the result which is so confusing to the
beginner.
s 11 =German j [or English y in yonde1']; 'W =English w [in wake] or
French ou in oui. These sounds are not vowels, but consonants.
, 4 The sign u always represents English 00 = French ou and German u.
. 11
12
GREEK. LATIN GRAMMAR.
but a simple vowel 0, wrongly represented by the combination
au. Similar anomalies occur in the French combinations OU, eu,
an (nasal vowel), and indeed very frequently in all languages.
Phonetics, thus understood, must eyidently form the founda-
tion of all comparative grammar. For what right should we
have to identify any tW9 forms whatsoever, even forms approach-
ing so closely to one another as epl.pw and lera, except on the
ground of having proved by a sufficient number of probable
instances, that they correspond, sound for sound, to one another;
in other words, that the Greek ep, €, p, and w, and the Latin
f, e, r, and a, are respectively the representatives and actual
successors of the bh, e, r, and 0 of the Indo-European word
*blu!lra, which has been restored in accordance with the con-
verging testimony of the different languages of the family?
In this respect a scientific system of phonetics will arrive at
conclusions that must seem startling to the uninitiated. In
etymology, it will separate two words apparently identical; e.g.
German feuer and of which the first corresponds
to Greek 7TVp, and the second to Latin f 6c1(/)n: 1 while, on the
other hand, it will identify two words which otherwise no one
would ever dreaming of connecting; e.g. French larme and
English teat', which -only differ in respect of an additional
suffix in French.
2
The same is the case in morphology. What
forms could be more alike than 7TaTp{ and patri? And yet these_
two forms are quite dis tinct, as is sufficiently proved in the
eyes of the phonetician by the difference of quantity in the i,
which in Greek is short and in Latin long. On the other hand,
VVKTa and noctem are one and the same word, for in the Greek
a there is latent the same nasal which is pronounced in Latin.
In this more than in any other branch of knowledge we must
be distrustful of appearances..
(17) There is still however a further requisite. An in-
definite series of parallel instances ,vould not justify us in
asserting the equivalence of t,vo sounds, except on one funda-
1 In the same way the Latin word corresponding to German haben [Eng.
llaveJ is rather capiv than habeo.
2 .From Indo-European *dali-ru arose, on the one hand, Latin. lacru(-ma),
on the other, Gothic tagr and tar, tear.
PHONOLOGY.
13
mental condition, the physiological possibility of the changes
which h a v ~ produced them. Every phonetic change, in fact,
such as that which has transformed Latin k to S1 in French
cheval = cabdllum, presupposes a series of innumerable uncon-
scious chf!,nges, which are so imperceptible that neither speaker
nor hearer has any suspicion of them at the moment when they
take place. For example, Picardian, which is less corrupted
than French, has not gone beyond the stage of k in kevd =
cheval. The origin of the latter form is probably as follows:
the tongue was slightly shifted, and came in contact with a
part of the palate not so far back as the place affected by the
pronunciation of simple k, and so there arose between the con-
sonant and the vowel a hardly percepti..ble palatal sound, which
may be approxiluately represented by y, kye. This sound in
its turn reacted upon the consonant; and so the group became
approximately tye, from which it is but a very short step to tse,
as may be seen by experiment. It is thus, for example, that
Swedish pronounces the syllable which it still spells kjo; and
this is the stage which has been reached by a northern variety
of Picardian, the dialect of Tourcoing. If now the initial t
becomes merged and lost in the hissing sound of the following
consonant, we arrive at the present French form sevdl. Of
course the stages indicated above are only halting-places, as it
were; between each of them it would be easy to distinguish
further intermediate stages, which might be represented by the
symbols k
1
, k
2
, ks k
n
+
1
, kYl' kY2..•... kYn+l1 and so on.
Unless we were able to restore some such series in thought,
it "vould be quite impossible to conceive and consequently to
admit scientifically most phonetic phenomena; it is only on
this condition that they admit of being reduced to laws, under-
standing by law the expression of the constant and invariable
reproduction of a particular phonetic phenomenon during one
of the stages in the development of a given language. Pho-
netic laws, resting thus on the double basis of the history
of language and physiology, may be truly said, at any rate from
the standpoint of the method of comparative philology, to have
1 This symbol represents English sh, French ch, German 8ch.
14
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
no exceptions; for, when once a law has been discovered,
to admit by the side of it or beneath it isolated facts supposed
to have escaped its action would be to fall again, in spite of
oneself, into the well-worn rut of arbitrary etymologies.
1
Since phonetic laws are primarily physiological, it is im-
possible to enter on even a cursory examination of them with-
out some knowledge of ~ h e physiology of the vocal organs.
1 Hence we must avoid such phrases as "In Latin s between two vowels
often becomes r." A phonetic law either exists or does not exist; there
is no other alternative. 'If Latin s between vowels becomes r, it does so
always. If it sometimes seems to have remained unchanged, we must seek
the reason of this apparent retention. This kind of investigation has already
been carried very far, and we shall see many instances of it. {Of. .p. 76, note.]
CHAPTER I.
ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PHONETICS.
SEOTION I.
THE VOOAL APPARATUS AT REST.
(18) Like every wind-instrument, the vocal apparatus may
be said to c o n ~ i s t of a pair of bellows, emitting a current of
air; a sonorous tube, into which the current of air, more or
less impeded in its way, enters in vibrations; and of a sound-
ing-board, by contact with which the volume of the sound is
increased.
The bellows are the lungs. As they can only supply air
during the process of expiration, the moments of inspiration
are intervals of rest, such as are denoted by punctuation.
There are not, at any rate in the languages with which we are
concerned, any inspiratory sounds.
The air expired, escaping through the bronchi and the wind-
pipe, reaches the larynx, which is at the upper end of the
windpipe. The gristly protuberance of the larynx can be
easily felt on the throat, and by watching its motion during the
process of speaking a very rough idea may be formed of
the mechanism of speech. The larynx in its turn opens into
the pharynx by a round aperture called the glottis, the upper
margins of which, called vocal chords, are hard and elastic, and,
by contracting, are able to oppose an obstacle to the current of
air, and to vibrate while it is passing through.
The sounding-board consists of the double cavity of the mouth
and nostrils. The shape and size of this cavity may vary,
in such a "\\Tay as to modify the sound emitted through the
glottis, under the influence of three chief factors:
1. The elasticity of the inner and outer walls of the mouth,
15
16
GREEK AND LATIN
which can be made longer by being narrowed and shorter by .
being ,videned. .
2. The action of the soft palate palati). In front,'
that is, for two-thirds of their extent, the nose and mouth are
completely isolated from one another by the bony arch of the
palate; but from the pharynx to the nasal cavities there is a
passage, which can however be closed by means of a fleshy and
movable prolongation of the palate, called very appropriately
the" veil of the palate." When, the Inouth being at rest, the
veil falls like a loose curtain, the two cavities are in free
communication with one another; but when it rises and rests
on the back part of the pharynx, it isolates the nasal cavities,.
and so renders the whole upper half of the sounding-board
ineffective. The soft palate has a small continuation, of the
shape of a grape, called the uvula, which has a share in the
production of speech (infr'a 21).
.' 3. The extreme mobility of the tpngue, which by resting
successively against the soft palate, the back, middle, or front
part of the palatal arch, the gums, the teeth, etc., is capable of
producing an infinite variety of modifications in the shape of
the mouth and its mode of opening.
The sounding board reflects, increases, and varies the
musical sounds eluitted through the glottis; but, besides
these, the movements of the tongue and lips produce noises,
,vhich may be either momentary and explosive, when the
mouth opens or shuts suddenly, or continuous and frica-
tive, when the. mouth being almost closed only allows the
air to escape at any point through a very narrow passage.
The musical sounds are the vowels. The noises, whether
accompanied or not by voice produced in the glottis, are the
consonants.
SECTION II.
THE VOCAL APPARATUS IN ACTION.
(19) 1. Before coming into action, the vocal apparatus is in
the position assumed during deep thought or tranquil sleep;
the mouth being very slightly open, the soft palate lowered, the
ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGICA.L PHONETICS. 17
tongue resting flat on the bottom of the mouth, and the
permitting the air to pass through" it without any obstacle.
. Neither sound nor noise can then be produced, except that
during the moments of expiration, a gentle current of air
passes through, which contains in itself the potential utterance
of a vowel.
l
This is the inaudible sound which in certain
modes of writing is represented by a particular symbol, the
Greek soft breathing, the French and Spanish h. If the air
is expired with more energy and a certain amount of effort,
we have the German or English h, very improperly called
aspirated.
2. The organs being in the first position, the soft palate is
raised and cuts off all communication with the nasal cavities;
at the same tilne the vocal chords contract and vibrate. In
this ,vay a pure or oral vowel is produced, a, i, u, etc.
3. If the vibration takes place without the soft palate being
raised, the vowel is sounded in both cavities at the same time,2
and so ","e obtain a nasalized vowel, written in Freneh an,
in, un, etc.
4. If the mouth, when in the third position, is closed by
means of the lips or the tongue at any point, then the air
expired being only able to escape by the nostrils, no oral
vowel can be produced. The result is a nasal sound, m, n,
etc.
5.3 The open mouth lets the current of air pass through;
its passage is impeded by an elastic obstacle, which it dis-
places, and which returns to its original position with a rapid
quivering or trilling sound. This sound is a trilled
'r, of which there are several varieties, distinguished according
to the different organs employed in producing theIne
6. The mouth is open, but the tongue completely obstructs
1 That is, supposing the position to remain unchanged, then, as soon as
the vocal chords vibrate, a vowel will be heard.
2 This can easily be proved by experiment. A looking-glass placed in
front of the month and nostrils and protected by a screen against the breath
of the mouth, remains c1ear after the pronunciation of 0, but not after the
pronunciation of the nasalized vowel on.
3 In this and all the following positions, the soft palate is raised, and
consequently the nasal cavity plays no part in the production of sound,
except in the case of persons who, speak through the ,nose.
c
18
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
the middle part of it, leaving only the two sides free; the
current of air, being thus impeded, is obliged to split itself
up into two portions in order. to find an outlet, and vibrates
while forcing a passage for itself in the narrow space betwean
the clieeks and teeth. This is the lateral trill l.
These two trills, or liquids, may be either accompanied
or not by a very slight vibration of the vocal chords. In the
first case; which is far the commonest, they are called voiced'
or sonoro'us ; the second case, that of surd or voiceless
liquids, is illustt'ated by Greek initial p, and by an l occurring
in the Slavonic languages.
I t is now time to ask whether the different sounds corre-
sponding to positions 4,5, and 6 are consonants or vowels. We
know they are usually called consonants, and they really
appear to be so' in combinati6ns like ad1nit, nostril, outlet, where-
they have a vowel to support them; But let us compare, for
example, the word outlet with kettle; both are evidently dis-
syllables, and are felt" by the speaker to be so. In the former
word the vowel of the second syllable is a short e; what is it
in the latter? It is not a s'hort e, f6r nobody pronounces
the word as kettel; the l is rather pronounced with a short.
and trilling lateral sound, which by itself £lls the whole syl-
lable, viz. ketl. In other words; in English kettle, German'
mittel, etc., the l acts the part of a vowel. The same is the
case with r; an exactly corresponding trilling sound occurs,
for example, in German schtvester and French arbrre, which;
though evidently a dissyllable, is not pronounced a'rbre or arrbj!1",
but rather arb]'"; that is, the r here becomes a vowel. This
~ and r are called sonant liquids, and are both very common
in German final syllables. German and English also supply
many examples of vocalic or sonant nasals; thus a sonant tt
occurs in English haven, German hafen, pronounced respec-
tively, havrJ;, hafr!; a sonant 1rf in English fathom, seldo1n,
pronounced fathn;}, seldn;}, etc. To sum up, the nasals and
liquids are path consonants and vowels: consonants
when they are supported by a vowel; vowels generally when-
ever they support another consonant, and particularly when
they occur between two consonants.
ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PHONETICS. 19
7. If the mouth, when closed at any point, is opened sud-
denly in order to let the current of air escape, or if, on the
other hand, being already opened in order to pronounce a
vowel, it then, by being closed completely at any point, sud-
denly arrests the current of air, the result is a pure noise, which
forms what is called an explosive or implosive momentary
consonant) If this noise is not accompanied by voice in the
glottis, the consonant is called surd [or voiceless], k, t, P ;
if however, while the current of air is passing through, there
is a slight contraction of the glottis, together with a vibration
of the vocal chords, the consonant becomes sonorous 2 [or
voiced], g, d, b.·
8. Lastly, if the mouth, instead of being completely closed
and then opened wide, is obstructed at any point, in such a
,vay as to allow the expiratory current to escape only through
a narrow opening in the centre, the air passes between the
edges of this opening with a nois,e of friction which constitntes
a continuant, spirant, or fricative conson·ant. Accord-
ing as it is or is not accompanied by glottal vibration, this
consonant likewise is called voiceless, s,!; or voiced; z, Vi
To sum up then, leaving out of consideration the simple act
of expiration (1), all the expiratory sounds may be divided into
three groups: vowels .(2 and 3), consonant.;vowels (4, 5,
and 6), and sinlple consonants (7 and 8). These must now
be examined in more detail.
1 Thus, in a group like appa, the two p's being pronounce'd, the first is
. closed or implosive, the second explosive. In the corresponding group abba,
the closing and explosion are slighter, but equally perceptible.
2 The reader may prove by experiment the existence of this unconscious
vibration of the glottis which accompanies the articulation of the consonants
wrongly called" soft." First practise the pronunciation of p or b by mere
explosion, without letting any vowel follow them. This result attained, if
you pronounce p, at the same time closing the ears tight, no sound will be
beard; whereas, if you go on to pronounce b, you will be conscious of an
intense rumbling· sound. This is the 'vibration of the vocal chords, which
penetrates into the ear through the internal auditory meatus. Certain
ethnic groups however pronounce the voiced consonants almost without
voice; this is the case with South German and Alsatian d and b, which to a
French ear sound like t and p.
20
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMA.R.
SECTION III.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.
§ 1.
(20) 1. Oral Vowels. The two opposite poles of vocalism
are i [Eng. ee in feet], which is essentially the high-toned
vowel, and u [Eng. 00], which is essentially the low-toned
vowel. In pronouncing i, the larynx rises and the corners of
the mouth are widened in such a way as to give to the sonorous
tube the least length possible; whereas, in pronouncing u, the
larynx is lo,vered,l and the lips are thrust. for\vard, so that the
length becomes as great as possible. Between these two lies
the vowel of equilibrium, a [Eng. a infathel
o
], the sound which
is produced when, the organs being in a position of rest,2 the
soft palate is raised and the glottis begins to vibrate.
Between'these three chief notes of the vocalic scale there is
naturally room for a large nUInber of intermediate sounds; thus
we ascend from a to i through open e (French c [approximately
English ai in air] ) and close e (French e); and again we descend
from a to u through open 0 (Fr. h01nme [approximately Eng.
o in hot]) and close 0 (Fr. eau). The 0 sounds and the e
sounds in their turn have, as intermediate sounds, respectively
the German 0 (Fr. eu) and the French e mute. Lastly, if the
larynx takes the position required for i, while the lips are
placed in the position required for u, we shall hear the mixed
sound represented by German it or French u.
2. Nasalized Vowels. To each oral vowel there neces-
sarily corresponds a nasalized. vowel. Thus, if we pronounce a
without raising the soft palate, the result is the two nasals
in the French word enfant. The most comInon instances
besides this are en (of paien, often written in in French), on,
and un (French), corresponding respectively to e, 6, ann o. But
languages rich in nasals, Portuguese for possess many
'
1 These movements may be verified by placing the finger on the pro-
tuberance of the larynx whilst uttering these two sounds alternately with
some energy. 2 Supra 19, 1.
ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PHONETICS. 21
3. Diphthongs. Diphthongs are often defined as the meeir
ing of two v o ~ : " e l s in one syllable; but this definition is faulty,
for two real vowels must necessarily form two syllables, sepa-
rated from one another by the smooth breathing, which; as we
have seen, precedes the utterance of every vowel. This is
the case with the two vowels of the English word poet. If tho
soft breathing is absent, as in the English interjection aye,
the second sound is not and cannot be a vowel;. it is only a
consonant of a particular kind, which rests upon the preceding
vowel, and, in order to recall its vocalic origin, is often called
a semi-vowel.
Every vowel may become a semivowel, with the single ex-
ception of a, the utterance of which is inseparable from the
smooth breathing. But it is especially the two extremes of
the vocalic scale, i and u, which are liable to this change; their
semi-vowels will be represented by y and w. The semi-vo,vel
of u can easily be perceived in the French words lui, pluie.
The semi-vowels of e and 0 approximate respectively to those
of i and u.
1
It will be seen then that ,ve must carefully distinguish real
diphthongs, which are composed of a vowel and a semi-
vowel, ay, or of a semi-vowel and a vowel, ya, joined
together in one syllable, and false diphthongs, which only appear
such in consequence of the way in which they are written, and
\vhich in reality are simple vowels. In French the groups
au and ou are diphthongs only to the eye; they represent the
vowels 6 (close) and u. So also in Greek we shall see that
av was a diphthong, but ov a vowel.
4. Long and Short Vowels. Every vowel, whether oral,
nasalized, or in a diphthong, may either be uttered very quickly
or prolonged during the whole of a single expiration; hence
an indefinite number of degrees of quantity, which may easily
be observed in language, whether spoken or sung. For the
sake ,of. simplicity, grammarians have reduced these varieties
to two, long and short, a, a, and have also agreed to regard the
duration of a long vowel as about twice that of a short one.
I Thus the word seau [bucket] (a dissyllable with close e), which has become
in French the monosyllable s6 (close 0), is pronounced syo in certain dialects.
22 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
§ 2. Consonant-Vowels.
(21) 1. Liquids.
1
We may' distinguish essentially three
kinds of r, according as the quivering obstacle which produces
it consists of the upper margin of the glottis, the uvula, or the
tip of the Glottal r, unknown to the cultivated lan-
guages of Europe, is very common in Arabic, and is heard also,
though in a very impure form, in the pronunciation of those
persons who have a tendency to "burring." The second,
uvular r, is that of :Frenc4; ill. southern French it
is replaced by lingual r, which is also the only kind kno,vn
in Italian and Spanish.
There are al$o several kinds of l; but this distinction is
much less
2. Nasals. We have seen tij.at the nasals are pronounced
with the mouth Now the place of closure may be
situated at allY point wbatever ill the cavity of the mouth,
from the 'palate to the lips. If the tongue rests against
the soft palate (velurn palati) or the palatal arch, the sound
is velar or palatal 11; thi,s is the ng of English and
German :f!.Ilal often called also guttural 'n. If the
tongue t4e mouth at the level of the sockets (alveoli)
of the upper teeth, we hear the ordinary or alveolar n. If
tp.e closure place in front by means of the j oined lips,
we l:;lbial •
vVhen used as vowels, the liquids and nasals may be long
or short? just like the ordinary vowels.
§ B!, (Jonsonanls.
(22) 1. Explosives.
2
The closure of the mouth which
is necessary for the production of a voiced or voiceless ex-
plosive may likewise be velar, palatal, dental, or
four groups of consonants, which include also several
subordinate groups.3 The first two groups are often united
1 [Fr. vibrantes (trills) ; land r are usually classed as liquids by English
writers.] "
2 [Fr. momentanees (momentary); called "explosives" by many English
and German writers, "stops," "mutes" or "checks" by others.]
3 Cacuminals (the tongue turned up against the top of the palate),
dorsals (the hack of the tongue resting against the front part of the palate),
alveolars, interdentals, etc. [English t is rather cacuminal, French t"alveolar.]
ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOIJOGICAL PHONETICS. 23
under the less precise appellation of gutturals: the velar
gutturals, q, g, are those heard in the English words cool,
good, and especially in the German kuh (cow); the palatals,
k, U, are those heard in the English key, gift. The der;ttals,
t, d, and the labials, p, b, require no explanation.
2. Spirants.
1
The following are the most commol). spirants
(taking them in order according to the position of the half-
ppened aperture through which the air passes): (a) the
voiceless velar, German eh in dach, noeh; (b) the voiceless
palatal, German eh in ich, bleeh; (e) the voiceless and voiced
cacuminals (French eh and j [approximately English sh and s
in pleasure]), denoted respectively by sand z; (d) the voice-
less and voiced dentals, or rather alveolars, sand z; (e) the
voiceless and voiced interdentals, English th hard and soft;
(/) the two labials, f and v.
3. Modifications of the Consonants. The two chief
possible modifications of the consonants are aspiration and
mouillement [or palatalization.]
A.-Aspiration affects scarcely any but the momentary
c o n s o n ~ n t s . It consists in the explosion being more energetic,
and accompanied by the forcible expiration 2 which we have
designated by h; hence the consonants of this class are
denoted by qh, kh, th, ph (voiceless), gh, gh, dh, bh (voiced).
German initial k is the best example that can be given of an
aspirated explosive; a qh is heard in kuh, a kh in kind (child).
When the explosion of the explosive melts gradually into
the expiratory breath which follows it, the two sounds end by
coalescing into one, that is to say, into the corresponding con-
tinuant or spirant. Thus the transition is easy from ph to!,
from th to the alveolar or interdental sibilant; and the Gerlnan
qh in kuh has become a velar spirant in the Swiss dialects.
B.-Mouillement, a phenomenon easier to reproduce than to
define, may modify not only all the momentary and continuant
'1 [Fr. continlles (continuous); usually called "spirants" or" fricatives "
by English philologists.]
- 2 Thus for these consonants also the term" aspirate" is very inappro-
priate (see above, 19, 1); but this terminology being consecrated by usage
will be retained.
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
consonants, but also the nasals and liquids. The French l
mouille in the word flUe is well kno\vn; n mouil1e occurs in
the word digne. The other consonants sho\viIlg mouillement
are most frequently met with in Hungarian and the languages
allied to it, but may also be found elsewhere; it was, as we
have seen above (17), a k mouille, written ky, which served as
an intermediate stage between cabdllul1l and cheval. As a
general rule the mouille sound is accompanied by a slight
dorsal articulation.
1
Having settled these preliminaries, we are now in a position
to begin an historical study of Greek and Latin sounds; we
shall examine in succession the vowels, semi-vowels, and diph-
thongs, the consonant-vowels, the consonants, the effects of
comhinations of vowels and consonants, and lastly the tonic
accent.
1 A very minute study of this phenomenon has very recently appeared in
Kuhn's Zeitschrijt (xxix. 1).
CHAPTER II.
GRlECO-LA.TIN VOCALISlVI.
SECTION I ..
VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS VIEWED SEPARATELY IN
EACH LANGUAGE..
§ 1. Greek..
(23) 1.. VovJels,,-Greek five short vowels, a, €, l;
0, v, and a corresponding number' of long vowels, ii, 'YJ, "i, w, v.
To these must be added, as will be seen later on, the two
false diphthongs E:L and OlJ.
The pronunciatIon of a and ", long or short
1
presents no diffi.;;
culty; € and 0 were cloEre e and (j; w probably a very open o.
There is no controversy except as to 'YJ and v.
The 'YJ of modern Greek is an i; but there is no doubt that
this pronunciation does not represent that of the ancients.
The fact that 'YJ was always regard-ed as the long vowel oarre.;
spanding to €, the transliteration of' 'YJ by e,l the syllable
which in a verse of the comedian Cratinus represents the
bleating of sheep, and other arguments besides, justify us in
asserting that, at any rate up to the clarssical period, 'YJ was
equivalent -to a more or less open e. It is possible however
that in popular pronunciation itacism crept in pretty early;
but it does not appear to have finally prevailed until the
beginning of the Byzantine period.
The same is the case with v, which is likewise an i in
modern Greek. vVe shall see that v is the regular represeu-
tative of Indo-European u; this is a presumption in favour
1 The transliteration by i belongs to the period of the spread of Chrisi
tianity, of which popular Greek was essentially the medium.
25
26 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
of a very old pronunciation 1.t, which was perhaps that of the
Homeric age, and certainly that of several dialects, as is
proved by the dialectical representation of this vowel by ov ;
e.g. Boootian oVfJ-€'i (you) =VfJ-ElS, Laconian fJ-0VU{ODEt1 (he speaks)
It is by u also that Latin represents the v of it"
oldest Greek loan-"\vords, which were borrowed from the Doric
dialects of }\fagna Grrecia; e.g. !1.LCUS=epVKO'i, pttrpura=
7T'Opepvpa. But later, in the Augustan age, when it borrowed
words from the it also introduced into its alphabet a
new symbol, y, meant to represent v, which shows that the
Latin alphabet possessed no letter that could serve to repre-
sent exactly the Greek vowel as pronounced at that period.
Now the sound which was then non-existent in Latin was 'il.
Hence we must infer that the old U had in the classical period
become 'ii, and so the correct pronnnciation of v is that of
.- French 'u. From this intermediate stage it passed to its
present pronunciation of i.
It is possible tnat Greek had some nasalized vowels, and
some dialects certainly possessed them; but as theY,are not
distinguished in writing, it is impossible to determine precisely
their pronunciation.
(24) 2. Diphthongs.-Greek. writing represents a very large
number of real or appa.rent diphthongs.. By far the most
important are those in which the vowel comes first,2 among
which we may distinguish the series with the semi-vowel Land
that with the semi-vowel v.
A.-Series at, E(" at., 1Jt, WL
f
at.and 0(, are in modern Greek simple vowels, e and i; but
this pronunciation is late, as is shown by the mere fact
of their transliteration in Latin by ae and oe, which in the
Augustan age still represented real diphthongs, e.g. in the
borrowed words aether and poena. We shall not be far
wrong then in pronouncing distinctly ay and oy.
E(, in modern Greek is also an i; but beneath this uniformity
of spelling and pronunciation are concealed two quite distinct
sounds: (1) a diphthong Et., which came froln Indo-European
ey (AE{7rW=*leyqo) or from the Hellenic contraction of E+ L
1 This pronunciation still remains in Tsaconhtn. 2 Of. supra 20, 3.
VOOALISM. 27.
(7rOAEL =7rOAEi), and must, at any rate originally, have been
pronounced ey ,. and (2) a simple close c, produced by the con-
traction of two E'S (ep{AEt = ep{AEE, iInperative) or by "compensa-
tory lengthening" (r{OEls =*rd}l.vr(), infra 47 C.). T;h.e first EL
however also became a vowel at an early period, and its
transliteration in Latin, "\V"hich varies between e and l, .LEneas,
Tiresias, shows the undecided character of the pronunciation
of this false diphthong.
The diphthongs with a long vo,vel, iit, 1]'-, WL, underwent a
peculiar treatment. The y was probably still pronounced in
the tilue of Homer, and even later; for the Greek
borrowed at an early date by the Latins, was spelt by them
tragoedlls, whereas jJ-EAeealii, borrowed later, was transcribed
rrnelodia. However this may be, in the classical period the
semi-vowel was no longer pronounced, or scareely so; whence
the custom of representing it in inscriptions only by a small
symbol written close to the long vowel (L adscript, e.g. Ht).
Our typography has replaced it by the " subscript, Cf, TJ, <e, a
mode of writing borrowed from the Greek manuscripts of
the Middle Ages.
B.-Series av, EV, ov-av, 'YjV, WV.
Each of these groups must be pronounced as if it consisted
of a vowel+w, almost like the German au [English ow].
Their transliteration in Latin and elsewhere (aorov for avrov
and epEoynv for epevynv in various inscriptions) puts this point
beyond doubt in the case of av, EV, and the corresponding long
diphthongs,! probably also in the case of wv, which however is
very rare. ov is the only e4:ception; i:Q. moder:Q. Greek it is a
simple vowel u, and it must have been already reduced to this
in antiquity.
ov, like Et, represents historically two distinct sounds: (1)
an Indo-European ow *l6wo), a priIllitive diphthong, of
which the two elements gradualJy in Greek; and
(2) a long close 0, prodaced by the Attic contraction of two
o's (D'YiAOVftEJ/=DyiAoojJ-lV), or by the compensatory lengthening
1 Confirmed also by the present Greek pronunciation (av=av, €v=el
7
,
?1v=iv), which would inconceivable if had ever been reduced to 0 and
eu to o.
28
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
of an 0 The close {j and the diphthong both
imperceptibly became u from classical times. In fact we know
that in transliteration from one language t.o another, Latin
u and Greek ov are treated as exactly equivalent; e.g. AOVKLOS,
Thitcydides.
(25) Besides these diphthongs in which the vowel came first,
there is no doubt that Greek possessed numerous diph-
thongs, in "\\,.hich the senIi-vowel caine first (type ya and wa).
This is especially shown by Greek prosody. Thus the Homeric
scansion of xpva-€OV or (.Molic) XPVa-LOV as a dissyllable, of
as a trisyllable (e.g. Ode iv. 83), of flYJA:Y]tcLD€W (Ionic)
,vith synizesis of SEW, and the frequent scansion ill the tra-
gedians of ()€wV as a monosyllable, and av()€wv (A.ttic) as a dis-
syllable, point beyond doubt to a semi-vocalic pronunciation of
€ or L; so also the word which is always dissyllabic, must
have begun with a sound very nearly akin to the English who
13i.it owing ta the lack of precision in Greek writing, and the
absence of other evidence; we ar(j not able to arrive at any-
thing beyond approximations on this point.
§ Latinit
(26) 1. Voweis.-The Latin vowels are frve In number; a, e,
i, 0, U,l and may be either short or long. The Latin alphabet
has no special sign to denote a long vowel; sometimes in
inscriptions the length is marked by doubling the vowel
(itA-A.Reo) 2or in the case of i by lengthening the letter (MARID,
ablative), or, histly, by the very irregularly h6weV'er, of
the apex, a kind of acute accent placed over a vowel long by
nature.
The pronunciation of the Latin vowels is niilch better known
than that of the Greek; their equivalence in inscriptions, the
1 Y, a borrowed symbol, as we have seen, ought never to appear except
in Greek words which the Latins introduced into their own language;
hence we shall write pyramis, bysslts, xystum, but silva, lacrima, inclutus
or inclit'ltSa .
2 The quantity dt the vowel must alwa1s be carefully distinguished from
that of the syllable; thus the e of ""ectlls is reckoned as long because of its
position, but it is really short; on the contrary, in agmen, lectus, stJ'uctus,
the vowel is long by nature, and quite independently of the group of con-
sonants which follows it. .
GRJECO-LATIN VOCALISM.. 29
testimony of grammarians, and the evidence of the Romance
languages, especially Italian, enable us to determine even the
more delicate shades of distinction between them. A; long or
short, was the ordinary a [of French, cf. a of which'
has been preserved very faithfully in Italian. The sound of e
was rather open than close, even in such words as lego, gero;
c, on the other hand, was always close, even in final syllables,
e.g. omnes, and this view harmonizes with 'the eyidence of
the purely graphic variants omnes, omneis, and omn'is. The
sound of i approached that of close e (English y in happy),
and the same may also be said of unaccented 'i, often written
ei in final syllables, equeis; but accented 'i is a pure 'i. () is an
open 0; () is a close 0, very near akin to u. U, which has not
become it in any language except French, had exactly the
sound of French ou [English 00] when long, but approached
that of 0 when short. Y represents an il or a mixture of i
and it.
Olassical Latin possessed none of the nasalized vowels which
have since been developed in French and Portuguese. It is
possible however that, some such sounds existed in the popular
language.
2. Diphthongs.-The true or false diphthongs in which the
vowel comes first are six in number: ai, ei, oi-au, eu, ou.
Some of these survived in classical Latin; all became more or
less simple vowels in popular Latin. .
The archaic spelling ai (AIDILIS, Ep. Scip.) and the classical
spelling ae both represent a true diphthong which contained a
semi-vowel formed by a nlixture of i and e,l but ,vas early
reduced in the popular speech to a simple e. The same is the
case with ai, classical oe, which however is hardly a Latin
sound at all, except as a contraction of 0 +e in coeptum, etc. ;
for the archaic oi (moinicipiom) regularly became either u
or 'i, and survived only in a few· archaisms like moenia,
foedus. The later oe is a mere transcription of Greek 0(, in
borrowed words, The Romance languages no
longer make any distinction between Latin e, ae, oe. As to
1 Cf. Quintilian, 111St. Orat. i. 7, 18.
30
GREEK A.ND LATIN -GRAMMAR.
the diphthong oi, it is reduced, as in Greek, to a simple 0, equo
== *equoi ==
Ei was perhaps already pronounced i, even when still
written ei: DIFEIDENS == diffidens. In the Augustan age the
spelling merely altered to agree with the pronunciatIon.
Au was a true diphthong, and has remained such in Pro..
venyal, Portuguese, and Roulnanian; which -proves that the
very frequent interchange of au and 0, revealed by inscriptions
and manuscripts,
1
is to be regarded merely as a dialectical
peculiarity.
The old eu became ; hence there is no eu in Latin, except
that which arises froln the later contraction of e + 'U, and the
mere fact of its having this origin is enough to show its pro-
nunciation.
The old ou, whether primitive or derived from eu, was per-
haps already pronounced ii, even when the spelling ou still
survived (ABDOUCIT, Ep. Scip.). Later on it was superseded by
the spelling ii.
The diphthongs in which the semi-vowel comes first 2 (iarn,
uel, etc.) present no difficulty. But it must be observed that
there were many more of these in the popular speech than in
the slow and studied pronunciation of classical Latin; for ex-
ample, the classical Latinpar-lete, a tetrasyllable, \vas in popular
Latin pariete, a tribrach, which, through the first syllable being
long by position, became a dactyl, and the poets made use of
this license to introduce words of this class into their verses.
'In the same way the popular words battuere, trifolium, are
shown to be trisyllables (with accent on bd, tri) by the }-'rench
bdttre, trefle, which could not come froln battuere, trif6lium.
The double scansions tenuis and tenvis, genua and genva, are
well known. Such a change is very natural. Similarly the
French termination -tion is monosyllabic in current speech, but
dissyllabic in poetry. 3
1- The Emperor Vespasian pronounced plostra instead of plaustra (Suet.
Vespas. 22), and scholars hesitate between the spellings cauda and cO(la.
f Cf. above 20, 3.
a [So also in Shakespeare the termination ·tion is sometimes dissyllabic,
e.g. Cor. i. 2. 15, " These three lead on this preparation " ; sometimes mono·
syllabic, e.g. Ant. iii. 4. 26, " I'll raise the preparation of a war."]
GRJECO-LATIN VOCALISM.
SECTION II.
31
VO"\VELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF THE TWO LANGUAGES VIEWED IN
RELATION TO THEIR COMMON ORIGIN.
(27) The study of the diphthongs in which the vowel comes
first cannot be separated ITom that of t.he vowel itself; on the
other hand, the study of the diphthongs in which the senli-
vowel comes first depends entirely on the development of the
semi-vowel which they contain.
Hence this' section will be divided under two heads: (1)
vowels, (2) semi-vo\vels.
§.1. Vowels.
(28) The vocalism which we have assigned to Greek and
Latin is the same as the primitive Indo-European vocalism,
which these languages reproduce, as a general rule, with
relnarkable fidelity. To simplify their study, it will be con-
venient t.o arrange the vowels in the following order: i, ii, u, 'ii,
e, e, 0, 0, a, a.l
1. I.-E. ?;==Gk. L==Lat. ?;: I.-E. *qi-s (interrog.), Gk. T{-(), Lat.
qui-s; *tr'i- (three), Tpt-a-{V, tri-b1tS; -'i-, formative suffix of sub-
stantives, *ow-i-s (sheep), orli == *OF-L-li, ov-i-s ; -'1, locati ve ending,
Gk. VVKT-t, 7rUVT-L, Lat. rur-e, noct-e, etc.
We see from the last examples that Lat. final 'i becomes e:
ru/re == *rr'ur:t; so also the neuters leve == *lev'i (cf. masc. levis)
and. 1nare, which correspond to the Greek types iDpL (neuter_of
adj. "Dpt-,;, "knowing"), a-{VU7rt, etc., as is shown by the cases
in which the i reappears, abI. sing. levi" nOll. pI. levia. The
same change of '1, to if takes place before r: Lat. sero (I sow) ==
*s'i-so,2 cf. Gk. iYjj1-L == *a-{-a-Yj-j1-L.
(29) 2. I.-E. i"==Gk. t:==I..Jat. i: *;z,vi'- (force), Gk. Lli (force,
1 Besides these ten vowels, comparative philology assigns to the primi-
tive language an eleventh vowel of indeterminate pronunciation [£1], which
in Greek and Latin however appears to be entirely confused with a.
2 Lat. s between two vowels always becomes T. Of course most of these
examples presuppose an acquaintance with phonetic laws which will only be
set forth later Oll. Phonology forms a system which must be grasped as a
whole before each part of it can be understood. [Of. infra 69, 1 and note.]
32 GRE,EK AND LATIN GRAMl\IAR.
e.g0' • II. xii. 320) == instr. T-4)#. == *Fl.-¢t (by force), common in
Homer, Lat. vi-s; Gk. pl:yos-, Lat. frigus; -i-, sign of the opta-
tive, I.-E. *s-i-mes (we may be), Gk. €T}L€v==*€o--i-p..€v, Lat.
s-i-mus, etc. Sometimes in Latin spelling this i is confused
with ei, e.g.faxseis==faxis; but we know that the pronuncia-
tion represented by both symbols was almost the same.
(30) 3. I.-E. u==Gk. v==Lat. i1: I.-E. *du- (two), Gk. av-w,
Lat. du-a; I.-E. *yug-o- (yoke), Gk. tvy-o-s-, Lat. jug-u-m; I.-E.
*klu- (to hear), Gk. KAV-TO-S- (heard of, celebrated), Lat. with
prefix in-clu-tu-s; Gk. V7rO, V7rEP, Lat. sub, super; -u-, formative
suffix of nouns, Gk. (Dar. aavs-), Lat. suavis==*svad-u-is,
with an additional suffix, the vocalic character of which caused
the change of u to a semi-vowel.
We have seen that Latin 11 was closely akin to o. It
seems to have retained its original labial charaeter \vhen, a
labial followed; then in course of time this pure u must have
passed through the intermediate stage of il to a sound nearly
approaching .that of 'i. These three stages are successjvely
attested by variable spellings, such as lubet and libet (it
pleases), carnufex and carnifex, laC1"Urrta (cf. Gk. aaKpV),
lacri1na and even lacryma; perhaps also by the variation
seen in the dative-ablatives of the fourth declension, e.g. arcu-
bus cOlupared with rnan'i-bus. But as we are here dealing
with a sound which the Latin alphabet was unable to represent
with precision, it is hard to red uce these phenomena to a law.
On the other hand, if, becomes pure 0 before r, except in
a final syllable: fo-re (to be) == *fu-re, cf. and Gk.
¢v-o-p..at; fernor-is, jecor-is (genitives), cf. femur, jecur, etc.
We find however furor, nurus (daughter-in-law), Gk. vvos-==
*o-vvo-o-s-, Sk. snusa.
(31) 4. I.-E. u==Gk. v==Lat. u: I.-E. *mus- (mouse), Gk. p/vs-,
gen. }LV-OS- (infra 76 B):== *}LVo--OS-, Lat. rnus, gen. rnuris == *mus-is,
cf. Mod. Germ. rnaus, Eng. mouse; Gk. (swine), Lat. su-s; Gk.
Ov-p..o-s- (passion, heart), Lat. fU-1nu-s (smoke), cf. Sk. dhu-rnd-s
(smoke,-vaponr) and Gk. ()vw (burn in sacrifice).l We cannot
with certainty place here beside Greek (he was) the archaic
1 Etymological meaning" to smoke " still seen in oa:lr€OOp 0' a/Trap aYp.arL
(JU€V (Od. xi. 420).
GRJECO-LATIN VOCALISM. 33
Latin perfect fil-i, which may go back equally well either to
*fU-Vi or *fou-vi (supra 26, 2 an:Ci infra 34 B (3).
(32 ) 5. I.-E. e=Gl:r. E=Lat. e. This exact agreement, which
is almost absolutely regular,l is, as we have seen, the essential
criterion of classification for the Indo-European languages..
We shall examine successively simple e and e forming part of
a diphthong.
e: I.-E. *es-ti (he is), Gk. €U-Tt, Lat. es-t; I.-E.
*ed-a (I eat), Gk. lD-W, Lat. ed-a; I.-E. *qe (and), Gk. 'rE
r
Lat.
que; I.-E. *gen-os (birth), gen. *gen-es-os, Gk. yf.v-or; yf.v€or;=
=I yf.v-€u-or;, Lat. gen-uf! gen-er-is= *gen-es-is; 2 final ein voca-
tive of 2nd decl., Gk. i7r7r-€, Lat. equ-e; final-e of 2nd person
singular present imperative, Gk. ay-€, Lat. ag-e; final -te of
2nd person plural imperative, Gk. 11y-€-T€, Lat. ag-i-te; e in
reduplication of perfect, Af.-AO'-7r-a, ce-cid-f,.
€ in Greek always remains unchanged. But in Latin
(a) The group ev regularly becomes OV by labialization of
the vowel under the influence of the labial: Gk. vf.or;=vf.For;,
Lat. *nevos, whence novos; Gk. T€For;, eFor; (= *u€For;) (thine,
his), tovos, sovas (archaic), later suus; Gk. €v-yf.a=
*ev-v€F-a (I.-E. *new-tt), Lat. nOV-el11t, etc.
(f3) Unaccented e, when not final, is changed to t: thus we
have age=ay€, but agite=ayeT€, agimini=u.yop.€VOL or aY€JL€va,-,
and agis (thou dost) = *ages, which is perhaps equivalent to
the Doric form ay€r; (common Greek &y€tr;) and certainly to an
I.-E. form *ag-es (cf. Sk. bhdras=ep€per;).
To this change of unaccented eis due the well-known weaken-t
ing of the vowel in compounds: lego c6lligo, *specia (cf. Gk. UKf.7r-
Top-at) inspicia. According to the law laid down we should ex-
pect c6lligo, but *collegere, *insp.ecerre, inspecio, since in these
'W·ords eremains accented. But it must be observed, on the one
hand, that the phenomenon may, and indeed must, have taken
1 There is scarcely any important exception that cannot be explained,
besides L7l"1rOS = equos ; but the L is not the only irregularity in t?r7rOS, and the
rough breathing, which has nothing corresponding to it elsewhere (Sk. agvas) ,
and which is not reproduced in compounds (.A€UKL7l"7l"OS not *A€UXL7l"7rOS),
points to a series of accidental alterations in this word, which stilll'emain
obscure.
2 Notice the double agreement in the genitive.
D
34 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
place at a time when Latin accentuation had not yet assumed
the form in whic}l it has been handed down to us by the post-
Augustan grammarians, and accordingly it must have taken place,
partly at any rate, under the influence of an initial accentuation
peculiar to Latin, which ,viII be defined later on (§ 82); and, on
the other hand, that very possibly *collegere may have become
colligere through the analogical influence 1 of the regular colligo,
as conversely the regular forms neglegere, intellegeloe produced
the presents neglego, intellego. In other cases the vocalism
of the simple verb was perhaps wrongly introduced into the
compound: thus we ought to have *repito, but we have repeto
through the analogy of peto. Such attractions are very com-
mon in low Latin, which created a number of forms lik.e
refacere (Fr. refaire) instead of reficere, accaptare (Fr.
acheter) on the model of captare, and may evidently have
taken place at all periods. On the other hand, the compound
sometimes altered the simple verb: thus, though the conju-
gation is different, the Latin plieo certainly corresponds to the
Greek TrAlKW (I plait); hence we must admit that the vocalism
of and the other compounds contaminated the simple
*pleco.
As a follo,ving r changes to e, it is natural that it should
preserve unaccented efrom being changed to 'i; and so we have
c6nfero, generis, memineris, not *confiro, etc. e likewise
remains unchanged in a close syllable, that is, before a group
of two consonants: col-lectus, cf. col-ligo, haruspex= *haru-
spec-s, gen. -spic-iH,prae-pes (with rapid flight) = *prae-pes-s=
*pra.e-pet-s (cf. Gk. Trlr-oj-tat, I fly), and, through analogy, gen.
pr.rae-pet-is = etc.
(y) Lastly, a much more obscure change of e takes place
sporadically before nasals; ebecomes 'l before a group consisting
of a + a consonant, and this 'i in its turn is sometimes
lengthened in accordance with another law not yet satisfac-
torilyexplained. Cf. and 'lntus, TrlVT€ and qUinque, tignum 2
(beam) and tego, CTTlyw (I cover) or TlxvYJ (originally the car-
penter's craft, Sk. taks, to hew), etc. 'Ve see by this that the
1 On the influence of analogy see infra 83 and 183.
Lat. 9 before n is a nasal (German [and English] ng).
GRiECO-LATIN VOCALISM. 35
two prepositions and in may be identified, if we assume that
there existed in Latin two syntactical doublets,l *en and in;
before a word beginning with a vowel *en would not change,
*en agris, but it would become in before a consonant, in doma;
then later the form in was extended by analogy to the former
case. But we must also suppose that *en was mostly proclitic,
and consequently unaccented.
B.-e in diphthongs:
(a) I.-E. ey=Gk. (ei) i: I.-E. *deyk-- (to _show, say),
Gk. De{K-vv-/lt, -Lat. die-a, archaic deiea; I.-E. *bheydh.... (to per-
suade, trust), Gk. 1re{().w, Lat. fid-a. Very rarely Greek also
has i: I,-E. *dey- (to shine), Gk. cf. Lat. dei".vo-s,
divo-s (god, divine).
({3) I.-E. ew=Gk. ev=prehistoric Latin eu; but, as ev be:-
comes ov (cf. A a supra), eu, which does not differ from it in
Latin in pronunciation or even in writing, becomes then 11,:
Gk. epelry-w, cf. Lat. *deue-o (I lead), which is not
found anywhere, but evidently has the same relation to due-
(from dux, duc-is) that epevy-w has to epvy-, historically *do1tc-o
(ABDOVCIT already cited), and finally
'(33) 6. I.-E_. e=Gk. e: I.-E. *ed-ed-a (I have eaten),
Gk. Lat. without reduplication ed-i ; I ....E. *semi- (half),
Gk. Lat. semi-; I.-E. nom. *mater (mother), Gk.
JtaTYJp, Lat. *mater, which became through the regular
shortening of every final syllable in r (cf. arbos and arbor);
I ..,.E. *dhe (to suck, suckle), Gk. (teat), (female),
Lat.fe-la (to suck, often wrongly written feZlo),fe-mina=Gk.
(she who suckles), cf. Umbr. sif feliuf= sues ftlios
(sucking-pigs); I.-E. -ie- optative suffix, Gk. old
Latin s-ie-s; etc. SOluetimes in Latin this e was written ei,
which is merely a graphic variation, leigibus; but it is less
easy to explain the variant i, found. in filius (suckling).
(34) 7. I.-E. o=Lat. o. This primitive agreement,
which has been often interfered "vith by the action of analogy,
1 By syntactical doublet is meant the double form which the same word
may take according to the place it occupies in a syntactical group (sentence) :
thus, in French, beau and bel, the former before a consonant, the latter
before a vowel. [SQ in English a before a consonant, an before a vowel.]
36
. GREEK AND LATIN GRAl'IMAR.
will only be understood later on; for the present it will be suf-
ficient to notice the regular alternation of e and 0 which takes
place in words of identical formation in Greek and Latin.
A. - Sirnple a: -a-, the sign of nouns of the second declension,
Gk. ;:lr7r-o-r;, Lat. equ-a-s; alternation with e, seen in ¢€pW and
epopor;, also in O€p.-w (to build) and oop.-o-c; (house), Lat. dom-u-s,
pend-o (I weigh) and pond-u-s
1
(weight), sequ-o-rr and soc-iu-s,
etc.; the same alternation in epepw and epopa, p€-w=*peF-w (to
flow) and */JoF..a (stream), teg-o and tog-a; so also in the
derivative verbs epopew (epepw), u7rolJoatw (O"7rEVOW), moneo (*men-,
to think; cf. me-min-i, mens), noeeo (*nek-, harm, death, cf.
nee-o, nex), voe-o (*weq, to speak, cf. the € of E7rO<; = F€7r-or;,
word), etc.; lastly, in the vowel of many Greek perfects,
oioa =Fo'io-a (cf. the participle € (AE{7r-W), 'TI€-
7rov()-a € suffering), etc. This last grade of vocalism has
nothing certainly corresponding to it in Latin, owing to the
many important changes which the original perfect underwent
in that language..
Greek 0 remains unchanged. In Latin 0 is liable to several
changes which are not all clearly defined.
(a) -The group ov almost always became av; cf. av-i-s and
a secondary formation =* also a
(I augur, presume), and orop.at. (same
sense) =*oF-{-o-p.at.. 'Ve find however ov-i-s (sheep) = Gk.
Sk.
(f3) The initial group vo in close always became
ve, though the archaic forms with did not entirely disappear.
E.g. vester =vas-ter, velle = *volle = *vol-se, cf., vol-o, and the
doublets vo'rto verto, vertex, etc.; so also in diphthongs,
vieus=veieos=Gk. (house), vinum=veinom=Gk.
but in open syllables voco,. vola, and even where the 0
corresponds to a Gk. € € (to vomit).
(y) In ilico' (on the spot, immediately) =*in sloeo,2 the
accented 6 seems to have undergone a similar treatment to
that of unaccented e(supra 32 A (3); but dlloquor, e6lloco, etc.
1 These two nonns originally belonged to the second declension, as is
shown by the locative domi and the archaic ablative pondo.
2 Stlocus is the archaic form of locus.
GRJECO-LA.TIN VOCALISM.
37
(8) Final 0, which however is very rare, becomes e; that is,
,ve are to regard the imperative sequ-e-re as absolutely
tical with its Greek correlative l7r£o= *l7r-£-o-o (follow).
(£) But the most regular and by far the best known change
of Latin 0 is that by which it becomes it in a final syllable.
We find this change on a large scale in the nominative and
accusative singular of the second declension, where units,
viriim, donum are the normal equivalents of o'inos, virom,
donom, which are found in old inscriptions. So also in the
neuters of the third declension, genus = Gk. rEvor;, tempus =
*tempos, cf. tempo-ris; and in the third person plural present
indicative, legunt = Gk. (Doric) AEYOVTt, cf. tremonti (tremunt),
a doubtful form in the ancient Oarmen Saliare.
(5 was kept unchanged after an ii, whether vowel or consonant,
until after the Augustan age, when it began to undergo the
same treatment. Thus the Romans pronounced and wrote, and
it would be well for u's also to write, equos, servos, exiguos,
quom (conjunction), not quum, which is a spelling' belonging
to the latest period of Latin, and ought to be utterly rejected.
The labial consonant afterwards coalesced with the vowel of
the same class: whence the spellings ecus, cocus, cum, rete.!
While a following r seelns to change it .to 0, it also preserves
unaccented 0 from being changed to u; thus *tempos became
tempus, but temporis remained unchanged.
(,) We find also sporadically u instead of 0 before a nasal
followed by a consonant; e.g. unguis, cf. Gk. ovvg= *l)vvx-r;, and
the variation in spelling between hone and hunc.
B.-o in diphthongs.
(a) I.-E. oy=Gk. ot=Lat. oi, but the last diphthong did not
remain perulanently. When accented, it became oe, and then
passed to the sound of u. Thus oino(m), found in the. epitaph.
of the Scipios, became unum: cf. Gk. oi-vo-r; (one), (the
ace in dice),oios(alone)=*oi-Fo-r;=Zendaeva (one), I.-E. *oy-wo-s
deflected from a demonstrative root i. Similarly we may
1 So the declension would be approximately: ecus, eque, equi, ecu,m, etc.
But it was inevitable that analogical influences should be developed among
the forms of this declension, giving rise, on the one hand, to the forms
equus, eqllum, and, on the other, to the forms ece, ed, all historically proved.
38
GREEK AND LATIN GRAM1!AR.
compare rnoenia (walls) with niilnire, poena with pilnire, and'
we may notice that foedus (treaty)=*foidos has the same
reIation to feido (to trust) that pondus has to pendo) We
may be surprised that oe should thus have survived excep-
tionally in these words and possibly a few others; but poena
lis borrowed from the Greek; the archaism moenia, which
was certainly read in the Annals of the Pontiffs, may have
been restored to favour in order to avoid confusion with the
regular munia, which had taken the sense of "public duties,"
and from the same Annals the Roman historians must have
borrowed the archaism foedtls.
2
Unaccented oy became i:
final -oy in locative singular of second declension, Gk. t7r7rOt, Lat.
equi; and so also in the dative plural, Gk. Lat. equis.
«(3) I.-E. ow=Gk. ov=Lat. (ou)u. We find very clearly in
Greek the alternation already mentioned between e and
CT7r€VOW (I hasten), (zeal); € (road),
(one who goes by the same road, travelling companion); fut.
€A€Va-ojJiJ.t € (I shall go), Homeric perfect €
(I have gone), etc. But the diphthong ou is not so easy to
recognise in Latin, for u come either from eu or ou; and
hence, when we see a perfect like fug-i (cf. archaic rUi, fui),
we cannot tell whether it goes back to the regular *foug-i =
Gk. *7rl-epovy-a or to a form *feug-i resembling 7rl-ep€vy-a, into
which the vocalism of the present' <P€vy-w was irregularly
duced. The former alternative however seems the more likely.
(35) 8. I.-E. o=Gk. w=Lat. 0.
A.-Sirnple 0: I.-E. *gno- (to know), Gk. Lat.
gno-tu-s, no-tu-s; final -0 of 1st person sing. pres. ind., *bhe-ro,
rplp-w, etc.; Gk. ow-po-v, Lat. with different suffix do-nu-m;
Gk. OW-TWP and all names of agent in -TWp, Lat. *da-tor, later
dator, cf. datorern, etc. We do not know the origin of the u
which appears in Latin in fur=epwp, and in the suffix -tor-
when it has a secondary suffix attached to it,praetor, praetura..
Weakening in an unaccented syllable gives i in convicium
(noise, insult)=*con-voc-iu-m. The weakened i in co-gnitus,
1 Of. the vocalism of "-rrbrodJa as contrasted with 1r€18w.
2 _Cf. also the classical murus =*moiros, and the archaic liturgical form
pomoeriunL = *post-moir-io-m.
VOCALISM.
39
etc., must go back to a lost participle which had short ° or
rather a, in accordance with a very common vowel-change
(infra 41 and 117).
B.-I....E. oy gives in Greek WI" in which I, is written but no
longer pronounced, and in Latin 0, in which the i is not even
written: date sing. Gk. i7r7rCf> == equo. I.-E. oW, which is unim-
portant, is likevvise reduced to 0 in, Latin ; e.g. matus (motion):;
*mau-tu-s, cf. mov-i.
(3
6
) 9. I.-E. a=Gk. a==Lat. a.
a: I.-E. *ago (to make, lead), Gk. d:yw, Lat.
ago; I.-E. *iint'li (against, before), Gk. aVT{, Lat. ante; Gk. arx-w
(to press, squeeze), Lat. ang-a, cf. angu-i-s (snake); Gk.
(field), Lat. ag-er=*ag-ro-s, cf. Sk. dj-ra-s, etc.
In Greek this aundergoes no modification. But in Latin
(a) Final a, which is however very becomes e, like final
iJ, if the instrumental 7r€o-a, preserved in Molic as an adverb
(with), really corresponds to a form ped-e == *ped-a, confused
\vith the locative ped-e =*ped-'t, perhaps also with an ablative
*ped-ed, and to be connected with I.-E. stem *ped- (foot).
(f3) Unaccented ii, when not final, generally becomes e, which
remains in a close syllable, factus confectus, captus acceptus,
cap-io au-cep-s (bird-catcher), cap-ut prae-cep-s, etc.; but be-
comes:;; in an open syllable, conjicio, accipio, and the genitives
parti-cip-is, prae-cipit-is.
1
In the latter case, however, before
a labial, 1: alternates with u, gen. au-cup-is, au-citp-iu-m (bird-
catching); and we often find both spellings in use for the same
word, and mancipium (capio), \vhich points to the
presence in these words of a vowel intermediate between u
and i.
2
In concutio (quatio) and augurium (garrio, CI. Gk.
YYJpvw==yapvw, to cry), the it may doubtless be explained as
being due to the influence of the preceding consonant, compli-
cated more or less by labialization.. We also find it before l
in close syllables: salta e.xsulto, calco conculco,
3
etc. Finally,
1. A new application of the law already investigated in connexion with it
(cf. supra 32 A (3).
2 Cf. supra 30.
3 l in a close syHable produces labialization of the preceding vowel (cf.
French altre, which has become autre, and Englishfalse, all), and we shall
see that the weakening of au produces u.
40
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
this phonetie law is, of course, like every other, frequently dis-
turbed by the influence of analogy. Thus ago regularly gives
adigo; but adactus and cogo contracted for *coago sho"\v an
irregular intrusion of the vowel of the simple verb actus, ago.
B.-a in diphthongs.
I.-E. ay=Gk. al,=Lat. (accented) ai, later ae, (unaccented)
i: 1 Gk. atOw (I burn): (the upper air through which
meteors pass), Lat. aed-es (room), originally no doubt " hearth,"
cf. the old spelling aid-ilis; Gk. (left), Lat.
lae-vo-s; *-ais, termination of date plur. of first declension, Gk.
Lat. terris, and the well-known cases of weakening
quaero inquiro, aestumo eXistumo, caedo decido, etc.
I.-E. aw (rare)=0-k. av=Lat. au, cf. Gk. and Lat.
aug-eo aug-ustus, in an unaccented syllable u, claudo secludo,2
e:xcept where the simple verb exercises an analogical influence,
adaugeo, applaudo, etc.
(37) 10. I.-E. a=Gk. a=Lat. a: I.-E. *bha- (to speak), Gk.
(Doric) epa-p.t, epa-p.a, (Ion.-Att.) epYJ-p.{, Lat.fa-ri (to speak),
in-fa-n..s (speechless), fa-mil 3 (renown); I.-E. *sta- (to place,
stand), Gk. (Dor.) l-(J"Ta-p.t" fut. (J"Ta-"(J"w, (Ion.) l(J"TYJ}J-t" Lat.
sfa-re, sta-bo; I.-E. ma-ter vocative (0 mother), Gk. (Dor.)
p..a-T€p, (Ion.) € Lat met-ter; *-tat-, suffix of feminine nouns
of quality, Gk. V€O-Tl]'i=*v€Fo-rar-'i (newness), Lat. novi-tas=
*novi-tat-s, etc.
It will be seen from the preceding examples that this priIni-
tive ais kept quite pure in Doric, and the same is the case also
in £olic when not influenced by other dialects. But in Ionic
every primitive ii becomes 'YJ. On the other hand, Attic, a later
branch of Ionic, keeps or rather restores a when preceded by
t, €, v, or p (the so-called a pure of Attic and the E.g.
Ion. uoep{YJ (wisdom), € € (generation), (J"LKVYJ (gourd), €
(day), (I do), Att. (J"oep{ii Y€l/€a (J"1,K'va .qp.€pa 7rpaTrW, etc.
The exceptions are only apparent; in Attic KOpYJ (maiden) and
1 It must be remembered that it is not the laws of classical accentuation
which are in force here.
2 In the two groups ai and au, unaccented a in a close syllable becomes e,
according to the preceding rule, and we know that ei and eu approximate
" respectively to i and u.
3 For Latin final asee remarks on declension, infra 193, 1.
GRJECO-LATIN VOCALISM.
41
DEPYJ (throat) the YJ was not preceded by p, but by a F, which was
lost after the change of the a, so that the primitive forms would
be *KopFii (cf. Lesb. Koppa, Dor. Kwpa, Ion. KOVPYJ) and *DEpFa (cf.
Sk. grivd, throat, and Lesb. DEppa); on the other hand, U'Toii
(porch) goes back to a-ToLa, which is also found, and 'Af)-qva (the
goddess) is not the- same word as 'AfJrjvYj, but, as the accent
shows, a contraction from 'AfJYJvaa='Af)-qva{ii. The numerous
nouns of the first declension like }-tovua, a}-tLAAa, etc., have
a short a, and go back to quite a different origin.
1
This being the case, we should expect never to find any
instances of a in Ionic or Attic, except a pure. Some instances
however do occur; but in these the ii was not original, but was
developed in Ionic alone after the separation of dialects, and
consequently long after the change of Panhellenic a to Ionic YJ.
Thus the accus. plur. goes back to an old Greek form
of which instances are still fonnd in inscriptions
(Oretan). , SimilarIy in 7Ta.cra == 7ravcra, Avcracra== Ava-avua, etc.,
the corresponding Lesbian forms }-to{a-als, 7TaLcra, Ava-ata-a,
etc., show that the Ionic long vowel was not original.
a in' diphthongs is not uncommon, especially in the combina-
tion ay, but presents no important peculiarity.
§ 2. Semi-vowels.
(38) Greek has no special symbol for the semi-vowel y, which
is written t, whether it occurs bet"veen two vowels or in a
diphthong. The seIni-vowel w is denoted by v when occurring
in a diphthong, but when used as an independent semi-vowel,
is represented by the sign F, the sixth letter of the alphabet
in the £olic and Doric dialects. It was in fact only these dia-
lects, and especially Doric,2 which preserved faithfully the pro-
nunciation of the F, which was doubtless very like that of the
'English w, and was lost at a very early period in the Ionic-
Attic dialect.
Latin has no special symbol for y and w ;- the Romans wrote
iugum, nouos, just as if these words had been trisyllables.
1 Infra 112 and 197.
2 It will be seen that the ordinary name of digamma" is not
strictly accurate. The f no longer appears in the Lesbian poets.
42
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
The invention of j and v dates from modern times. It has not
however been thought necessary to exclude these convenient
symbols from these pages, as their absence might embarrass
the reader. The important point to remember is that they
represent respectively English y in you and w in wake.
The principle underlying this matter may be shortly stated
as follows: Latin kept the primitive semi-vowels pretty faith-
fully; Greek, on the other hand, gradually eliminated theJ7l,
until none remained except those developed subsequently in its
o,vn domain.
The antecedent semi-vowel may be either initial or medial;
when luedial, it may occur either between two vowels or
between a consonant and vowel. It will be considered suc-
cessively according as it appears in these three positions.
(39) 1. I.-E. y.
A.-Initial y is kept in Latin and changed to the rough breath-
ing (h) in Greek: I.-E. *yeq-rt or *yeq-rt (liver), Gk. Lat.
jec-ur, cf. Sk. ydk-rt; I.-E. *yoro- (time, year), Gk. (year),
<fJp-a.. (season, period), cf. Germ. jahr [Eng. year]; *y6-s
(who), Gk. 0, cf. Sk. yd-s yd yd-d; Gk. (Lesb.)
Ion.-Att. iJfLEIS (you) = Sk. yusmd-. The y of juvenis
seems to be one of this kind, if we must connect this word with
Gk. in spite of the difference in the vocalism. But Indo-
European possessed also another y, confused with the former
in Sanskrit and Latin, but distinguished from it in Greek,
where it is represented initially by e.g. I.-E. *yug- (to join),
Sk. yuj- (to join), yug-d-m (yoke), Lat. jung-o, jug-u-rn, Gk.
'vy-6-v. It is somewhat difficult to determine pre-
cisely the, original difference between these two sounds.!
B.-Intervocalic y is always lost both in Greek and Lat'in
Lesbian keeps it after v): I.-E. *trey-es (three, cf. Sk. trdy-as),
Gk. Lat. tres; I.-E. *bhu-yo (I produce,
become), Gk. epv-w, cf. Lesb. epVLW, Old Lat. fu-o, subj. fu-am:
and similarly 'A:UW =*AVyW, rLw==*rl.yw, f'io=*feiyo; Gk. epOpEW
=I.-E. *bhore-yo, Sk. bhard-ya-mi, I make to carry), Lat.
1 This distinction, which appears only in Greek, may be merely due to
the existence of sj'utactieal doublets. <.Jf. L. Havet, Mem. Soc. Ling., vi.
p.324.
GRMCO-LATIN VOCALISM. 43
Gk. Tip.aw=*rIp.a-yw, and Lat. arno=*amao(cf. TLP.W) =
*ama-yo, and so all the contracted verbs; -yo- after a vowel, a
formative suffix of adjectives, Gk. € € Lat:
aure-u-s=*ause-yo-s, cf: Sk. hira1.zyd-ya-s' (golden), etc. When
the first vowel is a nasal or liquid, we shall see that the'
treatment is different.
We find however in Greek a number of cases of intervocalic
t, but in these cases the (, was not originally intervocalic, but
became so in Greek itself through the loss of a primitive con-
sonant (e.g. Ka{w, I burn==*Ka{Fw, infra), or else was restored
by analogy in forms from which it must have previously dis-
appeared. Thus in TL()Et-YjV, ot.oot-Yjv, instead of which we should
expect *ot.ooYjv, etc., the diphthong is probably due to the
analogy 'of OLOOLP.€V, etc., where the (, could not be dropped.
In Latin intervocalic j no longer appears except as the relic
of a group of consonants which have coalesced. E.g. major=
*mag-yos-,l cf. mag-nu-s and ; and meio (I make water)
=*rneih-yo, cf. Gk. o-p.IX-ew and Sk. mih migh (same meaning),
etc.
Later Greek, and especially Attic, even partially eliminated
L, when it had become intervocalic through the loss of a con-
sonant: Homeric Gk. TOLO (of the), changed to *roo, then
contracted (Lesb., Dor.) TW, (Ion.-Att.) TOV; Hom. Gk. TEAE{W,
New Ion. TEAEW, Att. T€AW, etc.2 This last process however is
much less constant; hence the termination of verbs in -e{w=
-EW, and the well known adjectival terminations in -01.0-, -aLO-,
-€LO-, which depend on phonetic laws not yet satisfactorily
determined.
C.-Between a consonant and vowel proethnic y is changed
to the vowel i in Latin; in Greek it is combined in various
ways with the preceding consonant.
(a) If the preceding consonant is a spirant, nasal, or r, the
y palatalizes the consonant (supra 22, 3 B) and gives rise to
a compensatory lengthening of the preceding syllable: I.-E.
*to-syo (gen. of the demonstrative *t6-, cf. Sk. td-sya), Gk.
1 Or better still *mah.;.ios- ; cf. Sk. mtih-iyiin (greater).
2 So also the verb 7rOLEW must often be read 7rOEW in the tragedians, as is
shown by the scansion (cf. the Latin borrowed word poeta).
44
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
*T6-uyo, whence *rOLa-o and TOLO, similarly t Tf.Alw=*1'f.AELW=
*Tf.AE{crw ==- *1'f.Af.cr-yw (Tf.Af.a-- end) ; I.-E. *owy-o- (to augur, from
*owi-, bird), Gk. *oFy-o-p..at-, whence *oiFop..at-, otop..at (1 think),
similarly Ka{w==-*KoiFw==-*KaF-yw (cp.-the v of the future Kau-a-w);
in Lat. 1:, caes-iu-s (blue), Gav-iu-s (proper name), root *gaw-,
cpo Gk. (valiant); Gk. *KTlv-yw (I kill), Lesb. KTEVVW,
1on.-Att. KTf.{VW; Gk. *cpfJEp-yW (I spoil), Lesb. epOl.ppw, Ion.-Att.
rp()f.{pw, in Lat. 1; in ven-io, or-io-r, etc.
((3) If the consonant is an l, the y is assimilated to it, I.-E.
*al-yo-s (other), Gk. but Lat. al-iu-s.
(y) If it is a labial explosive, the y becomes a dental ex-
plosive of the same class, Gk. TV7TTW (I strike)==-*Tv7T-yw, but
Lat. cap-io.
(0) With every other explosive y coalesces and produces t
in the case of a voiced, a-u (Att. TT) in the case of a voiceless
consonant: UT{tW (I prick) ==- *crT{y-yW, cf. fut. Lat.
fug-io==Ion. cpvtw; (sky, Sk. dyaus, Lat.
dies; (less), Att. cpo (little) and Lat.
sec-iu-s; (less) ==- cf. € KP€a-(TWV
KPf.{TTWV (better, stronger) ==*KP€T-ywV, cf. € €
== € Lat. med-iu-s, Sk. mddh-ya-s, hence I.-E. *medh-yo-s.
of the class of 6JK{WV (Lat. ocior) and {3a(){wv,
instead of which we should expect *OS(Tcrwv, {3UU(TWV (the latter
form exists),l contain a comparative suffix -ion- different from
-yon-, cf. Sk. mdh-iyan (greater). So also the adjectives
ay-t-o-Ii (holy), (hateful), etc., go back, not to
which would have given but to I.-E. *ydg-io-s,
with suffix -io-, like Lat. patr-iu-s, Gk. Ved. Sk.
pitr-ia-s.
(40) 2. I.-E. w.
A.-Initial w==Gk. F=Lat. v. Greek Fis found in a very large
number of inscriptions, chiefly Doric, € (six), (chief),
FicrFov (=Zuov, equal), etc:; and its existence is attested in the
.LEolic of Homer by the apparent instances of hiatus which it
removes and the cases of length by position which it justifies?
1 Of. 1ra<T<TOva. (e.g. Ode xviii. 195) =*7rc1x-yov-a, comparative of 7rax-v-s
(stout) =ping-tt-i-s.
2 Cf. Havet·Duvau, M€trique, 42 [Monro, Homeric Grammar, § 388 to 405J ..
GRlECO-LATIN VOCALISM.
. 45
The Ionic dialects lost it very early, and always replaced it by
the smooth breathing. E.g. (work) = Flpy-o-v, cf. Ger.
werk [English work]; (word), €i7T€ (say) == F€7T-Ofi, F€L7T-e, cf.
Lat. voc-s; Fa(T-TU a(T-TU (town), cf. Sk. vds-tu (house);.
OTK-O-fi (house) ==Lat. vic-u-s == Sk. vel}-d-s, etc. Sometimes in
Greek the rough breathing seems to correspond to Latin v:
lvvuft£, (Ion.) €ivvft£ (I clothe) == *FE(T-VV-ft£, cf. ves-ti-s; €
(west), Lat. vesper; €uT{ii (hearth), Lat. Vesta; but it is pro-
bable that in this case the aspirate was developed in Greek
separately, and has nothing in common with the primitive w.
Initial w before a consonant disappears in Latin: radix
(root)==*wradic-s, cf. Gk. Fp{ta, Ger. wurzel. In some Greek
dialects it remains, in others it disappears: Elean FpiiTpii==Ion.
(agreement); p€'W (to do), Hom.. Fpe'w==*FpEY-Yw, cf.
FEPY-O-V, etc. But even in those dialects which kept it we
may suppose that in the syntactical combination of words it was
assimilated to the following consonant; for example, that when
Homer writes ?TOAAa Al.uuofJ-€VW (Aa being long by position), we
may read either 7roAAa FAu]"u0ftEVW or 7ToAAa AA£U(T0ftEvW.l Such
reduplication is regular when the initial F becomes medial in
composition: * (sheep), gen. Hom. TrOA.V-PPYJv (rich in
sheep); (to break), aor. pass. €-ppay-1], adj.
(unbreakable), etc. In this case however £olic contracts
the F with the preceding vowel, avp1]KTofi:= EvpayYJ,
etc.; and to a diphthong of the same kind must be referred the
Homeric form EVaa€ (it € (e.g. II. xiv. 340).
B.-Intervocalic. Apart. from this last exceptional case,
intervocalic F was probably no longer pronounced in the lan-
guage of Homer, much less in later Ionic, Attic, and the
But it is often found in Doric inscriptions, IloTEr.DaFwvl.,
7rpOFE£7raTW, €7T£Fo{KO£fi, and it was always kept in Latin: YEO,
novos, €vv£a novern, oT, ovis, etc. In tuus=tovos (supra 32
A a), the v is not lost, but has coalesced with the unaccented 0
2
a-s in denuo == *de novo: cf. auceps =avi-ceps, etc.
1 Homeric im'Pf . €A'A!UU€TO (he entreated), but also sometimes €A!UU€TO
(II. i. 15).
2 The possessives, like the pronouns from which they are derived, are
often enclitics.
46
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
C.-Between a consonant and vowel. Here the combin::;ttions
are very varied, and ,ve must confine ourselves to glancing at
the most important.
(a) Nasal or liquid+w: in Latin u or v alternating
to laws not yet fully determined; in Greek, according
to the dialect, F is assimilated, or lost with compensatory
lengthening, or lost without compensation: Lat. genu-a (knees,
also genva), Gk. *yovF-aTa, whence £01. yovvaTa, Ion. yovvaTa,
Att. yovaTa; Gk. € (foreigner), £01. Dor.
Att. Gk. *7roA-Fo- (much), £01. ?rOAAO-, Att.
?rOAAo-, ct. Ion. 7TovAv (Hom.); Gk. *<TOA-Fo- (whole), £01. pro-
bably cf. Lat. sollus, solus, Ion. Att.
*sol-wo-s, c£. Lat. sdlvos 1; Gk. *KopFii (maiden), Att. KOP'YJ
(supra 37).
(f3) k + w = Gk. 7r1i, (also Lat. qu, equ-o-s,
where the u is treated neither as a vowel, inasmuch as it does
not form a syllable, nor as a consonant, inasmuch as it does not
nlake the e long by position.
(y) t+w: Gk. (Cretan) TF€ accus. Dar. T€ (simple
loss), Ion.-Att. <T€= *<T<T€, cf. € € Sk: catvdras
(four); in Latin, w is simply lost in te, but is vocalized in
quattuor, quatuor.
(D) d+w: Gk. (twice), Jater D{e; (cf. OWOf:Ka) , which no
. doubt stands for *8o{e;, if we may judge from the
in (Hom.) = € o€oot.a (written of:{ot,a) = *o€-DFt.-a,
both forms from the root oF€t. (to fear); in Latin, vocalized in
duodecim (probably through the influence of the vocalism of
duo=I.-E. *du-o, Gk. ovw), but generally dv, \vhich b,
bis=*dvis, bellum=*dvellum, cf. duellum, bonus=dvonus and
(arch.) dven-o-s. This change was late enough for the Latins
to retain the recollection of it up to the time of Varro.
(f:) s+w=in Greek <TF, if initial, infra 68,2: when medial,
it becomes <T<T, r<TOe; (equal) Sk. vi9va- (all); in
Latin sve becomes so, soror = *svesor, Ski svdsar- (sister), cf.
1 It is probable that sollus salvi, just like ecus equi, and also deus divi, are
two cases belonging to the same declension, which through analogy was
split up into two declensions. For salvi =*solvi, of. 34 A a and e note.
GR.1ECO-LATIN VOCALISM.
47
Ger. schwester 1; sonznus == *sop-no-s (cf. sop-ire) == *svep-no-s,
Sk. svdp-na-s (sleep), I.-E. *swep-no-s.
The sound w in Greek is not always written F; we often find
{3, e.g. {3p{(}"8a=p{Ca, which seems to show a tendency to change
w into consonantal v; its representation in £olic by v has
been already noticed; the forms under which it" appears in
manuscripts, y, 'T, p, are mere errors due to late copyists, who
no longer understood the meaning of the symbol F.
SECTION III.
VOWEL-GRADATION [ABLAUT].
(41 ) .If we consider any syllable whatever containing one
of the sounds already studied, we shall easily perceive that,
both in Greek and Latin, and in any other language of the
Indo-European family, the vowel may assume different forms,
which, though distinct, are yet closely akin to one another, and
show an exact correspondence in different languages. This
phenomenon, which can nowhere be better seen than in Greek
syllables containing a diphthong, A€{7r-W E-Al,'7T'-OV A€-AOL7r-a,
e-A€v(())-a-o-p..at. has received the name of
vo"\vel-gradation [apophonie vocalique, Ablaut]. We may dis-
tinguish three chief grades, the normal grade, the weak or
reduced grade, and the deflected grade (jlechi).2
I t is the province of morphology to determine the etymo-
logical or grammatical forms in which each of these grades
regularly appears. Here it need only be said that, apart from
the .,disturbing influences of analogy, each of these grades
always characterizes formations of the same class, either in
the same language or in different languages.
3
Hence the pro-
1 [According to Prof. Skeat, the English sister is a Scandinavian form
from Icelandic sys-t-ir, allied to Anglo-Saxon sweos-t-or, Gothic swis-t-ar.J
2 [The author strongly objects to the terms" middle" sometimes applied
to the e grade, and" strong" to the 0 grade; the e grade was probably the
strongest of all, the 0 grade being probably a weakening of it; contrast
the accentuation of ¢fpW ¢opa, ¢pTW a¢pwlI, OOTf}p owrwp, etc.]
3 Thus the alternation of 0 and e in conjugation, At/,O-PTL AfY€-T€, legu-nt
legi-tis, the deflected grade in the perfect stem, the normal grade in the
present in -OJ A€L7r-W, die-u =deie-o, etc.
48
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
cess must undoubtedly go back to the parent-speech. The
syllables in question may be classified according as they contain
in the normal form (1) an e, whether' alone or forming part
of a diphthong; (2) any other short vowel, whethe'r alone or
forming part of a diphthong; (3) a long vowel.
1. Norrnal form e. The gradation is here so clear as to
leave nothing to be desired. In the d.eflected grade ebecomes
0; in the weak grade it entirely disappears. In this case,
if the e forms part of a diphthong, the semi-vowel of the
diphthong becomes a vowel in order to support the syllable;
if the e stands by itself, the syllable disappears along with
it, provided that the consonants which it supported have any
other vowels close by to support them; but if the weakening
would result in an unpronounceable group of consonants, the
e is retained by this group and then the weak is not distin-
guished from the normal grade. We will now examine these
different positions:
A.-ey. I.-E. types, *bheydh (to trust), weak *bh'idh, de-
flected *bhoydh.
(a) In root. Gk. 7rE{()-o-jJvat, aor. €-7n()-o-p:Yjv, perf. 7r€-7rot()-a,
Lat. fid-o and fid-us, f7id-es and (per-)f'id-u-s, foed-us; Gk.
FELo-os; (shape), FLa-€ (imperat., see), perf. FOLa-a, Lat. v'id-eo, perf.
vid-i = *void-i (? supra 34 A (3).
({3) In suffix. Gk. 7rO"--t-S;, nom. pI. 7rOA-E-ES' =*7rOA-Ey-ES', Lat.
av-i-s, nom. pI. aves = *av-e-es = *av-ey-es, etc.
B.-ew. I.-E. types, (to flee), weak *bhug, deflected
*bhowg.
(a) In root. epEVY-W cf. Lat. fug-i 1 and fiig-a; l-pEV()-Oc;
(redness) and €-pv()-po-S' (red), cf. Lat. riib-er=*rub-r6-s, and
ruf-u-s =*reuf-o-s or *rouf-o-s.
((3) In suffix. Gk. feme =
C.-Simple e liable to I.-E. types *gen (to pro-
duce, be born), weak *gn, deflected *gon.
(a) In root. Gk. yev-oS', reduplicated present y{-yv-o-jJvat,
perf. yE-yov-a, Lat. gen-us and g/f;-gn-o; Gk. epEp-w, in compo·
sition (at- )epp-O-tS (seat for two persons), subst. cJ>op-6-s;, epop-a,
1 Cf. supra 34 B fl.
GRJECO-LATIN VOCALISM. 49
Lat. fer-a and probably (candela-)br-u-m 1 (that which bears
a candle); certainly pend-o and pond-us.
(f3) In suffix. Gk. KV-WV, voc. KV-OV, gen. cf. Lat, car-o
car-n-is (reduced), h0l1l-0 Gk. accus. 7ra-T€p-a, gen.
7fa-r p-oc;.
D.-Simple e not liable to disappear. I.-E. types, *spek and
*-skep (to see), weak *spek and *skep, deflected *skop; Gk.
and UK07T-V (watchtower), (E7rL-)o-Ko7T-o-r; (overseer);
Lat. teg-a and tog-a, etc.
2. Norl1lal form c'l, u. Here the question is complicated, for
it is not certain that a syllable in the normal form can
contain any ,short vowel except e; hence the degree here called
normal may possibly have been originally a reduced form.
The following are some of the most certain gradations: (1) it,
Gk. /J.y-w (crrpar- )ay-o-c; Lat. c'lg-o (amb-)ag-es and eg-i;
Gk. ai()-w (to burn) lO-apo-c; (clear), Lat. aed-es aes-tu-s (heat)
id-ils (pl., nights when there is a full moon); (2) 0, o7r-o-o-p.aL
(I shall see), perf. o7T-w7T-a, with no other grade; in Latin, only
one grade, oc-ulu-s.
3. Normal form a, e, o. a is reduced to aand deflected to o.
I.-E. *bha (to speak), reduced *bha, deflected *bho: Gk. epa-j1-{,
epa.'-j1-a, epa-ft€v 1st plur., (voice), Lat. fa-ri and fa-teor;
Gk. i-uTa-ftt, aor. but uTa-ro-c;i etc., cf. Lat. sta-re,
sta-men (warp), and sta-tu-s (state), sta-tu-s (fixed), sta-bili-s,
sta-tu-a. There is even perhaps in urvw (I place) == *ur-rv-w -a
trace of a grade reduced still further by the complete dis-
appearance of the a.
This ultra-reduced grade also exists in the case of e and 0 ;
the deflected grade is} 0, coalescing in the case of 0 with the
normal grade. Everything tends to show that the ordinary
reduction resulted in ii, a gradation which is observed pretty
faithfully in Latin; e.g. se-men sa-tu-s, dii-tu-s. But
Greek, in imitation of the relation of iuriiftl. to created
a gradation r{OYJJLL and 8{awp.t aoror;, which is equivalent to
saying that in Greek e was generally reduced to eand {j to 0 :
1 Br being equivalent to bhr, reduced form of the root *bher (to bear). So
also 7f€,A-O-P.a.l. (I am), aor. €-7rA-6-p:1Jl1, 1r€TOP.a.l. (I fly) and errop:TJv, etc.
E
50
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
cf. also (dart) (to throw), verbal Dor. perf.
and Lat. fa-c-io.
-(42) Such the chief results of gradation. Its causes are
thoroughly understood; at any rate so far as the reduced grade
is concerned. Sanskrit, which has preserved better than any
other language the original accentuation, shows by numerous
changes of accent, such as e-mi i-mds =Gk. t-p.£v, that the
normal form of a syllable tJoineided with the accent, the re-
duced form with the absence of accent; and this is shown also
in Greek by such alternations as 7ra-T€p-a
ura-p.£v (Dor.) (Ion.) and ura-.ro-li. But sometimes, as the
accentuation was changed, the accent was shifted on to the very
.syllable which had originally been reduced through the absence
of accent, cf. imds and tp.£v; sometimes, on the other hand,
though the accent remained unchanged, a reduced form was
eliminated under the influence of a normal form closely akin to
it (e.g. the genitive the vocalism of which is imitated
from that of the accus._ epp€v-a), so that an unaccented syllable
irregularly shows the normal form. In Latin, the accentuation
has been greatly disturbed, and no longer coincides with the
vocalism, except accidentally.
In the deflected' "grade likewise, such alternations of accent
and vocalism as appear in € and and tl-eppWl
/
,
seem to point to a particular result of proethnic accentuation.
But here the accent is not the only factor, and the extreme
complication of this class of phenomena has hitherto prevented
".hem from being reduced to the form of laws.
CHAPTER III.
NASALS AND LIQUIDS.
SECTION I.
GRADATION APPLIED TO THE 'CONSONANT-VOWELS.
(43) When a syllable capable of gradation is supported by
an e, it may, and indeed often does happen, that this vowel is
accompanied by a nasal or liquid, "lEV-Of), pend-i). In this case
,the syllable can be deflected without difficulty; reduction will
be equally easy, if the resulting group of consonants finds
a vowel to support it in the neighbouring syllable; we have
already seen "/I.-yov-a and y{-yv-op.,at. But what will happen if
the nasal or liquid is shut in between two consonants, thus
forming an unpronounceable group without a vowel? The
answer is forced upon us: it must itself become a vowel in
order to support the neighbouring consonants: in other words,
just in AE{trW epEVYW the semi-vowels t and v
becolne vocalized when they cease to be supported by the €,
so also to an I.-E. present *derk-o (I see) there must have
necessarily corresponded an aorist *e-dl'k-6-m (Gk. Of.pK-oj-taL
E-opaK-OV), and the gradation of the perfect *woyd-a *wid-mets
FotO-a Fl8-JL€v) irresistibly calls for a parallel gradation
*ge-gon-a ge-g1)-mes (Gk. yl.-yov-a "/I.-ya-p.,€v).
Sanskrit alone has preserved the vocalic r, the last relic of
the primitive vocalism; corresponding to it has ddr9am,
to 7raTpaa-t pitfsu. But, even apart from this valuable evidence,
the analogy of the rest of the declension, 7raTl.pa, etc.,
would by itself be sufficient to enable us to recognise in TPo. of
7rUTpaa-1. the same vocalic degree as in Tp of 7ruTpl, merely modified
by the accidental fact that in 7ra-Tp-{ the r is supported by the
l, whereas in *7rU-Tr-a-L the t is forced to rest for support on
51
52
GREEK AND L.A.TIN GRA1\llVIAR.
the r. So also the evident parallel between A€{7rW EAt7rOV AEAot7rQ,
€A€va-ofJ-at. €lA ana ol.pKop.at EopaKov oEoopKa, 7r€{uoP.QI,
( == *7TEVO-crO-p.Ut, cf. 7TEvO-or;;, grief) (7TaOOV 7TE-7rOVO-a, would be
enough to show that opa is the reduced form of O€P, and to
prove the presence of a latent nasal in the stem of (1I"aOov==
*f.-7T?!B-o-v.
1
Thus from historical phonetics we gain a complete confirma-
tion of the principle ""ve have already learned from physiological
namely, that the nasals and liquids are consonants
when they rest for support upon a vowel, vowels when a
consonant rests for support upon them.
SECTION II.
NASALS AND LIQUIDS CONSIDERED IN EACH LANGUAGE
SEPARATELY.
(44) Neither Greek nor Latin possesses nasal or liquid
sonants (vo"\vels). We shall see how they have changed those
of the Indo-European language.
Greek has three nasal consonants, denoted respectively by
the letters y, v, and p.. Before a guttural explosive (tlyy€AOr;;,
tlyl<.vpa, l1YXt ) , y is the regular mode of writing the guttural
nasal (supra 21, 2), which never appears except in this posi-
tion.
3
v is· dental nasal, JL the labial nasal, and neither of
these sounds presents any difficulty.· They are often inter-.
changed in writing; e.g. rtJly€Aor;;, &veporapot.r;;, etc.
. Latin" has likewise three nasals: the guttural, written 1t
Qefore a guttural, angulus (= angulus),4 and g before a naHal"
dignus )=dir1nus), the dental n and the labial1n. These two
signs are frequently interchanged in inscriptions. Often also
the nasal is not written (fecerut, mi!ses); this is especially the
case with· final rn in archaic inscriptions: oino,. viro (Epi
SClp.). The reason is that final rn was only pronounced very
1 [In such cases r, !, 'Yf}, and 'l}, being used as vowels, are called " sonants."J
2 Supra 19, 4-6.
3 "/ followed by a nasal however (d,,/p-a) was probably a guttural
4 \Ve find in archaic writing also ag9ulus, ageers, introduced by tho
Hellenizers. ' ;
NASALS AND LIQUIDS• 53
. so slightly, in fact, as not to prevent the elision of the
'syllable containing it before a following vowel. According t9
,the evidence of grammarians, it was only a very weak 'nasal
sound, and there is not a trace of Latin final m in any of the
J.}omance languages.
Greek has t"vo liquids, p and A. p = r was in all probability'
lingnal; but evidence is lacking as to the exact pronunciation
:of initial p, which the Latins represented by rho A is an alveo-
lar l akin to d. The two corresponding liquids in Latin, 'f
(lingual) and l, present no difficulty.
SECTION III.
NASALS CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THEIR COMMON ORIGIN.
. (45) A general observation which applies to all the follow-
cases of correspondence is that both in Greek and Latin a
nasal followed by a consonant is always adapted to the
acter of the consonant following it. Thus the tIt of *penrje
tfive) remains guttural in the Latin qUinque, where it
a guttural, but becomes dental or labial respectively in
and (.£01.) 7r€J1:1r€, where primitive q has become T or 7r. Wfj
all know the juxtapositions, Gk. €vT€AAw, €yKaAlw, €ft7ro'8wv, Lat.
intendo, ignosco ( = *'i11-gnosco), impedio, and the same pheno-
menon took place in ·the syntactical combination of t\VO
tinct "vords, Lat. eandem, and Gk. . 7rOALV, TOY KoA7rOV (a
rronunciation still current), as is testified by numerous tran-
scriptions.
: This tendency to assimilation partly goes back to Indo-
European, which already had nasals, both consonantal
t (vocalic), corresponding to each of the four classes of
:momentary eonsonants; namely velar, palatal, dental, and labial.
§ 1. Consonants.
( (46) 1. Primitive it (velar or palatal) remains' n in Greek
and Latin, so far, that is, as the following consonant remains a
guttural (supra): Gk. OyKO<; (hook), l1yxw, Lat ango, etc.
(47) 2. I.-E. n = Gk. v = Lat. n: Gk. v€o<;, Lat. novos; Gk.
V€Vw (nod), Lat. (an-)nu-o 7 Gk. (Dor.) ayovrt, Lat. agunt; Gk.
54
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
ep€P-Wv, Lat. fer-en-s (the final s is original, infra). Thij;
Greek or Latin n is liable to the following modifications:
A.-The group In is assimilated to ll: Gk. OAA:VJ1-L (I
=*OA-vv-pt, cf. the verbs in -vv-; Lesb. f36AA0J1-aL (I wish) =
*f36A-vo-p.at ; 1 Lat. collis =*col-n-is, c£ and probably
pello =*pel-no, cf. the verbs in -no. In Ionic-Attic compensa-
tory lengthening is usually substituted for AA; e.g. {3ovAopaL.
B.-The pronunciation of the group nr develops between th!,
'two consonants a transitional ground, which Greek dep.otes by
8: gen. whence cf. in French gendre =
·genro=generum,2 and infra J1-f3p from p.p. At a later period,
vp was assimilated to pp and vA to AA: UVppa7rTW = *uvv-pa7rTW"
= $uVV-A€yw. So also in Latin irruo, illustris.
C.-The group formed by a nasal + s rarely renlains; iti-
treatment is somewhat complicated.
(a) When this group is proethnic and medial, the s dis-
appears in Greek, and the preceding nasal is doubled; then
this reduplication, which remains in Lesbian, is superseded in
the other dialects by a compensatory lengthening of the pre-
ceding vowel: Lesb. Ion. (aor. of KTE{JlW) =
and so also from = *:'-vEp-u-a from
V€ftw, = = from epa{vw; besides the aorists,
(goose), gen. = cf. Sk. hamsds (swan), and
Lat. hanser anser; (shoulder) = cf. Sk. dmso,s.
Umbr. onsus, and Lat. umerus = *omesos, etc.
([3) If the group is proethnic and final, or if it has arisen
exclusively in Greek, it remains in Cretan and Argive, in which
dialects we find TOVS (acc. pl.), 7ravua (fern., Att. 7raua); in alJ
other dialects, if the preceding vowel is short, the v disappears
w'ith compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel. In
this case, t and v always become i and v; but a, £, and 0 give
in Lesbian ,at, £L (diphthong), 01., in Doric ii, Yj, w, in
Ionic-Attic a, £1. (vowel), ov (vowel). E.g., acc. pI.
then 7roAis (Herodotus), whence (..Eol.)
(Dor.) Tas, (1on.-Att.) TOU, Tas; fern., *7raVT-ya,
l' Of. Homeric (3oAETaL (tI. xi. 319), {30AE(jB€ (Od. xvi. 387).
2 [Of. Eng. thunder with Anglo-Saxon thunor; kindred with M. E. kinrede,
A...S. cyn-rdden; spindle with M. E. spinel, A.-S. spinl]. '
NASALS AND LIQUIDS. 55
whence *7ravcr(1'(L (supra 39 C 8), 7rav(1'u1 Lesb. 1raL(1'U; Dor..::lon.-
Att. 1rQ.cru, and so also ;'o-TQ.cru; Tt()E'icru, AV()E'i(1'Ut OtOOVUU, OEtKJlVcru;
etc. When the group JlS is itself followed by a consonant, the
v disappears without lengthening; e.g. (towards Athens)
=*' hence the forms of the acc. pI. in os for ovs, TOS
()EDS, and the syntactical doublets of the preposition EVS (into),
um-o and ES TOVTO.
1
(y) The group ns in Latin, when medial, remains, except
before l, in which case it disappears entirely with compen-
satory lengthening: scala (ladder) = *scansla = *scand-sla, cf.
scand-o and ilico =*in sloco. If it is final, n always dis-
appears with compensatory lengthening: acc. pI. terras =
*terra-ns, equos == *equo-ns, manus = etc.
2
The al-
absolute validity of this law is of itself enough to show
that the type ferens must be a late formation.
It is sometimes said that a final n has been dropped in
temo, homo, caro, as contrasted with AEt}J-WV; etc. But; on
the contrary, it is rather the type homo which faithfully repre-
sent8 the old Indo-European nominative; the type AEtP.W-"" if
not old syntactical owes its v to the analogy of the
oblique cases.
(48) 3. I.-E. nl = Gk. }J- = Lat. m: I.-E. (me), Gk. ftl;
Lat. me; Gk. VEP.MOii (forest), Lat. nem-us; GIr. ftf.'A.-t, Lat. mel;
cf. also mater; P.Vii mus, and in suffixes ovo-p.u no-men,
&yO-P.EVOt and agi-mini, F{O-ftEii (Dor.) and vidi-mus.
A.-Final m becomes v in Greek: ace. sing. masc. t7r7rov=
equom; nonl....acc. sing. neut. 'vyov =jugum; €V -= € = t.-E. *sem-
(one), cf. Lat. sem-el; nom. XtwV (snow) = *Xtwp. = Lat. hiem-s.
B.-To the epenthesis of d in the group nr corresponds in
Greek the epenthesis of b in the group mr 3: yap.{3pos (con..
nexion by marriage) = of. YUft':'EW ; aft(3poTor; (immortal),
1 The two forms of the word were afterwards used indifferently, or one
prevailed over the other according to the dialect, much as if in French it
had become allowable to say·' un beau homme " or " un bel cheval " [or in
English" an book," "a age."]
2 Cf. the doublets quoties.
3 [A similar epenthesis of b occurs in English embers=M. E. emeres, A.-S.
lemyrian; sl'l1rnber=M. E. slumeren, A ·S. sl'umerian; and of p in empty =
A.-S. lemtia.1
56
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
&'JL{3poa-{a (drink of immortality) = c£. Lat. rnor-s.
When the m is initial, it coalesces with the following labial
and disappears: (mortal) = and so also
before A: {3AW-(J"KW (I go) = *ftAWa-KW, cf. fut. and perf.
/l'€JL{3'AwKa = *f1i-p.'Aw-Ka. Latin also shows a labial epenthesis
before l: (sample), cf. ern-o; and before s, sump-si,
cf. sum-o.
l
§ 2. Sonants (Vowels).
(49) All the Indo-European nasal sonants (nasal-vowels)
produce, in Latin always, and in Greek in certain positions, a
vowel (Lat. e, Gk. a) followed by a nasal consona,nt w·hich we'
represent generally by n, v, but which of course varies accord-
ing to the nature of the following consonant. This being
assumed, the laws the changes of the nasal sonants
become extremely simple. There are three chief cases:
1. I.-E. Y, accented (very rare) 2=Lat. en=Gk. av: Gk. taa-L
=*iUVTt. (they *iy-fJjti, cf. SkI ydnti; Old Lat. sient
(let them be)=s-i-ent=I.-E. s-iy-iJt.
2. I.-E. rJ before en==0-k. av, after which the group
avy is treated in the usual way (supra 39 C a).: Gk. {3a[vw=
*f3J.v-yw==*f3rJ-yw==:Lat. ven-io; fern. of (}€pa:l("WV (servant)=
*(}€PuTr-1}-ya, whence (}€paTrat.va, and all the feminines in -aLva.
3. I.-E. 1) (n:!) generally = Lat. en (em)=Gk. a (the nasal
sonant first developed a vowel before itself, then in Greek the
nasal sound was merged in the vp\vel; so also in Sanskrit):
I.-E. *sem- (one) reduced *'sn:!, Gk. (once),
Lat. sim-pZec-s, .sin-guZZ,
I.-E. *kn;}-to-m (hundred), (e)-Ka-To-v, Lat. cen-tu-m [Eng.
hundred]; I.-E. *ne (negative particle), reduced n, and before a
consonant rJ, SkI a- privative, Glc a- privative, Lat. in- priva-.
tive, cf. Germ. [and Eng.] un-; I.-E. *-m termination accus.,
1 Sumptus is a new formation; the law the character of the
nasals would require *suntus, but sumptus was formed on the model of sltmpsi
=sumsi.
2 According to what has been stated above (42 and 43), the nasal sonants
ought to appear only in unaccented syllables; bnt froU! the Indo-European
period disturbances of accent took place) which sbifted the accent on to the
reduced syllable.
3 For Lat. in=en, cf. supra 32 A 'Y.
NASALS AND LIQUIDS '
57
after a vowel *-m (77"OA'--1', eqtlO-1n), but after a consonant
Gk. Lat. red-ern = *ped-n:! ; under the same con-
ditions *-rn and n:, termination of 1st pers. sing., Gk. l-AV-O-V=
*E-Av-o-m, but E-Av-cr-a = Cf. also Gk. and
Lat. ten-tu-s,l Gk. (depth) and (deep), Gk. a-TEp = _
*a-T€p, and Old High German sundar, Germ. sonder (without)
[Eng. sunder], etc., etc.
. Besides the short nasal sonants, Indo-European certainly pos-
sessed. long nasal sonants,2 the origin of which, and the laws
regulating their correspondence, have not yet been entirely
elucidated. [E.g. initially Gk. vii (Ion.-Att. V'Yj), Lat. an, VYJ-
privative, Inedially Gk. ii (YJ), Ef3YJT€, Lat. nil,
gna-tu-s.]
SECTION IV.
LIQUIDS CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THEIR COMMON ORIGIN.
(So) Indo-European had the tvvo liquids rand l, which were
sometimes confused in the daughter languages, but are repro-
duced in Greek and Latin \vith considerable exactness.
§ 1. Consonants.
(51) I.-E r==Gk. r: Gk. tip-6-w (to plough), Lat. aro
=*ar-a-o, ar-vo-m, etc.; Gk. DWTWp, KEVTpOV, Lat. pater,
dator, claustrurn.
I.-E. l=Gk. A=Lat. l: Gk. AEx-or; (bed), Lat. lec-tu-s; Gk.
A€VK-O-r; (white), Lat. luc-e-o; Gk. *oAAor; Lat. sollus, etc.
The following are the only modifications:
1. Epenthesis.-A. In Greek, the pronunciation of initial
1', and sometimes' of initial l, develops a prothetic vowel of inde-
t.ernlinate character, a, 0, €; e.g. and ruber, € € and
liber, tiA€{¢W (to anoint) and adv. A{77"a,3 OPEYW (to stretch, direct)
and rego.-B. In Latin, a guttural or labial followed by l
develops an intermediate labial epenthesis: cr. saeclum and
saeculunt, acc. populu1n = Umbr. poplom, Old Lat. poploe
1 It will be noticed that in Latin, in syllables containing nasals, the
degree cannot differ from the normal forlu.
2 Discovered by F. de Saussul'e.
3 The alternate presence and absence of prothesis must be due to the
existence of syntactical doublets.
58
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
(nom. pI.) cited by Festus; -bulo- suffix (sta-bulu-rn) = *-blo-=
Gk. -6Ao-.
2. Dissimilation.-In both languages, but especially in
Latin, there is a marked tendency to interchange rand l, i,n
order to prevent two syllables containing the same irom
following' one another; e.g. saeclum andfulcru'ln, cerealis and
popularis (cf. however filialis) , caeruleus=*caeZv;leus, cf. cael-
urn; and even at a distance of two syllables apart, militaris, etc.
3. Assimilation.-Latin l assimilates a preceding nasal or
r: asellus =*asen--lo-s, cf. asin-u-s; stella =*ster-la, cf. Gk.
Germ. stern [Eng. star], etc.
4. The groups up and Fp, when medial, are assimilated to
pp; when initial, they become p: pEW (to flow) = *a-piF-w, c£.
Germ. strom [Eng. stream]; (to cf.
Eo1. Then the spelling was influenced by analogy, so
that the rough breathing came to be regarded as the necessary
appendage of initial p, and it was written there even where the
etymology does not seem to demand it; e.g. EpVW and pvop.at..
§ 2. Sonants
(52) I.-E. t=Gk. ap (initial and final), pa ap (medial), Lat.
or ur; Sk. fksa.-:s (bear), Gk. apKTo-<;, Lat. ur(c)su-s; Gk. Kpao-[1]
Kapo-{ii (heart), Lat. gen. cord4s; Gk. (liver)1 Lat. jec-ur
= Sk. ydkrt, etc.
I.-E.] (always medial)=Gk. Aa aX (medial)=Lat. ol ul; Gk.
TE-rAa-ftEv (we have borne); the same group t] in tol-lo and tuli
= *t]l-i; Lat. pel-la, the same syllable reduced in pul-su-s =
Gk. 7raA-To-<; (hurled), etc.
A liquid developed from a sonant is treated in every respect
like a consonantal liquid under the same conditions. Thus
ExB-po-r; (enemy) has a derivative *ExBr-yW (to hate), whence
*EXB&.p-yw and EXBiJ.{pW; and the group f3]-yw (to throw, cf. the
norulal form of the root in {3€A
M
O<;, dart) becomes first *f3aA-yw,
then f3aAAw, just like UT€AAw (supra 39 C a' and f3).
Indo-European also possessed long liquid sonants. [E.g.
Gk. op, pw, Lat. ar, ril: opB6-r; = a'rduo-s, UTOp-VV-p.t., =
]
CHAPTER IV.
CONSONANTS.
(53) As several consonants which were originally explo...
sives became spirants in Latin, it will be convenient first of
all to take a general view of the consonants in each language.
SECTION I.
THE CONSONANTS CONSIDERED IN EACH LANGUAGE SEPARATELY.
§ 1. Greek.
(54) Explosives.-Greek has nine explosives: namely, in
each of the three classes (guttural, dental, labial), one voiced,
one voiceless, and one voiceless aspirate: ,,/, K, X-o, T, ()-
{3, 7r, cp. The three voiced consonants have, in modern Greek;,
become spirants (corresponding to y, English soft th, and v);
but hardly anyone denies that, in ancient Greek, they were
pronounced like U, d, b, though this statelnent does not exclude
the possibility of dialectical variations. The pronunciation of
the voiceless consonants, k, t, p, presents no difficulty.
The aspirates are now only spirants (corresponding to Germ.
ch, English hard th, and f), and we also have become accustomed
to pronounce cp as f. This pronunciation however is incorrect,
and we must beware of transferring to ancient' Greek the
modern pronunciation of the aspirates; for everything tends
to sho,," that x' (), ep, were really voiceless aspirates; that is to
say, K, T., 7r, follo"\ved by h, as they are actually represented in
those inscriptions in which H denotes the rough breathing, KH,
IIH. It was only in very late Greek that the aspirate absorbed
the explosive preceding it and coalesced with it into a spirant;
t.he change took place sooner in the case of p than of the
£,Q
60
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
others, and yet, in the time of Quintilian, tHe pronunciation
of ¢ "vas still very different from that of f.l This is proved
also by the fact that the Latins never transliterated it by f;
having no voiceless aspirates, they simply used the unaspirated.
voiceless consonants in those Greek ,vords which they bor-
rowed, Aciles == Corinto (Tab. Mumm.) == KoptvBCf?,
p1.trpura == 7TOP¢..5pii; afterwards, aiming at greater precision,
they wrote eh, th, ph, which however does not imply that they
pronounced the h. In fact, one of the chief mistakes of the
"barbarians" who mispronounced Greek consisted in not
aspirating the aspirates, and Aristophanes delights to ridicule
this tendency of theirs, when he brings them on the stage.
2
This mispronunciation would be inconceivable if the pronun...
ciation of the aspirated had been quite different fronl that of
the unaspirated consonants. Lastly, combinations like aep' o{1
==a7T' of) evidently require the pronunciation ap' hu, and the
group c/xr is writt.en 0/, just like 7Tcr.
These remarks do not exclude the possibility of particular
dialects having treated the aspirates as spirants from ancient
times. Indeed,' we know that this was the case with B in
Laconian: crtOt;; == ()EOt;;, and p.ovaloo€t· AaAEL (Hesyeh.) = *p.vBt£EL.
2. had three spirants: the voiceless
'dental (J", of Indo-European origin; the voiced dental t, pro-
nounced dz, zz, zd according to the dialect, but always regarded
as a double letter, and arising from various phonetic combina-
tions; the voiced labial F, already studied as a seIni-vowel. To
these may be added the sound h, represented by the rough
breathing.
§ 2. Latin.
(55) 1. Explosives. Latin has only six explosives, the
voiced and v6icele'ss unaspirated consonant in each of the three
classes.
A.-Gutturals. The voiceless guttural is written k, c, or q;
these three signs are exactly equivalent. The sign c is th,e
most usual, and it is hardly necessary to observe that it was
J Instit. Orate xii. 10, 28. 2 !hesmQphor. 1001 seq.
CONSONANTS. 61
pronounced k before all vowels; the assibilation of c before i
and e belongs to the IVlerovingian period. The archaic letter k
was scarcely used except at the beginning of certain word-s,
especially before a, kalendae, Kartago. Lastly, q was written
before consonantal u, and sometimes before vocalic u, jequr.
The voiced guttural was in Old Latin written c, and this
inconvenient spelling was retained in C. and Cn., which are
abbreviations of Gaius and Gnaeus respectively; but in every
other case the sign used was g, which was pronounced before e
and i in the same way as before a, 0, u.
B.-Dentals: t, d. T before i + vovvel (terminations -tio,
-tius) "vas only assibilated at a very late period.
p, b, which present no difficulty.
2. Spirants. Besides h Latin had five spirants; namely,
the voiced palatal j, already studied as a semi-vowel; the voice-
less dental s, of Indo-European origin; the voiced dental, result-
ing from the softening of this, also written s (z generally only
in words borrowed from Greek); the voiceless labial f, arising
from the Indo-European aspirated explosives; and the voiced
labial v, already studied as a semi-vo\vel.
SECTION II.
THE ORIGINAL EXPLOSIVES AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT.
(56) Indo-European probably had as luany as sixteen ex-
plosives, inasmuch as each of the four classes (velars, palatals,
dentals; labials) included four consonants; namely, one voice-
less, one voiceless aspirate, one voiced, and one voiced aspirate.
From these sixteen explosives arose, on the one hand, the
nine Greek explosives, on the other, the six Latin explosives,
together "vith h andf.
§ 1. Velars.
(57) I.-E.' q, qh, g gh. It is mainly Sanskrit which has
dered it possible to clearly distinguish the primitive velars from
the palatals.
1
In certain European languages, including Greek
1 E.g. I.-E. q becomes in Sk. k or c, whereas I.-E. k is changed to the
spirant
62 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
and Latin, there was liable to be developed after the velars a
labial sound, which may be represented by w, though it must
be re.membered that it was much less perceptible than the w
already investigated. This change is sporadic .phenomenon,
the irregular occurrence of which is stHl unexplained; but
both in Greek and Latin it is much more common than the reten-
tion of the pure guttural.
1. I.-E. q. .A.-Not labialized: ==Gk. K==Lat. c: Kap7r-6-s
(fruit)==I.-E. *qrp-6-s (?), cf. Lat. carp-a (to pluck) and Germ.
herb-st == Eng. harv-est.
B.-Lablalized: (a) Before nasals, liquids, dentals, and the
vowel 0 == Gk. 7r == Lat. qv: Gk. 7rO- (interrogative pronoun),
Sk. kd-s, cf. Lat. qU,7i; Gk. A€{7r-W A€l.7r-7"o-s==I.-E. *leyq-o, Lat.
linqu-o lie-tus; Gk. 7rEp.7r-to-s (fifth) == I.-E. *penq-to-s (cf. 7rEVTE
infra)==Lat. quinc-tu-s; Gk. (liver)==Lat. jec-ur==
*jequ.-ur ; 1 Gk. € (to follow) ==Lat. sequ-o-r, etc. «(3) Be-
fore e and i=Gk. T=Lat. qv: I.-E. *qe (and)=Gk. T€=Lat. que;
I.-E. *qi-s (who) =Gk. T{-r;==Lat. qui-s == Osc. pi-s; 2 I.-E. *penqe
(five)=Gk. 7rEV'-€ R==Lat. q1l/inque; Gk. T{-W (to punish) ,.,{-fJIS
(vengeance), cf. the same syllable deflected in == Zend
.. kaena = I.-E. *qoy-na, etc. (y) Sometimes Gk. K, especially before
v, AVKO-S eontrasted with the Samnite word lupu-s, which
passed into Latin, and in the peeuIiar New Ionic KO-, which
replaces the old interrogative 7rO-, the only form known to
Homer.
2. I.-E. qh : very rare, and of no importance.
3. I.-E. g. A.-Not labialized: =Gk. y==Lat. g: cf. Gk.
&y€{pw (to assemble)=*&-yEp-yw, &yopa, and Lat. grex=*greg-s.
B.-Labialized: In Latin always becomes gv, but initially
this group is reduced to v, and medially before a consonant to
g; in Greek, we find under the same conditions as for q : (a) the
labial f3, cf. f30pa (food) and voro==*gvora-yo, f3a{vw and venio,
1 The labialization disappears in Latin before a -consonant and u, whence
lictus, quinctus, jecur, and also seciUus, locutus = *loquutus.
2 The Oscan labial justifies us in thinking that popina and palumbes, Latin
donblets of coquina and co'lumba, are borrowed from Oscan.
3 .LEol. 7rEp.:rT'€ is a new formation based on 7rfp,7rTOS. On the other hand,
phonetics would require the conjugation lr,rop,aL, *gT€TaL, and the perfect of
T£W should be Analogy wrought great havoc in fOl'nlations diverg-
ing so widely from one another.
CJNSONANTS. 63
f3ap-v-c; (==I.-E. *!Jrr-u-s) and gra-v-i-s, &-p.elf3-w (to exchange)
and mig-ro, etc.; «(3) the dental 0, cf. Dar. (he wishes)
contrasted with Lesb. f30AAETUL, Lat. vol-o==*gvol-o; 1 (y)
sOIuetimes the guttural, e.g. (woman) == Booot. f3avii, cf.
Goth. qino [Eng. queenJ.
4. I.-E. gh. As a general rule, the Indo-European
voiced aspirates become in Greek voiceless aspirates;
their t.reatment in Latin is much more complicated, and will
receive· special notice later on, the hints which follow being
only provisional.
A.-Not labialized:==Gk. X==Lat. h: I.-E. *!Jhend (to
seize), Gk. (fut.) XE{o-op.-at== *XEVo-uo-p.at, (pres.) xavo-av-w, Lat.
(pre-) !tend-o.
B.-Labialized: Lat. hv medially, then the dis-
appears (nivem=*nihv-em), unless the group ghv is preceded
by a nasal, in ',vhich case the !J simply loses its aspiration
(ninguit, it snows = *ninghv-l-t) ; f initially and before r; in
ep, (), x, according to the position: (a) I.-E. *ghen- (to
strike, kill, cf. Sk. han-), Gk. epov-o-c; (murder), with
reduplication (I killed); v{ep-a (acc., snow), VE{ep-EL 2 VLep-Et (it
snows), cf. nivem, nin-guit. «(3) The same I.-E. *!J7u3n- in the
normal form in ()E{VW == *(iEV-YW (I strike), cf. Lat. (of- )fen-do ;
Sk. ghar-md-s (hot), Gk. {)EPP.O-c;, ()Ep-Oc; (summer), Lat. with-
reduced syllablefor-mu-s (hot),fur-nu-s (oven), etc. (y) Some-
times x; e.g. ovvX-oc; (gen.)=Lat. ungu-i-s, and cf. Lat.
levis == *leh-v-i-s.
§ 2. Palatals.
(58) I.-E. k, kh, g, gh. To these, as to the non-labialized
Yelars, correspond the three Greek gutturals and Latin e, g, h,
andf.
1. I.-E. k=-Gk. K==Lat. e: I.-E. *nek (to die), Sk. na9-,
Gk. V€K-V-c; VEK-pO-c; (dead), Lat. nex == *nee-s, nee-o, noc-eo, etc.;
1 (3€AOS (dart) ought therafore to have been *OfAOS; it has yielded to the
influence of {3ri"AAW.
2 \Ve should expect *vd8€L, but the consonant of *Jllepa has caused the
alteration. These obpervatiolls might be extended ad infinitum,.
64
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
I.-E. *dekrJ} (ten)=Gk. oEKa=Lat. decein, cf. Sk. ddga; Gk..
Lat. (i-n-)elu-tu-s; Gk. cf. Lat. cor-11/tt.
2. I.-E. kh (very rare)==Gk. X==Lat. c. Of. a-Xt,w='*UX{oyw
and Lat. scind-o, Sk. chindd-rni (I tear).
.3. I.-E. g==Gk. y==Lat. -g: I.-E. *gon-u or *gen-u .(knee),
Sk. Gk. yovv, Lat. genu; I.-E. (work), Gk.
EpyOV, cf. also ytyvwUKw and (g)nosco, ayw and ago, EyW and ego,
(white), and arg-enturn, etc.
4. I.-E. gh==Gk. X, according to the law already known.
The X of ancient Greek has become a simple spirant in modern
Greek, and a similar change took place in pre-historic times In
Latin, so that in Latin gh initially and medially is represented
by a simple 71,,1 and even this was dropped in pronunciation and
often in writing. After a nasal however the guttural remained,
losing its aspiration, whence' Latin g. E.g. I.-E. *d11gh-o
(I press), Gk. ayx-w, Lat. ang-o; I.-E. *migh- (to make water,
cf. Sk. 1nih-), Gk. O-fJ-LX-EW, Lat. rneio==*meih-o or *rneih-yo, but
1ning-o without aspiration; Gk. (grass), Late hortus ; Gk.
Exw===F€X-w (to convey), the meaning of which has been pre-
served at any rate in Homeric (chariot), cf. Sk. vdh-a-mi,
Lat. veh-o and via (carriage road) === *veia == *veh-ia; t,he same
loss of h in mZ===mihZ, cf. Sk. rndhyam (to me).
§ 3. Dentals.
(59) I.-E. t, th, d, dh; Gk. T, 0, () ; Lat. t, d, f.
1. I.-E. t=Gk. T===Lat. t: Gk. TpEIS, Lat. tres, Gk. TE{VW==
*TEv-yw, ten-do, ten-tu-s; Gk. (besides),
Lat et; Gk. (year), Lat. vet-us, etc. Gk. T before (, is
assibilated and becomes U in all dialects, except Doric 2 and
e.g. otow-Ut (he gives), Dor. O{OW-.TL, Sk. dddati, Lat.
tremonti (?); (rich), Dar. c£. -Ut-,
suffix of feminine nouns o£ action, etc., in
Ski -ti-, in Lat. -ti- in gens=*gen-ti-s, pars=*par-ti-s (ace.
1 The cases in which an initial f alternates with an h, e.g. folus holus
(vegetable), may be due to Sabine doublets. Of. however fu-nd-o and
Xf-W= *XfF-w, aor.
2 There are however numerous instances of assibilation in Doric.
CONSONANTS. 65
par-ti-m, adv.), and with a secondary suffix in nouns in -ti-o.
l
The group UT however remains unchanged, e.g. Eu-rL (he is),
7rLU-TL-r; (faith) = *7T-te-TL-S, cf. ?TE{e-W. The numerous cases in
Ionic-Attic in which T has not been assibilated before l. may
generally be attributed to the disturbing influence of analogy.2
2. I.-E. th cannot be restored with any certainty except in
the suffix of the second pers. sing. of the perfect: Sk. vet-tha
(thou knowest), hence I.-E. *woyd-tha, corresponding to vvhich
Greek bas eand Latin (much corrupted however) a simple t :
FOLu-Oa vid-is-ti.
3. I.-E. d=Gk. o=Lat. d. To the examples already given
(SoJLor; domus, OWTWp ddtor, oioa vidt, etc.) may be added
and dex-ter, ooA-o-r; (trick) and dol-u-s (sedulo=*se dolo, with-
out fraud), is{w=a-FiS-{w and sudo, cf. Germ. schwitzen [Eng.
sweat], {3paSvs=/LrO-v-S, Sk. mrdus, and rnollis=*mold-v-i-s, cf.
and suavis. We see from the last instance that Lat. ld
becomes ll. The same is the case with Lat. dl: sella (chair)
=*sed-la, cf.-sed-eo and EO-os. Sometimes a simple d appears
-under the form l in Latin, which must be due to a mixture
, of dialects: lacru-ma, arch. dacru-ma, Gk. SaKpv; oleo, odor;
lingua=*dingua=I.-E. *drtghwa, cf. Eng. tongue, Germ.
zunge; soZ-um, tS-a¢os (soil), and con-sul-es (those who sit
together), ex-sul ( = qui extra sedet), etc. Greek does not seem
to be exempt from this change; for the borrowed word Ulysses
perhaps comes from some Doric dialect of Magna Grrecia in
which 'OSVCJ"{TEVS was pronounced
4. I.-E. dh=Gk. O=Lat. f initially. vVhen medial, prre-
Italic f, which is kept in other dialects, cannot remain in
Latin; when arising from I.-E. dh, it generally 1?ecomes simple
d; but after u or v, before l, and before or after r, it becomes
b, in the same way asfarising from bh (infra).
1 Notice that this suffix in its turn has been assibilated in the Romance
.. languages.
2 For example, in declension, when T was not followed by L, it remained.
Hence the proper declension would be q>VO"LS *q>Vr€os= *q>V-T€Y-OS; but the
analogy of q>VO"LS produced fj>VO"fOS fj>vO"€ws. On the other hand, the analogy
of q>aT€OS restored the forms q>aTLs, P.:qTLS, etc. So also the Greek locatives
\ q>lpoVTL, DVJp.aTL, etc., are to be explained by the analogy of q>EpovTa, Dv6p.aTOS.
3 'OXVTT€VS is found in an inscription on an Attic vase; still it is possible
that the corruption Ulysses is of purely Latin origin.
F
66
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
A.
7
Initial: I.-E. *dhe- (to suckle), Sk. dhdy-a-ti, Gk.
Lat.. fe..,..la-re, fe-mina, fi-lius, etc.; Gk. Ov-p.o-r;, Lat.
cf.. Sk. dhit-mdrs; Gk. T{-()Tj-jU, € Lat. fa-ci-o, cf.
Sk. dd-dha-mi, etc.. ,
B.-Medial, Lat. d: I.".E. * blu!ydh-a (I persuade, believe),
Gk. € € Lat. ftd-o = *fif-o; I.-E. *medh-y-os, SkI
Gk. ... r;, Osc. meflai (in media), Lat.
rned-iu""'s = *mef.,..io-s.
C,-)Jfedial, Lat. b; I.-E. *owdhr (teat), Gk. 01)()ap, Lat. uber
=*oufer, cf. Germ. euter [Eng. udder]; suffixes of nouns de-
noting Gk. e-()Ao..-, (sacrificial instrument),
Lat. = *-blo-, sta-bulu-m, and Gk. -Opo-, ap-Opo-v (joint), Lat.
-bro,..-, fl.ti=-bru....m (blast), cf. Osc. Vena-fro-m (perhaps" hunting-
land"); I .....E. (red)., Gk. Lat. ruber = *rub-
.ef. ruf.... which was probably borrowed from another
etc"
§ .4. Labials.
(60) I..-E. ph, b, bh; Gk. 7r, f3, ep; Lat. p, b, f.
1. I.-E. p=Gk. 7T = Lat. p: Gk. Lat. pa-ter; Gk.
7rET-o-p.at (to Lat. pet-o; Gk. E7TTU, Lat. septem =I.-E.
*septn:f; Gk. Lat. super; Gk. tp7Tw, Lat. serp-a (to creep).
Lat. qUinque = I.-E. penqe (Gk. 7TEVTE), coquo = *quequo =
*pequ-o (Gk. 7rE(]"(J'W = *7TEK-YW and 7TE7rTW = *7rEQW-yW), bibo = *pibo
(Sk. pi-ba-mi), are instances of sporadic corruption due to the
assimilation of the first syllable to the seoond.
2. I.-E. ph: very rare, and of no importance.
S. I.-E. b (very rare) = Gk.,8= Lat. b: cf. (one who
speaks an unintelligible language) and balb-u-s (stammering);
perhaps Tt-()at{3-w(J(]"w (to work) and fab-er (artisan).
4. I.-E. bh = Gk. ep = Lat. f, which remains initially and
becomes b medially: I.-E. *bher-o (I bear), SkI bhdr-a-mi,
Gk. epEp-W, Lat. fer-o; SkI bhu (to be), Gk. ¢v-w, Lat. fU-i; SkI
bhratar- (brother), Gk. eppUTWp, Lat. frater; Gk. up.cp{ (around),
Lat. a1nb-ire, cf. Osc. amfret (ambiunt); Gk. (white
leprosy), Lat.. alb-u-s-(white), Umbr. alfu, cf. the proper names
CONSONANTS. 67
Albius and Aijius; Lat. ti:..b"i, si-bi = Umbr. tefe, sefe = Osc. tifei.,
sifei, cf. SkI tu-bhyam (to thee), ete.
1
§ 5. Supplementary Laws..
(61) 1. Deaspiration. In Greek, as in Sanskrit., two
consecutive syllables cannot begin with an aspirate; hence the
first loses its aspiration: I.-E. *bheydh...a., Lat. ftd-a, Gk.
2 = I.-E. *bhudh- (to know), Sk. b6dh-a-ti
(he observes), buddhd- (learned), Gk. 1.-1rvB-6-p.1Jv (I asked); Gk.
l-BYj-v, passive I.-TE-BYj-v (I was placed); Gk!' (hair) =
gen. sing. = but loco pI. Gk. TpEep-W (to
nourish) =*OpEep-W, cf. the fut. OPEtf;W and perf. TE-OPUjJ--j-LUt =
$OE-Brep-p.ut; lX-w (I hold, have) = *€X-W = *UEXW, cf. SkI sdh-a-mi,
aor. l-uX-o-v,3 and fut. € in compounds, € (truce).=
*I.X€-X€tp{a; reduplication of the voiceless aspirate by means of
the corresponding non-aspirated consonant, in the present and
perfect, Kl-XaVW, TEBf.tKU, 7nepuv(jKw, etc.
To this phenomenon is perhaps due the Greek a- copulative,
often used instead of a-, which is the only regular form in this
function, inasmuch as it represents the primitive grou.p *Srrf_;4
e.g. (crowded together, dense) = =
cf. etc. It is even possible that the aspirate some-
produced the same effect at a, distance of twq syllables.:
(wife, cf. bed); and from these cases analp.gy
may have transferred the smooth breathing to where t.he
rough breathing ought to have remained, e.g. (wife).,
etc.
5
.
The very rare cases in which two aspirated follow
one another occur either in compounds whose formation dates
from a period later than the operation of this law, e.g. opvi-
(bird-catcher), or in forms conta.minated through
] The strict character of these correspondences throws on the
connexion of Lat. herb a and Gk. cj>op{3-f) (fQdder).
2 The same rule bolds good even when the second aspirate afterwards
disappeared: 7rU1TOS, 7r[(fTLS.
c 3 (fX is of coarse the reduced form of the syllable (TEX.
4 *sm is the reduced form of *sem- (one), supra 41 and 49, 3..
6 On the other hand, if u8p6os (Att.) is not an incorrect form, it must owe
its rough breathing to the analogy of a7ras, U7rAOOS.
68
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR•
.very natural process of analogy, e.g. EXV()Yj (it \vas poured),
6f; etc.
It is hard to explain the deaspiration of the second aspirate
instead of the first in the type AVOYjTL (be loosed) =*AV-()'Yj-()L.
The most probable explanation is that AV()YjTL for *AV-T'Yj-()L is
due to the analogy of the third person
(62) 2. Assimilation. "Ve may distinguish t.wo chief
of assimilation: A.-the explosive does not change its
nature, but a voiceless consonant is replaced by the corre-
sponding voiced consonant, or vice versa; B.-the explosive is
changed to a nasal or spirant.
A.-(a) .As a general rule, in Greek and Latin, a voiced
followed by a voiceless .consonant becomes voiceless, and a
voiceless followed by a voiced consonant becomes voiced, and
the evidence 6f the grammarians justifies us in asserting that
this change regularly took place in pronunciation, even when
not denoted in writing: Gk. Eyf3tf3a'wv (inscr.), usual spelling
EKf3£f3a'wv, Ka7r7rEG"E (he fell) = *KaT 7rEG"E, wit:p. assimilation of the
dental to the labial, but Kaf3f3aAE (he tbrew down), etc.; Latin
prefixes ap- and op- in ap=erio and op-erio, but ab-duea, ob-
dueo, sub-dueo, etc, and the wrong spelling ob-tinea did not
prevent the pronunciation optineo.
1
Hence these prepositions
as used separately (cf. Gk. a7ro, iJ7ro), must be regarded as syn-
tactical doublets; the Latins first said regularly ab domo,
sub gremio, then through analogyab urbe, sub iove; but in
spite of the spelling, they never ceased to pronounce sup eaelo
1
sup teeti;.
2
(f3) In accordance with the same law, the groups, Gk. yu,
Lat. gs, become KG", ks, written and. x ; Gk. f3G", Lat. bs, become
- 7T'G" (written t/J) and ps: Gk. (flame), cf. gen. epAoy-os; Lat.
"rex, cf. gen. reg.,.is; Gk. epA€t/J (vein), cf. gen. epAEf3-0S; Lat.
pleps (written plebs), cf. pleb-is j serib-o, but serip-si,
sefrip-tu.;;S, etc.
(y) So also the Greek groups <p(J" and XG" are written t/J and
t In French also abces is pronounced apces ; obteni-r, optenir, etc.
2 Cf. also the Homeric forms KaK K€tjJaXlrv, Ka'¥ ,¥6vu, U{3{3dXA€LV (II. xix. 80),
and many others. In Latin inscriptions the spellings set, aput, etc., are
ofttan found, not only before a voiceless ,consonant, but in other cases also;
the Latins said aput te, set contra, and hence aput me, set mihi, etc.
CONSONANTS. 69
which seems to show that the first letter loses its aspiration,
as is also presupposed by the initial aspirates of € and
It must however he observed that in the old Attic alphabet, i:Q.
which the double consonants had not yet been developed, these
groups were always written epa- and XU, \vhatever their origin..
(0) In Greek a explosive, when followed by an
aspirated explosive, becomes aspirated: Ae{7r-w e-AE{efJ-{}Y],
== *(]"r{y-yw e-(]"r{x-{}Yj, etc. This assimilation however seems to
have existed merely in writing; the first explosive must have
been a simple voiceless consonant.
(€) Before a nasal, a voiceless guttural becoomes voiced:
7rpa(]"uw== *1T'paK-yw, 7rpa:y-p.a, f3pI.X-w (to moisten), perf. f31.-{3PEY"
}Lat ; Lat. sec-are (to cut), seg-1nenlu-m, etc.!
These regular alternations of voiced, voiceless, and aspi-
rated consonants in obviously related to one another
naturally gave rise to analogical confusions, which caused each
sound to spread outside its proper sphere. Thus, by the side of
o)...'Aarrw==*&UaK-yw, we find the aor. pasEl. -YJA'Aay-'Yj-v and the
stantive based on the regular p.aL; nopay- p.-a gave
rise to a perfect 7r1.-7rpay-a, and the aspirated perfects of AttiC,
and the (rl.-rpl.ep-a from 'Tp{{3-w, 7r€-7rA€X-a from 7rAlK-W)
are doubtless due to analogy. We need only compare
apno-ay-09 with the other Greek nouns in -at, which form their
genitive in and with the Latin nouns of the same type,
vor-ax -ac-is, to be convinc3d that in the Greek word the
voiced guttural cannot be original; on the other hand,
(whirlpool), which is connected with vorax, seems to point to
a primitive declension *voraco *voragrfnis, the g being after-
wards introduced by analogy into the nominative. So again
the guttural of pax pac-is was softened quite regularly in
pango (to fix, fasten, cf. which doubtless arose from
*pac-no, later *pangno (infra), and this softening in its turn
was wrongly extended to pe-pig-i. A very slight
tance with either language will suffice to furnish many other
examples.
(63) B.-(n) In Greek and Latin, a guttural or labial explo
1 Cf.· also dig-nu-s as contrasted with dic-er-e or rather dec-et, and see
tIle further investigation of this gntturallater on.
70 GREEK AND LATIN
sive followed by a nasal j s changed to a nasal of the same class.
In the case of a guttural, the change is not denoted in ,vriting;
but the grammarians inform us dignus and ignosco were pro-
nounced and there is the same reason for think-
ing 7rpa.:yp.,a was pronounced 7Tpanp.,a; the well-known dialectical
spellings y"iVWa-KW are directly due to the pronunciation
y[11vop.,ar., which sooner or later superseded y[yvop.,at.. P1n and
bm== Gk. oj-tp.,aTQ. (eyes) == *67T-j-taTa, cf. Lesb.. o7T7TaTa and
perf. 07rW7Ta; Gk. perf. from Tp"i{3-W, from
ypae:p-w; Lat. == *sup-nlo-s from sup-er, and
mmmoveo, etc. Pn (unchanged in Greek) and bn==mn: Gk.
(lamb) == the f3 representing the velar guttural of
I.-E. *ag-no-s, which is found in the Latin word ag-nu-s; Gk.
U€j3-o-j1va" (to venerate), and but (sleep); Lat.
somnus==*sop-no-s, Bab-tnt and Bam-niu-m, scab-ellu-rn and
scam-nu-m (bench), etc. This law was often modified by the
influence of analogy.
(f3) Every dental explosive follo\ved by an s is completely
assimilated to it: C+k. loco pI. 7ro(ja-[ *7roS-a-[; perf. 7rf:;rv(ja-at
(thou hast learned, thou kno"","est) == *7rE-7rv{)-a-at.; (hope}
Lat. concors==*con-cord-s, 1niles (gen.
m/il-it-is) == 1 == 1nil-et-s, etc.
(y) The Latin groups cJ"; dj, bf, etc., become jf, e g. effero
===*ec-fero (Gk. f.K), ajfero, riffero, etc.
(64) 3. Reduction of Groups of Consonants.
A.-The most remarkable instance of this kind of reduction
is furnished in Latin by the group tst, which must have been
developed, before Greek and Latin yet existed, from the meeting
of a dental explosive with a t. For from we should have
regularly had 2nd sing. 2nd pI. *'F"S-TE, and Greek hag
ora-oa la-iE, which presuppose the _intermediate forms *FoLTa-{)a
*F[ilTTE, with parasitic (j. In this case the first dental is assimi-
lated to the a-' and so in the end the result is the same as if it
:had been originally changed to IT before a dental; indeed, the
law is often stated in this which is quite admissible in
Greek taken by But in Latin the phenomenon is much
1 The last syllable is still sometimes scanned as long in Plautus.
This (J' was afterwards extended by analogy to positions where it was
CONSONANTS.
71
more complicated, as will be obvious at once from the contrast
between *quat-tu-s, which would be the regular participle, and
quassus, which is the real participle o£ quat-io.
The process -is as follows: *quat-to-s with the sigmatic in-
sertion became *qua,tstos; then the group lst was reduced to
ss, except before r, when the group was reduced to st; finally,
after a long vowel, the group ss ,vas reduced to a single s: cf.
quassus, clatlstrum= *claud-(s)tro-m and clausus == *claussus',
and the double spelling caussa and Ca1tSa. This explains the
origin of the numerous Latin participles in -'SU"'S and -suru-s,
and the substantives in -sor (suasor) and in -'Sura (mens1"lra).l
B.-In Latin the initial groups spl and stl are reduced to a
sirnple l: lien 2 (spleen), Gk. archaic stlts stlocu-s, in
later Latin lis locus. The same is the case with tl, when
initial: latu-s (borne) == Gk. from TAU-W. When medial,
tl becomes cl, if, as is· very probable, the nouns of instrument
in -clo- -culo- correspond to the Greek neuters in -rAo-. The
groups tc and tp are to cc and pp: ac-cur1'o, ap-peto ;
so also pc becomes cc, oc--eurro.
C.-Among the other most important reductions in Latin
may be mentioned: (a) The loss of the group cs before every
voiced consonant, with compensatory lengthening, e-luo e-
gredio-r, etc. (==ex), subtemen (we£t)=*-tex-men, etc. (f3) The
simple loss of an explosive in too complicated groups: disco
== *dic-sco, cf. di-dic-i, so also in Greek Oc.oauKw == *Ot-DaK-CTKw,
cf. fut. atoutw; posco == *porc-sco, cf. prec-o-r; 3 perf. spars"i
==*sparg-si, cf. sparg-o, and many others.
(65) 4. Final Explosives. Greek does not allow the
presence of any explosive at the end of a word; all final
explosives disappear without compensation: voc. llva == *llVUKT
1
cf. gen.; nOln. yUAa (milk) == *yuAUKT, cf.
not required for phonetic r.easons: thus terr€ produced (Att.) ter/J-€v='to/J-€P,
and the regular (= * is reflected in in 1jKoverraL
for *1jKov-ral (etKOVW) the (J has not even this justification.
1 Of course this termination also was spread by analogy outside its proper
sphere: sparsus (for *sparc-tu-s) on, the analogy of sparsi, etc. So also
pulsus for *pul-tu-s = 7ra'A-ro-s, lapsus, etc. (cf. the regular script'Us).
2 The group is retained in Rplendere and the kindred words; why?
3 pore is the reduced grade of the syllable pree, cf. Sk. Pfcchami=*prk-
aka-mi.
72
GREEK AND- LATIN GRAMMAR.
Brd sing. € € € cf.Ilat.leg-it; Brd pI. €
cf.leg-unt; abl. adv. OVTW (sO)=*OVTWO, cf. O. Lat. is-tod, etc.
The numerous cases in which this final °seems to be repre-
sented by s-e.g. the doublet O{JTWS and all the adverbs in -ws
derived from adjectives, KaAws=*KaAwo, cf. Lat. certo-must be
due, to the existence of syntactical doublets.!
Latin only drops the last explosive in a final group, e.g.
lac =*iact. Final d however, which remains after a short
vowel, sed, apud, quod, is dropped in the classical period after
a long vowel: abl. equo =- *equod, mari =*marid, imper.
=*legitod, cf. Gk. <pEpl-TW and Sk. bhdra-tat. This d is still
found in all old inscriptions, and the metre often requires its
restoration in Plautus.
(66) 5. The Aspirates in Latin. The fate of the
aspirates in Latin is remarkable. It is not unnatural that gk
should be changed by deaspiration to g, or that, on the other
hand, the aspiration should prevail, thus changing it to h.
The transition froln initial dh and bh to twas effected through
the intermediate stages of th and ph; for ph easily becomes f,
as is shown by Greek 1>, and th pronounced as a spirant
(Eng. th) is equally near to f.2 But it is less easy to under-
stand why Latin medial f should go back again, sometimes to
d, sometimes to b. It is probable that this took place at a
tjme when the medial sound had not yet become f, but had
reached, say, the sta.ge of th or some other sound closely akin to
it; at this point the further development of the sound in Oscan
and Umbrian took the direction off, whereas in Latin it took a
different direction..
SECTION III.
PRIMITIVE SPIRANTS.
(67) Besides the spirants y and tV, vvhich have already been
treated of in so far as they appear as semi-vowels, and some
1 In *yod when standing alone, the 0 would fall away; but a com-
like *y6d toy (as to thee) necessarily gave *yotstoy, Gk. &s TO',
snp'ra 64 A.
2 The modern Greek ee6owpos has become in Russian Fedor. Cf. also the
lEolie ¢1]p = 81]p.
CONSONANTS. 73
sounds whose existence is more problematical, and which may
therefore be neglected, the Indo-European language possessed
only the two dental or sibilant spirants sand Z.' J\!Ioreover, as
the voiced spirant only arose through the assimilation of the
voiceless spirant to a following voiced consonant, they may
both be studied under the same heading, provided we bear
in mind that the groups erf3 ery (pleryw) , ero (always
in lEolic instead of ,) are equivalent in pronunciation to zb,
zg, zd.
The treatment of the primitive sibilant varied considerably
according to its position.
§ 1. Initial s,
(68) 1. Before a vowel. S remains in Latin and becomes
h (rough breathing) in Greek: E7rTa septem, serpa,
sedea, (brA-oor; 1 sirnplex, etc. This law is most strictly 0 b-
served. Initial er in Greek always arises from an earlier
group of consonants, not ·from s. Thus, in the case of (J"EVW (to
put in motion) = *er(J"EVW (cf. aor, we must restore
I.-E. *qyu, a form indicated by the Sk. in (to
worship), the initial group was ty; in uaAoc; (swell), probably
sw, cf. Germ. schwellen [Eng. swell]; 2 ill (J"vr; (swine)=iJs, Lat.
sus, the restoration of the (J" may be due to the oblique cases, in
which it would be retained in old G:reek, as, for example, in the
genitive *erF-or;.
2. Before a serni-vowel. The initial groups sy (very rare)
and StV are changed to the rough breathing in Greek, €
(six), the pronoun € Eor;::;;;*erEFos, Lat. suus. Su' must
have passed through the intermediate stage 0f wh, as is proved
by the spelling € found in inscripti0lls, and by the necessity
of reading FE Fot in many verses ef Homer. In Latin, the
semi-vowel simply disappears, sex, se; cf! however supra 40 C E.
3. Before a nasal or liqUid. As sw wh, so in
Greek sr becomes rh, written p; il1 Latip. the group sr always
1 For the sporadic loss of the rough breathing cf. supra 61.
2 As, however, initial SUi is changed to the rough breathing (iuf1
o
a), the
form craXos could in any be only a syntactical doublet used after a vowel.
Cf. the Homeric compound KOPLO"aXos, which ought to be read KOlllO"O"aXoso
74 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR. -
becomes fr
1
: //iyos =*crpZyos, Lat. frig-us. The other groups
are assimilated respectively to ll, mm, nn, which at the be-
ginning of a word naturally become l, m, and n; but in the
Homeric poems the metre often compels us to restore the
etymological reduplication. E.g. Lat. lilbricu-s (slippery), cf.
Germ. sChlupfen [=Eng. slip]; Gk. p.€l,-.'Qui-w (to smile), cf. Sk.
smi (to laugh, admire) [Eng. smile], Lat. mi-ru-s; Gk. p..{a
= *crjL-{a, fern. of *sem- (one); Gk. JI{ep..a, Lat. niv-em (acc.), cf.
Germ. schnee, Eng. snow; Lat. na-re (to swim), Sk. sna-mi,
etc. It must howeV"er be observed that initial crfJ- is not un-
common in Greek: we know of the forms b p.vr;; (Hesych.),
crP.f-KpOS, doublet of fJ-LKPOS, etc., variations not yet explained.
4. Before a consonant initial s remains unchanged: Gk.
crTop-VV-p.I" a-'Tr'€{pw, (j{3Evvv}-tL; Lat. scando, sto, spero, etc. Some-
times however in Greek, e.g. T€y-OS (covering) T€Y-W (to
by the side of crT€yor;; crT€YW (Sk. sthag), and very often in Latin,
the initial consonant can be proved to have fallen away: cav-eo
(to beware), cf. Germ. schau-en (to look at attentively) [Eng.
show], hence for ·*scav-eo; tego, toga, tegula (tile), cf. (jT€YW;
fallo, cf. a-epaAAw (to throw down), and Sk. sphdl-a-1ni (to
throw). These apparent exceptions are generally regarded as
syntactical doublets.
2
§ 2. Medial s.
(69) 1. Between vowels. Before the historic period of
Greek,3 intervocalic s, like initial s, passed into h, and then
disappeared wi thout leaving any trace of its existence. In
Latin intervocalic s is still found in SOlne of the oldest remains,
e.g. L.ASEs=Lares (Carm. Arv.); but at this period it was no
longer pronounced as s, it had already passed into the sound
of z, as is shown by Oscan transcriptions, such as efJ1nazum
1 The intermediate stage is thr (Eng. th) ; c1. supra 66. .
2 In a phrase like co'rpus arma *stegont, the s was pronounced, but in pro·
nouncing arma corpus *stegont, the two s's became one; hence the mistaken
idea that there was a word *tegont, which was afterwards transferred to other
phrases also.
3 "Ve must therefore beware of restoring, in an Homeric form for example,
an initial or intervocalic (f'.
CONSONA.NTS.
75
(rerum), and from thence to lingual r; I in fact, the only
difference between the two consists in the quivering of the
tongue, already described.
The loss in Greek and rhotacism in Latin of inter-
vocalic s forms one of the most constant laws established
by From the multitude of examples it may be
enough to mention: Gk. subj. (Hom.) € (I may be), ... t\.tt.
6), Lat. fut. er-o =*es-o; Gk. *yev-€a--os (gen. of cf. Sk.
jan-as-as), whence yev€os and yEVOVS, Lat. generis = *gen-es-es ;
Gk. aiows, gen. aloovs = alooos =*alo-oa--os, Lat. arbas, gen.
Gk. gen. pI. xwpawv Xwpwv=*xwpa-a-wl!,
Lat. Gk. fLvS fLv-oS, Lat. milr-is; Gk. nom. pI. neut.
€ € € Lat. majora=*rnah-jos-a,2 etc. In
Latin, analogy generally introduced the r into the termination
of the nominative: cf. the doublets honas and honor, arbos and
arbor, the abstract nouns in -"or, dolor, labor, etc., and the com-
paratives major =*majos; but the s remains in the nom.-acc.
neut. majus = *1najos, Gk. fL€ttwv P€ttov.
Hence we might expect never to find, either in Greek ,or
Latin, an s between two vowels. There are however many
cases of this in both languages, but they never arise from a
primitive intervocalic s. Phonetically, they may usually be
traced to a regular reduction of the historical group ss, fLEO"OS=
pea-eros, causa =cau8sa,3 or to Greek T assibilated before t, epV(J"fS '
=*epVTfS; in other cases their origin is simply analogical. Thus
the intervocalic a- of f30VO"LV, vava-Lv, i7r7rouJ'I.V (cf.. the oblique case
of the dual i7r7rol.l.v) seems to have been restored on the model
of 7roO"O"{v, epA€t/JLV, where the a-, not being intervocalic, re-
m"ained; so also we have AVo-w €Ava-a (instead of *Avw *€Ava) and
all similar futures and aorists, because of A€[t/JW €U"TLta and other
forms, where the a- ,,"as regularly kept. The remaining instances
of intervocaJic s which cannot be traced either to this phonetic
origin or to analogy are quite insignificant. Scarcely any can
1 Of. in French the doublets chaire (=cathedra) and chaise, in which how-
ever the change has been in the opposite direction. [Of. also Eng. blare with
the older form" to blaze abroad l' (Mark i.45), and Germ. blasen; so too
iTon=A.-S. i1°en, older form i:.;en, cf. ice and Germ. eisen.] ,
2 For the difference of quantity in the 0, see infra 212.
3 Of. supra 64 A, and infra 69, 6.
76
GREEK AND LATIN GRAliMAR.
be except nom. pI. vasa, etc., no doubt formed on the
model of sing. vas, quaeso, retained perhaps as an archaism-
bythe side of the regular quaero (cf. quaes-tor) ; and, lastly, some
words of doubtful etymology, like Lat. 'fniser and Gk. p.to-OC;
(hatred), }J-io-lw, etc.!
2. After a consonant. We have seen above the effects of
the m-eeting of an explosive and s, and also the phenomena
of compensatory lengthening, resulting from the group ns,2 e.g.
equos =*equons, € == * € The groups rs and ls re-
main unchanged in Greek, become rr, II in Latin: cf. ferre
=*fer-se, velle=*vel-se, terra=*ter-:sa (dry?), and Gk. ()apO"oc;
(boldness), apO"1Jv (male), Sk. vfsan-: (id.), Att. (dew),
Sk. varsds (rain), etc. Hence the regular aorists of ep()€{pw (to
spoil), K€AAW (to come to 840re) are the Homeric forms €
€ and the Attic and common forms €ep6Hpa, €O"TELAa (I sent),
must be regarded as later forIl1s based on EKT€tVa, etc. In later
Attic, the group po- became pp as iI}. Latin: ()appoc;, /lPP1Jv.
3. Before a nasal. III Lesbian s is assimilated to the
nasal: (I am) = *€o--:fL{, Sk. ds-::mi; epaEvvoc; (bright) =
*epaFEO"-vo-C;, cf. epaoc; epavoc; (lig4t). In the other dialects, as in
Latin, the s is dropped with lengthening 3: Dar.
TJfL{ (I am), 1on.-Att. €ifL{; cbaYJvoc;, 1on.-:Att. epaHvoc;; Ion.
€ivvfLt =*F€O"-vv-}J-t (I clothe), cf! and ves-:ti-s ; Lat. d7lmoveo
=*d'1s-'moveo, d7lnurnerq, Lat. qiJnus (brazen)=*aes-nu-s,
cf. aes and Sk. dyas (iron); viden (seest theu?) =*videnn
= *videnn =*videsn'.
4
I 8pa(Jvs (bold) was influenced by its doublet (both equivalent to
*dhr;s-u-s); cf. SpaDAADS (proper name}.
[Mr. R. S. Conway in his book Yerne'r's Law in Italy (Triibner, 1887), has
ingeniously endeavoured to show rhotacism. depended 011 accent.
Medial s between vowels after an unaccented syllable became T, e.g.
regerent, sor6ris, but after an accented. was kept, e.g. miser,
quaeso, except when followed by i or 1./, and preceded by i or u or a long
vowel or diphthong. e.g. naris, quaerit, FU1'ius, dirimit; while medial s be-
fore nasals after an unaccented was lost without compensation, e.g. -
Camena; after an accented syllable, if a:r.isipg befpre the periQQ. pf rhotacism,
was lost with compensatory lengthening of the prepeding vowel, e.g. aenus,
ptirnus; if arising during the period of rhotapism, became r, carmen,
2 Supra 47 C.
3 Cf. in French meme=mesmp [and ane==:=asne=Lat. asinmn].
4: The final letter of the enclitic being dropped, and enn shortened, as being
the termination of an iambic word, infra 77 C.
CONSONANTS.
77
Owing to different causes the groups o-ft, o-v \vere subsequently
restored in Attic: the former remained unchanged, the latter
was assimilated to 1111, as may be seen from the juxtaposition
IT € Thus a verb * €(J1IVP-I" formed on
the analogy of etc., became in Attic €1IVVftL; but
€o-ft€1I based on €o-T€, . based on and even
7rE7rVo-p.aL and where the (j has not even this justifica-
tion (s1iJpra 64 A), underwent no change.
4. Before a liquid. In Greek 0- is assimilated: EppEE (it
flowed):= *;-o-pEF-E, Sk. d-srav-a-t, from.pEw; but sometimes, under
somewhat obscure conditions, it is lost with compensatory
lengthening, e.g. *XEU-AI,OI, (thousand), cf. Sk. (sa-)hds-ra-, Lesb.
Dor. Ion....Att. XE{Al.Ol. X"iAl.Ol.. In Latin compen-
satory lengthening is the rule before l, diluo; but the medial
group sr becomes br : 1 junebrl:s:=*j11nes-ri-s, cf. fitnus funer-is
conolisobrinus (cousin):=*con-svesr-ino-s (relation on
sister's side), frqffi *svesor =Boror;9- etc,
5. Before an explosive. Before a voiceless explosive s is
kept in Greek and Latin. Before a voiced explosive, it is kept
in Greek, but pronounced as z (the group' 0-0 is written in
Latin it is lost with compensatory leI;lgthening: nidus (nest) .
=*n'iz«-o-s, cf. Germ. [and Eng&] nest
1
and the juxtapositions
digero, diditco, etc.
6. Before a spirant. The groups sy and sw have already
been discussed. The group ss, when primitive, was reduced in
Greek at a very early date to a single 0- : the Homeric doublets,
7roo-o-t and 7roo-t, E7rEo-o-L and E7rEo-LlI are well kno\vn; so too the
Homeric E-T€AEo--o-a (I accomplished), the only regular form, cf.
€ (end), became ETf.AEo-a, and 7r€7rVo-o-aL (Hom.) =
was reduced to 7r€7rvo-al..
3
In a few cases this change affected
the group 0-0-, even when it was not original, but the result of
phonetic assimilation, e.g. when arising from dhy in Att. € 4
€ € or from sw in Att. In
1 The intermediate stage is of course thr, supra 66 and 68, 3.
Svesr is the reduced form: Sk. nom. s'Vdsii, date svasr-e.
3 Of. supra 63 {3. The analogy of the doublets which sometimes con-
tained (j, sometimes (J(J', introduced the double (j into forms where it had llO
etymological justification, e.g. Hom. rallv(J(Jat'-€"YlAa(j(J€, etc. .-
4 We should have expected *P.€TTOS as 7rparrw= 7rp1}(j(JW.
78
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
Latin the group ss rem'1ins after a short vowel, cc'1ssus (vain)
from cado, gressus from gradior, from· m'itto, but is
reduced after a long vowel, misi == *missi (cf. vidi)1 f'llSUS
== *fuSS1tS, plosio -from plado, laesus from laedo, etc.
The Latin group sf is assimilated to if, e.g. dijJera=*dis-
lera, cf. distuli.
§ 3. Final s.
(70) }"'inal s in Greek and Latin, equos,
genus. But in Latin, at any rate in certain positions, final S
can only have been pronounced very slightly; it is often .neg-
lected in inscriptions, and until the Augustan age it constitutes
position or not at the option of the writer :' 'vers'ibus quos olim
... (Enn.) ... decidere falc'1bus ramas (Lucr.). But it never
entirely disappeared; for it is reproduced with remarkable
fidelity in the Romance languages.
1
Is it to this possible loss of final s, or to a phenomenon of
Indo-European syntactical phonetics, that we must attribute
the Latin substitution of the group er for the groups ris ros
when preceded by a consonant,2 in forms like acer==acris and
ager == *ag-ro-s, cf. Gk. Sk. djras? However this may
be, the peculiarity is worth noticing; but it is hard to reduce
it to a law, since the genitives patrus and patris, fqr example,
kept their termination unchanged.
1 E.g. French li chevals=ille cab6llus, les chevals=ill6s caballos.
2 In puer ( = *puerlls ?) the consonant seems to be wanting; but this is not
really the case, for puer is for *pover. This question is further discussed in
IIIem. Soc. Ling. vi. p. 373.
CHAPTER \7.
FURTHER COMBINATIONS OF VOWELS AND C O N S O N A ~ T S .
(7
1
) Among the phenomena of phonetic combination or re-
duction, hitherto mentioned only incidentally, but which deserve
a somewhat fuller investigation, may be included contraction,
elision, shortening and lengthening, aspiration and de-
aspiration, epenthesis, and syncope.
SECTION I.
CONTRACTION. '
It is probable, if not certain, that the Indo-European lan-
guage did not tolerate hiatus,l and that all the forms bequeathed
by it t.o its descendants were contracted; hence contraction can
only have taken place in Greek and Latin in those cases of
hiatus which arose subsequently, especially through the regular
loss of an interyo'calic consonant. The laws regulating this
process are very varied.
§ 1. Greek.
(72) Two vowels in hiatus, whether in the same word (¢t.A€w),
or in two different words closely connected in meaning and
pronunciation (TO. efA-Aa), are liable to be contracted into one
long vowel or diphthong; but ip. this respect there is con-
siderable divergence between the different dialects. The two
antipodes are Ionic and Attic, which are so close to one another
in other respects; in the former dialect contraction is almost
1 Except in the case of i and u, where there is no real hiatus; for after
i or 'It, followed by a vowel, the corresponding semi-vowel was developed,
and so the pronnnciation would be, not *i-tlt- (going, Lat. ieus), *duo (two),
but approximately *iy1jt-, *duwo, etc.
79
80
GREEK AND LATIN GRAM}IAR.
unknovvn, whereas the latter hardly ever tolerates hiatus.
Between these two dialects, but somewhat nearer to Ionic,
come £olic and Doric, ·which allow hiatus in certain cases,
but require contraction in others. But, even when contrac-
tion takes place in all the dialects, the sound resulting from
contraction may be different in each. To avoid unduly com-
plicating this subject, we shall examine here only the com-
monest cases of contraction, classifying them according to the
character of the first of the two vowels in hiatus.
1. a. a + a, a + a become a: Hom. Ion. /17IJ (bane, curse)
== ara==*aa.Ta for *aFara, cf. aunTa (Pind.); Att. 'A{)Yjva=' A{)Yjl/d.a
== 'A()Yjva{a; Att. rdAAa==Tcl /1AAa, etc. a -I- € beeomes Ion.! and
Att. a, Dar. Yj: Att. Tij-taT€ = rij-td.€T€, Dor. opYj (see) = OpU€.
a +Yj becomes a, Yj: Ion.-Att. r"ij-tar€, Dor. € € (subj.).
a +L becomes at.: (child), Hom. 7ra,s, then a +0
becomes Att. w,2 Dor. a: Att. Tip..wj-tEv=rij-taop..Ev. a+ w becomes
w: Att. rij-twp..€v==rip..d.wj-t€v. a+v becomes av(but often the
hiatus rernains): oavAos (thick, shaggy) == *8avAos== *oa<Tv-Ao-;-,
cf. oa(TlJ-s; a-vros==avros (&FVTOV is found in an Ionic inscription).
2. a. a + a, a + a become a 3: .LEoI.-Dor. ya, Ion.-Att. y-ij ==
*yaa == yaLa. a + € becomes a, even in Doric: aAt.os (written
aEALos-, but the scansion shows the word is trisyllabic) in Pindar,
cf. lOll. Att. a +0, a +W become Dar. a: gen. pI.
(Homer.) xwpawv, Dor. xwpa1(. a +L becomes aL (g,). a+ v is
unimportant.
3. €. €+ a becomes Att. TJ, but the hiatus often reluains in
Ionic: r€{XYJ=rE{XEa. It must not be supposed that ?rOA€I.S
(ace. pI.) is contracted from 7rOAEaS; in the nom. pI. xpvcra
== xpV<TEa the vocalism of the termination must have been in-
fluenced by that of the ordinary neuter terminations in a. €+a
(very rare) often forms only one syllable, even when both vowels
are written: 4 owp€a is a dissyllable, but Att. YEV€a a trisyllable.
€+€becomes Lesb. Dar. TJ, Ion.-Att. €l. e), epI.AELT€==
1 Often not contracted. The curious Homeric type opaall (to see) =
Opa€LV has not yet received any satisfactory explanation.
2 The Homeric forms showing diectasis, e.g. {3wwlITaL for {3LwvTaL =
{3uJ.ovrat (very common Homer), must be put on the same level as opaall.
3 This combination of course does not occur in Ionic.
4 In this case € becomes a semi-vowel, supra 20, 3.
FURTHER COMBINATIONS OF VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 81
epLAE€T€.l €+ 'YJ bee-omes 'YJ, but is uncontracted in Ionic: €
== epLAE1]T€. €+ I. becomes €t.: Honi. 7rToA€i, Att. 7roAn. €+ 0 be-
comes Dor. w, Att. ov (pronounced i5 or it): ept.Aovp.€v== epLAEOP.€V ,;
Ionic texts sometimes have €O dissyllabic-, sometimes €O mono-
syllabic, sometimes also €V (Herodotus), which was of course
pronounced as a diphthong, and scarcely differed from mono-
syllabic €o. €+ Wbecomes w: Att. ept.Aw==ept.AEW, av()wv==av()Ewv.
Even when the €was retained in writing,2 it was not reckoned
as a vowel, and in forms like {3a(]"I,AEwt;, € contraction
probably took place in current pronunciation, though never
denoted in writing.
3
€+V (rare) becomes €v: Hom. E:D<; (good),
Att. € (well).
4. The group 'YJ + vpwel is of little importance except in
Ionic, Attic, and the where it replaces the primitive
group ii + vowel; it then becomes subject to the laws of
abbreviation and metathesis of quantity peculiar to those
dialects, which will be discussed later on (infra 76).
5. The group I. + vowel is never contracted; but I., like €,
sporadically became a sfHni-voweI. The rare group l.l. ho,vever
became 'i in the locative 7roA'i (Homer and Herodotus) == 7roAU,
cf. Cypr.7rToAt.yt., and a few similar cases.
6. The very rare group 'i + vowel is not contracted.
7. o. 0 + a becomes Att. and Lesb. w, Dor. ii, in Ion. often
remains in hiatus: Dor. 7rpaTOt;, Att. Att.
accus. alow== alooa. 0 +ii is unimportant. 0 + € becomes OV,
OY]AOVT€ == 01]AO€T€. 0 +1] becomes w, 01]AWT€ == 01]A01]T€; the Att.
feme (double) == OL7rAo1], like its plural OL7rAu'L== ot.7rAOaL and
neuter pI. OL7rAa = OL7rAou, is due of course to the analogy of the
,uncontracted termination. 0 + I. becomes OL: Att. oTt; (sheep) ==
(Theocritus) = Lat. ovis. 0 + 0 becomes Lesb. Dar. w,
Ion.-Att. ov: gen. Lesb. Dor. i'7r7rW, Ion.-Att. i'7r7rOV = *i'7r7TOO (but
0+01. simply gives 01., 01]AOLp.€V= 01]AOOLjJ-€V). 0 + Wbecomes w,
01]Awp.€v== OY]AowJ1-€V. 0 + v is unimportant.
8. w. The group W+ 0 becomes Win Ion.-Att. gen. A€W (of
1 The hiatus often remains in Herodotus.
2 This is the case with av8:iJv (gen. pl.), which the Atticists, according to
Suidas, spelt av8fwv.
3 Of. the double scansion of M€VOLKeWs, CEd. Rex, 85 anl1503.
G
82 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
the people) == *AEWO: cf. *Z7T7rOO. The other combinations
of w with a vowel offer few points of interest.
9. v.-The group v + is the only one liable to contraction,
both in the Homeric period (VEKVL, dissyl!., 7TA:r}fJv'i (but (Tv"l", opvt),-
Panhellen. dissyl. == (cf. Sk. su, to beget, sunus, son),
and perf.. part, rem. Eiov'ia trisyll.), and also in A.ttic and the
where however final VI. remains a dissyllable, lX()VL. With
this exception, v + vowel is never contracted: the nOIn. pI.-
does not become * and the acc. pI. cannot
come from the Homeric
10. v. The group v+ vowel is rare, and is never contracted.
Most of the exceptions which seem to violate these laws
may be easily explained, either on phonetic grounds or by
analogy. Thus the hiatus, which exists in and seems
to exist also in is due to the fact that the group EW
there replaces YJO by metathesis <;>f quantity. In other cases,
as in Dt.d== lltF{,
(cf. aKovw) , oivOEl,t; == (cf. Sk. suff. -vant-),
etc., it is the comparatively late loss of a F "\vhich has
brought together two vowels previously separated.
1
The same
explanation holds good of such fornls as ==
unless the first term of the compound has been simply borro","ed
from forms like where there is no hiatus. In
7rpoayw the- retention of the prefix is certainly due to forms
like 7rpOAEyw, which have kept the prefix, whereas in Dor.
7rp(JXOVTl. == 7rpOEXOVTC" A.tt. epPOVOOt;= the hiatus has
succumbed to the ordinary law. Lastly, and above all, it
must never be forgotten that the written language can only
give us very imperfect information as to the contractions of
the spoken language; works were copied over and _over again
by numerous scribes, who introduced into theln the most
astounding anomalies,2 and even in the case of inscriptions we
1 But the tendency of Attic to contraction is so strong that, even in this case,
the hiatus is often suppressed in homogeneous gronps of vo\vels, e.g. in the
proper names in -KA1)S =-KA€'Y]S, and At found on an inscription. The same
thing takes place in very common words, even in the case of groups which
are not homogeneous; here we need only mention 80VKvolo'Y]s and 71ovJL'Y]71la.
2 The text of Herodotus in particular is one of the worst treated in this
respect.
FURTHER COMBINATIONS OF VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 83
are never sure that a hiatus preserved in writing had not dis-
appeared in pronunciation.!
§ 2. Latin.
(73) The laws of Latin contraction are much harder to
Jlnderstand than those of Greek; for in Latin we hardly ever
find the form with hiatus side by side with the contracted
form. vVe must confine our attention to those cases which are
most certain and most interesting.
1. a, a.-The difference of vo\vel between gen. aeris==*iieris
(cf. aenus and Sk. gen. dyasas) and 2nd pI. arnatis == *ama-e-tis
(Gf. Gk. T'ijLuTE==TI'!J"aETE), can only arise from a difference of
quantity in the a; \ve are therefore justified in laying down
the rule: a+e==ae; a+e==a. It is a group a+i which has
given ae in the gen.-dat. sing. terrae; but the quantity of
both vowels is unknown. There is indeed the archaic terra/i,
but there is no proof that terrae is derived from this form.
If the vowel of the verbs in *-ao was really a, we must
restore amarnus==*a11ux-o-rnus, and amo==
*a1na-lJ, and thence lay down the rule that a+o==a and a+o==o;
but it is possible that a vvas not long throughout the whole
conjugation. It is also possible that the group a +0 always
became 0, and that amant were simply modelled on
the vocalism of arnas, as 1nonent, which
can only come from *moneornus and *1noneont, were certainly
modelled on mones, rnonetis.
2. e, e.-ea, ea are not contracted; ea becomes e, dego==
*de-iigo, debeo = *de-hdbeo, cf. also lJraebeo == *prae-hdbeo. ee,
ee, ee, ee become e, e.g. rnonete = cf. € aves
(nom. pl.) == *avees, cf. 7rOAEtS-, demo == de-emo, perf. degi, ==
*de-egi, etc. The groups e + i, e +0 are never contracted except
in synizeses like alveo dissyllabic, which are found in poetry,
and no doubt occurred also in' popular Latin. The group eu
from eo also remains uncontracted, aiireus, though here also
"synizesis is possible under the same conditions, e.g. alve1tS
dissyllabic. But when the u is primitive, e+ tt gives eu,
neute1", and e + u gives u, nullus == *ne-iillus.
1 Of. the French spellings pann, taon, seau, etc., and Eng. yeoman, etc.
84 AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
3. i, i.-i is generally contracted only when another i fol-
lows: nil == rni == Valeri (gen.) == Valerii ; 1 doubtless
also when e follows, for audis (thou hearest) may go back to
or but fili can only go back to *fil'ie (cf.
however uncontracted in etc.); certainly never ,vhen
e follows: paries (wall), capies (thou wilt take), etc.
2
In
proper names like Clodis==Clodius, common in old inscriptions,
we have doubtless merely a graphic abbreviation, certainly not
a contraction.
4. 0; o,-oa, oe, 00 become 0, e.g. cogo,
copia. oe becomes oe in coepi =*co-epi (cf. ap-isco-r).
5. u, seems to be contracted only with another u, in
gen. sing. (?)=*manuos (in inscr. senatuos);
still (gen. pI.) and 1ninuunt (third pI.) make this
restoration somewhat doubtful. Hence it is difficult to believe
than nom. pI. 1nanus is contracted from
Contraction, as a general rule, does not take place when the
second vowel is accented; hence the difference between aeris
== *deris and == *aesnus, cf. also cotictus, coegi. The con-
traction in coepi must have first originated in *coepisti, being
afterwards transferred by analogy to *coepi; and so also in
many other cases. On the other hand, analogy has often, as in
Greek, produced uncontracted forms: coalesco been formed
on the analogy of codlui, on that of and
prohibes (we should have expected probes, cf. dcbes) sho,vs
the influence of perhibes and prodiico.
SECTION It.
ELISION.
1I .....
(74) When there is no contraction (crasis) of the final vowel
of one word and the initial vowel of the next word, it very
often happens that the first vowel entirely disappears before
the second, as in the numerous elisions indicated by Greek
1 Contraction is the rule in the genitives of proper names; in those of
common nouns and adjectives, pallii, patrii, the analogy of the other cases
and the need of clearness either kept or the group ii. '.
2 Hence the subjunctive s(,s cannot come from the archaic sies.
:FURTHER COMBINATIONS OF VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 85
orthography, €7T' V7T' €J.Lou, &ep' and those that take place
between the two terms of a "compound" verb, €7TUl'w, €
aep"iKoJ.L'YJV. The detailed investigation of hiatus and elisioI).
belongs to the study of Greek prosody; it will be sufficient here
to state that in the current pronunciation elision certainly
took place in many cases where it was not indicated in writing.
l
Much more is this the case in Latin, which never iI;l.dicates
elision in writing, but in practice observes it so strictly, that
the hiatus of a short or long vo\vel in Latin versification is
quite an exceptional phenomenon.
2
The present pFonunciation
of Italian may give some idea of this melodious blending of a
final vowel with a following initial voweL
SECTION III.
SHORTENING AND LENGTHENING OF VO'VELS.
(75) The quantity of vowels is very constant in Greek and
Latin, especiaHy if we take into account the artificial
of the classification of all syllables into t,vo and no
more. For it is clear (supra 20,4) that the degrees of Jength
and shortness Inust really be very numerous, and that hence
a long vowel which is equivalent, for example, to a short
vowel and a half might in versification, at the option" of the
wri ter, be treated either as long or short. The delicate appli-
cations of this fundamental principle belong to the sphere
of prosody.
§ 1. Greek.
(76) 1. A.-Before a group of consonants, the first of whioh
is y, w, a nasal, or a liquid, and the secend an explosive e1" s,
every long vowel becomes short. This law is absolute and
Panhellenie. We have seen3 that the ace. pI. K€epaAas is equi-
valent to *K€epaAavs, otherwise it ,vouId be * € in 10nie-
1 Cf. this verse of Sappho (Sapphic and Adonic): '!rUKlIa olll€lIT€s '!rTfP' dr'
wpallw afO€pos Ola f-Lf(j(jW.
2 Iliatus is likewise forbidden in certain Greek metres, the
iambv-trochaic. On the other hand, hiatus is common in old Latin vers;i-
fication
3 SU1Jra 37 infine.
86
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
Attic; but *K€epaAavr; in its turn must be a shortened fornl of
*1<.€epaA5.vr;, since the nOln. sing. is K€epa'A5.-a result of the
mentioned lavv. So also we have date pI. = *i1r1rWlS, cf.
date sing. t1r1r<f! and Sk. instr. pI. d9vais; f3ovr; == *f3wvr;, cf. Lat.·
bos and Sk. go/us; 'Ypaep€v<i=*ypaepYJvc;, cf. gen. and
the dialectical doublet aor. pass. (I was con-
.quered), Hom. Brd pI. oap.€v ==- *OUP.€VT = *oap.-Yj-vr.
B.-The shortening of a vowel before a vowel takes place
.sporadically in all Greek dialects, but especially in Ionic-Attic"
in the ease of 'YJ and w: Hom. gen. II1JAEoc;=
Ion. gen. € Dar. € from
Ion. J,I€€C; € *vaF€r;; Att. gen. pI. xwpwv
=Ion. € xwpawv, etc.
C.-In Ionic, but more especially in Attic, the groups Yja,
TJ€, 1J0 become respectively €a, €YJ (contracted to Yj), €W (often
monosyllabic in the termination of the genitive). This is th6
phenomenon called metathesis of quantity: acc. sing. {3a(TLAEO-,
acc. pl. € Att. (Arist'oph:)
i7Z"7I'1J<i (knights) = *br1r€1Jr; = i € but simple shortening in th6
doublet i7r1r€t<i = Ion. € € Dor. A5.0<i (people), Old Ion.
(Hipponax), New Ion. A€w'il, Att. A€W'il, and so also Att. €
We see that the point of divergence betvveen
simple shortening and metathesis of quantity is not clearly
marked.
2. In Greek, the lengthening of a short vowel j's always
either qompensatory, of which we have seen many instances, ot>
purely prosodic, when it depends on the rules of prosody.
§ 2. Latin.
(77) 1. A.-The dat. pI. equis shows that in *equois the
saIne shortening took place as in t1r1rotr;, for an original form.
*equois would have given *equos, cf. sing. equJj::;=
B.-In the classical period, every long vowel before a vowel
became short; the few quantities like diei (cf. fidei =
1 (until) is treated as a trochee in Homer (II. xv. 539, Ode iv.90...
vii.. 280, etc.); hence we must read *'10s= Sk. ya-vat (same sense).•
which was afterwards by metathesis changed to gws. fl
2 The e is still long in Plautus; e.g. in the bacchiac verse 1neai fidei
t1.taiqn6 rei (A'ulul. 121)..
FURTHER CO:MBINATIONS OF VOWELS A.ND CONSONANTS. 87
nom. fides), illius (also by the side of (arch.
fiere), etc., are but scanty relics showing the former existence
of long vowels in hiatus, a fact attested also by numerous
scansions in the comic writers.
C.-Iambic words, like duo, show a curious peculiarity. It
is physically possible to pronounce sUQcessively an accented
short vowel and an unaccented long vowel; but, especially if
the accent is st.rongly marked, it will be noticed that the long
vowel then tends to scarcely exceed in length the preceding
short vowel. Hence, in versification previous to the Augustan
age, all words of this kind were treated, at the option of the
writer, either as iambics or pyrrhics, and we find the scansion
rogu = roga, puta, doml, vola, rogo,l horno, etc. After-
wards analogy both restricted and extended the license of
Plautus. It restricted it, in that the classical poets; taking
into account the long vowel of spera, cl;nsc, horti, audi,
refused to treat same vowel as short in puta, tace,
abi; while, on the other hand, the short vowel prevailed and
entirely superseded the long vowel in some very common
word.s, ilicrJ, (now) = abl. l1'lodo, ego == *ego, Gk.
I.yw. On the other' hand, it extended it by allowing the
scansion ambo on the model of duo, censeo and on that
of volo, ete.; so that in Latin versification of the decadence
, (Martial), every final 0 of the 1st sing. of verbs or nOll. sing.
of nouns may be treated either as long or short.
D.-Every final syllable ending in r, l, m, or t,2 shortens its
vowel: dator, cf. owrwp; honor, cf. gen. honoris
and regular nom. Gk. al'limdl = animale ; a1120r
(I am loved), cf. arno; subj. a112e,r, cf. an'letur;
Brd sing. al1ult, l1'lOnet, == *al1ulet, etc., cf. 2nd sing. amas,
'inones, audis; acc. sing. terra1n == *terram, cf. G-k. xwpav; gen.
pI. deum==deom=Gk. ()f.wv.
2. Besides the cases of compensatory lengthening already
mentioned, the grammarians inform us that before the groups
1 With no distinction, it will be observe·l, between simple 0 and 0 arising
from contraction (ro[Jo= *rogllo). Cf. Hc1vet-Duvau, .lletriqlte, l26.
Except ill monosyllableg, fur, sol. Cf. the old scansions rogiit, audit
(PlautllS), nOenllllt 't1.tI/iOres ponebiit ante saliltem (Enn.), etc.
88
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMl\fAR.
ns, nj, gn, grn, every vowel was lengthened: so the Latins
pronounced ensis (== *'i)sis, Sk. as'is), ferens, insero, consul,l
infero, anfractus, dignu8, nUlgnus (cf. ag'Jnen, etc.
SECTION IV.
ASPIRATION AND DEASPIRATION.
(78) 1. Greek, In modern Greek the rough breathing is
still but nt:> longer pronounced. Though ancient
Greek had not yet arrived at this stage, it ,vas already tend-
ing towards it, and certain dialects had actually reached it.
We know that in the prehistoric period medial aspiration had
disappeared.
2
Initial aspirati.on, according to the grammarians,
was no longer known to the .tEolians; they were tf!I.AWT£KO{,
substituting everywhere t.he soft for the rough breathing.
New Ionic does not go so far; but several substitutions, such
as oAOli, and combinations like a7r' a7r{KETo, show that
in it the rough breathing was scarcely more than an ornamental
addition confined to wrj tinge
Attic, on the other hand, seems to have had a slight ten-
dency to DaUVVf.tv, and we find in it initial aspirations which
have no etymological justification: €puYJ (dew) == OPOli
(boundary)==Ion. €Wli (dawn) = Gk. etc. More em-
barrassing are the Panhellenic or almost Panhellenic rough
breathings found in EiJlvJLL (vestis), EUTrEpa (vesper), iTrTrOli
(equos), etc., and especially in all words beginning with v,
VUTEpOli == Sk. uttaras, vDWp, cf. Sk. uddn- (water) and Lat. unda.
analogy has been at work: thus certainly owes
its rough breathing to VJLELli. But the very ease with which
words take or lose this symbol seems to show that from an
early period it had no phonetic value, or at any rate very
little.
2. Latin. It had no doubt practically none at all in classical
Latin. Medial h was certainly not pronounced; hence. the
1 In Greek transliterations we read KWVO"TaVTWOS= CDnstanti-rms, K7}VUWP=
censor, etc.
2 It occurs however in Laconian, where it takes the place of a non-original
intervocalic <T; e.g. vfLKaap=vL-K7}<TaS on the stela of Damonon.
FURTHER COMBIN'ATIONS OF VO'VELS AND CONSONANTS. 89
frequent contractions nil, 11li, prensus==prehensus, ne11l0==
*ne-he11la. At the beginning of a word we know that it does
not even prevent elision, and that in some of the Romance
languages it is not pronounced, while in others it is not even
written. Hence numerous doublets like holus (vegetable,
Gk. XAOYj, grass) and olus
1
herus (master) and erus, honas (an
,honourable burden) and onu.,;, etc., and the usual suppression of
\ the h in ilnser=hilnser (goose, cf. Gk. Germ. gans [Eng.
goose]), and arena (sand)==harena==*hases-na, Sabine fasena,
Gk. (inert ana incoherent matter). On the other
hand, the h, b3ing no longer pronounced, was wrongly added
to words like hU11lerus (shoulder) == U11lerus == *o111esos, cf. Gk.
and SkI dnlsas, Umbr. onsus; hala (I breathe)==
*{lZo == *an-slo, root an (to breathe), cf. av... € and an-iura-so
SECTION V.
EPENTHESIS AND
(79) By epenthesis is meant the spentaneous development
of a parasitic sound which is inserted between the elements o£
a group. When initial it is called prothesis, Syncope, on
the other hand, is the loss of a vewel or syllable in rapid
pronunciation.
1. Epenthesis. We have already seen the epenthesis of 8
and f3 in the groups vp and P-P1 and the prothesis of a vowel, which
is almost always found before p, and ig pretty common before
A. A similar prothesis sometilues takes place before a nasal:
e.g. &-p,,€'A:y-w (to milk), cf. Lat. ml.,!Jlg...,eo, and Germ. 11lelke'n
[Eng. milk], € (nephew), cf. V E7FO0€fs (descendants) and
Lat. nepos; before F: Hom. £.EpUYj (dew)=*FEpuYj, £.EpyW (to pre-
vent)=*FEpyw, SkI vdrjarni; also in other cases, e,g. the doublets
fJEAw £.()€AW, impel", tufA (be) =*u·lh. The precise cause of these
phenomena is unkn0wn; most of them must be due to the
existence of syntactical doublets, but in certain cases the
vowel may very possibly be a significant element)
The II, called € or paragogic, which seems to be
1 E.g. in EKaTov =centum, the Erepresents the number" one" (corrupted
from *a-Karo-v= one hundred).
90
GREEK AND LATIN
added to certain terminations in l. and €, AEyoV(n.v, T€LX€frU', ;'()y]I(€V,
is not, properly speaking, a .case of epenthesis. Its origin is
somewhat obscure. The most probable explanation is that this
final v, which is etymological in certain formations-e.g. perhaps
in the loco pI. 7rOfr(J"{]/, i7r7rol.frl.v,-passed by analogy into others,
in which it was afterwards regarded as euphonic. Originally
it was certainly not so; in inscriptions, it is often absent in
hiatus, and is also often found before a consonant; lnoreover, it
is found in positions where, if pronounced, it would have spoilt
the luetre.l
The cases of epenthesis in Latin are unimportant.
2
2. Syncope.· The most noteworthy case of syncope, in both
languages, is that in which two syllables which are identical, or
at least contain the saIne follow one another in the
body of a word; in this case the first syllable generally dis-
appears: Gk. € = € = (jar
th two handles); Lat, nutrix =*nilfri-trix, =
etc. We need not lay stress on a phenomenon
so universal and easy to understand, but from its very nature
sporadic.
There is hardly any other case of syncope in Greek, except
in the final syllable of certain proclitic prepositions; e.g. *KaT
=Kara in Ka7r7rEfr€, Kaf3f3aA€, lij-t 7rOAI.V = avo. 7rOAl.1', 7rap etc.
This process ",Tas carried much further in Latin: ab = U7rO, sub
= V7rO, per = 7rEp{, et.==. nec = neque, and even extended to
three imperative endings, diC, diic, fac.
In the body of Latin ,vords, syncope of unaccented vowels is
frequent, especially in popular pr6nunciatiol1,4 in consequence
of the stress laid on the accented syllable. As examples may
be mentioned validus and valde, calidus and caldus; auceps
=*aviceps, claudo = 5; Sitr'gtJ, porgo =*sub-rego, etc.,
1 E.g. Kovq>ct-yopas p.' o..V€8'Y}K€V ALas -yAavKdnrLOL KOVPTJ, OU a very ancient
Attic inscription (7th or 6th century). Cf. infra 5.
2 Cf. supra 51, 1 B.
3 [Ufo Eng. idolatry = *idolo-latry (€lbwAo-\arpf!la), etc.]
4 The Rornance languages, especially Frencu, have carried this ploocess
to remarkable lengths. [E g. lJonitatern=Fr. bonte, Ita!. bonta, Sp. bOlldad ;
compuUire = Fr. conter, Ital. cantore, Sp. cOT/tar.]
a Literidly "I put under (lock and) key," *du here representing the root
*dhe of rl- 8'Y}- p.,.
FURTHER COMBINATIONS OF VOWELS ·AND CONSONANTS. 91
cf. surrexi, etc.; gen. dextri, 1nagistri == *dexteri, etc., cf.
dextera; and Gk. -TEpO-, Sk. -fara-, comparative suffix; reppert,
reccidi, rettuli == *re-peper-i, etc. ; agellus == *agerlus == *agro-lo-s'
(syncope of 0, and r pron::>unced as er?), cf. ager == Gk. aypor;.
CHAPTER 'TI.
ACCENTUATION.
(80) By accent (accentllS,7rpo(J"<f!a{u) is meant the degree
of stress or of pitch which distinguishes one syllable of a word
more or less emphatically from the rest of the word. Leaving
out of sight the different kinds of particles, which only serve
to connect together the real parts of speech, it may be laid
down as a general principle that every word contains one, and
only one, accented syllable. In words of some length how-
ever, and especially in COlllpounds, a secondary accent may
emphasize an important syllable, e.g. in L ~ t i n pennipotentem
[English conternpldtion]. The reverse is the case in German
accentuation, in which the principal accent al"vays rests on
the first term of the conlpound, sonnenfinsterniss. But phono-
logy properly so called must be provisionally restricted to the
study of the principal accent.
Accent is said to be one of stress (expiratory), when the
accented syllable is spoken emphatically, that is, pronounced
"vith more energy than the others; of pitch (tonic, chromatic,
musical), when it is sung on a higher note, a third or a fifth
at most. These two elements are generally combined in all
languages, but in very unequal proportions; thus, the modern
,European languages have scarcely any accent except the
expir"atory (Swedish however is characterized by very delicate
chromatic distinctions), while the languages of the extreme
East (Chinese, Annamite, Siamese) are remarkably musical.
The Indo-European accent "vas essentially musical; it renlained
so in Sanskrit and Greek, but in Latin from an early period it
tended to become a stress accent.
From the word-accent, of whatever kind it may be,we must
92
ACCENTUATION. 93
carefully distinguish the sentence-accent, which is independen t
of the former. A word usually enclitic or proclitic may some-
times be emphasized by the spe::tker,l or, on the other harid, a
word usually important may be almost lost in speakingJ
J
It
must be obvious to everybody that the close of an interrogative
sentence is spoken in a higher pitch than that of an affirmative
sentence
t
that the same word assumes a perceptibly differ-
ent according as it occurs in the middle or the end
of a sentence. In the latter case, the substitution of the grave
for the acute accent in Greek in oxytone words occurring in
the middle of a sentence is, together wi th the absence of aceent
in, enclitics, the oniy attempt made to represent in writing the
sentence-accent, the study of which moreover belongs rather to
the province of rhythm than of phonetics.
We have no detailed knowledge of Indo-European accentua-
tion, because it was greatly corrupted in the derived languages.
Sanskrit accentuation however, which probably reproduces it
with considerable exactness, enables us to infer that it was
at once freer and more changeable than that of Greek and
Latin: freer, for the accent could rest on any syllable whatever
of a word, even the sixth from the end, as in Ski
(among those "\vho do not worship); more changeable, for in the
same word it might, according to fixed laws, rest now on one
syllable, now on another, Ski ddr9at € he sa,v) and dr9dt,
where the augment, being unaccented, was dropped.
SECTION I.
GRE:reK ACCENT.
(81) One main principle underlies the whole of Greek and
Latin accentuatiun: the accent in any word cannot go further
back than the last syllable but two. In Greek alone a long
final syllable is reckoned as two syllables.
3
1 Contrast the assertion, " He is too stupid to extricate himself," and the
exclamation" That man is really too stupid! "
2 Contrast the two phrases, "I am going now;" and (carelessly) "I am
going for a 'Walk."
3 But a long syllable from metathesis of quantity (supra 76 C) is
reckoned as short, e(J')'€ws, 7rJA.€WS, which shows that the accent was already
94
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
In other respects the Greek dialects sho\v the widest diver-
gencies in their accentuation. The two antjpodes are £olic
and Doric, which are so closely allied phonetically: ,£olic
throvvs the accent as far back as possible in all words, e.g.
(3ua-{AEvr; == (3ua-I,AEVr;, == epv()por;, ()vJLor; = (JvJLOS; Doric,: on the
contrary, faithfully original oxytone acceIi,'t. Be-
tween these two dialects lie Ionic and Attic, which However
are much nearer to Doric than to £olic. But all the dialects,
including Doric, observe the rule that, in those forms of the
verb which are capable of being conjugated,l the accent goes
baek as far as possible. This uniform law, to which the only
exceptions are the two enclitics, Eip.L and ef:),YJJL{, and a few aorist
imperatives, Et7TE, tOE, 'Aaf3/., eA()E, is a legacy from the Indo-
European language, in which the verb in a principal sentence
was enclitic and entirely unaccented; in Sanskrit it is still
accented only in subordinate sentences. Greek, in adapting
the verb to its trisyllabic law, gave it everywhere a uniform
accentuation.
When the tonic accent falls on a long syllable, it may be
ascending, that is, the voice may be raised while lingering on
the syllable, or descending, that is, the syllable may be begun
on a high note and finished on a lower note. Such a distinction
is of course impossible in the case of a short g.yllable. In
Greek, the raised pitch of a short syllable is indicated by the
acute accent, (JvJLOS, 'Aoyos, The ascending accent is indi-
cated in the same way; but the descending accent has a special
sign, the circumflex. Thus in TiJLwJLEV the accentuation of the w
exactly reproduces the descending accent of the uncontracted
group 0,0 of TLJLUOJLE1/, just as in TlflwJLEOa the accentuation of
the Wreproduces the ascending accent of the same group in
TLJLaoJLE()a.
It follows from these definitions that from the point of view
of the trisyllabic law the circumflex on the penultimate is equi-
fixed when the metathesis of quantity took place. On the other hand, in a
final syllable which is only long by position, the length influences the acute
accent, but not the circumflex; hence we shall write (sardonyx)
not but (with uncloven hoof) not *
1 TIle infinitive and participle form no part of the verbal system; as will
be seen later on, they are purely nominal forms.
ACCENTUATION. 95
valent to the acute on the antepenultimate; in other \vords, that
the circumflex can never go farther back than the penultimate.
Consequently, to say of a grammatical form that it throws
back its accent as far as possible implies that it is (1) paroxy-
tone, if the word is of two syllables, forming a pyrrhic, ianlbus,
or spondee; (2) properispomenon, if it forms a dis-
syllable; (3) proparoxytone, in every polysyllable of which the
last syllable is short: e.g. comparatives like (nom. masc.) fLE{'WV,
(nom. neut.) fLE'i'OV, (gen. sing.) (gen. pl.) fLEl.'6vwv, etc.
All the other rules of accentuation, including details as to
the proclitics and enclitics, must be sought for in a gralnmar
specially devoted to the Greek language. Here it is enough to
mention that the number of unaccented words in current pro-
nunciation was much larger than might be supposed from the
accentuation adopted by the grammarians. Thus the article,
which is only given as a proclitic in the masc. and fern.
sing. and pl., 0, oi, ai, was certainly proclitic throughout the
whole of its declension,l and all the prepositions, (TVV,
7rEp{, KaTd., were just as much proclitics as EV and the alter-
nation between 7rEp't TOVTOV 2 and TOVTOV 7TEpl. would be enough to
prove this.
SECTION II.
LATIN ACCENT.
(82) Latin has altered the primitive accentuation much
more than Greek; to the law of three syl13bles it adds first
of all the .LEolic accentuation, which throws the accent as far
back as possible; but furthermore it entirely subordinates the
place of the accent to the quantity of the penultimate. The
result is, that Latin no longer has any oxytones or perispomena,
except those monosyllables which are neither enclitic nor pro-
clitic, nex, mens, sol; all other words are either paroxytone,
t6ga, tego, or perispomena, unus, cerealis, or lastly proparoxy-
tone, ceredlia, censeo, pdtulae.
1 Hence the correct accentuation would be TOV t1r1rOV, TOll tTr7r0fl; but, on
the other hand, (Hom.) TOU 0' gKAV€ epoZ(3os 'A1rOAAWlI.
2 Here the grave accent corresponds to an entire absence of accent.
96
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
This distinction between the circumflex and acute, which
will be found discussed in more detail in grammars specially
devoted to Latin,l is furnished by the grammarians. But, if
. it is not entirely artificial, it must at least have been compli-
cated by them with refinements borrowed from the Greek
theory. In particular, if the long final syllable of vino changes
the circumflex of vinum to an acute accent, we do not see
\vhy the long final syllable of should not throw the
acute accent of d61ninus on the penultimate.
However this may be, the distinction between the circumflex
and acute is not taken into account at all in the very impor-
tant part played by accentuation in the formation of the
Romance languages.
The unaccented words in Latin are essentially the same as
in Greek; namely, enclitics, qtte=r£, quis est=€ur{, etc.;
proclitics, all the prepositions when they precede their object.
Besides these mutilated remains of the proethnic accentua-
tion, La,tin possesses also two types of accentuation peculiar
to itself, both of which have had a certain amount of influence
either on the phonetic system of Latin or on that of the
Romance languages. (1) The first, which is very ancient, is
a purely expiratory accent, which always rested on the initial
syllable of each word; to it must be attributed wholly or
in part such cases of syncope as reppuli == *repepuli, such
weakenings as afficio=*ddfacio, and many other phenomena
which accord ill with the principles of classical accentuation.
3
(2) The second type, which was chiefly developed in popular
Latin and Latin of the decadence, is a secondary accent, which
fell upon a word at intervals of two syllables, starting from.
1 Cf. Havet, Granl,m Lat. p 217.
2 Of course not the interrogative, but SI, quis, ne qllis, etc.
3 Cf. supra 32 A (3, 36 B, etc. To this cause also must be referred the
sporadic rerluplication of the consonant at the end of an initial e.g.
Juppiter = Jupiter = Gk. vOC. Z€f, 7raTEp (the true accentuation would be 1raT€p
enclitic), qnatl'llor=qllatllor, and the doublets cupa (Fr. clive) cuppa (Fr.
coupe) all of which facts point to a short and sharp utterance of the vowel
of this syllable. The phenomenon recurs in Italian, allodola (Fr. alOllette,
lark) =Lat. alfludula, and even in learned words, rettorica=rheturica. The
iuitial accent is common to Latin and all the Italic languages, and baR left
its traces in many geographical names in modern Italy ;- e.g. Te:;aro = Umbr.
Pisaul"wn, not Lat. Pisauru1Jl.
ACCENTUATION. 97
the syllable which had the principal accent, and going back-
)Vards or forwards from it. This is called by writers on the
'Romance languages the principle of binary accentuation;
e.g. sanguinis, i1nperaf6j"e1n (cf. Fr.
e1npereor), intercidi1nus, etc. The Latin rhythmical versifica-
tion of the period of the decadence, from which arose the
Romance versification, depends entirely on this succession of
principal and secondary accents, which may be perceived from
many contrasts in the modern languages, e.g. between Fr.
venir, Sp. venir=Lat. venire, and Fr. viendra, Sp. vend1ra, etc.
=*venirabet, the form taken in the system of binary
tuation by the compound venire-habet.
SECOND PART.

(83) Etymology is the study of the 'formation of
words by of derivation and composition.
If \ve consider, in any language whatever, a group of words
expressing with different shades of meaning the sanle funda-
mental idea, it is almost always easy to discover and isolate
in this group a cornIfion element, usually monosyllabic, which
seems to contain this idea in the vaguest and most abstract
form possible. Thus, in the words TteYjILL (to place), ef.fTIS (plac-
ing), (box), ()Yja-avpot; (treasure), ()wjJ-Ot; (heap), we recognise
at first sight a syllable {)Yj (weakened ()E, deflected ()w),! to
which \ve may without any improbability attribute the pro-
perty of representing the very general idea of " placing, put-
ting, putting aside, heaping up;" etc. This significant element
in a \vord is by general agreement called a root.
It cannot be too cleal"ly realized that a root, as thus
stood and defined by grammarians, is a mere abstraction,
meant to facilitate the understanding of etymological facts.,
not an historic or prehistoric reality, forming the necessary
foundation of the whole structure of language. For, just as.
in examining a group of French words like rrive, rrivage, riviere,' -
arrive]', etc., we can distinguish therein a common element riv,
","ith the general lueaning of "bank," but, without the help of
Latin, the grammarian would be precluded from going further
o
still luore from asserting the actual existence in French of this
word *rriv, which, as a matter of fact, does not exist in it; so
also, from a of the words Sk. chinddmi, Gk. axftw,
1 Of. supra 41.
98
ETYMOLOGY. £9
Lat. scindo, Germ. scheiden, etc., it is perfectly allo\vable to
infer a COlllmon root *skhid, \vlth the primitive meaning of
"cutting, dividing," but it is not allowable to conclude that in
the Indo-European language there was ever a word *skhid,
having a separate existence apart from the various formative
elements with which we always find it associated.
The reason is very siInple. It would be a grave mistake
to suppose that the formation of words is based upon a logical
process of combination, due to reflection, or that it is based,
as it were, upon the mathematical addition of two factors, the
root supplying the general meaning, and the suffix limiting
and particularizing this lueaning,l as is represented to be the
case in theoretical analyses. This may possibly have been the
case in a certain number of very primitive formations, which
however constitute a stratum so ancient and so deeply buried
beneath the subsequent accretions of language, that it seems
almost impossible to reach it. But, as soon as they were
produced, these first words served as models for the creation
of others by means of analogy; and, as the speaker does not
analyse the language which he speaks, we must naturally
expect that, in this scarcely conscious process of analogy,
he will be satisfied with a Inerely external and superficia1
resemblance. Hence the numerous etymological deviations,
the cause and influence of which \vill be best illustrated by
a familiar example.
We have in French a suffix -ier, the regular representative
of Latin -iariurn, which has been added, among other
words, to various words ending in an etymological t: lait
lait-ier, sabot sabot-ier, clou clout-ier, etc. But as the t has
long ceased to be pronounced in lait, sabot, and has even
ceased to be written in clou, the speaker does not no,v iso-
late in thought, in the derivative words, the element -1:er,
which he no longer perceives in theIn, but the element -tierr,
which he fancies he perceives in them, and he transfers this
element entire to other derivatives; hence from the words
bijou, cafe, fer-blanc he forms the secondary words bijou-
1 E.g. *skhid (idea of sp1itting) and *to cf. G"Ic TO), whence
-K·skhid-to-, literally" split-it," Gk. (jxuJ"-ro-s, "that which (is) split."
100 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
tier,l cafe-tier, jerblan-tier, in which the t is to the etymo-
logist a mere lllonstrosity, but to the psychologist the sign of
an intellectual operation of remarkable delicacy. It is now
clear that, without the check afforded by Latin, and without
the historical evidence of the French forms, we should be
forced to admit in French the real and primitive existence of
this -:tier, the origin of which would escape us.
Now such a check and such evidence are absolutely wanting
to us in the case of the primitive Indo-European language;
and corruptions of this kind, of which hundreds of examples
might be found in French derivatives,2 and of which Greek
and Latin will afford us many instances, must necessarily have
played havoc vvith the Indo-European language also, from the
mere fact that this language passed through hUlnan mouths
and was thought about by human brains.
3
The fact is, that linguistic analogy,4 which is a special
form of the principle of association of ideas to
is not merely an indispensable element, at once creative and dis-
turbing, in the formation of the words of a language; it may
be said to be the very essence of human speech. If we just
1 When the analogy is quite strict, as is generally the case, there is no better
way of representing it vividly to the eye than by a formula of proportion,
e g. bUoutier: bijon = clo'lttil'r: clou(t).
2 Cf. A. Darmesteter, RIots Nouvea;ux, passim. ,.
3 [The English language offers many examples of the influence of analogy
Thus the ending -aUon properly belongs only to words derived from Latin:
verbs of the first conjugation, like contf-mplat'ion, nu-diation; but the ending
-ati/ln in such words being wrongly isolated. and regarded as a fit
for abstract words irrespective of their origin, the English language has been'
enriched by the acquisition of such hybrid words as staTvation and fliTtation. _
The word star'vation is said to have been first used in the House of Commons
by Mr. Dundas in 1775, and to have earned bim the nicknanle of " Starvation
J)undas." The correct writers of the early part of this century recoiled from
it with horror; but it now seems to have passed into general use.l
4 [Besides V. Henry's valuable Et'ltde sur -l'Analogie (Paris, 1883), which
deals chiefly with Greek, the English student may consult on the subject
of analogy in general Sayee's Comparative Philology, chap. ix. (Macmillan,
1874), Paul's Principles of Language (Swan Sonnenschein, 1888), and B. I.
Wheeler's very useful study of Analogy (Cornell Universit.v, United States,
1887), which contains many English illustrations and a list of authorities.
The special application of the principles of analogy to Greek and Latin has
heen discussed by the translator in a paper on "The Laws of Analogy in
Greek and Latin," published in the Transactions of the Oxford Philological
Society for 1887-8 (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1888,-ls.).J
ETYMOLOGY.
101
think of the ease wi th which a child learns its o,vn language,
of the prodigious effort of menlory implied in the storing of the
hundred thousand words of a language in an ordinary brain,
of a million of words or luore in that of a polyglot, we shall
be convinced that this is only possible because the words so
learned arrange themselves in our mind in families and groups,
by a continual and almost unconscious process of cla8sifi<Jation,
a process not etymological of course, but purely empirical and
based on merely external features of resemblance. Without
this phenomenon, the understanding of a language would be in:.
conceivable. Pronounce for the first time the wOrd swiftest
before a child who has not heard the word before; he vvill
understand, provided that he know8 the positive Why?
Because the connexion of quick quickest, kind kindest, big
biggest, etc., immediately spoke to his mind far more elo..;
guently than the best of dictionaries. But do not be surprised,
after that, if he should happen to say also *littlest or
dest. Suppose Demosthenes was the first to use the verb
epLAL7f7rt;€tV in the celebrated phrase "epLAL7f7fttEf. llvB{u";
it was none the less understood, even on its first utterance,
by the most jlliterate of his contemporaries, just as in our o\vn
day the unknown French journalist was understood who first
created the vvard "Opportunist." Owing to this power of
analogy, it is no exaggeration to say that each individual de-
rives his language from himself, at least as much as he learns
it from others; hence it is not surprising, if language, thus
created anew by every thinking being, necessarily undergoes
from generation to generation many accretions ","hich; while
enriching it, are incessantly changing its form.
(84) With these reservations as to the use and precise mean-
ing of the term" root," we shall apply the name root to that
element which gives the essentia] meaning of a word or group
of words, while we shall apply the name suffixes or affixes 1
1 In the Indo-European languages the only kind of derivation known is
derivation by rneans of suffixes. Derivation by means of prefixes is never
anything more tban apparent; fdr example, in certain compounds of which
the first term has ceased to be used as a separate word, e.g. apl-/,pwTO S
(well-known), in which occurs a word *ap *apt. (good, cf. l1.p-t.(j TO-S), or ill
simple verbal comoinations, 7rpo-&:yw, per-lego, infra 178.
102
GUEEK AND LATIN GRA:MMAR.
to those elelnent.s whose addition determines the precise shade
of meaning to be attached to the vague and general meaning
cc>ntained in the root. A suffix then is everything which,
iJ1. a given word, occurs between the root and the termina-
tions of declension or conjugation, e.g. -crt- in ()/'-crt-t;, -}J-o- in
-cravpo- in ()1J-(J"avpo-f), -fJ-o.-a- in T"i-fJ-o.-a-JL€JI, etc. The de-
clinable or conjugable eombination thus formed, e.g. (J/.<Jt-,
OWfJ-0-, TI.JLo.O-, is called the stem (theme, radical [or baseD. A.
stem is called primary, if only one suffix is attached to the
root, secondary, if there are two, that is, if it is de-
rived from the primary steIn just as the latter is derived froln
the root, e.g. T"i-fJ-o.-O- derived from just as T"i-O- is from the
root r"i-, 1st sing. pres. indo TI.JLo.W, T{W; tertiary, if there are
three, T"i-p.,a-o-p.,evo-, and so on. But, as the same processes are
reproduced indefinitely in all the stages of derivation, it is
sufflcient, for the purpose of studying derivation as a whole, to
distinguish between primary derivation, cOlnprising forma-
tions derived directly from the root, and secondary deri-
vation, including all ot4ers. These, together with nominal
will form the three branches of our study of
etyplolog;y.
CHAPTER I.
PRIMARY DERIVATION.
(85) A stem is called. nominal, e.g. Aoy-o-, or verbal, e.g.
:\.Ey-O-, according as it is capable of attaching to itself the
terminations of declension or of conjugation respectively.
These t\VO grammatical categories are in principle quite dis-
tinct/ but they cannot fail to react on one another, thus
mutually enriching each other. Thus from f:K-KUAE-W, to call
forth (EK-KE-KAYj-K-U, € etc.), the language
formed €K-KA:ri-a-{-a, assembly; from this noun, the verb EK-KA1/
uL-a'w, to hold an assembly, and from this verb in its turn the
substantive € orator, and the adjective EK-KAYj-a-L-
ao--TLKo-;, and theoretically the process nlight be continued up
to infinity. But, as in every language there are more nouns
derived frolu verbs than verbs derived froln nouns, it seems'
most natural, in approaching the study of the two systems
of derivation, to consider the verbal stems first.
Furthernlore, in each systelu of derivation, the fOI'lnations
may be distinguished, according as they go back to the Indo-
European period; or are peculiar either to Greek or I.-Jatin, and
seem to have been subsequently developed in either language"
No doubt in the latter case they are not, properly speaking,
primary; for even when they seelU to have arisen from the
simple combination of a root and a suffix, yet, having arisen at
a tilue \vhen root and suffix had long ceased to exist as separate
categories, they can only. be due to a secondary and often a
very complicated operation of analogy. But, on the one hand,
as we have just seen, there is scarcely any Indo-European form
1 That is to say, X is no more derivecl from Xf)'W than A€I'W from Xo-yos;
but both come, by a separate and independent process of derivation, from
a root */Pg, which appears in its normal form in the one case, and in its
(leflected form in the other.
104 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
to which a precisely sinlilar origin may not conceivably be
assigned; and, on the other hand, when au I-Iellenic form is
wanting in Latin, vice versa, we are not thereby justified in
thinking that it was wanting in the common language and that
the language which possesses it has fornled it independently;
£01" it is also possible that the other language has lost it.
Hence there is no reason why we should not put on the sarna
level all formations, whether common or not, which are or seein
to be primary.
SECTION I.
VERBAL STEMS.
§ Forr;nations.
(86) The \vhole of this system is characterized by one fun-
damental distinction. We know that a very large number of
verbal forlnations, e.g. in Greek the present of verbs in -w,
all subjunctives, all futures, and -in Latin all presents, etc.,
before the conjugation-ending a vowel 0 or e, alternating
according to fixed and invariable rules.I In consequence of its
extreme frequency, the name of thematic vowel has been.
given specially to this vowel ole, and hence the name of
thematic formations is applied to those in which it is
present, non-thematic to those in "\vhich it is absent, e.g. in
Greek the sigmatic aorist, the aorists passive, the present of
verbs in -p,L, and in Latin the subjunctives, imperfect8, etc. In
spite of the fundamental defect of this terminology (for i.-Av-()YJ-
or lege-ba- is evidently a theIne or stem just -as much as AV-o-
or leg-e-) , we must needs adopt it; for we shall see later on,
in studying the conjugation systen1, how neeessary it is to dis-
tinguish everywhere the forms which contain the thematic clo
from those which do not contain it.
Moreover, even at this point, the distinction is
Latjn, though it kept in its conjugation a good many n011:-.
thematic steIns; retained scarcely any in the present; in other:
words, it no longer retained any verbs in -p,t. The thematic
vowel was extended in Latin by a process of analogy from
which even Greek was not entirely free, until it invaded all
1 See irzf?4a 269.
PRIMARY ATION. 105
the present steIns \vhich Greek still kept in their primitive
simple forln; so that the regular correspondence between the
two languages would seem to be broken from the very begin-
ning, if we trusted merely to appearances.
(87) I. S'imple rroot-sterns (in Greek, present stems, or more
commonly aorist stenls, when the stem of the present is formed
by means of reduplication, rlnfpa II).-The simple root with
no affix immediately precedes the termination, and appears
ei ther in the normal or \veakened forln, according to a regular
alternation (solnetimes, how"ever, interfered \vith by analogy),
which will be considered among the phenomena of conjugation.!
Presents: cPYJ-fJ-{ epa-fJ-Ev (root epa, Dol'. epa-pi); €T-fJ-{ i-fJ-€v; d-fJ-{,
Lesb. (=*Ea--fJ-{) Ea--fJ-Ev. Aorists: (-BE-fJ-€V, (-OWV
(-CTTYJ-V (Dar. €-a-Ta-v) etc.
Latin has in this class: es, es-t, es-tis, etc., from the verb es-se,
root es; es-t (he eats) = *ed-t, root ed; vol-t (he wishes), etc. ;
1;-S, i-t, the present of the verb i-re, except 1st sing. and Brd
pI., which are thematic; that of the verb da-rre, except do;
perhaps that of the verb sfti-re, except sto (sta-s = except
in respect of the auglnent); and by a curious peculiarity some
forms of a verb \vhich in Greek, on the contrary, is entirely
thematic, .ferr-s, fer-tls, fe1·-te, cf. epEPE(, epEp-E-TE.
But the HOlneric form epEp-T€ (II. ix. 171) is no doubt a relic of
the old non-thematic conjugati6n of the root epEp.
II. preceded by -red1l]Jlication 1vith the vOlvel i (in
Greek present and imperfect stems, in I...Iatin lost).-The root
alternates: T{-BE':'fJ- EV, Dar. (=*a-{-crTa-fJ-L)
i-crTU-fJ-EV, i-YJ-fJ-L (=*CT{-CTYJ':'fJ-L, cf. Lat4 iInpf.
€-T{-()Yj-V € etc.; with so called Attic reduplication
(infra 240), OV{VYJfJ-L (to benefit), aor. wvafJ-YJv. In Latin si-st-o
(=Gk. and oi-b.:.o (==Sk. pi.:.ba.-lni) have passed into the
thematic conj ugation.
III. Root-stclns preceded by reduplication the v01vel e
(perfect stems, improperly called in Greek second
1 The same vowel.grailation takes place in every syllable, whether a root-
syllable or suffix-syllable, which inlmediately precedes the conjugation-
ending, and does not contain the thematic e/o. Of. 269.
2 The ordinary grammars have been very unfortunate in their nomen-
clature; the second perfects are much more simple and primitive
106
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
The root alternates bet"\veen the three grades: 1 Gk. Fo:S-a
F{o-fLEV, y€-yov-a y€-ya-fLEv, A€-AoL7T-a A€-A€LfL-fLaL, (Hom.)
and € 7r€-epEvy-a, A€-A'fJB-a, etc.; Lat. vid-i, to-tond-z,
spo-pond-i, pe-pend-i, pe-pig-i, liqu-i, fug-i, tul-i == te-tul-i, cf.
rettulit, fec-i ==*fe-fec-i (cf. EB'fJKa, Tf.BELKa), showing the normal
grade of the root as contrasted with the reduced grade of jac-io
(supra 41,3).
In Greek, roots ending in a non-aspirated guttural or labial
often show in the perfect the corresponding aspirate: 7rA€K-W
7rE-7rAEX-a, Af.y-w Af.-AEX-a, {3AU7T-TW f3E-f3Aaep-a, 7p{f3-ill TE-TpLep-a,
etc. This phenomenon is by no means invariable: we have
just seen 7rEepEvya and Af.AOl;7Ta. Moreover, it is sOlnewhat late;
the aspirated perfect is unknown to Homer; Herodotus and
Thucydides have on1y one instance, 7TE7rofJ-epa; the tragedians
another, TETpoepa; its wide extension dates from Aristophanes
and Plato. Hence it must be regarded as an analogical cor-
ruption, a:ided perhaps by the tendency of popular Attic to
aspiration; e.g. regularly had 1st sing. perf. yE-ypaep-a,
and no less regu1arly 1st. pI, perf. YE-ypafJ--fJ-EV; on the other
hand, Tp{f3-W also had 1st pI. perf. TE-TpLfL-fLEV, and the likeness
hetween yEypap"fJ-EV and TETpLj1-fLEV brought about the likeness
between yeypaepa and TETpLepa (c£. supra 62
(88) IV. Sterns 1cith suffix -na- (tveakened -na-): Greek
presents.-The root is generally weakened: ouP.-V'fJ-flAJ (to sub-
due) == oUfJ--1/a.-P.L, 1st pI. (jKto-v'fJ-fLL, ov-va-j1-at,
fJ-up-l/a-fJ-at; normal grade in (to sell), cf. the deflected
grade in 7rOp-Jl'fJ (pros titute). There is a transition to the the-
matic conjugation in OUfLJI'fJfJ-L'
V. Stp.1ns tvith s·uJfix (1veakened -nu-): Greek pre-
8ents.-For the regular gradation -VEV- -vv-, which Sanskrit
shows in this class, sanonti (I conquer), 1st pI. sanu1'nds,
Greek substjtuted through analogy a gradation -vv- -vv- modelled
on the alternation -va.- -1/0.- of the preceding class, e.g. OE{K-VV-P.L
OE{K-VV-fJ-EV, like oap.-lI a-fL'- oUfL-Vo.-P.EV. Another corruption is
than those called first perfects; the same is the case with the second aorists
passive as contrasted with the first aorists, etc.
1 The whole subject of reduplication and vowel-gradation is further dis-
cussed in c::>nnexion with conjugation, infra 237 seq., 292 seq.
PRIMA.RY DERIVA.TION.
107
equa:ly noticeable. As in the preceding class, the root ought
to be '\veakened, since the Sanskrit accent falls sOluetimes on
the suffix, sometimes on the termination, never on the radical
syllable. But Greek shows only a very few forms with
weakened root, (I (I
p.ar., cf. TE{VW and Taros; and most verbs of this class,
€ O€{K-JlV-flt, etc., show the normal
grade. The vocalism of the sigmatic futures and aorists, in
whjch this grade is regular, € must have
influenced the vocalism of the present.
There is a transition to the thematic conj ngation in Greek
Ta-l/ v-w (I stretch), and perhaps also in the form fU-lIv-w rni-nu-a
(1 lessen), which is common to Greek and Latin.
(89) VI. Stems 1vith suffix -e-j-o- unaccented in the pri1ni-
tive language: Greek and Latjn presents.-This class is large
and well-known: Gk. Af:y-W € € e:pfp-W,
== AafJ-w, A€[7r-w, e:p€vy-w; Lat. fer-a, die-a, ftd-a, due-a.
As is indicated by the theory and shown by the examples, the
root, '\vhich was accented in the priluitive language, always
assumes the normal form; we have already had occasion to
contrast A({7r-w and (-Al:7r-o-v, e:p€vy-w and ;-¢vy-o-v, and
In the very rare cases in which the root seems
to be weakened in the present, Gk. apX"'w, flaX-O-flar., ypaep-w,
Lat. iil-o, scab-a, Grffico-Latin ay""w dg-a, d:'1X-W ang-a, etc., pro-
bably a second aorist stem has been substituted for a regular
present stem like *ypEep-W, etc. It is not even
necessary to suppose that this substitution is due to analogy; 1
for, just as the imperfect is the present tense augriiented, it is
very possible that the so..,called aerist the augmented
tense of another present, almost lost. In ether words, the
known series € ..v ep€vy-w requires a corresponding theo-
retical series € but the second term of the latter
spread very little and ended by falling into disuse, whereas the
other series remained
1 E.g. in accol·dance with the formula 'Ypd¢w: =.e-g'rbh-o-m, aorist
taken for an imperfect) epepw: € 0
'Ve must even go further. Given a root *bher, it could no doubt be
conjugated, at the option of the speaker, with no affix *bher-mi (cf. Lat.
103 GRSEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
Much more rarely the root seem:s to be deflected, e.g. rpwy-w
(to gnaw), aor. E-rpay-o-v. Here it is the vocalism of the per-
fect which contamimated that of the present, as may easily
be proved in the case of the typical form y€-ywv-w (to cry),
which is modelled on the perfect ye-ywv-a, and shows, not only
its vocalisnl, but even its reduplication.
VII. with suffix -e-j-o- unaccented:
Greek subjunctives.-l\tIorphologically this class does not differ
from the preceding one: € used as a subjunctive, is
evidently framed in the same way as Aey-o-fL€V, which is used
as indicative; but as the root a-ra was capable of being conju-
gated without an affix, its conjugation with an affix "vas utilized
to serve as a subjunctive. In other ,vords, Af:y-o-fL€V would be a
subjunctive if there existed an indicative To this class
belong all subjunctives with a short vowel, present Z-O-fL€V (let us
go), aorist € ow,:,o-fL€V, perfect €ZS-O-fL€v'}, (cf. oIo-a);
these forms were still fairly common in the language of Homer,
but were superseded in ordinary Greek by subjunctives with a
long vowel. In Latin this type is unknown; from the mere
fact that Latin no longer had any non..theluatic indicatives, all
its thematic verbal forms were Llsed as indicatives. Latin, how-
ever, still kept ero=*es.:.o==Gk. *Ea--W (EW, 6)), a subjunctive used
as future.
(go) -VIII. Sterns with sudfix accented in the
tive language: non.:.thematic aorists (called in Greek second
aorists).-The root is weakened, as is shown by the primitive
which Greek faithfully preserved in the forlns
incapable of conjugation, inf. epvy-eLv, part. epvy-wv, cf. ep€vy-HV
and epevy-wv. It is sufficient to enumerate Aaf3:'€LV, AaO-€LlI,
7rT-e-a-()aL (cf. the present 7rET-e'{]"()UL), (cf. (X-W == *(TEX-W),
AL7r-€LV, 7T'a()-€LV ( == *7T',(}e:'€LV, cf. perf. etc. Sometimes the
fer-s), with no affix but with reduplication *bhi-bl,er-mi (cf. Sk. bi-bhar-mi, I
carry), with aftlx -na- *bhr;-na-mi, with affix -new- with affix
-e- ( 0-) *bher-v (¢Ep-W, Sk. bhar-a-mi), or with affix -e- (-0-) *bh')'-o, and so
on. Of this original variety, which corresponded.perhaps to different shades
of present meaning (momentflry, durative, iterative, etc.), we should find in
each language only a few isolated examples, rnelJlbra verbi.
1 There is a trace of it in the {AE'YfJ-'fJV (Od. ix. 335).
eLO-W might also be the subjunctive of a present *et5.p.L.
PRIMARY DERIVATION. 109
character of the root is uncertain, e.g. JLOA-f.tV (to go), BaV-EtV
(to die), f3aA-EtV no doubt on the analogy of (3aAAw.
1
More rarely
still the normal grade crept in, e.g. T€K-EtV (to bring forth)
where however the form without € would be unpronounceable,
Yf.J'-€-a-BaL (cf. T€/L-EtV (to cut, cf pres. TE/L-VW). Latin
shows only a few traces of this form, which is so COlUIDon in
Greek, namely, in old Latin, the aorists te;tg-a, tag-i-t (con-
trasted with the nasalized present tang-a), pag-o-nt or pac-o-nt
(they have made an agreement,2 cf. the presents pang-a and
pac-isco-r), and even in classical Latin the participle par-e-nt-es
(those ,vho have brought forth), contrasted with the present
participle par-ie-nt-es (those who bring forth).
IX. Stems with suffix -e-J-6- preceded by reduplication with
the vowel e : in Greek reduplicated second aorists.-This class,
except for the additional reduplication, is absolutely identical
with the preceding one, though luuch rarer: €-AE-AaB-o-v (I hid
myself); Hom. A€-Aa(3-e-a-{)at (Od. iv. 388), € € (11. xxiii. 37);
class. aorist of ay-w with so called .Attic reduplication;
class. €!7rOV = Hom. EEt7rOV =:. *E-F€-F7r-o-v with augment, reduplica-
tion, and weakened form of the root F€7r (to speak, cf.
like E-7r€-epV-o-v with weakening of the root ghen (to kill, c£.
()€{vw and 3); similarlylIuper. €1:1r-E==F€t7T-E (say)=*F€-F7r-E..t
Latin 110 longer has anything similar; if inquit is a syncope
for *in-vequ-it (he says, root vequ = F€7r, cf. vac-s and Gk.
voice) 5 we see that the root has not there been accompanied
by any reduplication.
X. Stems 1vith suffix -e-j-o- (proethnic accent unknown) pre-
ceded by reduplication with the vowel i: Greek and Latin
presents.-The root is weakened. Greek: y{-yv-O-/LaL, cf. yEv-oc;;
1 vVe sbould expect *{3"X-€t."" cf. the normal grade in {3ll\-os and the deflected
gra<le in but the so-called roots with metathesh:, like {3a)\.-Aw {3ATJ-r. s,
8avo€tv 8v1}-(JKW show gradations still partially unexplained, which are no
doubt connected with the presence of long sonant nasals and liqaids, cf.
supra 49 and 52 injine.
2 Leg. xii. Tab. "rem ubei pacont oratod " (when the parties have come to
an agreement respecting the suit, let the judge ratify their agreement).
3 Spe supra 57, 4.
4 The diphthong €L in €L7rOV cannot be explained by *g7rW preceded by the..,
t, for then it would not remain in all moods of the aorist.
5 In any caee, the 1st pers. inqnam can only be a subjunctive.
110
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
7r{-7rr-w (to fall), same root as 7r€r-o-p..aL (to fly); i'w (to seat) ==
*cr{-uo-w, root sed in and sed-ere; icrxw== icrxw 1 == *U{-UX-w
root cr€X, cf. exw==*exw (saIne meaning); Hom. imper. €VLU7r€ (say)
==*(ev-) a-L-U7r-€, root *seq (to say), cf. O. Lat. imper. in-sec-e; 2
TCJ<rw, probably with metathesis for *r{-rK-w (to bring forth,
cf. aor. T€K-€tV), etc.3 Latin: gi-gn-a == *yl-yv-w; sida== *st-sd-a,
identical with Z,w.
(91 ) XI. Sterns tf)ith suffix -yo-: Greek and Latin pre-
sents.-The prilnitive accentuation is not clearly known; it is
probable that the suffix -yo- might sometimes take the accent,
sometimes leave it on the root. However that may be, the
root mostly appears in the weakened form, though forms with
normal root, like T€AAw (to rise), a-T€AAw (to send), are not
very rare; sometimes we even find both forms as dialectical
doublets: thus Dor. ¢fJa{pw (to spoil) == corresponds to
JEol. ¢fJ€PPW and Ion. ¢fJ€{pw== *¢fJ€P-Yw. We know moreover
what a cOlnplicated series of phonetic phenomena 4 is produced
in Greek by the combination of the initial letter of the suffix
with the final letter of the root; it will suffice to recall as
examples: {3a{vw, ven-ia ; a-7rE{pW (to sow, cf. a-7rop-a), and or-io-r.,
; aAAofLaL (I leap) and salia; a-T£'W (to prick == *a-r{y-yw),
7rpacra-w, Att. 7rpaTrW == *7rpG.K-yW, and jug-ia, jac-ia; a-X{Cw (to
split)==*crX{o-yw, cf. scind-a, and A{cra-0fLat (to entreat.)==A{r-yo-
fLaL, cf. ALT-a{ (prayers); lastly, TV7r-rW and cap-ia. In certain
cases, in consequence of the loss of intervocalic y, we should
be in danger, if not on our guard, q£ confusing this class with
class VI; thus ¢vw (Lesb.' ¢v{w) contains the suffix -yo-, not
merely the suffix -0-, as is sho,vn at once by the weak grade of
the radical syllable. So Avw, KAvw, etc. .
(92) XlI. Stems with suffix -sko-, root generally weak-
ened: Greek and Latin presents.-This primary suffix is
pretty common: Gk. {3a-a-Kw (to walk), {3AW-UKW (to go),
1 On the loss of aspiration, cf. supra 61.
Virum rnihi Camena versnlum, beginning of the Odyssey of
Livius Andronicus ("Avopa fJ-OL € € Mouo-a 7rOAUrp07rOv).
3 The vowel of reduplication is often long, Hom. 7rL7rT€ (he fell), 7r«j>auo-Kwv
(II. x. 502), and the initial vowel of LTJfJ-L (supra 87 II) almost cOllstautly
€ € etc, II. xviii. 471).
4 Of. supra 39 C.
PRlMARY DERIVATION.
111
(to die), 7racrxw (to suffer) == *7r?Je-CTKW, yt-yvw-CTKW (to know), 7rt.-7T{-
UKW (to give to drink), 7rt-rrpa-crKw (to buy) ; 1 E(]"K€ (he was, II. iii.
180) == *Ecr-CTKE, cf. Old Lat. escit (Leg. XII Tab.) == *es-sci-t (he
is); Lat. gli-seo, r;re-seo, no-seo ( == *gno-seo), disco ( == *d'ic-sco),
posco (=*porc-seo, cf. prec-o-r). Sometimes, vvhen the root
ends in a consonant, it appears under the form -isko-: Gk.
€Vp-{(]"KW (to find), &p-ap-{(]"Kw (to fit) ; 2 Lat. pac-iseo-r (to make
an agreement), ap-isco-r (to obtain), cf. pac-tu-m and ap-tu-s.
But in ap€-CTKW (to please) the € seems to form an integral part
of the root, cf. € (merit, virtue).
XIII. Ste1ns with StifJix -to-: Greek and Latin presents.
-This suffix is very rare in Greek; hardly any certain example
can be cited except 7r€K-rW (t.o comb), cf. 7rOK-O-S (fleece); Lat.
flee-:to (to bend), cf. 7rA€K-W (to plait), nee-to, plee-to, etc. If it
seelns frequent in Greek after a labial (TV7rTW, K07rTW, JLa.p7rTW,
p{7rTW, etc.), the reason is that the group 7ry phonetically
becomes 7rT ; hence all these cases belong to class XI.
XIV. Ster;ns sl.lJfix -dho- (?), Gk. -()o-, Lat. -do-: Greek
and Latin presents.-This suffix, which very rarely appears as
a primary suffix, forms in Greek: UX€-()w (to have), root O"€X ;
(to spin), c£. V€-w; (to be full), root 7rAYj, cf. 7rLJL-
7rAYJ-JLt and ple-nu-s; ECT-()W (to eat) == *EO-(}W, cf. EO-W; ax-()o-JLut.
(to be grieved), cf. aX-Vv-JLUL (same meaning), etc.; in Lat.
ten-do,?' cf. T€{VW == *T€V-yw, *fen-do (I strike) in ojfcndo, dejendo,
cf. Gk. ()€{vw == *eev-yw, fren-do, c£. etc. It is not known
whether pello, tollo, etc., belong to this class or the following
one; for from a phonetic point of view pello may go back
equally well to *pel... do or *peZ-no; the Greek correlatives have
the suffix -yo- (7raAAw, T€AAW).
(93) XV. Sterns tvith suffix -no-: Greek and Latin pre-
sents. Although we eannot assjgn to this suffix an Indo-
1 It will be seen that this suffix, like the preceding, is not incompatible
with reduplication, e.g. TLTaillW (stretch) = *-TL-T11:-YW, TL-TpW-(J'KW (to wound),
oLoao-Kw, etc. .
2 It was no doubt the analogy of this suffiX. -to-Kc.iJ which introduced the L
subscript in OViJo-KW and other Attic spellings, supported by the best manu·
seripts. . .
3 Tendo has also been exp1airted its *te::tn::(j (reduplication and weakened
reot).
112
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
European origin, it is extremely common in Greek and Latin,
in which it seems mainly to be the result of an
transition of classes IV and V to the thematic conjugation:
Gk.7rL-VW, £01. 7rW-VW (to drink), cf. Lat. po-tu-s, aaK-vw (to bite),
TEfJ--VW (to cut), Lesb. Ion.
Old Lat. da-nu-nt (they give),l ne-qui-nu-nt (they cannot),
red-i-nu-nt (they return), etc., class. li-no (to smear), si-no
(to permit), cf. supra li-tu-m, si-tu-1n. With this formation are
connected a certain number of others, much more complicated,
and apparently modified by various analogical influences.
1. In Greek we sometilues find a suffix -f€O-, which, like -vo-,
occurs only in the present: iK-V€O-fLat (I come), cf. aor. LK-O-fL'YJv ;
KV-V€W (to kiss), cf. aor. (-KV-o--a.
2. 80111e verbs in -vw seem to arise from -vFw, that is, from
the suffix -vv- added to the thematic conjugation, with regular
substitution of w for u before a vowel: e.g. aivw (to shake),
KALVW (to incline), KpLVW (to distinguish, cf. Lat. cer-no), corre-
sponding to Eolic o[vvw, KA[VVW, Kp[VVW, etc.; also ep()a-vlLl (to
anticipate), TL-VW (to expiate), epB"i-vw (to destroy), where the
radical t, always long in the time of Homer, is shortened in
later versification.
3. vV·hen the root ends in a consonant, the meeting of this
consonant with the nasal of the suffix seems to have usually
developed a sound which was represented as an epenthetic
vowel: 2 the suffix then took the form -0..1
/
0-, e.g. ufJ-apT-avw (to
err, aor. Moreover, in the oldest and commonest
type, the nasal of the suffix was somehow reflected in the root,
by a phonetic process not yet satisfactorily explained, though
easily conceivable: thus a root Aa() (to be hidden) would give
*AalJ-vw, whence *Aav()-vw and *Aav()-r!vw, and lastly Aav()-avw.
3
So also with Aayx-avw (root A€yX, cf. perf. A€-AoYX-a ), AafLf3-avw,
AtfL7r-avw (to leave), 7rvv()-av0fJ-at (to learn), and without nasaliza-
tion A'Yj()-avw, K€Ve-al/w (to hide), (to increase), aap()-avw
1 In the very old Latin inscription known as Dedicatio Sorana: "Donu
danullt Hercolei maxsume 111Iereto."
2 This phenomeon is exactly parallel to that of the Dutch knif (knife),
which has become in French canij= "*" knnif.
a Of. fut. = "*""AaO-(jo-p.aL. 0
PRIMARY DERIVATION. 113
(to ·sleep), aLO"B-avo-p.at (to perceive); this mode of formation
was much extended by analogy.
4. In IJatin the same class of forms followed a very different
phonetic road. E.g. the root pac (to make firm, cf. Gk.
and Lat. pac-s, treaty), by the addition of the suffix -no- to
the weakened form, will give successively *pac-no, *pag-no
and *pa11g-no, after which, the group ngn becoming reduced to
11g,1 there remains the known forIn pango. In the same way
\ve may explain tango, stringa, pando, larnbO, as conlpared
vvith tac-tu-s, stric-tu-s, pat-eo, lab-i'u-m (lip), namely, through
*pat-no (cf. Gk. 7T{T-VYj-P.t), *lab-no, etc.; and it will be noticed
that in certain verbs (jung-o junxi cf. jug;"u';'1n,
(di- )stingu-o -stinc-tu-s, etc., cf. Gk. O"T{tW:!::= *o-T{y=-yW), the
nasalization is not confined to the present, but is extended by
analogy to the whole conjugation.
(94) This last 0 bservation leads us to another 6f a more
general character. All the different present,:slgns; reduplica-
tions, and affixes mentioned above, of which the suffix .;.no- is
the last, do not by their nature belong to the verb itself, but,
as a general rule, affect only the present of the verb: and so
they disappear regularly in the other tenses, cf. oW-O"w,
OE{K-o-W, o-X{'w== *o-X{o-yw and o-X{o-w
== *o-XC8-a-w, Aup.[3-avw l-Aaf3-o-v, etc., etc., and in Latin no-sea
no-vi, eer-no cre-v'i, cap-io cep-i, tang-a te-tig-'i, etc.
2
But it
was likewise inevitable that the form of the ·present should
occasionally influence that of the other tenses, and that so an
affix belonging exclusively to the present should in course of
time spread to part or even the" whole of the rest of the con-
jugation. Hence, by the side of the regular owdw we find the
Homeric OtDwa-w,3 and even more naturally the reduplicated
1 It is not possib]e however to reduce this change to a certain and inva-
riable law, cf. supra 62 S-.
2 Hence, strictly speaking, it is incorrect to say that for example,
is the future of OdKVUP.L. The present, future, and perfect form distinct
systems, perfectly independent of one another. The truth is, that € is
the future of the root O€LK (to show), of which OdKVV}J-L is the present,
OEO€LXa the perfect, etc, etc.
3 D.£OWf5oP.€V (Od. xiii. 358), and so also ivl1f;€L (he will say, Ode 148)
of. supra X.
I
114 GREEK AND LATIN GRAM1IAR.
o{'1Jp.at. (=*8{-Syq-p.at., cf. 'Yj-TE-W, to seek), in which the redu-
plication is scarcely any longer apparent, has for future
TV7TTW has TVo/W
J
but in Attic ; and the suffix
::V€D-7, w4ich, as we seen, is lost in the aorist of KVV€W,
remains in KtVEW (to move), fut. and all the other forms;
Jastly, Kp{VW, etc., have in the future KpLVW, K)UVW, etc.,
just like }Jiv-:w jJ-€v-:[;) (infra 97), in which the v belongs to the
root. In this confusion is less common; we have,
4oweyer, already seen junx-i, and pang-a, which has a regular
perfect pep£gi, also an analogical perfect panxi; on the
other 4and, ven-do 4a8 in the infinitive ven-i-re ?),
if it a forma.tion, whereas a comparison with
t4e Greek shows th'at it contains exactly the same affix
c,ap-:io, of w4ich the infinitive is cap-e-re.
(95) XVI. Stems with suffix -ye- (-ie-), weakened -i.. : Greek
gradation is very regular: 8o-{Yj-v DO-'t-jJ-EV,
Tl.-:()E-:{Yj-V € € Lat. s-ie-m s-ie-s s-ie-t (old subjunctive of
s?11Y?), pI. etc., cf. Sk. sydm. We see by these examples
the root is ,veakened before this affix: the Greek optative
€ of the regular *u-{Yj-v is explained by the
of those forms of the verb in which €U remained un-
c4anged, indic. *Eu-pi €lp.{) and subj. *lu-w (lw).
Il.l the form siem is still frequent in the cOlnic poets,
but in the classical language the analogy of sZinus sitis
created sis sit, which finally prevailed. The other three
kept by Latin, ed-i-m (I may eat), du-i-m (I may
give) vel-i-111, likewise show only the weakened form of
the suffix.
(96) XVII. Stems with suffix -8- : in Greek the sigmatic
aorist, called first aorist, 1st sing. €AEL1.f;a ( == *E.-AEL7T'-U-n:!),
€(J"TpEtjJa, EUTYj(J"a, ET€L(Ta,l from T{W, etc._; in Latin, a large num-
ber of perfects, vixi (==*veig-s-ei, 2 cf. vivo = *veigv-o), flexi,
SCripS"i, auxi, fulS"i, finxi, etc.-O_riginally the root appeared
in the normal grade,
3
but it was further subject to a regular
1 This is the true f0rffi of the aorist often written 'tn-o-a..
2 VE [XSEI is found on one of the epitaphs of the Scipios.
S Notice tb.e very curious correspondence irp€1J;a. : £rp':1.1rov, € : gXL1rOV,
€ (a late form): tepuyov, etc.
PRIMARY DERIVATION.
gradation, which Greek and Latin entirely lost. Indeed, every-
thing tends to show that the roots A€I:lr (to leave), UX€LO (to cut),
for example, were conjugated in the sigmatie aorist, 1st sing.
€ € 1st pI. *;'-AL7r.;.a--fJ-€V, *€-crXLS-cr-fJ-€V; but
analogy introduced uniformity into this mode of conjugation,
and, under the inJluence of different circumstances, sometimes
the normal form (€A€l,t{;a €A€{tf;a,'-L€v) , sometimes the weakened
form (€(J"XLcrQ €(J"X{a-Qp.-€v), prevailed in all persons and all
moods. In certain cases, we do not even find either of these
forms, but a form with a long vowel, €AvcrQ, which seems to
be a compromise between the two regular forms *l-AEV-cr- and
*E-Av-cr-. The flexion is even more uniform in Latin, in which
lit has been corrupted much more than in Greek, since it is not
distinguished from the flexion of the perfect in regard to the
person-endings.
l
With these reservations, it may be said that
the forms of the sigmatic aorist in the t\VO languages show
a decided agreernent.
(97) XVIII. Stems with suffix -so-: Greek future, E(J"-crO-fJ-at
elass. Ecr0fJ-aL, AE{tf;W(1st pI. AE[rr-cro-fLEV), OE{tW, crTpl.lf;w, TE{crW,
AV(J"W, epEvtw, etc.; in Latin, a few sigmatic aorist subjunctives
found only in old Latin, faxa, capso (later jecerra, cepero),
rapsit, occisit z (=*oc-cid-si-t).-The root is in the same
grade as in the aorist, and indeed, strictly speaking, this for-
mation ought to come under the head of secondary derivation,
inasmuch as it is entirely based on preceding class, \vith the
addition of the secondary suffix ;-0-, the sign of the subjunc-
tive (supra VII). ]n fact, it is plain that, just as E-(rrYj- has
subjunctive so ought to have subjunctive
Av-cr-O-jLEV, and Greek itself gives us a proof of this in the
numerous aorist subjunctives with a short vowel preserved in
HOlneric versification, € Tl,(J"€TE, As there is no
reason to separate these subjunctives from the Greek futares
whose form is identical with them, and from the few Latin
subjunctives showing the same formation, it seems more
natural to see in the Greek a.ffix -cro- a sign of the aorist sub-
1 In other words vixi is conjugated jnst like jugi, though from the point
of view of lTIorphology it is entirely different from it.
2 Leg. XII Tab., "Si.im occisit" =" si eUJn occiderit."
iis
GREEK AND LATIN GRAM1\fAR.
junctive than to identify it with the Sanskrit affix of the
future -sya-, the ·correspondence of which moreover would
involve a somewhat serious phonetic difficulty)
In one case, however, the formation of the future diverges
from that of the sigmatic aorist. When the root ends in a nasal
or liquid, the aoristic -(]"- is added as usual to the sinlple root,
fJv€l/-W *t.-p-€r-(]"-a € K€AAW l-K€A-cr-a. On the other hand,
the affix of the future is in this case added to a dissyllabic form,
e.g. p-EV-W, fut. *P.EVf.-(]"W, whence Ion. p-EVf.W, A.tt. JL€VW, and so
also VEfJ-W V€fJ-EW VEP.W, cr'TEAAW crT€AEW UT€AW, epB€{pw ¢B€PEW epB€pw,
etc. There is still a doubt as to the nature of this E, which
seems to be inserted between the root and suffix, and which
recurs in nominal formations like VEfJ-€-uu:;, € € The most
probable explanation is, that it forms an integral part of the
root, one of the forms of which would thus be dissyllabic;
and the same must' be of the root of the verbs YUfJ-E....W,
KuAI.-w, which evidently cannot be put on the same level with
"the secondary form <fnA-E-w, since their vowel remains short
in the future but *yafJ-l.-crw YUfJ-EW YUJLw, *KaAE-crw KaAEW
KaAW.
In Ionic.:A.ttic this future ending -EW -W extended outside
its proper sphere, to the secondary verbs in -£'w; e.g. the
future 6f KOjlltW (to earry) is KOfJ-{crW == *K0p-{O-crw, but also KOfJ-LEW
KOflA,W, and f3aOL€L (he will walk), OV€LOL€L (he will re-
proach), Hom. KT€PLW (IL xviii. 334), etc.
The suffix -€O-, wrongly used and wrongly added to the
sigmatic sign; must also be recognised in the so called Doric
fut.ure, e.g. which is equivalent to *npuK-a--EfT-W,3 and
consequently contains the affix of the future tw'"ice over. The
spelling fT7r€VcrlW, which is also met with, seems to show
a tendency to a semi.,:vocalic pronunciation of the €; 4 and, lastlyt
the contracted form € attested by the manuscripts and
1 Of this explanation does not e1fclude the possibility of the
existence in a very ancient stage of Greek of a futur:e *'Au(J'yw which might
at length have with the aorist subjunctive AV(J'W.
2 Of. supra 47
·3 It seems impossib]e, .however, to overlook the great resemblance between
7rpiK-(J'-f(J'- t.J and the Lat. fut. perf. vixeriJ = *v1Jg-s;;eso.
4 Uf. supra 20, 3.
PRIMARY DERIVATION.
117
grammarians, is no longer distinguished save by its aceentua-
tion from the regular future
XIX. St(?1nS tvlth sujJix -80- identical with the preceding:
Greek aorists.-These aorists, which are very rare, may oe
regarded as the future tense augmented, or better still, as the
result of a combination of affixes, since they combine the U
of the sigmatie aorist with the olE of the thematic aorist. We
may cite (Hom.) DVCTETO 0' € (the sun set, !oot DV), (3!;-CTE"7TO
(he walked), (I came), and lastly (7rECTOV (I fell) evidently
modelled on the 1st aor. (7rEa-a = *€-1rEa--CT-a = *e-pet-s-n:!.
(98) XX. Sterns with suffix -e- : in the Greek so called
second aorists passive.-The root is generally weakened:
l-DaJL-rJ (he "vas conquered), l-f3paX-rJ (it was moistened, cf.
f3p€X- w) , l-TV1r-rJ, f.-1rdy-YJ, l-ppay-y], f.-,vY-rJ, f.-q)(tV-y] , f.-A{7r-y] (a
doubtful form, cf. II. xvi. 507). In Latin the contrast 9f
jac-e-re with jac-io, pat-e-re (to' be spread) with pand-o
(to spread), lic-et (= f.-A{-;r-y]?) 1 with linqu-i-t, etc., seems' to
show the. existence of these old forms with the suffix -e- and
passive sense, -\vhich in conjugation would be confused with
the verbs of secondary derivation in -eo.
§ 2. G'reek
(gg) I. tvith s11:!fix -.'(-: three or four aorists, (-()fj-K-a,
(froIn Z-YJ-fJ-L).-One is lost in conjectures as to
the origin of this isolated form. If, however, we take into
account that in Latin the root OY] certainly appears with an
equally obscure guttural addition in ja-c-io, and if, on the other
hand, we notice that the same is the case with the root Ow
in Sanskrit (dtlf-a-ti, he gives), and perhaps dialectically in
Greek,2 we are led to the conclusion that this K might very
well be part of the root; in this case (-()rJK-a, (-DWK-a would be
to the roots OYJK, DWK what e-CTTa-v is to the root UTa, perfectly
regular unthematic aorists. The other instances would arise
from an analogy ,vhich extended only very slightly.
1 A correspondence made d;)ubtful by the difference between the two
gutturals.
An optative present OWIWL1J, corresponding to a verb *OJJK-w, is believed
to occur on a Cyprian inscription.
118 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
II. Stems with suffix -K- preceded by with the
vowel e : Greek perfects, called first perfects, AE-Av-K-a, DE-Dv-K-a,
(3E-[3YJ-K-a, 7r€-7rTW-K-a, la-Ty/Ka = *a-E-a-Tii-K-a, etc.-It would hardly
have been necessary to mention the preceding class, but for
the fact that it 'must be closely connected with the Greek per-
fects in -K-, which are much commoner than the radical perfects.
On the hypothesis above mentioned, we see that TE-()ELK-a 1 (cf.
Lat. fee-i) and DE-DwK-a would be regular perfects like AE-AOL7r-a,
and that from them the K, being regarded as an affix, would
spread to other verbs also.
2
But the remarkable extension of
this addition K, as contrasted with the slenderness of its origi-
ual basis, has given rise to legitimate doubts as to this view;
hence other explanations have been thought of, and in parti-
cular a particle Ka KEV KE, identical "\vith the enclitic KE which
gives the verb a conditional meaning in the Homeric langaage,
and it has been supposed that this enclitic, being frequently
used after the regular perfect (Brd sing. *DEDW KE) ended by
coalescing with it. This conjecture also is open to very serious
objections. The question cannot yet be regarded as settled.
3
Furthermore, it will be noticed that the guttural never
appears except in the active; the perfect middle is always,
according to the usual terminology, a second perfect, that is,
in it the verbal terminations are added directly to the root,
e.g. AE-Av-p.at. and TE-()YJ-j-taL formed like AE-AELj-t-p.aL, in spite of the
difference of formation in AE-Av-K-a and AE-AOL7r-a.
(100) III. Ste1ns with suffix -a-o- preceded b.y reduplication
with vowel e: future perfect.--The typical form AE-Av-a-o-j-tat is
&vidently modelled on Ai-Av-fLat and the relation of Avoj-tat to
Ava-op.at. We know that it" scarcely appears except in the
passive voice. Attic however has some future perfects active,
in which even the hysterogene guttural of "the perfect active is
present, e.g. modelled on TE-()v'q-K-a, la-Ty/Ka.
1 The vocaliRID of the root here is somewhat puzzling. Moreover,
Ti-8'Y}K-a = fec-i is likewise fonnd in Attic inscriptions.
2 rrhns ECfT'Y/KOJ : to"T'Y}P-L =olOWKa : OLOWp-L.
CThe history of the Greek pel'fect in -Ka has been well given by Curtins
in his Greek Verb, pp. 408 fl. (Murray, 1880), though his explanation of its
origin is now generally regarded as insufficient. The origin of this perfect
lIas been briefly discussed by the translator in the Transactions of the
Oxford I lzilological .... ociety fur 1887-8, p. 23 (Clarendon Press, 1888, 1s.).J
PRIMARY DERIVATION. il!J
(101) IV. Stems with suffix -€-ff-: the augmented perfect
tense called the pluperfect; the oldest and siinplest type IS
iJoEa (I knew), €AEAo{1rEa (I had left), etc.-If the latter form goes
back to *f.-AE-Ao{7T-Ea--a = we are tempted to com.;
pare it with the Latin pluperfect fugeram==*foug-es-am; but,
in the first place, this genealogy is not historically proved, and,
in the second place, the Latin vocalism does not agree with the
Greek, the Latin a being incompatible with the' Greek termina-
tion. It is true that the same divergence is noticeable between
the two imperfects, Gk. .( and Lat. er-am,
which can scarcely be On the whole, the question
must be left undecided, for the Latin mode of formation may
be a new development. '
(102) V. Ste111S tvith suffix -BYJ-: first aorists passive;
f.-TE-BYJ l-06-e'Y], l-Av-B'Y]-v l-AE{¢-8'Y]-v.-This aorist, which is inuch
commoner than the aorist in-YJ-, seems nevertheless to belong
to a comparatively late date, though it had already spread
considerably in the time of Homer. There is no form certainly
corresponding to it in Latin, and its origin is obscure. It is
possible that the aorist in -YJ- of a verb with the suffix -Ow, e.g.
€ from (to spin), may have been referred by mis-
take to the simple verb, e.g. l/€-W, and that then the relation of
PEW to € gave rise to a similar relation between AVW and
€AV()Yj. But this explanation is only hypothetical.!
VI. Stems with suffix -Yja-o-: second futures passive.-By
adding the future suffix -(J"O- to the stem of the aorist in -YJ..:.;
Greek formed a future passive, which stands to
e-<j>a-v1J-v in 'the same relation as the middle stands to
E-O'fJ-V •
VII. Ste111s with suffix -OYj(J"o-: first futures passive.-Th(j
1 A later and in many respects more probable hypotbesis (Wackernagel;
K. Z. xxx. p. 302) starts from the Sanskrit termination of the 2nd sing.
mid. -thas, which it restores to the Indo-European language under the fornl
*-tiles = Gk. -Orr;. In this system, i-Xv-{}1Js, for €!Cainple, would be merely
the 2nd pers. sing. middle of an aorist stein *€-Xv- (supra 87 I), on the
analogy of which \vould afterwards be based the other forms iXv(}rj,
imitated from those of the aorist in -TJ-. The author has recently showr!
(Bull. Soc. Ijing. vii. p. 29) that i-l'vw-<r-81]s = Sk. ti,-jna-s=.thas is probably
2nd pel's. mid. of a sigmatic aorist, and that thence we ,may explain the
sigmatic insertion in "tvw-(J-r6-s, etc. Cf. supra 64 note.

GREEK AND LATIN .GRAMMAR.
same analogical process, taking place in regard to the aorist
in -(}-Yj-, produced the future € a form
which has become far more common than the preceding forln,
put is still -q.nkp.own to Homer. .
Apart formations, which on account of their
@xtreme rarity may be lfeglected,l these seven types of tenses
t4e op.ly :priIIlary verbal stems exclusively' confined to
O"reek:
§ 3. Latin F01"1nations.
(104) I. Stems with suffix ,=,a-: subjunctives of the Brd
(secondarily also 2nd and 4th) conjugation.-This form, seen in
old Latin fu-a-m, subjunctive of the obsolete *fu-o (to be),
leg-a-m, ag-a-m, (I Inay go), is quite isolated.
It has been maintained that this -a- was the original sign of
t,he subjunctive, that consequently Greek ought to have had
€ instead of Alywj1-ev, and that the latter form is due to
later i)1.trusion of the vocalism of the indicative Alyoj1-€1
/
• But,
nothing hithertt> has discovered t.o confirm this conjec-
ture, it better to regard as exclusively Latin this still
unexplaip.ed ct,2 which also as we have seen, in the
jmperfect and the plllperfect and will recur
jn the next suffix.
II. with sujfix -:ba-: imperfects da-ba-rn,
this suffix is merely the form fuam, that is, a
tense of the verb" to be " agglutinated to the root and forming
with it a periphrastic conjugation, it should really come under
the head of secondary derivation, where it is very common.
rhe applies to the next suffix, namely:
(105) lrI! with suffix -bo-: futures i-bo, da-bo, sta-bo,
rightly or wrongly to the present *fuo=¢vw.
1 E.g. the suffix -KO- in OA£-KW (to perish), prrhaps based on the perfect
and the suffix -XO-, which is shown by the existence of doublets
like rpvw rpuxw (to wear away by rubbing), (J'fLrJ.w (J'fLTJXW, y;dw y;f}xw, and is
less easy to explain.
:: M.L. Job (J.Ue11l. Soc. Ling. vi. p. 347) seems to me to have said the
last word in regard to this difficult question: the subjunctive in -a- origi-
nated in the verbs in -a-mi which in Latin became thelnatic (e.g. *si-sta-rni
became sisto, supra &7) II), and thence it spread to the other conjugations.
PRIMARY DERIVATION. 121
IV. Ste1ns tvith sujJi,x -v- and -u-: Latin perfects.-All the
Latin perfects which are not primitive (87) and are not to be
referred to the signlatic aorist (96), are forlned by means of
this suffix -/1;- or -1p·, the origin of which is obscure: no-v-i,
fle-v-i, si-v-i; sec-u-i, col-U-i, gen-u-i, etc. I t has been sup-
posed that these suffixes represent a syncopated form of fUi
added to the verbal root. This hypothesis was supported
chiefly by the perfect potui, which, on account of possurn=
might perhaps seem as if it ought to go back to
*pot-fu-i; but everywhere else, and even in this case itself, this
view involves serious phonetic difficulties. It is perhaps more
likely that the v or tt started from certain perfect forms in
which it belonged to the root itself, e.g. (cf. the pres.
and thence spreg,d throughout the rest of the conjuga-
tional system,! especially in verbs of secondary derivation.
(106) V. tvith suffix -se- (-re- after a v01vel):
imperfect subjunct.ives es-se-1n (es-se-s), arch. faxem (?), i-re-1n,
sta-re-1n.-These formations have nothing correspond-
ing to them in Greek except in the futures and aorists sub-
junctive with a short vowel which have already
been connected with the I--Iatin forins represented by faxo.
Now a form *esso, for example (=Gk. €a--a-o-p.,ur-, later Ea-Op.,UL),
must have been conjugated *esso *esses *esset, whence, if the
vo\vel renlained short, *css'is, (cf. Lat. faxit), or
j
if it was
lengthened owing to some corruption, esses. It remains to find
the influence which lengthened the terlnination. This may be
the influence of the termination of the old Latin subjunctives
afterwards used as futures, in which the termination was long
because it arose from a contraction (infra 143); in other
words, *faxes would become *faxes through the analogy of
facies (thou wilt do). In this some\vhat complicated ,vay the
Latin subjunctive may be connected with a proethnic category,
into which however both Greek and Latin introduced consider-
able modifications.
) Thus novi : n(;tus =mDvi: 11lutus.-In forms like nexui (rare) from nec·tv,
there is an analogical combination of the two signs -8- and -U-.
122 GREEK AKD LATIN GRAMMAR.
SECTION II.
NOMINAL
§ 1. Comlnon Formations.
(r07) Here as in the verbal stems a large nunlber of for-
mations are characterized by a vowel ole, alternating according
to regular laws. Assuming this point to be thoroughly under-
stood, we shall henceforth represent this vowel simply by the
Ie tter o. Moreover, as this vowel 0, with the addition in the
nominative singular of termination -$ or respectively,
was the usual characteristic 6f luasculine and neuter nouns,
and as on the other hand the nouns ending in a were mostly
feminine, the custom arose in prehistoric times of introducing
the same variations into the termination of nouns in apposition
(adjectives),l in order t.o make them agree in gender ,vith the
nouns they qualify: Gk. ¢LA-ii, ¢{A-O-Jl, Lat. bon-u-s,
bon-a, Hence it is sufficient to mention once for all
that every suffix given under the thematic form 0 may a.ppear
either exclusively under this form (masculine or neuter nouns,
or exclusively under the form a (feminine
nouns', lu-na), or, lastly, may alternate between these
forms in those nouns, called adjectives, which admit of a
change of gender.
(r08) I. Root-sten'ls.-This type is rather rare: Gk. of
-(voice) == *Fo7r-;, root F€7r (to speak), cf. € and Lat. vox;
c£. epAey-w (to burn); € lv (one)==
€ € cf. Lat. etc.; Lat. voc-s == at/!, plus a lengthen-
ing in the nominative which spread to the oblique cases, and
so also jn lex == *Zeg-s, cf. leg-er-e, rex == *reg-s, cf. reg-er-e; also
lux==*louc-s, cf. the normal root in € (white),
1 The arljpctive is really nothing else, ana this may be seen especially in
adaptations of a comparatively late date, like Lat. age,. uber (fprtile field),
literally "a field (wl.lich is a) breast." Hpllce we should expect in the
plural all'ti ubera; but ube?·, naturally agreeing in number and case with the
word it qualified, by analogy came to agree with it in gender also, and hence
became an adjective, a.qrif, ubeyes. Cf. Fr. un cheval pie [a piebald horse,
literally "a horse (with differeut colours like) a magpie"], Eng. lilac
'libbuns.
PRIMARY DERIVATION. 123
*'pac-s, cf. 7rrry-l/1;-JL" and pac-isco-r, etc. The root-stem'does not
appear very often except as the second term of a compound:
Gk. uv-tvy-s (yoke-fellow), € (\vashing, cf. v£7r-rw), €7r[-
TEK-S (about to bring forttI), (beautiful),
(squinting, cf. (3A€7r-w); Lat. con-jug-s, == *'prae-sed-s,
haru-spec-s (cf. *' spec-io, to IQok), judex == *ju-d'ic-s,
1
os-cen (a
bird whose song is an omen, cf. can-a), etc. It will be seen by
these examples that the root may here appear in any of the
three grades.
(lOg) II. Sterns with suffix ... o-.-These' suffixes generally
have the deflected or reduced root, and in this case appear to
represent original oxytones, e.g. Gk. (remaining),
(pasturage), (bearing) (squinting, cf.
CTrpEep-w), 'vy-o-v (yoke); but the accent is often thrown
back, e.g. Gk. (law); epop-o-s (tribute), (sailing),
-(FT£X-O-S (ro\v, ct UTE£X:"W) , (wolf). Latin has, in the
first case, ruf-u-s (red, cf. € and old abl. pond-o,2 in
the second, lup-u-s, aV":O-B. In composition, Gk. OVCT-epOp-O-s,
(root epEp), i7r7rO-DaJL-O-:s, etc., Lat. p1'O-fUg-u-s, causi-
d'ic-u-s, mirri-jic..:u..:s; etc. But there is also another rather large
class of words in which the root :is normal and accented: Gk.
€py-o-v (work), 7r€o-O-V (ground) ; Lat. jtd-tt-·s (faithful),1nerg-u-s
(water-bird, cf. rnerg..:o), (l1.1ci-)fer, etc.; and even an oxytone
form with normal root, (white).
(110) III. Sfents with suffix -a-.-:....;;Three classes: (1)
oxytones with reduced root
i
Gk. (flight), (dipping),
Lat. jug-a, the accent is thro\vn back in O£K-Yj, p.ax-y/,
AV7r-y/, etc.; (2) oxytones with deflected root, a type extremely
comInon in Greek; (stream, cf. plF-w), U7rOlJO-i} (zeal, cf.
(J'7rEVO-W) , epop-=a, but hardly represented at
all in Latin, tog-a (garment, cf. feg-'o); (3) paroxytones with
normal root, Gk. UT€y-YJ (dwelling), ep(J'-YJ (dew== *F€pCT-a, Sk.
va1·s-a.;;s, rain), AEUK-YJ (white poplar), Lat. herb.;.a (Gk.
fodder ?), ped..:a (foot-'print); 3 in Latin compounds, indi-gen-a,
1 Judex n..o doubt on the analogy. of llanu;pex, etc., on account of the
similarity of the genitives }ud'icis and hnrllspicis.
2 I ego XII Tab., "XV pondo "=15 by weight, 15 pounns.
s Peda ve... tighl1n hUlIIallum in the of Paulus 211.
124
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
agri-col-a, parri-cid-a. Greek alone possesses an oxytone type
with deflected root and reduplication, (point),
(smell), (food), which seems not to have been developed
elsewhere.
(III) IV. Stems Ivith suffix -i- (alternating with -ey- in
declension).l-Paroxytones, very few; (city, root 71"E:A,
to fill), (eye) preserved only in the hom.-acc. dual Oo-CTE:
=--*OK-y-E, OIS Lat. (bird), whence
oiof!at. (I augur) and Lat., Lat. pisc-i-s, root
unknown; nent. rnare=*mar-%.
V. Sterns 1vith S1tJfiX -u- (alternating, with -ew- in de-
clension).-To this class belong the very numerous Greek
adjectives in -v:", which are all oxytone,
(cf. sweetness), etc., and all have the l:'educed
root, except WK-V-';, and They recnr in Latin as
the basis of secondary stems formed by the addition of a ne\v
suffix -i-, e.g. gra-v-i-s = *(3ap-v-L-S; but of sten1S in -u- properly
so called, Latin has very few, e.g. (needle), id-u-s (nights
when there is a full moon).2 The suffix renlains unchanged in
the paroxytone VEK-V-i (corpse) and a few other words'.
. (112) VI. Ste1ns with suffixes -io-, -yo-, and -i-.-The first
two forms, which are somewhat rare as primary suffixes,
of course coalesce in Latin, gen-iu-s, jlllV-iu-s,
(chosen, exquisite), but remain distinct in Greek, (holy,
root yag, to worship, cf. Sk. yaj-nd-s, sacrifice), (hate-'
ful), and on the other hand = *(1A-yo-s, Lat. In
the prehistoric period the feminine form of these suffixes
seems to have become by contraction -i-, at least if we may
judge froIn Sanskrit. Now, according to the same evidence,
in the oblique cases the -i- of the stem was resolved into iy
before terlninations beginning with a vo"vel, e.g. dhi-s (thought),
acc. dhiy-am. Hence we may assume a stem like *nek-i,
(destruction), *spek-i (appearance), etc., which, under certain
conditions, not yet clearly deternlined, became in the acc.
a form represented in Latin by on
1 This gradation, which is common to all suffixes ending in i and'll, will
be examined in detail- infra 214.
See supra 41, 2. 3. Cf. SUp1"a 39 C.
PRIMARY 125
the model of this accusative Latin formed a whole analogical
declension, and in particular a nominative in -i-es, species,
pernicies. Under the same conditions in Greek, the accusa-
tive of a word. *tvoq-i (voice) would be represented by *For-y-aJl,
whence oa-cro.v, on the model of which was formed a new
nominative oa-a-o.. Such is the probable origin, in Greek, of
the suffix yo., in other words, of the numerous words of the
1st declension which have the.ir nominative in a, e.g. fto?pa =
*p.op-y-a (cf. € part, lot), yAw(J"a-a = *y'AwX-y'5., p{ta, <T<jl aLpa,
etc., and, in Latin, of the stems, almost all secondary,l of the so
called 5th declenslon.
"VII. Ste111s 'Loith suffix -wo-.-We may cite in Greek:
(alone) = with root i (one) in the deflected form, cf.
Zend ae1:a- (one) and Lat., with another suffix, unus = oi-no-s ;
7foA-A0- (many) = *7roA-F6-, cf. 7rol\-v ; (left) = *I\at--Fo- Lat.
lae-vo-s; Ion. Lat. sol-lu-s and
sal-vo-s; 2 = Lat. eq-uo-s; in Latin, besides the
above examples, ae-VO-1n (age), cf. Gk., with another suffix, alwv'
= *al-Fov-, (ploughed land), al-vo-s (stomach, \cf. al-o, to
feed), and a good many adjectives, vaC-1tO-S, noc-uo-s, as-sid-
UO-S,3 etc.
VIII. 10ith suffixes -en- -on- (alternating in
u<jlpwv and similar cases).-Greek (mind), gen.
root unknown; (sheep) in the Homeric compound 7rOA:vPPYJ11
and the gen. = *wr-n·-os ; upa--Yjv (male) = Sk. vfs-an- (male) ;
KV-WV (dog), gen. ElK-wv (image), root FaK in the perfect
etc. ;-Latin: peet-en (comb, cf. pecto and Gk.
7rEKTW); *Jelen (gall), lost, but indicated by the regular gen.
*fel-n-is, which by a Latin phonetic law became fellis, and
under this new form gave rise to an analogical nom. feZ (the
root is *ghel, yellowish-green, ef. Gk. xol\-o-s-, bile [Eng.
1 Cf. infra 151 and 197.-There is an evident parallel, for example, be-
tween Gk. 7TlWV (fat) =*1rlFwlI, fern. 1rl€Lpa == € and Sk. piviill, fern.
pivar-i (id.), between 7rOTllLa (goddess) and Sk. patni, etc. In 7rOTVa (Hymn
to Den7,eter, 118), the v represents an 11 palatalized through the following
L = y, and (O€<T- )7rOLVct is only another mode of representing the sanie modifi-
cation of the v (su.pra 39 C a).
2 See supra 40 C ct.
a Ad-sid-uo-s, "one who hence "owner," instead of the fan-
ciful etymology. which connects it with assem dare.
126 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
gall] ); gen. cf. ed-a (glutton), gen.
ed-an-is, etc.
(114) IX. Stems uith suffix -mo-.-Gk. '{)v-j-Lo-r; (heart,
passion), Lat. jU-11lU-S, c£. SkI (smoke); Gk. ()Ep-j-LO-r;
(hot), ()€P-j-LYJ (heat), Lat. jor-mu-s (hot), SkI Gk.
KEv()-j-Lo-r; (hiding place)" cf. KEV()-W; Gk. oT-p.o-r; (way), cf. ET-pvl- (I
go); Gk. (report), Dor. ¢a-p.ii, Lat. fa-rna, cf. ¢r;-p.{ and
fa-ri; Gk. yvw-p.YJ (opinion), root 'Y1!(o (to know); Lat. for-ma
(shape), cf. SkI dhdr-ma'-s (rule, right, justice); Lat. jir-mu-s
(solid), cf. SkI dhar (to hold fast); Lat. al-mu-s (tutelary), cf.
al-er-e (to nourish), etc.
(115) X. Stems with suffixes -men-, -mon-, -mtl-, mno-,
-meno-, -rnono-.J-This very numerous group includes among
others, both in Greek and Latin, the following subdivisions:
1. Suffix -rnen- in Greek masculine nouns, e.g.
(bottom), (harbour), gen. A"-p.€v-or;, (shepherd), with
reduction in the secondary form 7ro{-p.v-l-O-V (sheepfold); lost
in Latin. .
2. Su.tfix -mon-: Gk. dK-P.WV (anvil), gen. dK-j-Lov-or;, tD-P.WV
(skilful), TEP-P.WV (boundary); 2 Lat. ser-ma, gen.
temo (pole) == <!f. tex-er-e (to make, originally" to make
out of ",rood "), ter-mo (boundary), etc.
3. Suffix -rnlJ- in neuter nouns, in Greek -p.a-, in Lat.
-men-: Gk. ET-j-La, Lesb. F€p.-p.u (clothing) = *FElf-p.a, root FElf (to·
clothe); Gk. (breakage), cf. Gk. lfW-P.U (body),
root unknown; Gk. ()vo-p.a (name),3 root uncertain; Lat. nO-1nen
=*gno-men, cf. co-gno-men, root gno (to know); se-men, teg-men,
ag-men. The root is in the normal grade.
4
4. To this suffix -rnlJ- is very often added, \\rithout any
change of meaning, a secondary suffix -to-: hence in Latin the
well-known doublets aug-men and co-gno-men
1 In other words; exhausting aU the possible forms (normal, reduced,
deflected) of the dissyllabic group -m.n.- .
2 It will be noticed that the suffix when accented is in the normal form,
whereas the deflected form is alnl0st always unaccented.
3 The same suffix with consonantal n before a following vowel in the
secondary derivative p-wpu-p,p-os (nameless).
4 Notice that this reduced suffix takes the deflected form when. the stem
changes its character on becoming the last term of a compound, e.g. ap,-EL-p,WV
(without clothing).
PRIMARY DERIVATION. 127
and and niany others, also the forms ar-mentu-m
(ploughing animal), }u-mentu-m (beast of burden, froln to
yoke, or }uvG/re, to help), (increase), etc. In
Greek this secondary suffix appears even in the declension of the
primary stems in -fJ-a; for it is clear that a-w-J-ta-ra would be more
properly the nom. pI. of a w.ord *a-w-J-ta-ro-v == *crw-fJ-1}-ro-, than of
a-w-J-ta. From the plural, favoured perhaps by other accessory
circumstances,l this T passed by analogy into the singular;
hence the great difference between the oblique cases in Greek
and Latin, e.g. date no-min-i and ollo-J-taT-t.
5. An inlportant class of Greek words, however, remained
uncontaminated, and may be directly compared with the Latin
neuters, namely the JEolic and Doric infinitives in -J-tEv-at and
-J-tEV, e.g. (to and (to give),
(to put), a-Ta-J-tEv' (to stand), etc. That from a mor-
phological point of view the infinitive, like the participle, is the
case-form of a noun, is evident from the mere consideration of
its meaning and its in the ..Hence, if, as is possible,
-at is a dative termination lost in the rest of the Greek system
of declension, and if on the other hand the bare stem OO-JLEV is
to be compared with certain locatives found' in the oldest lan-
guage of India, and whjch have been called locatives \vithout a
suffix,:2 it will be seen that 8o-JLEv-at and 06-J-tEV are respectively
the dative and locative of a steIn in -JLEV-,3 the c9rresponding
forms to which occur above in the Latin neuters and below in
the participles in -J-tEVO-.
4
1 Of. infra 187, 5, and 204, 7.
2 Vedic Sk. vyoman, "in the sky." The classical form would be vyoman-t
3 There are other possible explanations of these infinitives (e.g. fJ-€pa-L
might be the locative of a feminine stem in -f.t€Pa, cf. the suffix -f.t€Po- infra).
But the above explanation is by far the most probable.-Hom. 1!.fJ-€P (Od. x.
416) for 1!.fJ-fJ-€P is modelled on the participle Ec.f.w and the relation of If.t€p
to l.lJp.
4 Quite recently (Esq. morpho V) I have suggested the hypothesis that
the gerundive dandi might, by a process of dissimilation similar to that
snpposect by M. Havet (Mem. Soc. Ling. vi. p. 231), go back to *da-men-ay,
and hence be identical with Gk. Oo-f.t€p-aL. The Latin genitive of the
gerundive would then be originally a dative, which its termination in -i caused
to be taken for a genitive, and on this analogy there would then be formed
, a dative-ablative in -0 and an accusative -unto The phonetic difficulty of
the co-existence of dandi and damini might be explained by supposing that
the dissimilation fir3t took place in verbs in which a nasal preceded the
128
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
6. The sujfix -mno- is rarely primary: Gk. (bed)
/3tA.€-fL1/0-V (dart);l no instance in Latin.
7. rhe suffix -meno- is that of the medio-passive participles,
8€-fL€vo-r;; TI.-()/'-fL€vo-r;;, OO-fL€vo-r;; € It generally reduces
the root. In Latin, it occurs in tcr-1nin-us, fe-nzina (she
suckles, .cf. fe-tu-s and fe-hire), and in the 2nd pI. pass. da-1nini
== CO-fL€VOl., after which we must supply estis to explain the
transition from the participial to the verbal use. -
8. l
1
he -mono- characterizes a few Greek feminines
in (joy), (woe), etc.
(rr6) XI. Sterns with sujfixes -ro- and -10-, almost alw'ays
oxytone in Greek: €-pv()-p6-s, Tuber == *rltb-ro-s)' o:y-p6-r;; == ager ;
AV7r-p6-s (,vretched), AafL7r-po-r; (bright, cf. Aap.-7r-w), ow-po-v (gift),
ED-pO. (seat) ; Lat. sac-er (sacred), gna-r1/;-s (knowing), etc. ;-Gk.
C€l.-AO-r; (timid), f3YJ-Ao-r; (threshold), ePv-Ao-v (class), (tribe);
Lat. te-Za (web) and te-Z1t-m (dart) == *tex-la, *tex-lo-rJ't, root tex
(to weave, make out of wood), sella (seat)==*sed-la, etc.
XII. SterJ'ts with suffixes -ri- and -li-, very rare: Gk. to-pl.-r;;
(skilful), Lat. {ic-ri-s, ac-er (spirited) tC7-li-s,
cal-li-s (path, root uncertain). The latter suffix became widely
extended as a secondary suffix, and will be discussed again
later on.
XIII. SterJ1,s tvith suffixes -no-, -ni-, -nu-.-With the first
suffix we find in Greek: 1J7r-vo-r; (sleep) =*sltp-no-s, root stvep;
T€K-VO-V (child); (penalty) ==-*qoy-na, root qey, cf. T.L-W;
7rOp-l'y] (prostitute), cf. (to sell); CY€JL-vo-S (holy), cf.
(FEf3-a-fLat; o€l.-vo-r; ( terrible); € (do,vry), cf. ¢/.p-w, etc.;-
Lat. S01n-nl.l-S =*stvep-no-s, SkI svdp-na-s; rJ1,ag-nu-s, cf. Gk.
vvith a different suffix; cf. ow-po-v; ple-nu-s,
cf. etc. The forms -ni- and somewhat rare,
especially in Greek, e.g. (wrath), root 1na, to think (?) ;
Lat. ig-ni-s (fire), cf. SkI ag-ni-s, root uncertajn; pa-ni-s, cf.
pa-seQ (to feed) ; perhaps rJ'ta-ntt-S (the measuring thing), root
rJla, to measure (?); neut. cor-nul
suffix (e.g. *na-men-ay then *nameday *namday nandi) , and was thence
introduced analogically into all the others.
1 Cf. in regard to meaning and formation the primary form (3£'AE-fJ-lIO-JI and
the secondary form fJa.'A-'Ao-fJ-€JlO-JI (that which is thrown).
2 Cf. Gk. (with an additional suffix) TrJ-'Al-KC-S, 1T'rJ-'Al-KO-S.
PRIMARY DERIVATION. 12U
To this class apparently must be referred the Hellenic forma-
tion in -avo-, in which the n must have developed a vowel sound.
before itself; e.g. 6py-avo-v (instrument), 7To7T-avo-v (cake, root
7T'€7r, to cook), Op€7T-aVO-v (scythe), € (crown), ovp-av6-<;
(heaven, cf. € wide), (device), etc., and, with
nasalization of the root,
l
Tvp.7r-aVo-v (drum, cr. TV7r-TW).
(117) XIV. Stems with suffix -to-.-These include two
formations of very unequal importance. The first comprises
only a few stems with deflected root: Gk. KO{-TYJ (bed; cf. K€L-p.,a.,,),
. (thunder, cf. (3P€/L-W, Lat. jrem-o), XOp-TO-'; and Lat.
hor-tu-s. The other includes the large class of stems called
in Greek verbals in -ro- and in Latin past participles passive:
()€-TO-;; (= *o-X"O-TO-,
split) ; Lat. da-tu-s, sta-tu-s, (fixed), in-clu-tu-s,
quassus (=*quat-t1t-s, shaken),2 etc., etc. Sanskrit and other
analogies show that in Indo-European this suffix -to-' took the
accent and consequently reduced the root. In Greek the
primitive accentuation was respected, that is, whenever the
stem retained its function as a verbal adjective; 3 but the root,
which was reduced in all the above examples, was often
influenced by the analogy of the tenses of the "\7erb, especially
the present and sigmatic aorist, so that it shows the normal
grade in € (left), (fragile), ep€VK-TO-S (to be avoided,
c£. Hom. epVK-To-r;), and many other cases. In Latin the same
took place: by the side of str'ic-f1t-s, which is
attested by Fr. estroit and Ital. stretto, we find lic-tu-s, on the
analogy of liqu-i, .frac-ttt-s on that of frag-mentu-rn, and so
also scrip-tu-s, strilc-tu-s, junc-tu-s, *jild-tu-s (jrlSUs), vec-tu-s,
on the analogy of scripsi, st'rilxi, junxi, judi, vexi, etc.,
lec-tu-s on the analogy of Zegi, and rec-tu-s on that of lec-tu-s.
Sometimes the suffix is added to a dissyllabic form, the origin
of which is not clear, e.g. geni-tu-s, cf. Gk. € €
(118) XV. Stems with suffix -ti-.-In common Greek the
suffix is usually assibilated to
5
All these stems are
1 Cf. supra 93, 3. ,2Cf. supra 64 A.
3 Compare (jrrap-ro-s (Rowed) and "'2;7rap-T'Y] (proper name) = (jrraprY]
(cultivated land), and also the participle 7r€fL7r-ro-s (sent) with the ordinary
7rfp.rr-ro-s (fifth).
4 Cf. Slt,pra 97. . (; Cf. supra 59, 1.
130
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
paroxytone, and many have the root in its norlual form; but it
is very doubtful whether this was the case originally, and the
very common type AeLt!lls may have been influenced by €AELt/Ja.
However this may be, this class consists mainly of feminine
nouns of action, e.g. € (reception), (tension) ==
(junction), cpa-Tl.-r; (speech); exceptions (husband)
and fta-v-TL-r; (seer). In Latin this suffix is not easy t<;> recognise,
except in the basis of secondary stems formed by means of a
l1e\v suffix -on-; for this is the ordinary type of Latin nouns of
action, e.g. na-ti-o, por-ti-o. But the details of declension and
the analogy of the sister-languages make it certain that forms
like gens, mens, pars, and others go back to *gen-ti-, *rnen-ti-,
*lJar-ti-, cf. the gen. pI. gen-ti-urn, etc., and the acc. sing.
par-ti-1J1, . retained as an adverb. The suffix is manifest in
ves-ti-s and 'messis (harvest) =*met-ti-, cf. 111,et-er-e. .
(rIg) XVI. Stems with suffix -tu-.-Very rare in Greek,
e.g. {3pw-Tv-r; (food), Ua--TU ==Faa--TU (town), root was (to dwell),
cf. Sk. (dwelling). This suffix is fairly common in
Ll,tin: fruc-tu-s (fruit, enjoyment), cf. root frug in frug-es,
frug-it; VtC-tu-s (mode of life), cf. vi(g)v-er-e; can-tu-s (sing-
ing), etc. The grammatical forms commonly called supines are
lnerely case-forms of similar stems in -tu- which have becolne
more or less obsolete; namely, (1) the "active" SUpirte, an
accusative, can-tu-rn, lu-su-m (eo lusurn, "I go to play"); and
(2) the " passive" supine, an ablative, dZc-tu == *d"ic-tud, cf.
(facile d"ictu, "ea:sy in the saying "), confused also in
this use with the dative, which still appears in the phrase
le.lJida rnemoratut,l " agreeable to relate."
(120) XVII. Stems with suffix -t-.-This suffix, plainly
recognisable in Gk. and Lat. nox 2 (gen. J/VK-T-6r; noc-t-is),
is especially common in the last term of compounds: Gk.
(gen. indomitable, root aap. c,p.a),
unvvearied, root /(aJL) , wJLof3pwr; (wftO-f3pw-T-or;, eating raw flesh,
root f30p f3pw), etc.; Lat. superstes (gen. super-sti-t-is, root sfa
in reduced form); comes (gen. cOl1't-i-t-is, root i, " one who goes
\vith "), and probably also pedes, eques, rniles (one who goes
1 Plaut. Bacchid. 60 (Ussing).
2 The Latin 0 to Greek u is quite exceptional.
PRIMARY DERIVATION. 131
in a troop of a thousand men), eael-i-te-s (the gods, perhaps
originally the stars), satelles (guardian of the sown fields?,
later" life-guard "), etc.
(121) XVII. Sterns with suffixes -ter-, -tor-, -tro-, -tero-,
-toro-(?).-This important group, which may be conlpared with
that considered in X, comprises the following subdivisions:
1. Suffix -ter-, in nouns of relationship: (ace.
7ra-TEp-a, gen. Ovya-TYJp (daughter), cf.
Sk. duhi-t(1, Dor. and Att. eppaTYJp (brother, clansman) ;
Latin pa-ter, mti-ter, fra-ter (etymology obscure).
2. Suffix -ter-, in nouns denoting agent: 1 in Greek, oxytones,
generally with reduced root, (ace. gen.
giver), (deliverer), (wooer, root ftva,2 cf. p.va-o-
/Lar., to ,voo), lost in Latin = cable, root
bhendh, to bind.
3. S'l{tfix -tor-, in nonns denoting agent: in Greek, paroxy-
tones, with the root in its normal form, SW-TCllP 3 (gen.
giver), p-!j-TWp (orator, root FEp Fp'YJ, to speak), (proper
name, root p..EV, to think), Zrr-Twp (knowing, root Faa reduced); in
Latin, da-tor (gen da-tor-is 4), 1nensor (measurer=
*ment(s)-tor,5 cf. the verb met-ior, to measure), etc.
4. Suffix -tro-: generally forms neuter nouns denoting
instrument, sometimes feminine nouns in -tra-: Gk. AOV-TpO-V
(bath, cf. AOlJ-W), V[7r-TPO-V (water for washing), K€V-TPO-V (goad),
(3aK-Tpo-V (walking-stick) ; 6 Lat. lus-tru-1n (purification
j
cf. lu-o
to \vash), claus-tru-m (closing thing), plaus-tru-rn (waggon);
feminines, Gk. Ion. Att. Elean Fpa-rpa (agreement,
root Fpy! suprra), Lat. mule-tra (milking-pail, cf. rnuJg-eo); mas-
culines, Gk. (carver), Lat. eul-ter.
5. Suffix -tero-, in comparatives: rarely primary, and always
implying a choice or comparison between two terms only. In
Greek we have (one of two), probably corrupted through
1 Originally no doubt identical with the preceding.
2 'Vith the analogical epenthesis of (j already explained, supr(l 64: A note.
3 This suffix was often contllsed with the preceding one, and even with
the suffix of no-q.ns of relationship, for we find OWT!jp and eppaTwp.
4 The Latin long vowel is due to the nominative, infra. 21l.
:> Of. supra 64 A.
6 Hoot {3a with a K of unknown origin, cf. 8e-7os and fac-i o.
132 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
the analogy of € and substituted for a-T€po-) (Dor.-BCBot. ==
root sern, one), is still indicated by the A.ttic
forms ()UTEpOV ()a:Tepov; 7rO-TEPo-() (which of two), (V-T€PO-V (in-
testine),l € (better), € (id.), perhaps even KUP-
€ € (strong).2 In Latin: al-ter (one of two, c£.
al-iu-s); u-ter (which of two), comparative of a pronominal stem
which recurs in u-bi; dex-ter (right, as opposed to left) 3;
*inte'l"o-s, *ex-ter-os, stems lost, but still recognisable in their
derivatives in-ter-ior, ex-ter-ior, which thus contain two com-
parative suffixes; in-ter, sUb-ter, adverbial neuters used as
preposi tions, etc.
6. Suffix -toro-: lost in Greek; perhaps recognisable in
Latin, but with an unaccountable corruption, in the suffixes
of future participles active and -tura of nouns of action: lec-
turu-s rnensilrus mensura, quaesturus quaestura, etc.
(122) XIX. Stems with suffixes -tlo-, -dhro-, and -dhlo-.
-Besides nouns of instrument in Greek and Latin have
nouns, also neuters as a rule, the suffixes of which appear to
correspond to these three Indo-European syllables, namely:-(l)
Gk. -TAo-, Lat. -clo- (-culo-) dissimilated -'cro-,4 XV-TAO-V (liquid),
aV-TAO-\; (hold), f.Xe-TAY] (handle), (genera-
tion),
5
vin-clu-rn ( =*vinc-clo-rn) (fetter), ful-cru-rn
(support) ;-(2) Gk. -()po-, Lat. -bro-, ap-l3po-v (joint, cf. ap-ap-{U'Kw,
to fit), {3u-Opo-v (ground), fla-bru-m {blast); crf-bru-m (sieve, cf.
Kp{-VW cer-no), tere-bra (borer, cf. Gk. T'J.p€-:rpo-v) ;-(3) Gk. -()AO-,
Lat. -bulo-, (Jv-a--()Ao-v (sacrificial implenlent), Y€Vt.-OAY] (race),
lJii-bulu-m (fodder), sta-bulu../ln Cstable), fa-bula (story).
(123) XX. with sujfiw -nt...,: present participles.-
This suffix, when primary; reduces the root; hence it must have
had the accent originally, at any rate when its nasal was
sonant. In Greek we have TL-()e--vT- (nom. TLOE{\;=*TL-()E-VT-\;),
t-crTu-vT-, OI.-06-VT-, and other ,vell known instances; in Latin,
1 The inside (of the body) as contrasted with the outside.
2 Originally no doubt" stronger," in spite of the accentuation, which is
modelled on that of the adjectives in -po-.
3 At a very early period *dex-tero-s, etc., became *dext?·os by syncope
(supra 79, 2), then regularly dexter (70).
4 Supra 51, 1 and 2.
I) Cf. Sae- turno-s, doublet of Stttll'rnus (god of sowing).
PRIMARY DERIVATION. 133
cla-nt- (nom. dans), sta-nt-, *s-ent- (being):=.. *s-fft-, in the com-
pounds p1'Oae-sens, ab-sens, D"i Can-sent-es, i-ent- (going) =
*i(y)-fft-, d-ent- (tooth)=*d-tit-.
1
It was precisely these last
three participles which were corrupted in Greek: <bv=Hom.
;'wv (stem *E(T-O-V.-) , lW1I (l-o-v.-), (oo-a-v.-); the analogy of
the secondary forms ¢EpWV, AI:7fWV seems to have introduced into
them the 0 of the participles of thematic forms; 2 moreover the
root is in the normal form in £wv and deflected in Ion.
oowv. Furthermore, the thematic 0 appears in Latin also in the
doublets s-ont- (real) 3, restricted to the sense of ,( guilty" (nom.
sons), and e-unt-=*ey-o-nt (root in the normal form), whieh
serves as the stem in the oblique cases of iens.
(124) XXI. Ste1ns with suffix -os- (-es-).-Of these there
are two classes: (1) primitive oxytones, masculine or feminine
(of all three genders when adjectives); (2) primitive paroxy-
tones, which regularly have the normal root and are of the
neuter gender. To these must be added the Latin infinitives.
1. Oxytones: Gk. aio-wli (shame, gen. aiooos = *aio...oa--Oli) ,
(dawn =*iiFa--oa--? cf. Dor. avwli and Lat. aur-or-a with an
additional suffix); and compound adjectives, whether derived
from these nouns, e.g. (shameless), or from of the
following class, e.g. € € (cf. Lat. de-gen-er), }:tEV-OIi
€ etc. ; 4, even simple adjectives like € (false) by
the side of t{t€vO-OS (lie). To this class in Latin, more or less
corrupted by various analogical influences,
5
belong:-(a) the
abstract nouns in -or, dol-or, cal-or, pud-or, etc., gen. pud-ar-is,
cf. aio-wli *aio-o( (J" )-os, and the nominatives hon-os, arb-os, retained
as archaisms; ((3) the type seen in nub-es (Sk. ndbh.:.as, gen.
ndbh-as-as), sed-es (Gk. E8-ot;, gen. € caed-es, etc., which
ought regularly to be inflected nub-es *nub-ep-is; (y) the best
preserved type of all, Ven-us (-er-is) , Cer-es (-er-is), cin-is
(-er-is),pulv-is, celer (cf. Gk. KEA-Y]i saddle-horse), with
introduced into the nominative, etc.
1 Roots es (to be), e!1 (to go), ed (to eat) in the reduced form.
2 Of. snpra 86, and infra loO.
S Leg. XII Tah.: nwrbus sOJiticns, "a disease proved to be real."
4 But the accent is thrown back when the adjectives are used as substan-
tives: cf. Kpar-os, a-Kpar-fr;, and '1;w-Kpar-'Y)s.
5 Discussed further in the remarks on declension, infl'a 212.
134
GREEK AND LATIN GRA.:MMAR.
2. Paroxytones: in Greek the accent is always thrown back
as far as possible. Nowhere perhaps can the law which com-
bines the accent with the norlual form of the root be more easily
verified; it is only necessary to compare the fornls (grief),
€ (depth), == (glory), (length),
(redness), etc., with the oxytones 7ra8-EtV (to suffer), (deep),
KAV-n)-r; (celebrated), ftaK-po-r; (long), €pv8-po-s (red), etc. Still
there are not wanting in this class forms with the reduced
root: f3JlJos (depth), f3apor:; (wejght), ()apa-or:; (boldness), Taxos
(quickness), 7ra()os (suffering); these must either be referred to the·
analogy of f3ap-vs, ()apa-vs, Taxvs, € or else the original
declension must have been ,BEVO-OS *f31}()-€a--os, whence the doublet
{3€v()os {3a()or;. The form with deflected root ox-os == *FoX-or:; (car),
cf. and veh-o, is due to the analogy of the secondary form
0X"",:€-w (to carry).-In Latin we have: gen-us, {ernp-us, fun-us,
1nun-us, etc., which are or seem to be normal; rob-ur, aequ-or,
where rhotacism has crept in from the oblique cases; stems
with the character of the vowel uncertain, like 0p-us, on-1tS
(cf. hon-os and the doublets decus decor), voln-us, etc.; lastly,
IJond-us andfoed-us, which certainly have the deflected root.
l
(125) 3. Latin Injinitives.-If we compare, on the one
hand, a dative like gen-er-Z with an infinitive passive like ft-er-Z,
and, on the other hand, the locative (confused with ablative)
gen-er-e == *gen-er-i with the infinitive active type ft-er-e,2 it is
ilupossible not to be struck by the agreement and correspondence
"\vhich they show, both "\vith one another and with the Greek
infinitives in -jLEv-at and -/LEV.
3
Hence, like the latter, the Latin
infinitive seems to be, either the dative, *fei-es-ay, or the locative,
*fei-es-'i, of a stem in -es-, *fei-es- ; thus caed-er-e (to cut) would
be the locative of caed-es, nilb-er-e (to veil oneself, marry) the
locative of nub-esj veh-er-e (to carry) the locative of *veh-es-
(carrying), which is found also in the Greek (car), a
doublet of 6xos.4 It is clear that a few forms of this kind might
1 But the former at any rate originally belonged to stems of the 2nd dec1.,
supra 34 A.
2 Archaic, common in Plautus. and exactly synonymous with fieri.
3 Of. supra 115, 5.
4 € ap/J-a(J'Lv, ;)x€(npLV (gloss of Hesychius).
PRll1ARY DERIVATION. 135
by analogy give rise to the other infinitives, leg-er-e, cap-er-e,
etc. The forms da-re, sta-re, es-se, fer-re, vel-Ie, are still more
primitive, and are formed by the addition to the root of a siluple
-s-, the reduced form of the same suffix of which -os- and -es-
represent respectively the deflected and the normal grade.! The
divergence into active and passive meaning which has taken
place between the endings -e and -i must be regarded as a
later development, as is shown by many synonymous uses and
by the active meaning of the infinitives of deponent verbs.
Nevertheless, this hypothesis still leaves partially unexplained
the type veh-i, leg-i in the infinitive passive (we should have
expected *veh-er-i) and the very common archaic type
loqulier, fitter (Ep. Scip.), sparg'ier (Hor.), which it is -difficult
to connect with spargr, etc.
2
(I26) XXII. Sfel1'lS with suffixes -ios- and -yos-: Greek
and Latin comparatives.-The suffix appears in Greek under
a IJasalized form -lOV-, nom. -LWV, which it also assumes in certain
cases in Sanskrit, e.g. nom. mdh-iyan (greater); in Latin, it
always has the form -ios- rhotacized with analogical lengthen-
ing of the vowel, mel-ior-em. This suffix is very common under
one or other of these forms: Gk. fJ-eLCWV (Ion. fJ- EtWlI) == *fJ-€Y-
yWl', Kpe{(J"(Jwv (Ion. KP€(J"(JW1
/
)== *KP€T-YWV (normal root of
strong), {3a(]"(J"wv (Epicharmus) == *f3aB-ywv, Ba<T<Tov (quicker)==
*BaX-Yov, but also (3aO-{wv, 61K-{Wv, etc.; 8 Lat. oc-ior, l1'la(h)-jor,
pe-jor, prop-ior, etc.; in minor (cf. Gk. fte{wv) the formation
js obscure.
This suffix appears again und.er the reduced form -is- in the
base of secondary formations, Greek superlatives in -L<T-TO-,
Latin in -is-sumo-, and others which will be seen later on.
(127) XXIII. with suffix -ko-, very rare in primary
derivation: Gk. (box), which might also be divided 4
Lat. lo-cu-s==*stlo-co-, root unknown, pau-ci (few), cf. Gk.
7rUV-pOL, sic-cu-s == *sit-k6-s, cf. sit-i-s.
1 I have developed this point further, and endeavoured to prove it in my
Esq. LlJorph. V (les where I connect sta-r-e with O"T1j-cr-at.
2 See an attempt at explanation, ]Uem. Soc. Ling. vi. p. 62, and Esq.
ltTorph. V.
3 Of. snp1'a 390 o.
4: Of. supra 41 in fine and 99.
136
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
XXIV. Sterns with suffix r(t) : 1 a few neuters, Gk.
(liver), Lat. }ec-ur == Sk. ydk-rt .-These curious forms have
special declension:1 (gen. and yet Greek has several,
"vhich, either through analogy, or as belonging to a different
system of derivation, keep the p in all the cases, ()€v-ap (palm
of the hand), (spring). Sometimes the nominative
shows a final-wp, which is still unexplained: l5o-wp (gen.
<rK-Wp (excrenlent), and the doublets TEKfLap T€KfLWP (sign). Latin
still has fer;n-ur; but it is doubtful whether its other nomina-
tives in -ur or -or (neuters) should be referred to this cla8s or
to class XXI. 2.
XXV. Stems with suffixes -ak- ,(-ag-) 3 and ak-: rare.-In
Greek, ap7r-uy- (nom. robber), Kop-aK- (crow), pv-aK-
(streanl), Bwp-aK- (breastplate), etc.; in Latin, rap-ac- (nom.
rqpax), ed-ac-, fer-ac-, etc.
XXVI. Stems suffix -id- (-ldh- ?).-The latter form
only in Greek, where it is very rare and obscure: opv-"iB-
(bird, nom. opvls). The former is rather common in Greek,
where it is especially used to form feminines, which are nearly
all oxytone: EA7r-{C- cf. EOA:7ra == *F€-FoA7r-u), KA:YJ-tc-
CAtt. key) =:= cf. clav-i-s, (greaves, suffix
(strife); the few masculines are paroxytolle:
== 7ra-:Lc- == (child), (robber). Latin scarcely has
any except the masc. lap-id- and the two feminines
cass-id- (helmet) and cusp-id- (point) of unknown etymology.
XXVII. Stems with suffix -ud- (-udh-): Gk. XAUP.-VC-
(mantle), KOp-Ve- (helmet); Lat. pec-ud- (beast belonging to a
flock, cf. pee-us -or-is): unimportant.
XXVIII. Stems with suffixes -et-, -et-: very rare and some-
what obscure: GIr. 7r€V-YjT- (nom. € poor), 7rAav-YJT- (no,m.
wandering); Lat. ter-et- (nom. teres, round), qui-et-
(rest), etc.
F Sanskrit shows the final t, which has been regularly lost in Greek and
l-tatill, sup'ra 65.
2 See ill pra 215.
3 Of. supra 62 t.
PRIMARY DERIVATIQN. 137
§ 2. Hellenic Forrnations.
(I28) I. Sterns with suffix -For- (-Fo(T-): perfect participles.-
This formation is Indo-European, but it has been lost in Latin
and greatly corrupted in Greek, so that the primitive form of
the suffix, f,-w6s-, can no longer be recognised except in the
nom. neut. in -os =*-Fos, and in the feminine, where it is reduced
to *-us- before the secondary suffix -1:-, e.g. ELOVtU = *FELO-V(T-r.a, cf.
Sk. vid-us-1:. Everyvvhere e] se the suffix lost its Ffrom the first,
no doubt on the analogy of the forms in which the Fwas dropped
as being intervocalic; thus *rE-()vy/-Fws naturally became TE()Vy/WS ;
but *ELK-Fws (likely) ought to have given *El7T7TWS,l whereas we
have €LK-WS, based on a supposed suffix -ws. Moreover, in the
oblique cases the syllable -Fo(T- changed its (T for a r of ob-
scure origin, due perhaps to the analogy of the participles in -vr-,
Eio-or-os, ELKO-OT-OS, rE-()vYj-or-os (Ion. with luetathesis rE-()vE-wr-os),
etc., on the model of Lo-6-vr-os, etc.
(I29) II. Stems with suffix -5.r- (-5.a--). It is impossible not
to connect with the preceding type the neuters in -as, KEp-aS
(horn), yEp-as (reward), y ~ p - a s (old age), etc. For, on the one
hand, the oblique cases have a T instead of (T, gen. KEp-UT-OS; on
the other hand, they still show the presence of (T in the con-
tracted form KEpWS = KEpaos, which cannot go back to KEpaTos,
since intervocalic T is not liable to be dropped, and must con-
sequently go back to *K€p-a(T-os. This being the case, and as
there are no materials for comparison outside Greek, the real
form of the suffix cannot be determined.. What seems more
clear is an undoubted eonnexion of the stems in -as with those
in -os (-E(T-). Both are neuters, and throw the accent back as far
as possible; 2 moreover the forms KEpEU (horns), TElpEU (wonders) 3
exist side by side with KEpuru, TEpuru, and certain words even,
like f3pErus (miraculous statue), o ~ o u s (ground), are declined only
like rEtXOS, e.g. gen. f3PETEOS, loco olSon, etc.
4
(I30) III. Stems with suffix -F€J
/
- (?): Greek infinitives.':..-
We have seen 5 the .Eolic infinitives in -jLEV-UI, and -fl-EV. It is
1 Of. supra 40 0 (3. 2 Cf. supra, 124, 2.
3 Or "stars," II. xviii. 485.
4 Of. neut. pI. "Yfp€a (rewards), etc., always in Herodotus.
5 Supra 115, 5.
138 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
-quite plain that an Ionic-Attic infinitive like iEVUI, (to go) cannot
go back to tfLEval., the loss of an intervocalic fL being unpre-
cedented. But we are at liberty to suppose before the suffix
the existence of a consonant the loss of which was inevitable,
e,g. F, and to restore *l-FEv-at. This restoration is supported
also by one or two Sanskrit infiI?-itives in -van-e and by the
infinitive Do-FEv-at (to give, contracted in Ion.-Att. to 6ovvaL),
which is believed to occur on a Cyprian inscription. If, on
the other hand, we also take into consideration the fact that the
.infinitives of thematic forms, AE{7rEt.V, AL7rELV, may likewise go
back to *AE{7r-E-FEJ/, *AI:7r-E-FEJI,l we see that the two hypothetical
terminations -FEv-at. and FEV bear exactly the same relation to one
another as -fLEv-at and -fLEV, the one representing the dative, the
other the locative of a stem in -FEV-.
The suffix -FEV-at was not kept unchanged; the F having dis-
appeared and the E having been contracted with the final vowel
of the root, the Greeks no longer saw in DOVVaf-, (],T1]vaL, any
termination except -vat., which they took for the sign of the
infinitive; 2 hence it was introduced by analogy into ET-val.,
TI.-GE-VQt., 6L-oo-val., etc.
IV. Sterns with suffix -ere-/, used only in the dative, -ere-a',
as passive infinitives: ()/'-(]'()at., 6t.-oo-(]'()at., etc.
(131) V. with suffix -w-.-Most of these are OXY-
tone and feminine, 7rEt()-w (persuasion), (sound), AYJT-W
(Latona); masc. and paroxytone; The acc.
in which the final is treated as a vowel, undoubtedly
shows the presence of a lost consonant between the 0 and 11J;
if we may judge from the other form of the accusative, Ion.
AYJTOVV, this consonant may have been F, but it may also have
been y, as is indicated by the vOC. AYJTOL and the evidence of the
gralnmarians, who recommend in the nom. the spelling
Hence two distinct suffixes, -oF- and -oY-, have been confused in
tlris formation.
VI. Stems with -YJv-, changed phonetically to -EV- in
1 Secondary formations further discussed infra 167.
2 Just like the ending -se in Latin, supra 125 and 161.
S The primitive suffix mav have been -dhi- if we may judge from the
Sanskrit infinitives in -lihy-iii, cf. irtfra 296.
PRIl\fARY DERIVATION. 139
the J?ominative.
1
-This formation, which is perhaps secondary,
seenlS, as far as is known at present, to be peculiar to Greek,
where however it has become very common and has all the
appearance of being primary: e.g. ypuep-Ev-r; (writer, gen.
Ion. ypu"epl.or;, Att. ypuep€wr;), i7r7r-EV-r; (horse-
man), 0pofL-€vr; (runner), (shepherd), etc.
(132 ) VII. with suffix -Tii-: names of agent, masculine
in spite of the feminine vowel of the suffix.
2
-This is some-
what rare as a primary formation: (judge), D€a--7rO-T'Y}-r;
=*D€fLa--7rO-TYj-r; (master of the house, cf. Sk. ddm-pa-ti-s with a
different suffix), (doer), € (father), 7rUV-07r-T'Y}-r;
(all-seeing), EV-€K-TYj-r; (of good habit), 'ApYEL-epov-TYj-r; (murderer
of Argus, epithet of Hermes). There is no corresponding form
in Latin, for nauta is a borrowed word, and navita is modelled
on navis in imitation of nauta.
(133) VIII. Sterrts with suffix -T€O-: verbal nouns denoting
obligation, OO-T€O-r; (which ought to be given), OpU-a--T€O-C;, pYj-
T€O-C;, etc.-This formation is modelled entirely on that of the
verbals in -TO-.
3
(134) IX. with suffix -TUTO- (very rarely primary):
superlatives, e.g. ep{A-TUTO-C; (dearest), vO"-ruTo-r; (last), {3€A-rUTO-c;
(best), ep€P-TUTO-C;, cf. the comparatives ep{A-TEpo-r;, etc.
4
(135) X. Stems with suifix -LO"To-: the ordinary primary
superlatives.-Every comparative in -I,WV 5 has a corresponding
superlative in where the element -1,0"- is merely the same
comparative suffix reduced before the secondary suffix -TO-.
(136) XI. with suifix -0.0-, very comInon, forming
either adjectives or 'feminine substantives: epop-ao- (nom. epop-
as, bearing), 1...01-0.0- (chosen), O"7rOp-aO- (scattered) ;-OlraD- (the
number two), D€K-a8- (ten), 'AufL7r-a8- (torch), cEAA-aD- (Greece), etc.
The Latin lampas is a borrowed word.
1 Cf. SlIp'ra 76, 1 A.
2 To explain this irregularity, it is snpposed that these nouns were ori.
ginally feminine: thus *lIaur?], fem., would originally have meant "sea·
manship," *i.7r7rOT?], "cavalry," afterwards changing their meaning. Cf.
Fr. un t/rompette [a trumpet, then a trumpeter], un" garde-frangaise, and
Lat. .iuventa (youth). 3 SIJpra 117.
4 Supra 121, 5. The form 7rpWTOS cannot go back to *7rp5.raro-s; it con·
tains, like Eax-aro-s, a special suffix ·aro-.
• Cf. SUPPcL 126.
140
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
XII. Stems with suffix -l,T-, very rare: xap-:.r- (nom. xaprs,
favour), (nom. honey).
XIII. Stems with suffix -wr-, very rare: ;p-wr- (nom.
love), YEA-WT- (laughter).
XIV. Stems with suffixes -Ep- -op-, very rare.-The first
type is masculine: (gen. a-Ep-os) and The second
is neuter, a-op (sword
1
root unknown), with a suffix which is
usually lengthened, as in (AO-WP (wish), € (prey), 7rEA-wp
(monster).
§ 3. Latin Formations.
(137) I. Ste1n.r;; with suffix -ndo-: gerundives and passive
participles denoting obligation.-This formation is rarely pri-
mary, da-ndu-s, sta-ndu-m, fa-ndo, eu-ndu-m (corrupted like
eu-nt-em),2 and seems to be indirectly connected with the
suffix -fl-H·-Ur. of the Greek infini tive and -fl-EVO- of the middle pf.tr...:
ticipIe, e.g. fand7l = *epa-;-tEv-uL and dand·us =
3
(138) II. Sterns with suffix -bili- (very rarely primary) :
adjectives of quality, e.g. sta-bili-s, in-ef-fa-bili-s, perhaps
"fle-bill-s, sci-bili-s (post-class.). We cannot fail to recognise its
connexion with the nominal suffix -ouZ.o-==*-blo-.
(139) III. Stems with suffixes -tumo-, -sumo-, and
-:ssumo-: Latin superlatives.-Some superlatives are formed
by means o£ the simple suffix -rno-: sum-mu-s (highest) ==
*sup-rno-s, p1·i-1nu-s. But the usual suffix is (Sk.
-tama-), which in classical prose is written -tirnu- and seems to
have given rise to its doublet -SU1no- (-simu-),4 e.g.
in-tirnu-s, mag-simu-s.!) The suffix -sinzu- again is added to
1 av1}p is not one of these; in this word pep- appears to be the root, and
aa prothesis.
2 Cf. supra 123.
3 The original meaning of the futnre participle of obligation is that of a
simple passive participle. Cf. L. Havet ()}[em. Soc. Ling. vi. p. 231),
Henry (Esq. }[01·ph. V), and supra, 115, 5.
4 This change is not very clear from a phonetic point of view.
/) The superlative inji InliS, like the corresponding comparative injenl8,
belongs to a somewhat different mode or formation: cf. Sk. a-dhanui-.'$
{i-dh'Lra-s (Goth. nn-d I,r [Eng. un-dJr]) =I.-E. *n-dhercJ-s. Cf. F. de Saus-
sure, JI€langes Renier, p. 335.
PRIMARY DERIVATION. 141
the suffix -is- of the comparative, and gives rise to the com-
pound suffix -issirnu-, the usual sign of the Latin superlative,
whether prinlary or secondary, e.g. parisuma ( = par-is-suma),
,vhich is found in one of the epitaphs of the Scipios.
CHAPTER II.
SECONDARY DERIVATION.
(140) Most of the primary suffixes are also secondary, and
these will not be repeated in this new enumeration except in
so far as they have very important formations depending on
them. Much less can the suffixes which are purely secondary
find a place in a short sketch like the present ; only the
commonest can here be dealt with, and for t·he rest the student
must be referred to the special treatises on Greek or Latin
derivation.
SECTION I.
VERBAL STEMS.
§ 1. Formations.
I. Svjfix -nu-, -nu-.-Tbis suffix has spread only in Greek,
\vhere it appears secondarily under the form -vvii-, -l/VV-, e.g.
Kp€fLa-VlIii-fLt. (to hang), Kop€-lIvii-fLL (to satiate), perhaps on the
analogy of the regular doubling in (F{3€vlIiiJLt., But
some of these formations seem primary, e.g. CTKEoa-vlIv-JL" (to
scatter),7rEra-vvii-fLl (to spread), etc., compared with CTKl8-v'Y]-fLl,
7rlr-JrrrJLl (same meanings).
(141) II. Suffix -yo-.-The derivative suffix -yo-, by far the
most important of the secondary suffixes of the present tense, if:)
added in Greek and Latin to all·kinds of nominal stems, which
it is convenient to distinguish and classify as follovvs :
1. Stems ending in e(o), a.-Types: € € from
e:p{A-€- (e:p{A-o-'), flav-e-o from flav-o-s (yellow); tvy-6-w (to yoke)
1 Thus Kpep.avvup.f.: Kpep.J.crCJ} (fut. of Kpep.iw) =cr(3evPJp.f. (for *cr/3Ecr-VU-P.f.):
cr(3E(jW (for *crf3€crcrw).
]42-
SECONDARY DERIVATION. 143
from tvy-6-v; 1 Ti-p.a-w (to honour) from fornto == *for-ma-yo,
fugo== *fug-a-yo, operor==*opel'-a-yo-r from opera (felu., work),
etc. When once the verbal endings -eo, -ow, -ao had been thus
developed, it was inevitable that they should be confused in the
process of derivation. This is very common: thus, in Greek,
gives ¢WV€w instead of ¢wvaw,2 on the contrary gives
tEpaw, and yl.epvpa (bridge) Y€¢VPOw; in Latin we have laetari
from laetus, foedare fromjoedus, capfa're from captus, and this
termination -tare, being extended, form$ the numerous class of
verbs called frequentatives, ten-tare (cf. ten-ere), fac-tare (cf.
fac-ere) , versare (cf. versu.'S and vertere), etc.
By a new extension, these terminations are added entire to
primary stems not ending in e or a, and so without any inter-
mediate stage ueppovl.w is formed from ueppwv, TrVpOW from 7rVp,
are-ere from arc-s, necare from nec-s, equitare from equ-i-t-,
etc.
3
This termination -ito in its turn has also been introduced
elsewhere, and produces vol-ito, frequentative of volo, and
then, combined with the type in -to which we have just seen,
the not uncommon frequentative termination -tito, as il1lec-tiio,
fac-tito, etc. .
The result of all this is, that very often, especially in Latin,
the base of derivation in these verbs is entirely wanting, either
because it bas been lost through disuse, or because it never had
any existence at all, the verb having been created by a mere
analogical association. Thus we can find no substantive form-
ing the base of the verbs amare, rnonere, nocere, and luany
others; and the same remark may also be made in regard to
all the classes of secondary derivation.
Before the suffix -yo- the ending of the primary stem seems
to be always short, at any rate in Greek; but this regularity
is not original, and forms like Hom. € (we injure) from
1 As 'a general rule the verbs in -ew have an active, those in -ow a
causative sense, e.g. TrOAffJ-fW (to make war), 1rOAEfJ-OW (to cause war) Latin
has no verbs in 00, except perhaps *aegr-oo (to make Bick) , of which
may be the passi ve participle.
2 Which exists in Pindar, if it is not a hyper-Dorism.
3 In Lafin especially this process has been carried to very great
and the Romance languages have followed in the same track, with a markecl
preference for verbs of the 1st conjugation. No one in French would dream
of creating a verb *s':llicylir or *telephonoi1·.
14t
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
ao'LKEW, (t4ey went) from e:pOl.TaW, and even Att. 7r€t,lIl]T€
== *7THV-li-E-TE (ye are hungry) from 7r€l-lIaw,l (Ion. xpa(JBal-,
to use) from xpao/Lal-, etc., show a variation between the long and
short vowel, which must have been regulated by fixed laws.
2
Here also analogy has been at work; in the present it has
generalized the short vowel, but in the other tenses and before
secondary nominal suffixes, 7rE-e:p{A-Yj-Ka,
etc., the long vovvel
appears almost al,vaysj either because the analogy of the re-
lation between AVW and AV(Jw
3
introduced it into the future and
aorist, whence it would easily spread to other forlns, or because
a very old contraction is concealed in == *e:pt,A-E-YE-(JW, or
lastly, and quite simply, because the long vowel, which was
regular in certain forms of the conjugation, was gradually
extended .to other similar cases, and through them to the deri-
.vative nominal formations.
2. Stems ending in i and u.-Types: KOll{W==*KOV-L-yW (to
cover with dust) from (dust), finio=*fi-ni-yo from
fi-ni-s; epL-TV-W (to beget) from epL-TV-; (father), sta-tu-o == *sta-
tu-yo, etc. Neither of the two types is contracted in Greek.
The first is contracted in Latin, where it forms the 4th con-
jugation, which has been greatly extended, either through ana-
logical creations. like .fulcire from fulcrum, or more especially
by attracting to itself verbs in -io of the Brd conjugation, such
as ven-io == f3a{lIw and sal-io ==
4
To this class belong
indirectly the Greek desideratives in -(]"E{W == *-(]"EL-yo- (Otf!E{W, I
wish to see), the origin of which is obscure; 5 to the second,
derivatives like l.7r7T-EV-W from from
whence the termination -EV-W spread to the analogical BYjP-EV-W
(to hunt), 7Tat,o-Ev-W (to educate), etc.
1 Of. HOln. 7reLVaOVT€ (II. xvi. 758).
2 In· Latin it is impossible to recognise the quantity of this vowel, since
it is always contracted with that of the secondary suffix, supra 73.
3 Cf. supra 96-97.
4 1'his contamination makes great progress during the historic period of
Latin; thus paria develops, by the side of pal ere, an infinitive parirc, and
the Bomance infinitive corresponding to mori presupposes *moriri, etc.
5 Wackernagel has conj ectured in the case· of the Homeric Otf;€lOVT€S the
combination otf;€i" l611T€S (going to the sight, going to see). wrongly supposed
to contain a suffix -(J"€LW, which was afterwards extended by analogy.
SECONDARY DERIVATION. 145
3. Stems ending in a nasal.-From p.I.A-av- (black), 7rOL-P.€V-
(shepherd) there arose very naturally P.€ACJ.lvw = *p.€A-av-yw,
7rOLp.a{l
/
w= *7rOL-P.1')-YW, etc.; whence the termination -a{vw, which
spread to A€VKa{vw (to vyhiten), yAvKa{vw (to sweeten), and served
as a model for the termination -vvw, which was similarly fornled
from v-stems, Oap(rvc; (bold), Oapuvvw (to make bold), and then
similarly extended, KaKvvw (to injure), p.€yaXvvw (to magnify).
4. Stems ending in a liquid.-Frorn TI.Kp.ap regularly COlues
T€Kp.a{pop.at- =*T€K-p.ap-yo-; but from EXO-pO-c;; C1
y
yEAo-r;
the proper derivatives would seem to be *KaOap.:;o-,w,
*aYYEA-I.-w. The Greek language neglects to some extent the
vowel of the primary suffix, and, adding the secondary suffix
to the consonant, derives ExOa{pw from *ExO-r-yw, KaOa{pw,
&.yyI.AAw, etc. Besides the formative suffix ..;a{pw thus obtained,
there are also others less important, -€{pw, -vpw, of similar origin.
In this class Latin has the desideratives, par-tur-io '(to be in
travail), (to be hl1ngry); etc., which have
passed. into the 4th conjugation, though we do not know the
precise nature of this element -tur-, to which the verbal suffix is
added, nor whether it has any connexion with the suffix -turo-
of future participles, in which the u does not seern to be original.!
5. Stems ending in a voiceless explosive.-Greek types:
epvAo.uuw == *epVA-o.K-yW, aip.d.ua-w= *ai-p.o.T-yw, &'vo.<T<Tw == *FaV-o.KT-yW,
etc., then also epapp.o.a-a-w (to physie) from epo.pP.UKOV, 7rVPl.uuw (to
have fever) from xaAI.7rTW (to make angry) from
It is very likely that the neuter verbs in -wa-a-w have this origin,
e.g. TVepAwTTW (to be bEnd) from TVepAW-TO-C; (blinded), verbal
of the causative TVepAOw. Latin has a class- of verbs closely
resembling the latter both in meaning and formation, namely,
those in -ut-io, caeciltio (to see dimly), balbutio (to stutter),
which have passed into the 4th conjugation.
6. Stems ending in a voiced explosive.-Greek types: ap7rutw
=*ap7r-o.y-yw, p.a<TT{'w (to whip) = *p.aa-T-{y-yw, EA7r{'W ='FEA7r-
{O-yw, 7rEft7ro.'W (to count by fives) = *7r€P.7r-o.O-yw, etc. The
frequency of the nominal stems in -o.D- and -{D- 2 caused an
1 Cf. supra 121, 6. We must probably restore -tr- being the
reduced form of the suffix of nouns denoting agent, ibid. 2 and 3.
2 Cf. snpra 127 and 136.
L
146
GREEK A1\D LATIN GRAMMAR.
extensive development, at first parallel with these stems, but
fl.fterwards quite apart from them, of the verbs in -atw and
so that these two terminations sprea¢l in an directions, until
the Greek lexicon was filled with them: (to name),
vEatw (to be young)" TEp&.tw (to work miracles), (3aa-tAttw (to
reign), OVEl.ottW·(to utter reproaches), (to reason), etc.
l
'These verbs in their turn have nominal derivatives in
-aa--p..Q, -aa--Tl.-KO-r;, -La--JLQ, etc., which are still
created by borrowing and analogy in our own day, e.g. art-ist,
Journal-ism, and so on indefinitely. Latin also borrowed from
Greek at all periods a certain number of verbs of this class,
which passed into, the 1st eonjugation, e.g. Old Lat. comissari,
cf. Kwp.atHv (to revel), post-class. thesaurizare =()'i](J'avpttEtv., etc.
(142) III. Suffix -sko-.-This secondary suffix is not very
pOlllillon, Gk. (to be young), P.E()-V-a-KW (to intoxicate),
except however in two classes of formations
. whieh are different in each language. In Greek, the addition of
t.he suffix -a-KO- to a thematic form, especially in the present or
aorist, produces the forms called iteratives, ¢EVY-E-(J"KE (he fled),
KaA£-E-a-KE (he called), epvy-f.-a-KE (fled), to-E-a-KE (he saw), which
are extremely common in Homer 2 and Herodotus. These forms
show the curious peculiarities of never being used in the pre-
sent and not taking the augment, even in the prose of Hero-
dotus, who never neglects it. In Ilatill, intransitive verbs in
-eo often have side by side with them verbs in -esco, which
are almost synonymous with them, but have an inchoative
shade of meaning, e.g. alb-e-o (to be white), alb-e-sco (to begin
to be white), ad-ol-e-sco (to grow up, cf. ad-ul-tu-s), in-no-te-
seo (to begin to be known), etc.
IV. Suffix -dho- (?).-Greek sho,vs in certain forms, chiefly
poetic, a similar addition of the suffix -()o-: Hom. epAf.y-E-()H (he
burns, cf. rpAl.y-W), (they assembled, cf. ayf.{pw).
(143) V. Suffix -0-(-e-) secondary: subjunctives.-We have
seen that the non-thematic forms are changed to subjunctives
1 The similarity of the futures, e.g. and gave rise to the
dialectical doublet (jaA1rld(jw, and even ¢pa(j(j(1] by the side of
2 So also p.vT](ja(jK€TO (11. xi. 566) (J'rpf'!fa(jKoP (n. xviii. 546), (j1r€L(J'a(jK€ (Gd.
viii. 89) by addition to the sigmatic
DERIVATION. 147
by the addition of the thematic vowel.! Hence if a present
*bher-mi (I bear) regularly becomes in the subjunctive *bher-o-
or *bhe1'-e-, it is quite natural that a thematic present *bher-o-
or *bher-e- should in its turn become in the subjunctive *bher-o-
=*bhAr-o-o- or *bher-e- =*bher-e-e-. In short, the subjunctive
with a long vowel in the thematic exactly corresponds
to the subjunctive with a short vowel in the non-thematic
forms. Hence the law which simply lengthens in the sub-
junctive the short vowel of the indicative, ¢€P-o-}-t€V ep€P-w-}-t€V,
ep€P-€-T€ ep€P-Yj-T€, €-)...{7r-O-iL€v )...{7r-W-}-t€V, € € € )...{7r-Tj-T€, and so

If we pass to Latin, it seems difficult to overlook t4e close
connexion between A€Y-Tj-T€ and leg-e-tis (future of the qrd and
4th conjugations). On the other hand, leg-e-s and leg-e-t =
*leg-e-t with long vowel exactly correspond to the short forms
of the present indicative, *leg-e-s, *leg-e-t, which have become
leg-i-s, leg-i-t. The 1st and Brd pers. (for *leg-o-mus)
and leg-e-nt (for *leg-o-nt) must have taken the vowel ethrough
the analogy of the other forms. There reJl!.ains the 1st sing.
leg-a-m, which was borrowed from the subjunctive in -a-.
2
The
connexion of meaning is no difficulty; the de-
noting essentially a prayer or an eventlfality, is well suited to
express the future meaning, and there examples of a similar
process in various languages.
Thus the future of the Brd and 4th qonjugation is identical
with the secondary subjunctive of Perhaps the same
should be said of the subjunctive of the 1st conjugation, an'lem ;
thus ametis go back to *ama-:e-:tis? cf rL}-t&-YJ-T€, ames,
amet to *ama-e-s, *ama-e-t, the e having t4en contaminated
the other three persons. This is extremely probaOle.
(144) VI. Suffix -ye-(-i-): secondary optatives. - In this
way are formed the optatives of non-thematic tenses, especially
the present in -vii-, ov-va-p,aL DV-Va-{-P,YJv, and the two passive
1 Of. supra 86 and 89, VII.
2 Of. snpra 104.
3 This explanation is far from being universally admitted; some, dis-
daining phonetic laws, would see an optative in leges = A€')!OI.S; others connect
cap-ie-s with oo-lT]-s, not seeing that the i of capies comes from the present
capiiJ. We cannot stop to discuss this point.
148-
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
aorists, €-nJ7r-Yj';v Tv'rr-€... {Yj-V, (.;.'A:v-BYjv Av-()€-{Yj-v, which were natu-
rally influenced by the analogy of ;'()Yjv ()€{Yjv. A much later
8ubstitlited this f6rrtiation for the following one in the
present optatives of contracted verbs: epLAo{YjV, by the
side of and even in some optatives of thematic
aorists, a-X-o-{Yj-=v, i Some see the same suffix
in the Latin subjunctive of the 1st conjugation, e.g. arnes ==
*ama-ye-s. Apart from this "Very doubtful case, it no longer
exists in Latin except in the reduced form ..;i-, which was intro-
duced froln the plural into the singular, e.g. faxim ==fac-s-i-rn,
vid-err-i-s for == Gk. *F€LO-€a--{Yj-'; (€io€{Yj'), opt. of perf.
aloa), through the analogy of the regular 2 it
forms in Latin the tense called perfect subjunctive, which is
strictly a perfect optative. '.
The form of the future-perfect, vfd-er-=o, very greatly resem-
bles the last form. It differs from it however, not only in
the 1st pers. sing., but also, at any rate originally, throughout,
in the quantity of its vowel i, which is always short; hence
it ought to be included in the preceding class. Thus we should
have vid-er-o == €io-€-w (I may kI?-owJ, == *vld-er... es, and
the Latin future-perfect would he the regular perfect subjunc-
tive (with short vowel), as vid-=er::.i-m certainly represents the
perfect optative.
VII. Suffix -i-: optative of the thematic tenses. -= Instead
of the alternation bet,veen -LYj-= and -'i-= whieh We have just seen,
Greek, which in this point agrees vvith Sfi.nskrit, regularly
shows in the optative of the thematic only a siulple -;.-
between the thematic vowel and the termination, e.g. A€{7r-O-t-fU,
A{7r-O-t-P.t, A€{7r"'(J"O-I.-JLt, etc. This formation has entirely disap-
peared in Latin, unless we are willing to adlnit that leg-e-s
=A€y-O-lS, or ames == '*aTnais == *ama-o...i...s, which is quite im-
probable.
3
1 Thus (J"X0lrw: crxoifJ-€lI =6ol?'J1I : OOLjJ-€lI. Of. supra 95.
2 These quantities are archaic; in the classical period we have Vii der'"is,
vtde'rimus in the perf. subj. as in the fut.-perf. Of. Neue, ii. p. 510. But
we still find, for example, dederitis, Ov. vi. 357.
3 It will be seen that there is a troublesome uncertainty in _the Latin
corrf'spondences in classes V, VI and VII; but this uncertainty is confined
within narrow limits.
SECONDARY DERIVATIONo ·149
(145) VIII. Sujfix -s-.----In Greek the secondary format.ion
of the aorists in -cr- (e.g. € €-¢VA-aK-:CF-:a, etc.) is ex-
tended to all the derived verbs with 1+0 Gorruptiolls than
those which will be mentioned in regard to the future. Latin
has lost it, and forms the perfects of its secondary verbs in
-ui and -vi.
(146) IX. Suffix has perhaps pFeserved amid
many corruptions a few traces of t.he future suffix -so- in the
rare and obscure formations used as presents, of which in-
stances are to be found in cap-es-so (to try to take), lac-es-so (to
try to attack), cf. cap-io, In Greek, this sufflx, which
is used to form the future of all derivative verbs, :r.eq.uires the
following observations:-
1. Verbs of which the base is a stem ending in voiceless
guttural or dental both have the same form in the present
originally ending in -yw, e.g. ¢vAd.er(Jw and aifLd.(jerw; but in the
case of the former verbs the guttural reappears in the future,
In imitation of this was created the future
the true form of which would be *aiJ1.a.(jw ==- *aifLa()erw = *ai-fLd.r-erw;
in other words, all verbs which have their present in -(J"(J"W form
their future in ,vithout distinction.
2. The same assimilation took place, but only in Doric,
between all verbs which had their present in -'w (=-y-yw or
-3-yw). Thus the future of verTEp{'w (to be late) is regularly in
ordInary Greek verTEp{(]"w = *V(]"TEp-{S-a-w, but in Doric
1
in imitation of the regular future of etc. This
corruption even extends to primary formations, e.g. Dor.
(having sat).
3. Secondary verbs ,vith a nasal or liquid form their futures
just like primary verbs of the same type,2 e.g. €x()a{pw EXBapW,
ayyEAAw ayyEAw, 7roLfLa{vw 7roLfLavw.
4. The Ionic-Attic formations in -Ew, -flJ and the Doric forlna-
tions in -crEw, -er{w, -a-w:3 belong to the system of secondary
derivation as much as, or even more than, to that of the
primary stems.
1 Similarly Hom. € € (II. ii. 328), € € (II. xxiv. 6(7),
€ (Od. ii. 222). The Homeric and classical 1]p-rraCT€V (Od. xv. 250) is
the result of the converse analogy.
:I Supra 141, 3 and 4, and 97. 3 Supra 97.
150 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
§ 2.-Hellenic'For1nations.
(146) I. Suffix -K-.-All secondary perfects have this sign,
before which the final vowel of the primary stem undergoes-
the same lengthening as before the -u- of the aorist and fu
7rE-ep{)..-Yj-K-a, TE-T{-ftYj-K-a, etc. The perfect nliddle simply adds
the to the stem, which eventually became
similarly lengthened, 7rE-ep{A-YJ-ftal., TE-T{-ftYJ-ftat..
II. Suffix -uo- of the future-perfect; this form is rather rare,
and presents no difficulty:
III. Suffix -EU- of the pluperfect: added directly to the
perfect stem, whatever this may be : €-AE-Av-K-E-a (I had loosed),
class. f.-AE-Av-K-YJ and €-AE-Av-K-El.-V.
1
IV. Suffix -8YJ-.-Derivative verbs no longer possess the
aorist passive in -Yj-; but the aorist passive in -8YJ- has been
extended so far as to be the only form in classical Greek. The
long vowel of f.-ep{A-YJ-ua recurs in € etc.
V. Su.ffi:£ it is the future passive in
not that in which has been adopted by secondary verbs:
It will be noticed that these two formations
are liable sporadically to the analogical insertion of the same
-CT- which has been already mentioned and explained in the case
of the perfect,2 e.g. KE;\EV-W (to command), KE-KEAEV-cr-ftat, €-KEAEV-
u-(}Yj-v,
§ B.-Latin Formations.
(147) I. Suffix -a-: forms the subjunctive present' of all
verbs of the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th conjugations without distinction:
cap-i-a-m, ven-i-a-m, par-tur-i-a-m.
II. Su:ffix -ba-: forms the imperfe_ct of all verbs.-In the
1st and 2nd conjugation we have quite regularly arna-ba-rn,
for in the first place we have seen that the
final vowel of ama-, mone-, may very well have been long in
certain positions; 3 and even supposing it was not long here,
it. must necessarily have hecome so, at any rate in ==
*rynone-e-ba1n. But in the 3rd conjugation we should expect
1 Cf. sup1'a 101 and infra 298.
3 Cf. supra 141, 1.
2 Supra 64 A note.
SECONDARY DERIVATION.
151
*leg-e-ba-l'n j for here the e is simply the thematic vowel of the
verb, the same vowel which appears in leg-i-tis =
)...f.Y-€-T€. Hence it must have been lengthened through the
"analogy of mone-ba-m, and so also in the 4th conjugatioD
1
audi-e-ba-m. The regular contracted form audibam=*audi-
e-ba-m exists as an archaism.
III. Suffix -bo-: futures of the 1st and 2nd conjugation (the
analogical futures of the 3rd and 4th, dic-e-bo, aud-i-bo, were
created, but not retained, in the classical language).-This
formation can only be regarded as being essentially secondary.
In a cOlnbination like arefacio (to make dry), the word are-
was originally quite distinct and is still kept so in the time
of Lucretius, who writes sol facit are. Now, just as are thus
became joined to facio and flo, it may have been joined. alsc)'
to the verb fu- (to be), e.g. *are fuo, a group in which medial
f would have· phonetically become b, are-bo (I may be dry,
shall be dry); then, through the analogy of tirere and drelJo;
monebo from l'nonere, amabo from amare. If we adopt this
attempt at explanation, without however concealingits defects, 1
it will be seen that it is equally applicable to arebam=*iire
fuam, and consequently for the imperfects.
(148) IV. Suffixes -v- and -u- of the perfeet.-It is by means
of one or other of these suffixes that Latin forms its secondary
perfects. The first appears chiefly in the 1st and 4th conjuga-
tions, ama-vI, aud-I-v-i, whence analogy sometimes introduces
it into verbs of the 3rd, pet-i-vI from pet-a j the second is the
ordinary suffix of the 2nd conjugation, mon-u-i, tim-u-i, and
of certain derivative verbs of the Brd; statui == *sta-tu-ui(?).
The syncope of the v in audii, petiI does not seem to be a
phonetic phenomenon, but a mere analogical corruption,2 which
hovvever spread very widely and resul ted in a still further
syneope in the tenses derived from the perfect: audii naturally
gave rise to audieram,. imitation of audieram produced
*amaerarn, arnaram, and the corruption extended to more
1 The most serious is the difference of quantity between arejaciv and
ii1"euv.
2 Thus audii: alldUum = statui: statutum, with shortening of the vowel
before a following vowel.
AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
forms, e.g. rnorat=moverat, vorat=voverat; and
similarly in the pluperfect subjunctive, audiissem, whence
audissem, amassem, nossem, etc. .
(149) V. Suffix of the pluperfect indicative.-
Whatever is to thong4t of the form erat, it seems pretty
clear that it have served as model for fuerat, that is to
say, that the when once in possession of the ratio
of es-t to er-a-t, derived thence, by a clumsy but easily con-
ceivable proportion, the ratio of fu-i-t to fu-err-a-t, to express
the past tense of the perfect. If, however, we wished to
a QetW(3eIl the Greek and Latin
pluperfect, we sheuld call attention to the fact that the form
fu-er-a-m, for example, bears to l-A€-AO{7r-€-a == *l-A€-AO{7r-€(J"n;}
exactly the same relation as er-a-m to (I was) ==
(without augment in ether words, that in both caSeS
Latin has the group am corresponding to n;}, a correspondence
phonetically impossible. Hence we should reconcile every-
by etc., and snpposing that
a under the influence ef the imperfect terminations
in -ba- (cf. eras and amabas). The choice remains open be-
tween these two explanations. The only point that is certain
this sumx -:era-: of the pluperfect is added without dis-
to the possible forms of primary, secondary, and
tert,iary perfects of all conjugations.
(ISO) VI. Suffix -se- in the imperfect and pluperfect sub-
junctive.-Fro14 the form *es::sc;;rn on the one hand, and
'the infinitive forms ft-er-e and es-se 1 on the other, there was
easily obtained the fourth proportional, *ft-er-ern, aud thence
legerem, caperem, in short the exact parallel between the in-
finitive' 'and the imperfect subjunctive, which was naturally
Ieng,thened in the other conjugations, amare arnarern, rnonere
l1zonerem, audire audirem. In the case of the pluperfect, it
t4at the element. -sse- of essem, being regarded as a
suffix, was added by to the form fu-i-, which was
jtself wrongl! to be the perfect stem; hence fu-i-sse-m 2
1 See supra 106 and 125.
2 Juisset: fuit::;;;: eS,'5et: est, or better still fuis.o;et:
(? old form "of fuerat) = esset: *esat (erat). It is true that in old
SECONDARY DERIVATION.
153
and the pluperfect subjunctive of all conjugations, in regard
to which we must also take into account the exact parallel
between it and the infinitive, fuisse, amuvisse, etc. 1
SECTION II.
NOMINAL STEMS.
§ l.-Common Formations.
(151) I. Suffix -yo-, -io-, fern. -i-, -ia.-Of all the prilnary
suffixes used as secondary, this group is by far the most impor-
tant. Indeed to" some extent it is the key to the system of
secondary nominal derivation; hence it will be convenient to
give it the first place and to consider it at some length, accord-
ing to the ending of the primary stem which is affected by it.
1. Final -e- (-0-), -a-.-The purest form seems to be that in
which the vowel of the primary suffix takes the form e, with loss
of intervocalic y: XP1)(J"€O; = *Xpv(J"€-yo-s, aUre1-lS ==- *aus-e-yo-s.
Hence in Latin the suffix -eu-, which forms a large number of
denoting material and attributes: 1"os-eu-s, l1:tor-eu-s,
etc.
In another type, peculiar to Greek, the intervocalic i re-
mains: 2 oJL-O-S, OP.-O-LO-S, SiK-ii S{K-a-LO-S, 7TofL7r-a-LO-S; hence
the suffixes -aLO- -oLo-,3 which spread in all directions, e.g.
JlYj (J"aLOS, 7raVTOLOS, though there are no primary stems *vYj(J"-ii-,
*7raVT-O-. Often, in imitation of what takes place after a con-
sonantal stem, the suffix -io- expels the final vowel of the
primary stem and is added directly to the preceding consonant_,
e.g. Gk. ovp-aJlo-s ovp-av-l.o-s, -BaAao-a--a OaAaa-a--Lo-S, and Lat.
inscriptions we do not find the double s, e.g. FVISET (i scanned as long) ;
but in old Latin consonants are not doubled, and tbe pronunciation must
still have been for would necessarily have been rhotacized.
1 Of. infra 161.-Some essentially Latin present formations, e. g. niiv-ig-o
pos-tul-o, alb-ie-v, 'rae-ill-v, may Le passed over, as being comparatively
rare; they no doubt go back to primitive nominal formations which had
fallen into disuse.
2 This may be connected, as we have already seen, with the fact that the
suffix is sometimes -yo-, sometimes .io-, supra"S9
3 Of. also :3 and 4. Still the Homeric scansion ofJ-ol'(oll (Od. iii. 236)
seems to point to a primitive suffix -iyo-, cf. supra 71 note.
154
GREEK AND; LATiN GRAMMAR.
Tul-lu-s and Tul-l-iu-s, ser-vo-s and Ser-v-iu-s, som-nu-s and
som-n-iu-m, etc. The Latin termination -aeu-s is of course
borrowed.
2. Final -i-.-In Greek, the suffix -yo- added to the suffix
-rt-, e.g. ()v-a-{-a (sacrifice) == *()v-T{-ya, produced the suffix -0-1,0-,
,vhich became very common: Oav-/La-o-to-r; (wonderful), (n1-/L0-0-I,o-r;
(popular), EV-EPY-E-a-{a (kindness). In Latin, the very common
suffix -tio- must have the same origin: nup-ti-ae, ser-vi-tiu-l'n,
am7[c-i-tia; then, through the intimate relation between the
two suffixes -ia and _7[,
1
the doublets avaritia avarities, etc.
3. Final -u-.-Gk. VEK-v-{a and VEK-V-ta (calling up of the dead)
from vEK-v-r;, etc. But adjectives in -V- take the form -:EF- before
the secondary suffix -7[- (Gk. -La) of the feminine gender:
== like gen. == Stems in -EV-
naturally follow the same rule, j3aa-tA-Ev-r; j3aa-{AELoC; (royal) ==
*j3aa-{A-eF-to-r;, ypaep-Ev-c; ypaepELov (stylus for writing): whence
the suffix -EtO- -ELO-, extended to forms like 7Tap()€VELOC; (maidenly),
yvVatKELov (women's quarters).
4. Final -es- (-os-).-The perfect participle in -Foo-- reduces
its suffix before the secondary suffix -ta == 1; of the feminine:
EiovLa==*FHo-v(]"-La. In the other formations the primary suffix
remains unchanged; from "Apyor;, €
== *a-Aae-Ea--La and Ion. uAY]BELY] == a-Aa()-Ea--{a, aiool-or; (venerable)
== *aio-oa--to-r;, etc.; whence a fresh source for suffixes -ELO- and
-OLO-. Latin has in this class the forlus pleb-e-iu-s pleb-e-ju-s,
with the same lengthening as in pleb-es, vener-iu-s from Ven-'us
(Ven-er-is), and Hon-or-iu-s with the same lengthening as in the
gen. hon-or-is, c£. Gk. *aic-o(]"-or;. .
5. Final suffix reduced before -ya: ()€pa7r-wv
(servant), fern. ()Epa7TaI,Va == € whence the fern. suffix
-aLva extended to € (goJdess), etc. The same reduced
before -io-: (shepherd), 7TO{-/LV-tO-V (sheepfold). The
same without any reduction or change: TEp-y]V (soft), fern. TEpElva
== *TEp-Ev-ya; TEpfJ;i-WV (boundary), TEP-/LOV-LO-S (extreme). In
Latin, with the lengthening already noticed, quer-i-mon-ia
(complaint), matri-l11tOn-iu-m, etc.
1 See supra 112. 2 Of. supra 111.
'SECONDARY DERIVATION. 155
6. Finalliquid.-Primary suffix reduced, 7ra-Tp-to-S pa-tr-iu-s;
normal without lengthening, fern. oOTELpa (giver) = OO-TEp-
ya; normal with lengthening, UW-TYJP-{a (safety),
(sleeping-room); deflected with lengthening, prae-tor-iu-s,
vic-tor-ia, v01n-i-tor-itt-m; reduced before the fern. suffix -1;
which is accompanied by a guttural addition still unexplained,
vic-tor, feln. vic-tr-i-c-; the termination unchanged before the
Latin suffix -ie-=-i, which changes the adjective to a feminine
abstract noun, pauper pauper-ie-s.
7. Latin participles have lost their feminine.
The Greek participles of all kinds form theirs very regularly in
:-di =-i, e.g. = *rt-fJl.-vT-S,. fern. = *Tt-fJl.-vT-ya,
l
epl.pova-a
= *epEp-o-vT-ya (Sk. bhdr-a-rit-i), Al:rrova-a = *Al7r-O-vT-ya, Avo-acra
=*Av-cra-vT-ya. On the contrary, it is the suffix -ia (-io-) which
is to be recognized in yEpovcr{a == *yEp-o-vT-{a (council of old men),
as well as in Latin abstract nouns derived from the saIne
participles, sci-e-nt-ia, con-sta-nt-ia, and the proper nouns Con-
stantius, Prudentius.
8. Final explosive.-The suffix -1,0- in Greek often had a
diminutive function, e.g. (pebble), (small pebble).
When joined to stems ending in an explosive, it produced the
forms op.-p.aT-Lo-v (little eye), oAK-aD-Lo-v (little ship), 7ra-LD-{o-v
(little child). Then these elements -DLO-, -{OLO-, being regarded
as diminutive suffixes, were introduced into other formations:
'W-DLO-V (slnall animal), ay-p-{DtO-V (small field), ;'-p.aT-{DLo-V (small
g.arment); so also in certain adjectival formations, E7rL-eaAacr(J"-
tDLO-S (maritime), (his own). In
Latin there is no special peculiarity i aud.;.ac-ia from audax,
fast-ig-iu-m (top), primitive form unknowni
(152 ) II. Suffix -i-.-Very rarely secondary in Greek, but
in Latin is added as a secondary suffix to all prim-ary adjectives
in -u-, e.g. gra-v-i-s, cf. Gk. f3ap-v-s, suavis==*suad-v-i-s, cf. Gk.
=*crFaD-v-s, etc.; so also nav-i-s, cf. Gk. This -i- is
perhaps a relic, thongh much corrupted, of the old -i- which
1 Of. supra 47 O. So also the Hom. fern. of 7rp&¢pwv (kind) is 7rp6¢pa(nra
(P.g. II. x. 290) = *7rPO-¢p'll-r-ya with an additional suffix T. llp6¢pwv is
also fern., e g. Hymn to Dem,eter, 226.-For the probable explanation of
form XaplELS, of which the fern. see infra 165.
156
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
formed the feminine of these adjectives (in Sk. svad-u-s (s\v"eet),
fern. svad-v-i), just as the fern. acris contrasted with the masc.
aeer is perhaps a reminiscence of SOlne prehistoric feminine
*ak-r-i, so that these derivatives would belong to the preceding
class.
(153) III. Suffix -wo-.-This suffix seems to have developed
in Latin the secondary derivatives in ..ivo... , which are rather
common as adjectives: noc-ivo"s, cap-t-ivo-S, fug-i-t-ivO-S, and
others.
(154) IV. Suffix -on-. - Secondary in Greek in KOI.VruV
(partner, gen. derived from (common), in ai-wl/
(age, gen. 1) derived from a lost form *al.-Fo-v identical
with Lat. ae-vo-m. It is especially COUlmon in Latin, where,
under the same form -0 -on-is, it is added to the primary or
secondary suffix -ti- 2 to form fenlinine nouns of action, ac-ti-o,
aue-ti-o, or-a-ti-o, aud-i-ti-o, suas'io, by a regular and "\-v"ell known
process. It is also found added, either to steIns in -io-, in whieh
case it is contracted with the thematic vowel 0, leg-i-o, cf.
eol-leg-iu-m, ob-sid-i-o, cf. ob-sid-iu-m, or to consonantal stems,
especiallyadjectjves in -ac-, in which it changes the final gut-
tural (vor-ag-o from vor-ac-, supra 62 '), whence the multitude
of feminine nouns in -ago, farr>-ago, im-ago, and subsidiarily
in -i.Qo and -ugo, or..ig°,Irub-igo, ferr-ugo, lan-ugo, etc. I twas
doubtless an exactly similar phonetic process which changed
the secondary suffix -tut- to -tud-o (infra 174), e.g. the doublets
servitus and servitudo (through the genitive servitfLdinis ==
*servi-t'flt-1)n..is), and we know how often this element -tudo in
Latin forms feminine abstract nouns, soli-tudo, vale-tudo, con-
sue-tudo, etc.
(155) V. Suffix ..mo.... -Rarely secondary in Latin; very
COllInon in Greek., where it forms nouns of action (oxytone) cor-
responding chiefly to verbs in ..&"w and (robbery),
(stri£e),3 and adjectives of derived from
1 In the circumflex accent we still have a reminiscence of the very old
contraction of *aiwull-= *ai-wo-on-, etc.-Add the suff. -lWl1 of Ionic patro-
nymics, Kpoll-lwlI (and Kpoll-i"wlI) from KpOllLOS.
2 Of. supra 59, 118, and infra 210, II.
S With the sigmatic epenthesis which is very common in this and the
following classes
l
K€'A€U-v-fJ;OS (command), 7rar-'Yj-(J-fJ;O-S (trampling).
SECONDARY DERIVATION.
157
nominal stems in "'TL-, Dp&....crL-fLo... r;; (active). From' the last type
was formed the suffix -r-fL
O
- with the same function, €D-wa-l.fLC-r;;
(eatable), of which suffix the rare and obscure derivative
elenlent -&'ALfLo- seems to be only a particular variety, Eio-&'ALfLo-;
.(beautiful).
(156) VI. SujJlx -men-, etc.-The secondary suffixes -p-a
and -p-EV- form in Greek: (1) the numerous neuters in -fLa,
7ro{-Yj-p.a (work, poem), 7r&'()-Yj-p.a (suffering), (decree),
corresponding to the Latin neuters in -rnen, freg-i-men, sol-a-
l1zen, and the subsidiary forms in -mento-, arm-a-mentu-m; (2)
all the secondary Molic infinitives in -fLEV and -p.(!J/-al., e.g.
epEp-/.-p-EV and epEp"'/''''JLEV-UI., formed on the analogy of the primary
forms crTa-p-Ev and It must be observed that before
the suffix -fLEV- of the infinitive the thematic vowel assumes the
form E, whereas it takes the deflected form before the almost
identical suffix -fLEVO- of the middle participle, Lat.
al-u-mnu-s (one \vho is nourished, nursling). The last forma-
tion, which is extensively represented in Greek, where it forms
the participles of all tenses in the mediopassiye voice, is repre-
sented in Latin only by a few nominal stems 1 in which the
suffix is rather -1nno- than -meno-, e.g. Vertul1'tnus (god of
spring) == *vert-o-rneno-s, he who returns (the year),
(an obscure formation); also by the 2nd pers. pI. of all tenses
in the passive voice, leg.:.i-mintt, am-tirmint, and by analogy
al1uJ,-ba-min"i, aud"i-re-min"i, etc.
(157) VII. -ro..;., -lo-.-This suffix is often secondary
in Greek, where it forms adjectives, usually oxytone: epav-E-pO-'i
(evident), epOf3-E-po.::.r;; (terrible, cf. epof3..;o..:r;;) , icrX",;v"'po-r;; (strong),
o-"iy-Yj-AO-'i, Dar. cr"iy-ii-Ao... r;; (silent), from (silence), etc.
From these types and others false suffixes were afterwards
detached, which became very widely extended, e.g.
(sacrifice), Kv-p.ar-YJpo-r;; (billowy), 7r/.O"'"iAo-v (sandal), Efo-WAo-V
(image), (sin), etc. Similarly Latin has a suffix -ela,
forming feminine nouns; loqu..:.cla quer-ela (also quer:..
ella, complaint); but the secondary suffix .;,lo- was almost
entirely confined in Latin to a diminutive function, e.g. par-vo-
l Unless we accept the hypothesis that
medo-s = "'Aey-o-p.€1I0-S, sup1'a 137.
158
GREEK AND LA.TIN GRAMMAR.
lu-s from par-vo-s, homullus == *'horn-on-los, agellus == *ag-er-lo-s;
whence the diminutive suffixes -ulu-, -ellu-, which be-
came exceedingly common. It was probably a confusion with
the prilnary suffix -culo-
1
which gave rise to the diminutive
type fra-ter-culu-s, and this suffix, added to the syllable -on-
of the nouns in -tio-, or-a-ti-un-cula (little speech), produced
the suffix -unculu- of av-onculu'-s (little grandfather, term of
endearment for "maternal uncle ").
VIII. Suffix -ri-, -li-.-This secondary suffix is very com-
mon in Latin, where it assumes the forms: (1) -ili-, fac-i-lf-s,
frag-i-li-s, ut-i-li-s; (2) -tili-, duc-t-i-li-s (cf. duc-tu-s) , fer-
tili-s; 2 (3) -ili-, host-ili-s == *' host'i-'ili-s (?), Pdl-ili-a (feast of
Pales); (4) -ali-, augur-ali-s, and (5) -ari-, rnilit-ari-s, show-.
jug the alternation already noticed.
3
The neuter of several
of these adjectives, when used separately as a substantive,
lost its final letter in the nominative singular,4 animal==.
anim-ale (that which is endowed with life), laquear (panelling)
=Zaque-are (that which is panelled), from laqueus (intricate
pattern); but the i reappears in all the rest of the declension.
On the other hand the regular nom. pI. laque-ari-a brought
about the creation of a nom. sing. laque-ari-u-m, whence
doublets like auxiliaris and auxiliarius, gen. pI. Saturnaliu1n
and Sa-turnaliorum (Macrob.), which are especially common
in post-classical Latin and are perpetuated in the Romance
languages.
(IS8) IX. SujJix -no-.-Secondary in Greek and Latin
uuder the forms: -ino-, adjectives denoting ulaterial,
(oaken), fag-i-nu-s,; -in,eo-, by addition to -eo-, the other suffix
of adjectives denoting material, fagineus; 5 -ino-,
tpYJY-'Lvo-t. (inhabitants of div-inu-s, coqu-ina, with
1 Of. supra 122. Was this on account of the diminutive ?
2 It is impossible to overlook the connexion in meaning between these
adjectives and those in -bili-, supra 138.
3 Supra 51, 2. The a of the suffix seems to be borrowed from the
original termination of the feminine nouns, cf. canna and cana-li-s, insula
and insula-Ti-s, supra 83 and infra 193, 1.
4 Probably through analogy, e.g. *animal: animalis (gen.) =sal: salis, the
final syllable in l being afterwards shortened.
5 This Latin is probahly a Hellenism. Of. however extr-czneu-s,
for-iczneu-s, etc.
SECONDARY DERIVATION. 159
reduction of the preceding primary suffix doc-t1--ina, in a more
complex and obscure formation disc-i-pl-'ina; -eno-, 7r€T-€-Yjvb-r;
(winged), terr-enu-s (earthly); in Latin only, -ano-, -iano-,
Roma-nu-s, from * old form of Roma, hilm-anu-s, Claud-
i-anu-s, christ-ianu-s (Greek forms like are bor-
rowed). Also in Latin, -no- added to a primary stem in -r-
of doubtful origin, noc-tur-nu-s (cf. Gk. VVK-TWp, by night),
produced the suffix -urno-, which appears in di-urnu-s, and
tac-i-"-turnu-s.
X. Suffix -to-:- forms in Greek and Latin the verbals or
past participles of all secondary verbs: TLjJ--Yj-To-r;,
€ K€A-€V-cr-To-r;; am-a-tus, mon-i-tu-s = *mon-e-tu-s, cf.
the doublet Mon-e-ta (wise, epithet of Juno), aud-i-tu-s, sta-
tu-tu-s, etc.
Latin also has the suffixes -ato-, -ito-, -uto-, without any
corresponding verb, in dent-atu-s, c1'in-itus, corn-utu-s (cf.
corn-u); and secondary forms based on a stem in -es-, e.g.
fun-es-tu-s, hon-es-tu-s, on-us-tu-s, ven-us-tu-s, etc.
XI. Suffix -ti--: in Greek under the form -crl.- and in Latin
under the amplified form -tion- forms the. nouns of action
derived from all secondary verbs, ep[A-Yj-crl.-r; (affection), aLp-€-crl.-r;
(choice), op-er-a-ti-o, etc.
XII. Suffix -tu-: as a secondary suffix, is scarcely found
except in Latin (Gk. {3o-Yj-rv-r; shouting), where it forIns nouns
of action, ven-a-tu-s (hunting), mug-'i-tu-s, of \yhich- the active
and passive supines of secondary verbs are only particular
cases.
1
(159) XIII. Suffix etc.-Greek has the two second-
ary suffixes and -TOp-, for nouns denoting agent,
and Dor. lILK-a-rwp (conqueror); Latin only the suffix -tor-,
also -turo- for future participles and
-tura for feminine nouns of action, am-a-turu-s, arm-a-tura.
The various suffixes of nouns denoting instrument recur in
secondary derivation in both languages: dp-O-!PO-JI (plough),
Ex-l.-rAYj (handle), (sleeping-place); ar-a-tru-m, pi-a-
lav-a-cr'u-m, cun-a-bula. But by far the most hn-
- 1 Cf. hupra 119.
160 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
portant secondary suffix belonging to this group is that of the
comparative in -tero-; in Greek, nearly all the secondary com-
paratives have -T€PO-, just as nearly all the priulary comparatives
end in -{W1/.
When the primary stem is an o-stem, its vowel is always 0,
€ but when the preceding syllable is short by
nature and by posi tion, this vowel is lengthened to w, uo¢-w-
€ This phenomenon, whieh is still partly unexplained,
is due, either to the Greek rhythmical law which forbids too
many short vowels to follow one another, or perhaps rather
to the analogy of the comparatives of adverbs (old ablatives),2
av-w-,€PW, KU,-W-T€PW, € from which the lengthening
Inay have wrongly passeq. into the corresponding adjectives.
When the primary stem is one in -€(J"-, € € € a termi-
nation -EO",€Po- is produced, which has been wrongly introduced
into other formations, especially into adjectives in -oV-, €V-
€ € On the other hand, the comparative of the
adverb 7raAai, € being wrongly referred to
(old), has given- rise to a formation in -u{,€Po-, which, though
at first restricted to adj ectiyes in -ULO-? € € (Hom.),
(J"xoAuiT€PO(), has gradually spread outside these limits, P.€fFU{,€P0o;,
€ Lastly, the secondary suffix -T€PO- seems to be
added to the primary suffix "LeT'" of the in for-
mations like € (left),3 which become much comllloner
in post-classical Greek, e.g. € (more thievish).
To the last type belong some Latin words with the secondary
suffix -tero- which have lost their comparative meaning:
1nag-is-ter (" the greater of two,"master), min-is-ter (" the less
of two," servant), sin-is-ter (left, root unknown, hardly the
same as that of Gk. (J"{v-o-P.Ut, to injure). Much more prolific
is the suffix -ter which goes to form adverbs, which are really
comparatives (no doubt neuters, we know that the Greeks said
1 The form (jT€1I6T€POS (nRrrower) is only an apparent exception, for we
mnst restore *(jT€vFoT€poS (lEol. (jTEVVOS, Ion. O"T€LlIOS).
2 See infra 187, 4. .
3 Originally no doubt "the better side," by a euphemism like €UWlIlJ.lJ.or;.
'\Vhen the comparative meaning ceased to be felt .in this. word, it was
accented like the adjectives in -p5-.
SECONDARY DERIVATION. 161
indifferently crxoAa{TEpa or € etc.) used as positives,
levi-ter, libenter= *libent-ter, felic-i-ter (with analo-
gical i as in in/l'a 206, 5), fl1'1ni-ter, and so in
old Latin many adverbs derived froln adjectives of the 2nd
declension (superbitel' Naev.), which disappeared in classical
Latin, being superseded by the adverbial ablatives in -e.
(r60) XIV. Suffix -nt-: forms in Greek and Latin the
participles corresponding to all the thematic fornls of verbs,
ep€P-O-VT- (nom. ¢€pwv), Aaf3-o-vr-, Av-cr-O-VT-, etc., ferr-e-nt- (nom.
f el"ens), arnans, etc. It will be noticed that the thematic
vowel is always 0 in Greek and e in Latin.
1
(r6r) XV. SItJfiX -es-.-This suffix is scarceiyever secondary
in Greek except in those adjectives in -€cr-, whose formation is
not original, e.g. (noisy, from (" stick-
ing" to a thing, earnest), contrasted with A,,;'-a-po-r; (oily). It is
so indirectly in Latin, through the introduction into all verbs
of the infinitives in -re and -1""i, of which we have already seen
the nominal origin and meaning,2 (nna1"i, audire audir-i,
and through the analogical creation of the perfect infinitives,
(modelled on esse), vixisse, a1navisse, etc. The archaic
type a11iarier, remains obscure.
XVI. Suffix -ios-.-Very rarely secondary in Greek (e.g.
XEpE{WV, worse,=*XEp-Ecr-{WV); but in Latin it forms the COIn-
parative of all adjectives \vithout distinction: doc-t-io1",
for-t-ior, sap-de-nt-io1", bene-flc-e-nt-ior (from the obsolete *bene-
ficens, but used as comparative of WTe know how-
ever that custom denies a comparative to adjectiyes in -uo-, -io-
and some others less important.
(r62) XVII. Suffix -kG-.-Very common; in Greek it invari-
ably has the accent, ]'rom this common
type has been formed a suffix which has become widely dis-
seminated, (urban), (ripe), Of.p-ttaT-"KO-<;
(cutaneous), and from the last type aga.in has arisen a suffix
-TLKO-, which appears in numerous complex formations like
€ Another suffix eqnally common, -taKO-, e.g.
nlust have come originally from the com-
bination of the suffix -KO- with feminine primary stems in -ta-
l Cf. infra 209. 2 Supra 125.
M
162
GREEK AND I.lATIN GRAJ\!LMAR.
Besides -iaco-, which is borrowed (dac'7noniacus), Latin also
shows exactly similar phenomena: -co- in -ico- in
so-nt-icu-s (real); -tico- in litnCl-ticttt-s,
etc.; then a combination of the affix -io- with the two pre-
ceding ones, patr-ic-iu-s, jic-tic-iu-s (imaginary), the last type
being very common in legal and post-classical Latin, 1
adventicius (wrong spellings jictitius, etc.).l
This suffix -k6-, which is so rarely primary and so often
secondary, may fittingly conclude the list of suffixes which
are both priInary and secondary. The follo\ving suffixes are
always secondary.
(163) XVIII. -do-, -don-, etc.-It is true that
we can already recognise in primary derivatives a few traces
of a suffix beginning with a dental, Gk. KA:YJ-OWV 2 (renown),
KPV(3-0Yjv (secretly), ¢vy-oa (to flight); but here the secondary
formations, which are infinitely lnore numerous, seem to have
served as lnodels. There is, in the first place, to mention only
the chief instances, the Latin type in -d6-, -id6-, which is so
COlnmon in adjectjves, hc
r
rb-i-du-s,3 flor-i-dttts, and which might
possibly have SOlne very indirect connexion with the gerundive
type in -ndo-, cf. the adjective from rot-a (wheel).
Its Greek correlative seems to be the suffix -00-, -1]00- of adverbs
like (3aep..-Yjoo-v (by steps), crTLX-YjOO-v (line by line). Next comes
the suffix -oii-, -Loii-, -Laoii- of ..LEolic patronymics, c.g.
lastly, the suffix -don-, somewhat rare in Greek, uAy-Yj-owv
(suffering), but very common in Latin in somewhat abseure
formations, and preceded sometilues by a nasal, ar'-un-do (reed),
(swallow), sonletimes by a long vowel, hir-it-do
(leech), Zib-i-io, cup-i-do. It is very possible that this last
class does not really contain a suffix -don-, but has a phonetic
origin similar to that of the suffix -tudo already analysed.
4
(164) XIX. Suffix -tat-.-Very common; it forms, both
1 There is some doubt as to the suffix -ico- seen in the forms pudiCUS and
antiq'l.Ws (also antiCUS). Another variant -inquo- occurs in long-inquo-s,
p rop-inquo-s.
2 Hom. KArrrJOova (ad. iv. 317) and KA€'1]OQVL (ad. xviii. 117).
3 The explanation of this form as being due to composition with the root
cLlo (to give) H giving grass," etc., seems not at aU probable.
4 Supra 154.
SECONDARY DERIVATION. 163
in Greek and Latin, feminine abstract nouns derived from
adjectives, (nom. slowness, Dor. f3paovTos),
fac-ili-tat- (nom. facilitas), etc. The final vowel of o-stems
appears under the form of 0 in Greek before the suffix -tat-,
KOVepOTYjC;, whence the suffix -OTYjT- which has spread to
other forlnations, 7Tal
/
T-oTYJC; (universality), EV-OTYjC; (unity). In
Latin, on the contrary, it aSSUlnes the form of e, ji1'lni-tas==
*.fir-lne-tat-, novitCis, JJanitas, vel'ita:;, whence the suffix -itat- in
veloc-itas, T'apac-itas, etc. But after an i the thernatic vowel
c is not changed, pie-tas, varie-tc7s.
(165) XX. -went-.-It is especially the Sk. -vant-
that shows us the original form of this suffix (in Greek -EVT-) ,
which helps to forin many secondary adjectives meaning pro-
vided with" : Xap{ELC; = (graceful), 7rTEpO-nc; (winged),
Dor. aAKaELC; (vigorous). From these last types were
formed the terluinations -OELC;, which becaIne very common,
€ (shady, from erf([a) , OaKpVOELC; (tearful), € (woody),
(glorious, from KVOOC;) , etc. This suffix must have been
originally reduced to -F?fT- before the feminine suffix -i-, whence
*xap{F?fT-ya, *Xap{FUTyU, *xup{Fuereru; then the analogy of the
luasculine and neuter forms substituted E for u, and so we have
the fern. xap{Eereru, by the side of the regular forin Td)€LerU derived
from Td)€VT-.
1
It is probably the same suffix, together with a new elelnent
-0-, which is to be recognised in the Latin type ==
(?); hence would arise the suffix -ento-, the addition
of which to dilninutives in -olo-, e.g. vin-ol-entu-s (drunken),2
is perhaps the origin of the not nncomlnon suffix -olento-,
vi-olentu-s, etc.
Another and luuch more important Latin formation certainly
belongs to this series. Suppose in Greek a word ==
*FLCTb-FEVT-C; (poisonous); the regular Latin correlative ,vould
be *viro-uent-, and with a tertiary su.ffix-to-, *viro-uent-to-,
\vhence *vIro-uensso-, then by syncope or contraction of the
1 We might however, perhaps more simply, start from the regular com-
parative supra 47 C [and 64 A].
2 Perhaps an old euphemism, "one who has taken a l'ittle wine" cf.
French saoul (surfeited, dl'unken)==satullus (dillin. of satur).
164
GREEK AND LATIN GRAlVLMAR.
group oue to 0,
1
VZ1'onso-, ViTOSO-, in short, the common suffix
-oso-, which is still found written -onso-in inscriptions of popular
origin :
2
furi-osu-s, lib-idin-osu-s, many others.
§ 2. Greek
(166) I. S1JjjiX -For-, later -or-: forms the participles of all
perfects in -f(-: AE-AV-f(-OT- 7rE-eptA-Yj-K-Dr- €
feme AEAlJKVLa, etc.
(167) II. S1tjfixes -FEV-at, -FEV, of infinitives.-The first is
added under the form -EVat to perfect stems, AE-AOt7r-Evat, A€-AVK-
El/at, and under the shortened form -vat 3 to the stems of presents
in -vv- and -va-, OELK-Vv-vat, oaIL-va.-Vat, and of aorists passive,
vat, etc. The second is the usual termination of the
infinitives of thelnatic forlns, e.g. *AEy-€-FEV *AEY-€-€V AEyEtV and
*At7r-E-F€v At7r-E-EV At7rELV. It is really At7rEEV which should be
read wherever the HOlneric poems show as the second aorist
infinitive the ilnpossible form At7rEEtV, in vvhich the termination
-{tV cannot be explained; in most places this correction leaves
the nletre unchanged, inaslnuch as the final short syllable is
follo\ved by an initial consonant, and so becomes long by posi-
tion; in the few cases where this is not so, the syllable is
lengthened through the cffisura.
4
In Lesbian, the E€ seems to
be contracted to Yj, AE{7rYjV Ai7rYJI/. But the short final syllable in
Doric, ay€v, epEpEV, EXEV, At7rEV, is embarrassing; the lTIOst probable
explanation is that here also the contraction to Yj took place
(Lacon. == BtyELV), and that the vowel was afterwards short-
ened on the analogy of the conjugated forIns of the present
(2nd pers. sing. etc.) In the contracted verbs we
have epLAELV == *eptA-E-e-Ev, TLJ.LO-V == *TL-J.La.-€-EV, 01JAolw == *OYj-AO-E:-EV,
etc.
5
1 Of. (affable) = *co-vem-i-s, root vent, the same as ven in venire.
2 The verse omnia jormonsis c'upio donare puellis is found written on a
wall in Pompeii.
3 Of. supra 130.
4 The spelling A£7rE€LV is due to a comparison of the two perispomena
AL7r€Lv and ¢LA€W, the latter of which is contracted from ¢LAf.€LV.
5 The 1st aor. infinitive urf]ua! =ura-CF-aL (snbsidiarily AVCFaL, ¢LAf](jaL, etc.)
is evidently the dative of the same stem of which sUire = * is the
locative. Of. S1.tpra 125.
SECONDARY DERIVATION. 165
III. Suffix forms all infinitives in the rniddle voice,
Av-cru-crBuL,
etc.
(I68) IV. Suffix -€v-; forms secondarily a very large number
of nouns denoting agent, KepufL-ev-c; (potter) froln KEpufL-o-c; (clay),
YPuflfLuT-ev-s (scribe) froul yp(LfJ.-fLa (Jetter), a:ywy-ev-r; (leader)
from and a few nouns denoting instrument,
(rein), ufLoAy-ev-s (milk-pail), etc. .
(I69) V. Suffix -TU-: very ilnportant. (1) Nouns denoting
agent, derived from verbs, and generally oxytone: with short
thematic vowel, € (inventor), vat.-I.-TYJ-S (inhabitant); with
sigmatic insertion, (lover); with long thematic vowel,
with sigmatic insertion, ( dancer).
(2) Nouns derived from nouns, generally paroxytone : .oLK-l-rYJ-c;
(servant), 8YJJL-O-TYj-S (citizen), 7Tpwpa-rYj-s (look-out man). In most
cases the vowel of the primary stem undergoes before the suffix
-TYj- a lengthening of doubtful origin: 1 (prisoner)
from oHr-fl6-s (fetter), 7ToA-L-rYj-r; from 7TO'A-L-S, (old
man) from 7TPE(}f3-V-S, etc. From these and similar formations
have been formed the common suffixes -LTYj- -e{TYj-, -WTYj-,
-t.WTYj-: OO-{TYj-S ( traveller), 07rA-{TYj-S (hoplite), iep-e{TYj-s (priest)
(light-arIned soldier), O"TpurL-wrYj-s (soldier) from
<TTparl.a, O"TuO"l.-wrYj-r; (partisan) from O"Ta-O"L-s, JlYj(}-l.wrYJ-S (islander)
from etc. By the substitution of -rLKO- for -rYJ- adjectives
are derived from these nouns, crTpaTl.WrLKOc; (military).
VI. Suffix -rl.o-: verbals denoting obligation from all derived
verbs, ept.A-YJ-rlo-s (meet to be loved), TL-JLYj-rlo-s, etc.
VII. Suffix -raro-: serves to form the superlative of all
adjectives which have their comparative in -Tepo-, and appears
under precisely the saIne conditions as the latter suffix,2
Kovep-o-ruro-s, croep-w-Taro-s, AUA-{(T-TUTO-S (very
talkative), LOl.-a{-Taro-c; (entirely one's own), etc.
(I 70) VIII. Suffix -aO-: very rare as a secondary suffix,
€.f3oofL-a-<i (week), from :f:f3oofL-O-c; (seventh).
IX. -{o-: common as a primary, but still more COIDInon
1 Probably partly imitated from the lengthening which took place regu-
larly in derivatives from verbs in -ew, -aw, -6w.
2 Of. supra 159.
166
GREEK AND I.JATIN GRAM}fAR.
as a secondary suffix. Its chief function seelns to be to form
feminines of adjectives or nouns,l which have luostly beCOlue
independent feminine substantives: thus 7fETpii ll€Aep{S (Soph.),
"the Delphian rock": € (-{o-os, talue), felu. of €
(tame), and, with ellipse of opvs, "oak with esculent acorns";
7fU-Tp-{O- "paternal," and, with ellipse of "native land";
then by analogy € (sovereign), (3ua-l-"Als (queen), etc.
X. Suffix -UTCTU: this sOlue\v"hat rare suffix is apparently con-
nected with the preceding one and likewise forms feminine
nouns, (3UCT[A-UYCTU (queen). It was borrowed by Latin, P1"O-
phetissa, and thence passed into the Romance languages, and
we know how COlumon it has become in Jj-'rench under the form
-esse [Eng. ess, e.g. prolJhet-ess].
XI. Suffixes -{CTKO-, -{CTKYj, and -{CTK-l-O- : form a few diminutives,
V€UV-{CTKO-S (young man) fron1 v€iiv-{ii-s, 7rULO-{CTKYj (little girl),
aCT7fI.O-{CTKl-O-V (small shield).
XII. Suffix -CTVVU: forms abstract nouns derived from adjec-
tives, OI.KU-LO-CTVVYj (justice), j-LvYj-fLO-CTVVYj (memory), fronl
whence the suffix -OCTVVYj in T€XV-OCTVVYj (art), j-LUVT-OCTVVYj (art of
divination), KAelrT-OCTvVYj (thievishness).2
§ 3. Latin For1nations.
(171) I. -ndo-.-The gerundives and future parti-
ciples passive are formed by the addition of this suffix to the
verbal stem, the final vowel of which assumes indifferently the
form ° or e: lex
law against extortion), and dic-e-ndu-1n, a1nandus,1nonendus,
etc. The form in however was regarded as archaic and the
forln in e prevailed, except in and the adj.
(following) from the verb sequ-o-r ( =*sequ-o-ndo-s). Is it to
the supposed existence in this last type of a suffix that
we must ascribe the origin of ira-cundu-s, etc.?
This point is obscure. The suffix seelns clearer; we
1 Probably through a faint reminiscence of the feminine function of the
suffix -i-, which also recurs in Latin expanded by a guttural instead of a
dental in forms like Vic-t1·-i-c-s.
2 The form -crvvo- (very rare) js an adjectival suffix: Hom. 'Y'YJ8-6-crvvo-s
(joyful).
SECONDARY DERrVATION. 167
must probably see in it a gerundive of the verb *fu- or
cOlnbined with a verbal forln as an auxiliary,l 1nori-bundu-s,
popul-a-bundu-s, etc.
(172) II. Suffix .bili.: very commoD, but with no important
peculiarities, a1n-a-bili-s, te'rr-i-bili-s, aItd-1:-b'ili-s (post-class.),
etc.
(173) Suffix -tumo-.-Under the forin -ti111/n- it is found in
a few adjectives, Under the form
-si1nu-, in which the initial s is assimilated, it is the sign of the
superlative in adjectives whose stem ends in r or l:
{acil-li1nu-s. In this function it is mostly joined to the suffix
·-is-, thus forlning the suffix -issi1nu-, the usual sign of the
superlative in Latin.
2
(174) IV. SuJfix -ensi.: in adjectives denoting origin or
relation, jor-ensi-s, Rcnn-an-ensi-s (slave freed by a Roman
citizen). This suffix seems to be related to the one already
disctlssed under the form
3
V. Suffix -estri-: the same function, silv-estrr'i-s, carnp-
est'ri-s, agrrestis == *agr-est1'>i-s by euphonic syncope, whence alsu
caelestis, etc. The undeniable relation of rnensis and se1niJstrzs
shows that this suffix is an expansion of the preceding one.
VI. Suffix -gno- : rather rare, the same function, ben-i-gnu-s,
abie-gnu-s (of fir), etc.
4
VII. Suffix -aster: rare, with a disparaging sense, patr-
aste?" (father-in-law, mother's husband), ole-aster (wild olive-
tree). It is believed to go back very indirectly to a Greek
origin.
5
VII. Suffix -tut- : forms felninine abstract nouns, vir-tut-,
servi-tut-,juven-tut-, and hence must be more or less connected
either with the Grmco-Latin suffix -tat-, '01" with Gk. -(rvvYj,6
perhaps \vith both. The type salus is regarded as inexplicable;
cf. however the type yEA-we; (laughter).7
1 Of. supra 104 and 147. 2 Of. supra 126 and 139.
3 Supra 165.
4 It probably contains the root *gen (to be born) in the reduced form,
together with the suffix -0- (snpl'a 109); cf. priui-gn-u-s (step-son, son by a
former marriage), literally" born aside."
I) jV1€m. Soc. Ling. v. p. 346. 6 Of. s'upra 164 and 170.
7 Supra 136.
CHAPTER III.
COMPOSITION.
(175) Certain derivatives, as we have seen, may be com-
pounds in disguise, in the sense that their apparent suffix con-
ceals a significant root; but composition properly so called
exists only when several stems, each of which taken by itself
has retained its meaning in the language, coalesce and form a
single word, in which the meaning of the one is determined by
that of the other: flveyaA6-7T'oAtS, luci-fer, porte-jeuille, sonnen-
schein, apple-tree, etc. This process, which was already con..
siderably developed in the Indo-European language, has been
carried still further in classical Sanskrit, where the power of
composition is almost unlimited. Greek on the contrary seems
to have restricted it, so far at least that it scarcely allows
any compounds of more than two terms; it has hovvever
extended it, inasmuch as it possesses a whole class of com-
pounds peculiar to itself, namely those in which the first term
is verbal, In Latin the power of composition is
much smaller and much less varied than in Greek; and, if the
Romance languages, which are t.hemselves greatly inferior in
this respect to the Teutonic languages, are still fairly well pro-
vided with compounds of a certain class, they have developed
nearly all of these 1 by opening up entirely new paths, unknown
to the Latins.
1 The prevailing type of compound in these languages is that in which
the first term is verbal: French coupe-gorge (cut-throat place), tirebouchon
(cork-screw) ; Ita!. passa"tempo [pastime]; Span. mala-moro l"kill-the-Moor,"
nickname for a boasting soldier], of. Gk. a-Y€-(J'Taros. [Cf. English cut·
th1'oat, hang-dog, dare-devil, etc.]
C01\{POSITION.
SECTION I.
CLASSIFICATION OF COn:IPOUNDS.
169
§ 1. Morphological Classification.
(176) From the morphological point of vie\v, we must dis-
tinguish syntactical composition frolu non-syntactical
composition.
The latter, which is the only real kind. of composition, con-
sists in the combination of two stems or thelnes, of which the
first appears in the simplest thematic forIn, just as in secondary
derivation, e.g. (J"Eftv6-ftavTL-r;, aurri-jex, where the first term does
not differ from the primary stem on which have been based the
secondary stems (J"EfLVO-TY]T-, aure-·u-. Thus, like derivation, this -
kind of composition goes back ultilnately to the prehistoric
and. quasi-fabulous period in which the bare stem withont
affixes of any kind could appear in language and. take the
function of a word in the sentence. These compounds are
as it were the fossils of language, and sho\v us a host o±
primitive elements, combined and. "\VTelded. which
language no longer knows in their separate state.
Syntactical 90mposition, on the contrary, is merely the
position and combination under one accent of t,vo words, one
of which, being subordinate to the other, is put in the case
required by the ordinary relations of syntax. Take, for example,
the two words ITeAo7rOr; pronounced with two distinct
accents; it only requires a very slight change to transform
them into a single word ITEA07rOvV1](J"or;,1 in which the double v
still points to the original (J" of the genitive; and so also
the accent is the only point of difference between the Latin
sendtus and Latin has many
of these false compounds, venire
and venurn-7[re (to be sold), pessurn-da1?e (to destroy), manil-
missio (freeing), and they are not \vanting in French, e.g.
1 We know that it is essentially the single accent which constitutes the
unity of a word. Often indeed it is only a question of writing.
170 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMJ\1IAH.
reil-de-bmu! (bull's eye, round wil1do\v), a}'c-en-ciel (rainbovv)"
tete-a-tete, also (Corpus Christi), (hospital),.
Pont-Oise, etc., in which the last term is a genitive.l But,
they are especially abundant in Greek, where nearly all the
cases supply their cantingent: gen. sing. Lll,Oa--KOVP0l, (Castor
and Pollux), VEWo--Ol,KOl, (docks); loco sing. (wayfarer),
(Homeric proper name, cf. the Homeric phrase
" confident in his strength "), (sailing on the
sea), whence by analogy forms like (of sea-purple) ;
acc. sing. ( celebrated), for it is clear that a syntac-
tical phrase ovofLu is the exact equivalent of ;
loco pl. (born in the mountains), (reared
in the mountains), NalJo-e.-Kaa (proper name, meaning of last
term uncertain); instr. sing. or pI. (proper name),
'I¢e.-avao-o-u (proper name), where I-¢t-=*F'L-¢t. means "with
force," this word hovvever so little understood by the
Greeks as a case-form that they derived an adjective from it
(t¢c.u " fat sheep ") as early as the time of Homer; per-
haps also (forged out of copper) = (?),
(borne on a car), etc., in which we rnight recognise
instrumentals in -c"l.2
It will be enough here to point out that syntactical com-
position really depends upon syntax, and that we shall only
be concerned with non-syntactical composition. SOlnetimes
the whole problem is to know which we are dealing with in a
given case; thus seelns non-syntactical, but may very
possibly be a corruption of the syntactical which
likewise exists; on the other hand is explainable
as a syntactical form, but it is also possible that it contains
the pure steIn ovo-JLa- with suffix -1n1)-,?' and to this primitive'
difference perhaps may be attributed the different accentua-
tions and
1 Festa Dei, hospitale Dei J' at the period to which these words go back
the nominative was Diex.
2 Of. infra 187, 7.
3 Of. supra 115, 3.-The Latin type tTiwm.vir is curious; it arises from a
syntactical phrase like magistrl'itlls viTorum., from which were fornled
successively a nOln. pI. triul1wiri (for tres viri) and a nom. sing. tTiumvir.
COMPosrrION.
171
§ 2. Functional Classification.
(177) From the point of view of their function or meaning,.
compounds may be distinguished as copulative, deter-
minative and possessive.
I. A copulative compound is one in which neither of the·
terlns determines the nleaning of the other, but both, being
placed as it were on the same footing, retain in composition
the Ineaning and the function ,vhich they would have if used!
separately. This class, which has been imnlensely developed'.
in Sanskrit, e.g. dual (l\litra and Varuna) has.
scarcely any representatives in Greek: (night and-
day), (ointment made of scented oil, pitch,
and ,vax).! In Latin we may quote (solemn_
sacrifice of' a swine, a sheep, and a bull).
II. A determinative cOlnpound is one which is equivalent
in nleaning to a-phrase in which one of the two terlns would
be put in a certain case, as being subordinate to the other.
This class in its turn comprises (1) attributive or apposi-
tive, and (2) dependent compounds.
1. In an attributive compound, the first term is the attri-
bute of the second and would consequently in a syntactical
phrase be put into the same case: 2
(unlucky maiden), (male child), (con-
nected with speech and singing), the exact equivalents of
ftEyaAYJ '71"0A18, etc.; Latin (very rare),.
corrupted for 3 equivalent to 1nedia
dies.
2. In a dependent compound, one of the terlns is dependent
011 the other and hence in a syntactical phrase ,vould be in
an oblique case, provided that it is declinable. This class in-
cludes :-(a) compounds in which the first term is and
1 There are also the burlesque compounds created by Aristophanes, e.g..
TLCJaf.L€VO¢aLVl7r7rovs "Tisamenes and Phaenippus", Acharn. 603, etc.-
'Avopo7VVOS is an appositive, and KAavCJL,,/fAWS (risu,s CU1n jletn) a dependent
compound.
2 This corresponds to the French type porte-fenetre, wagon-salon, bleu-
ve1·t, except that in French the last term is the determining one.
3 The substitution of r for d is perhaps due to an old locative phrase
*merii die, "in full day."
172
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
governed by the second: Gk. avop-aoEAepo-S (husband's brother),
(man-like), l/WTOepOpOS (carrying on the back),
(s\vift-footed), equivalent respectively to &vopos aOEA¢os, avopI.
EiKEAoc;, VWTcp epopos, 7Tooas WKVC;, etc.; Lat. ferrens,
pedi-sequo-s ==pede seq'ltens, ignivo1nu.s,
etc.; (f3) cOlnpounds in which the first term is verrbal, govern-
ing the second
1
(only in Greek): ayl.-crTpaTo-s, epEpl.-OLKO-C;, oaKI.-
()vjJ-o-s == aywv o-TpWTOV, ¢I.pwv oaKwv ()vfLoV (biting the heart);
(y) compounds in which the first term is an indeclinable
1:J negative, Gk. apPYJKTor;;, Lat. insnlsus,
i1n1natilrrus; Gk. ovcryVWcrTOC;, Elo-ooor;;, 7rpoo-ooor;;, 7Tapoooc;, crvvoooc;;
Lat. consul, exsnl, dijJicilis,lJerrfidus, etc.
III. In a possessive compound likewise one of the terms
governs the other; but, further, the whole compound implies
the existence of a subject possessing the quality which it
expresses. Thus in English a rred-brreast is not simply a red
breast, but a bird which has a red breast;;2 so also, in Greek
and Latin, pooooaKTvAor;;, CalYripes do not mean" rosy finger,"
" goat's foot," but" having rosy fingers," "having goat's feet."
This class is very large and includes :-(a) compounds in which
the first term is EKaTojJ-7TvAOC;, pLVOKEpWC;,
flavico1nus, centuplex (hundredfold), (elephant) ;
«(3) compounds with a par·ticle, E1)yAWTToC; (glib of tongue),
(ill-omened), (motherless), o{Kpavoc; (two-headed),
concors, discors, iners, bifrons, etc.
It may be laid doV\rn as a general principle that the function
of compounds has no influence on their formation. It must
however be observed that in Greek, where compounds gener-
ally throw their accent as far back as possible,3 compounds
with an active meaning are paroxytone if the penultimate is
1 This corresponds to the French type tOll1"nebroche (=turnspit), faineant
(=do-nothing, idler), pique-assiette (sponger), which the school of Ronsard
unsuccessfully tried to extend (aime-lyre, etc.), although it is very common
in the popular speech.
2 Of. also nu-pieds (=bare.foot), chevre-pieds (=goat-footed, Ronsard),
Barbe-rOU8se (red-beard, [cf. Eng. Bluebeard]), a type especially common in
nicknames of popular origin.
S The chief exception is in regard to adjectives in -1JS, which in so far as
they are adjectives are generally oxytone, dl'y€1If)s., OV<T/J£II1jS. Of. supra 124
and 161.
COMPOSITION.
173
short, oxytone if it is long: fh:oroKoc; (mother of God), cf.
()eoroKoc; (SOll of God), 7rVPepopoc;, AoyOYPa.¢oc;; pV()j1-07rO"O-:'1 patfrC1,!ooc;.
This distinction, which is peculiar to Greek, seems to be
partly a new development.
SECTION II.
FORl\iATION OF COMPOUNDS.
(178) This is regulated by one main principle; there are
no compound verbs. Those vvhich are wrongly called by this
name in Greek and Latin are either (1) formed by the mere
juxtaposition of two elenlents, a preposition and a verb, whose
union is very loose, since they can always be separated, the
augment and reduplication perpetually come between theIn,
and in Homer and old Latin one occur at the beginning
of a sentence and the other at the end, in short, the common
type (ua-f3a{vw, in-venia; or (2) they are verbs derived from
cOlnpound nouns; thus aTvXEw, ova-XEpa{vw, aTip-aw, opvepaKTow (to
fence with wood), insanio (to be mad), de1nento (to make mad),
te1Y'ifico, etc., are not compound verbs forIned from simple
verbs *TVXEW, *xepaLvw, Tip-aw, etc., which indeed for the most
part do not exist, but verbal deriv"'atives formed, regularly or
irregularly, from the nominal stems aTip-oc;"
opv¢aKToc;, insanlls, de1nens, te1"rijiclls,1 and it would be easy
to give many other exanlples.
Hence it follows that the last term of a compound is always
a nOlninal stem. The first may be a nominal stem, or an in-
declinable particle, or, in Greek only, a verbal stem. We have
to consider each of these cases separately.
§ 1. F01'1n of the n'J'st te1'1n.
(179) I. The first term is a ste17L-We have seen
that, as a general principle, it Inust assume the thematic form
1 'Arlw (not to honour), if not a mere barbarism, is the only verbal com-
pound in Greek; and it is easy to see the analogy to which it is due, .aTLW :
rlw=arlfJ,aw: rlp.aw. Similarly, in Latin, i[]noSCo (to forget, forgive) is
modelled on ignotu,s. The common type desqulimo (to scale), edento, ex-
pectoro, etc., is modelled, for example, on squama and the relation of tttrba..
to detllTbo (the latter being a combination of de and turbo).
1.74 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMlVIAR.
"without any addition, and this is vvhat actually happens in many
,cases; but, just as in derivation certain suffixes were amalga-
mated with the termination of the stems to which they were
:added, and were then under this new form introduced into
'other stems not containing this termination, so also in compo-
:sition it was inevitable that such a vowel, when occurring
'usually or frequently at the end of the first stem, should pass
"by analo.gy into formations where it had no etYInological justi-
-fication.
It is essentially the thematic vowel ejo, the enormous ex-
"pansion of which in derivation has been already established,
"that thus plays the part of an epenthetic or connecting vowel
in compounds. In fact in both languages the stems in ej0 are _
:almost as nlunerous as all the rest put together. When they
-form the first terms of compounds, their final vowel regularly
takes the form 0 in Greek, e (changed to i) in Latin, AVKO-
1ntigni-jicu-s,1 and this Greek 0, Latin i has been ex-
-tended by analogy to a host of other nominal stems with quite
·different endings. This extension was aided by the fact that in
languages the vowel in question was also the sign of the
singular of the same steIns, and so the ling}listic con-
sciousness instinctively translated (stem 7rVp-) by
anq.1Jaci-jicu-s (stem pctC-) by lJc7Cis factor.
Latin knows no other connecting vowel besides i (u). Greek
some others besides 0, but they are much rarer. Thus some
in -ii, preserving their final letter unchanged in compo-
'sition, e.g. (bearing laurels), contaminated other
';stems, and hence arose, aided especially by the rhythmjcallaw
which made the Greeks avoid three short syllables following
·one another, the curious forlns, €
.crown), ((3aAavo-c;, acorn), (EKaS far),
which were extended by the poets in so far as favoured
the dactylic luetre. l\1uch less clear is the orjgin of the con-
.necting vowel in aPY{-7rOVC; white), or
.rather *KaA'Ao-c;, beautiful); but it may have been borrowed
1 The archaic type with the vowel 0 ('ll) allTu-fe.T and by imitation cantu-
need only be mentioned here. C£. the formation of nouns in -ti(t-,
-,supTa 164.
COMPOSITION.
175
from syntactical cOlnpounds in which the first term was in the
locative.
1
It remains to verify these general remarks by examining the
most interesting cases of composition, classified according to
the nature of the nominal stem forming the first term.
1. Root-ste1ns rarely show the pure root, a-7rAOO-S = *
(root *se11:t, one), a-OEAcpOS (from the same womb, uterine
brother)., 7rVP-cpopo-s, Lat. = *se1!t-plec-s,
os-cen (bird whose song is an omen), sol-stitiu-1n;
almost always with a vowel, 7rVpO-AU(3{(O)-s (fire-tongs), 7rOOo-a-Tpa(3YJ
(1mpedim·ent), € (glove), voci-jerc7ti-o, o1'i-
;!iciu-1n, etc.
2. Final elo.-The pure steIn, but different in each language:
Uk. i7r7ro-j-tux{-a, TuvPO-fLOPepo-S, fLUKPO-XELp ; Lat. a1'1ni-ge1", tarrdi-
solli-pes (with unclovel1 hoof); except in Greek fornls
like f3uAuVf:Jcpayos and apY{7rOVS, and also of course the cases
where the thematic vowel is elided before the initial vo\vel
'Of the second term, Gk. l,7r7r-uypo-s (wild horse), vj-tv-wo{ii,3 Lat.
etc.
3. Final a.-Sometimes in Greek the pure steIn, aYYEALU-epOPO-s
(messenger)., V£epEAYJ-yEP€TU (cloud-gatherer, aYE{pW); but gene-
rally in Greek and always in Latin the a is replaced by the
()rdinary connecting vowel, Xwpo-ypacpo-s- (describing countries),
.wpO-AOyLO-V (clock), CPWVO-j-tLj-tO-S (imitating the voice), spici-fer,
tlbi-cen = *tIb1)!-cen (tibia canens), etc.
4
·4. Final i.-The pure stem sOluetimes in Greek, 7roA.{-7r0p()o-s
(sacker of cities), and always in Latin; au-guriu-1n,
etc., syncopated for avi-cep-s, etc.; upilio (shep-
.herd) = *.ou-1Jilio syncopated for ovi-; whence by
imitation lalJi-Cida (stem lalJid-) 1nonti-vagu-s, ponti-fex, etc.
1 The short ct which appears in the composition of the numerals, 7f€PTC£-
-7rOAL-S, € oKTct-OaKTVAo-s, is due to the analogy of €7fTct-, fPP€ct-, O€Kct-,
which are regular (.aEKct =decent =
2 Probably "of one piece" (cf. cre-c"Zre), then" pure." Of. also Gk.
'(with uncloven hoof) = *(jp.,-wpvX-s (having only one hoof).
3 Contracted in K,fjJ,KOVP1/oS =KctK6-€pyo-s, etc., whence by analogy 7fct1lovpyos
,(stem 7fctPT-).
4 The existence of doublets like xwpa )(WPOS, spica spicum, naturally facili-
itated this pr:.0ce£s, whi.ch is still fam.iliar to us from the creation of words
nike Eng.l'horw-graph, Fr. gralU-pede (grallatory or wading bird), etc.
176
GREEK AND LATIN
In Greek-: with vowel 0, 7rOALO-¢vAaK-l.w (to guard the citY)1
oio-7roAo-S (shepherd); with vowel ii, (civic magis-
trate).
5. Final stem in (powerful at sea), (3ov-
(bathed in tears), nau-fragiu-1n,
btt-bulcu-s (corrupted for *bu-bulcu-s == *bou-fulc-o-s, cf. !ulczre,
to support, feed), 1nanu-briu-1n (handle),1 etc. The
vowel 0 is added in (made of oak),
(lamentable), etc. In Latin i replaces u in rnani-
(rnanus plena), !1'fLcfi-je,r, cornige1', arquitenens, etc.
6. Final stems in -os- (-es-) appear under four chief
aspects :-(a) in Greek, pure stem, (bearing flowers),
(shaking a shield); (f3) in Latin, vo\vel i added
(rare), veneri-vagu-s (dissolute), honori-jlcu-s, etc.; (y) in Greek,
vowel ii added, (bearing darts), or replacing the
suffi -E(}-, (armed with a sword); (D) vo\vel 0 in
Greek, i in Latin, substituted for the same suffix,
(gathering flowers), (false witness), aAYj8o-fLaVTI.-S
(true prophet), 171/l1ni-jicentia, volni-jlcu-s, 0lJi-jex (stem op-os-),
terrri-jicu-s, etc.
7. Final types :-(a) the pure stem,
n01nen-cltlf01'; ((3) in Greek the stem of the oblique cases vvith
vowel 0, (y) the vowel substituted
for the final (bathed in blood),
8. Final nasal.-Usually epenthesis, (child of earth),.
(guardian of a hal"bonr); sometimes analogical
syncope, aKfLo-()ETO-V (anvil-block, stem d.K-fLov-).
9. Finalliquid.-Epenthesis together with the form of the
oblique cases in and par1"iczda (corrupted for
pat1'>i-clda.
10. Final explosive.-Widely divergent forms in Greek:-
(a) (goat-herd) == (f3)
(burdened with old age); (y) a(}7rtoYj-epbpO-S (arlned with a shield)"
(running at the feast of torches); lastly and
especially (D) (shield-maker), KEparo-
1 The second term is very probably the root *bher (to bear) in the reduced
form, together with the suffix -io-.
COMPOSITION. 177
KpEa.o-f3&po-r; (carnivorous), (living in the
water),l etc.-Lat. lacti-jer, lapidi-cida.
The first term is an indeclinable particle. - This very
simple case no elucidation.
(180) III. The first term is a verbal stern.-Greek has two
kinds of compounds with the first term verbal, (1) the non-sig-
matic, e.g. ep€PE-OtKO-r; (carrying its house), and (2) the sigmatic,
e.g. epaHT{-fL{3poTo-r; (giving light to men). It is rather hard
to state exactly the origin' of these forms, which are pecl1liar
to Greek. (1) The form of the non-sigmatic compounds points
especially to the influence of exclamatory phrases, which
through repeated use became nicknames, and then nouns,
e.g. ep€p€ oIKov (bear thy house 1), an interjection addressed to
the tortoise; 2 but compounds with the first term nominal
likewise claim a share in their origin, in this sense, that a \vord
like' eptAO-KLvovvo-r;, originally a possessive nominal compound
meaning" one to whom danger is dear," was translated" loving
danger," and hence gave rise to the innumerable cOlnpounds
beginning with eptAo-, /-t',(To-, Tl,fLO-, etc., which appear to con-
tain the verbs eptAw, fLl,o-W, ,rifLw.
3
(2) The sigmatic compounds
are certainly possessive nominal compounds, and € €
for example, may have originally" having the horns in
a twisted state," but the Greeks unconsciously translated it
by o-TpEt/JaS TO. K€pa its horns," and on such models
formed an immense number of compounds in which the first
term seems to be a sigmatic aorist stem.
In strict agreement with their origin, both these kinds or
cOlnpounds nearly always show their etymological vowel, the
non-sigmatic ha €, the sigmatic l,: €XE-rppWV (sensible), fLEVE-
7TTOA€fLo-r; (steadfast in battle), apxl-Aiio-r; (leading the people);
7ravo-{-KaKo-r; (stopping evils), € € (with fluent speech),
£AKEo-{-7TeffAo-r; (with trailing robe). But the influence of COIU-
1 The stem voar- in composition usually takes the form vopo-, which must
go back to an adjectival stem in -po-, cf. iJopos iJopa (hydra).
2 On verbal compounds formed by means of an imperative, cf. for French
A. Darmesteter, ]10ts composes, p. 148.
3 Similarly in French c1'ime de lese-1najeste (high treason) =cTimen laesae
majestatis, where lese is a feminine participle; but seeing jn this the Brd
sing. of the present of leser, we form in the same way lese-entendement, etc.
N
178'
GREEK A'ND LATIN GRAMMAR.
pounds formed from nominal stems sporadically introduces Into
ooth clas:ses the vowel 0': (a deserting sailor),
At.7r6-ep(joyyoc; (\vithout VOl ce), epvY0-?TToA€flO-C; (cowardly);
f3apf3apo-c; (half-barbarian), pllpO-K{YOVVO-C; (venturesome). Further,
through reciprocal analogy, we find (very rarely) € in the sig-_
matic cOlnpounds, 7r€Po-E-?TOAt.-C; (sacker of cities), and " in the
non-sigmatic, aPXl-()aAauuo-c; (ruling the sea), aPXl-()EWpO-C;
1
(chief
of the theori), (destroying speech), €
€ € etc.
§ 2.-For1n of the last
(181) As a general rule, when the last term ends in a vowel,
this is not changed in the formation of Greek compounds,
except that, if the compound is an adjective, it necessarily
adapts itself to the changes of gender of which it is susceptible:
(}avaTo-c; (YJ, o-v),2 7roAv-epAOl.crf30-c; (o-y); KOfLYJ
and also € 7rOAV-KEepaAo-c;; 7rOAL-C;
7T€pcr€-7roAt.-C;; OUKpV 7rOAV-OaKpv-c;. In Latin we have similarly
and (a, is declined like an
o-stem; but usually, in forming an adjective, Latin changes
the final vowel of the last term to an i, \vhence the common
type rernu-s tri-remi-s, clrvo-s arnnu-s (annus) sol-
Zemni-s,
3
forrria in-forr1ni-s, ab-noT'1ni-s, anima
. animi..;s, etc.
When it ends in a consonant, the last terlll may undergo
no change, and this is usually the case in Latin:
prae-cep-:s, opi-jec-s, capri-pes, bi-den-s, quadri-fron-s etc. But
in Greek the treatment is much more varied :-(1) No change:
Tp{-7rOV-C;, UV-'19y-c; (yoke-fellow), aTe-07r-c; (dark), €l)-W7r-C; (beautiful),
7roAv-X€t.p. (2) Transition to the o-declension by the
addition of an 0: uv-'vyo-c;,4 KaAA(-Tp"XO-C;, 7roAV-X€LPO-C;, 0-7raTpO-C;
1 Possibly this apXt-, which is so common, may have been, like aAxl, the
locative of a lost nominal stem. Of. supra 176.
2 Greek usage generally rejects the feminine of these adjectives and
replaces it by the masculine.
S Properly "what suffices for the whole year;' and hence takes place
only once a year.
4 But here the word ftry6s may have had
COMPOSITION.
179
(by the same father).l (3) Transition to the o-declension by
substitution of 0 for the regular vowel of the stem:
(o-v), (proper name, rich in cattle), (proper
name) for == glory),
(of the same blood, a!fLa). (4) Transition to the masculine
declension in ii- (gen. ov): (with feet swift as a
storm). (5) Addition or substitution of the adjectival ending
-Ea--: 2 (with many branches),
(dear to the gods), (arrogant), etc.
Besides these changes, two peculiarities of the Greek language
must also be noticed. The first is the frequent lengthening
of the initial vowel of the last term, 7rOO-1VEfLO-'i,3
etc. This lengthening, justified in the
above examples by a succession of short syllables, has been
extended by analogy to a number of other cases where this
explanation does not hold good: (incurable), o.v-
1}KOVCTTQ-'i (unheard of), (brave), (two-edged),
etc. The other phenomenon, which is equally common,
is the vowel-gradation already mentioned, which ca-qses the
final syllable of the last term to pass, either (1) from the
reduced to the deflected grade, e.g. a!fLa = *a!-m1] and ofJ--a{fLwv
(of the same blood), KrY]JLa (possession) and (rich); or
(2) from the normal to the deflected grade, a-eppwv EXe-eppwv,
a-7raTWp 7raTpO-7T'aTWp (paternal grandfather),
(of a bad mother), but subst. (Lad mother), and the
phrase (unnatural mother); or (3) conversely from
the deflected to the normal grade,
etc.
4
The only in Latin correspond-
ing to the last case is genus de-genera
1 The vowel 0, which is etymologically obscure, bas the same meaning as
a- copulative.
2 This case is very common; cf. supra 161.
3 Of. the same lengthening in 7}V€fJ-0€I,s (windy), d(}avaros (probably pro-
nounced aT8avaros), and other cases where otherwise three short syllables
would follow one another.
4 But there is' no need to bring the head of gradation the type
KEpas al7rU-K€FWS' (with lofty horns), in which, as in the genitive KEpWS,
-K€PWS is merely a substitute for -Keparos, cf. the poetic doublet €V-Kepao-s,
and supra 129. The accentuation, which seems to go against this etymology,
is probably due to the analogy of that of forms like (dJ-,,/€wS (fertile) =
180
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
There seems no doubt that a subsidiary use was made of
vowel-gradation and lengthening by 'the Greeks to differentiate
possessive from determinative compounds, and most of the
preceding examples support this view; but a good many
confusions have lessened the value of this criterion, which
moreover is an artificial one.
*€i1'Y1JO-S, where the CI' is due to a metathesis of quantity. See s u p 1 ~ a 81
note. Similarly the first term of KP€W¢6.:yos is explained by *Kp€ao-¢d'Y
0
-
s
•
THIRD PART.
MORPHOLOGY.
(182) Morphology is the study of the forms of lan-
guage, that is, of the modifications by means of terminations
which nominal and verbal stems undergo in order to become
nouns and verbs capable of forming part of a sentence.
If taken in a very wide sense, morphology might likewise
include etymology, which has just been studied; and it would
even seem at first sight that the formation of a tense like
ought to be included under the head of conjugation
just as much as the addition to this stem of the termination
-p.a£, *-a'at, -Tat, etc. But it has been thought better to restrict
the name of morphology to the study of terminations, in order
to make as clear as possible the line of demarcation between
the formation of stems and the inflexion of words, and to
insist on the elementary truth, too often ignored, that, for ex-
ample, AI:y-o- and on the one hand, are forms quite as
distinct and quite as independent of one another as are A6y-o-
and *AI:y-Tt- on the other. Hence morphology is reduced
for our present purpose to declension and that part of conj l1ga-
tion only which is concerned with the person-endings.
The terminations, both those of declension or case-
endings, and those of conjugation or person-endings,
appear in language as the necessary complement of the nominal
or verbal stems to which they are attached. It is only very
rarely, as we have seen, that the simple root without any affix
can be used as a stem; but it is still rarer for the bare stem
181
182 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
without any termination to act as a noun or verb.! In short,
the stem is almost an abstraction, like the root. But this fact
does not in the least invalidate the claims of morphology.
For is not the word itself mainly an abstraction? Man thinks
and expresses his thoughts by means of sentences, not isolated
\vords.
At this point there arises a preliminary question. How is
it possible to conceive that a m,ere termination, almost always
monosyllabic, often reduced to a single consonant, and some-
times invisible to any other eye but that of the philologist, should,
when added to a nominal or verbal stem, have the power of in-
troducing into it a more or less complicated modification of
meaning, such as singular or plural, subject or object, 1st, 2nd,
or Brd person, etc.? We Inay obtain, if not a solution of the
problem, at any rate a hint towards its solution, from the lan-
guages called isolating or agglutinative, in \vhich the elements
denoting relation ,have not yet coalesced with the significant
elements. In Chinese, for example, the plural does not differ in
principle from the singular; but, in cases where it is absolutely
indispensable to emphasize the notion of plurality, this may be
done by placing after the noun another noun having the meaning
of " crowd" or "universality," e.g. thung tse kidi=}uvenis
filitts multitudo that is " the youths." Suppose kidi drops out
of use as a separate word, then only the history of the language
"viII be able to explain the plural meaning belonging to the
affix. Again, certain Finnish languages still have a word veli
(friend, companion), which Hungarian, a language of the same
family, has entirely lost; but Hungarian has kept in its declen-
sion an affix -vel with a cOlnitative or instrumental meaning,
e.g. ko-vel==lapis-comes, "with the stone." Now, in accordance
vvith the la\y of vocalic harmony, which requires the partial
assimilation of the vowel of the suffix to that of the stem, this
syllable -vel often becomes -val, atyd-val (with the father); in
accordance ,vith another law, the v is assimilated to the final
1 There is scarcely any instance of the nominal stem free from aU
addition except in the vocative ~ i n g . , t7r7r-€, equ-e; or of the verbal stem,
except in the 2nd pers. sing. of the imperative, A€'Y-€, leg-e. (The impera-
tive is the vocative of the verb.)
MORPHOLOGY.
183
consonant of the stem, kert-teZ (with the garden), kert-ek-kel
(\vith the gardens), hdz-zaZ (with the house), atyd-m-rnal (with
my father), etc. After all these changes the original veli ha'S
become scalYcely recognisable, and if this word had not been
preserved somewhere, all the efforts of the analyst ,vould have
been powerless to restore it.
lVIuch more difficult and uncertain then must such restorations
be in the languages with which we are concerned, where the
affix is reduced to its simplest fornl. We may attempt them;
we may, for example, see in the final -s of the nom. sing. an old
demonstrative *so, which has given to Greek its article 0; we
Inay connect the gen. sing. (of the people) == *SafL-o-lfYo
,vith the adj. (YfJfL0a-tOr; (popular)==*Sap.-o-rto-r;, which has the
saIne meaning and almost the same form; and we may recognise
in the -rn and -t which serve as signs of the 1st and 3rd perE'.
sing. of verbs the shapeless relics of the stem *rne- (me) and
the demonstrative *to- (he, cf. the Greek article). But these
are mere exercises of ingenuity, whi.ch are almost useless, and,
if carried further, would become dangerous; all the attempts
made to explain the -es of the nom. pI. through a sort of re-
duplication of the demonstrative -s of the nom. sing., the Latin
passive through an addition of the reflexive pronoun (feror==
*fero se), the Greek mediopassive through a reduplication of the
pronominal ending in a reflexive sense (epfpofLuL == fLU-fLL,
*epEpEa-Ut == *epep-E-a-u-a-L,' etc.), are encountered by insurmount-
able phonetic obstacles, and it were to be hoped that they
luay not be renewed, the more so, because they entangle the
science of language in a road which has no ending.. Most
of the errors of science, in all its branches, arise from its
thinking itself bound to explain facts which its duty is only
to state.
. (183) Moreover, even supposing t.hat the Indo-European Ian,.,
guages did seem to have preserved all their case-endings and
person-endings in the form of separate words, would a com-
parison of the latter with the inflexions be much more legiti-
mate? We may be permitted to doubt it; for such a com-
parison would often leave out of sight a factor of the highest
importance, the association ideas, grammatical analogy,
184
GREEK AKD I.JATIN GRAMMAR.
which has no Jess influence in this department than in that of
derivation.
l
For, like words, the forms of declension and c o n ~
jugation classify themselves in our mind in series, in which
-classes regarded rightly or wrongly as identical from a logical
point of view constantly tend to become identified in form also;
hence a suffix which seems to be everywhere the same is per-
haps so only because at some past time it has been detached
from some words and then introduced into all the rest.
2
Further, if the language contains the suffix as a separate word,
it is possible that the separate word has been formed from
the suffix, instead of the suffix ooing a corruption of the
separate word.
3
This case is rare, but not unexampled.
4
Let us consider this unceasing action of analogy in a depart..
ment which is familiar to us. We have regularly in old French
nom. li chevals, acc. le cheval. This alternation is regular in all
words of the Latin 2nd declension; but it is naturally absent
in forms like nom. li pere = ille pdter, acc. le pere = i l l u n ~
pdtrem. Thus the old form of the language knows only the
nom. sing. li pere; but little by little\ the s of the neighbour..
ing declension, being wrongly regarded as the necessary sign
of the nOll. sing., makes its way into this word also, and so in
the thirteenth century ,ve find only the contaminated form li
peres, li lerres, li empereres.
So too in the verbs.. In the third conjugation of Latin, forms
of the 2nd person plnral like trdhitis, curritis would require in
French the corresponding forms vous *traites, vous *queurtes,
etc. :But of these the only traces are the two isolated forms
1 Of. supra 83.
2 Looking at the imperative forms leg-i-to leg-u-nto (Gk. q>€P-€-TW, q>€P-O-
VTWV), who would not think that -to -nto are affixes of the Brd person, con-
taining, like -ti -nti of the indicative, an obscured demonstrative stem?
Yet they aIe nothi,ng of the kind; legito is prohablya nominal form, and
legunto is modelled on legito and on the relation between lpgit and legunt.
~ This is what is maintained by those philologists according to whom the
person-endings, having been detached and separated from the conjugated
stem, became the personal pronouns (the a theory of adaptation," cf. Sayee,
Oomparative Philology, 2nd ed., Preface and pp. 132 fI.).
4 In French" a collection of ana" (memorable sayings); ana is simply
the termination of the words Voltairiana, BoZmana, Huetiana, by which
such collections are designated. Of. A. Darmesteter, Mots nouveaux, p. 229,
and more recently Bull. Soc. Ling. vi. p. cxxxv.
MORPHOLOGY. 185
vous faites, vous dites, and even these have disappeared from
the popular language. Everywhere else (vous trayez, vous
courez) a termination -ez has crept in, which is regular only in
the 1st conjugation, vous amez=amdtis, but has imperceptibly:
invaded the other three.! .
That similar phenomena have taken place ever since the Indo-
European period, is a fact which it is as impossible to doubt
as it is difficult to prove. That they abound in Greek and
Latin declension and conjugation will become clear from the
following pages.
1 [English inflexions also are largely analogical in their crigin. Thus the
plural in -s, which has but a limited range in Anglo-Saxon, has been so ex-
tended by analogy as to be now almost universal; it is regular, for example,
in stones (A.-S. stan-as) and days (A... S. dag-as), but analogical in eyes (A -B.
eag-an, cf. Scotch een) and nights (A.-S. niht). So too in the preterite of
verbs the older form shew has been superseded by the analogical form
shew-ed, slep by slep-t, etc., and the process is still going on; for example,
clomb (Newman, (}erontius, "He clomb the giants of the wood "') is now
almost superseded by climb-e.d..]
I.-DECLENSION.l
(184) Declension is the modification of nominal stems by
Ineans of terminations, corresponding to the three grammatical
categories of gender, number, and case, which are charac-
teristic of these stems.
The Indo-European language had three genders, mascu-
line, feminine, and neuter, vvhich have been faithfully pre-
served by Latin and Greek.
It likewise had three numbers, singular, plural, and
dual. But in it the dual had no doubt already been reduced
to three case-forms, as in Sanskrit, or four at the most. In
most of the derived languages it has been lost, only the faintest
traces of it remaining. This is the case in Latin. Even in
Greek, vvhere it seems to have held its ground, its use is
unknown to whole dialects, notably Lesbian, and in the classical
language its use is ahnost optional, alternating with that of the
plural.:J
Of so far as can be conjectured from the
derived languages, Indo-European, at the period of separation,
must have distinguished at least eight, namely:
denoting the agent; vocative, a mere interjection; 3 accusa-
tive, which might be called with more precision illative,
denoting a tendency towards the object; ablative (tendency
to move away from the object); instrumental or comita-
tive (accompaniment); dative (assigning to); locative (situa-
1 [Of. Mr. W. M. Lindsay, "The Early Italian Declension," Classical
Review, 1888, pp. 129 fi. 202 fl. 273 ff.]
2 In Homer the agreement of the dual with the plural is not uncommon,
e.g. TW 0' aVTw /kapTvpoL f<rTW1I (II. i. 338), /kYjK€TL ?T.aLO€ epLAW 7rOA€/kL5€T€ WYJoe
/kaxnrOo1l (II. vii. 279).
3 The vocative is not, properly speaking, a case, since it Las no logical
relation to any other term of the proposition.
186
DECLENSION,
187
tion in); lastly, genitive, vyhich it would be more exact to
call possessive, in virtue of its essential and primitive
function.
l
Corresponding to each of these relations there were
generally several terminations, which have nearly all survived
in Greek and Latin, although Greek has nominally only five
cases, and Latin six.
These terminations may be added to the stem without modi-
fying it. This is usually the case, at least in Greek and Latin,2
in the declension called parisyllabic, which hence may be
treated separately and before the other declensions, not only
because it is the most simple, but also because it has in many
points contaminated by analogy the declension called impari-
syllabic,3 while the latter has had very little influence on it.
In the imparisyllabic declension, which has sometimes kept,
sometimes very capriciously modified the original vowel-
gradation of its stems, we shall have to study successively the
terminations and the changes in the stem caused by the
addition of these terminations. Lastly, the pronominal de-
,clension, which stands quite by itself, differs even more from
that of the nouns properly so called than the two nominal
declensions differ from one another, and will require a separate
chapter. Such then is the division of our subject.
:1 Or better still "adnominal," since, properly speaking, it can only be
governed ·by a noun of which it completes the sense.
2 In primitive Indo-European all the declensions must have been more or
less subject to vowel-gradation.
3 This terminology is unfortunately not very precise; for there are no
more syllables in 'Yfll.<JVS or nubis than in 'YfJ/os or nflues, and on the other
hand there are more in (hoLO and deorum than in 8eos and deus. It liaR
however been thought best to adhere to it, since it is both customary un<.l
convenient. The important point is not to take it too
CHAPTER I.
PARISYLLABIC DECLENSION.
(185) Under this heading will be included the 1st and 2nd
declension in Greek, the 1st, 2nd, and 5th declension in Latin,
except that for this purely empirical classification will be sub-
stituted the more systematic distinction between stems ending
itt ole, a, and i.
SECTION I.
STEMS IN 0-.
(186) The vast majority of stems ending in 0- are masculine
or neuter. But feminines not uncommon, both among
nouns, djJ/lreAo-,;, pijpulu-s, alvo-s, and especially, but only
in Gr"eek, among those adjectives to which custom denies a
feminine in Yj, eV6Jvvp.o-,;, €pya<TLp.o-c;. Moreover, the gender has
no influence on the declension, except in the case of two forms
confined to the neuter.
§ i.-Masculines and Feminines.
(187) I. Singularr.-l. Nominative: the sign is -s in Greek
and Latin, Z71"7T"O-';, equo-s, and offers no difficulty.
2. Vocative: the simple stem with the vowel e, i'7r7rE, eque,
the only clear trace of an old vowel-gradation preserved by
this declension. The regular identity of the nominative and
vocative in the plural of all nouns and even in the singular of
other declensions, led to the very frequent use of the nominative
for the vocative in this declension also, Gk. <1 ep{AO';, Lat. da
meus ocellus,l and in certain nouns, Oeo-c;, deu-s, the vocative is
;entirely \vanting even in the classical language.
1 II. iv. 189; Ode iii. 375.-Plaut• .Asin. 657 (Ussing).
itS
P ARISYLLABIC DECLENSION".
189
3. Accusative: -m, _,vhence Gk. -v, Lat. -tn, presenting no
difficulty: i7r7ro-v, in old Latin written without m,
OINO•.
4. Ablative (l).-The termination of this ablative was a d
preceded by a vowel the nature of which cannot easily be
determined, probably *-ed. But the vowel matters little here,
since from the pro-ethnic period it was contracted with the
final vowel of the stem. The latter vowel being an 0, the con-
traction necessarily produced *Z7T7rooO, equod. In Latin this
ablative has remained, regularly losing its :final d, which is no
longer found except in old inscriptions.l In Greek it has dis-
appeared from declension, but it reappears in the shape of an
adverb in OVToo, /11/00, Karoo, avoorlpoo, etc., and especially, with a
final of somewhat obscure origin,2 in the numerous adverbs
derived from adjectives in (doublet of Ol)TW),
etc. It is adverbial also in Latin in certo,
,.cito.
3
It is also possible that this terJ?ination *-ed might be pre-
ceded by the thematic vowel e-; in this case, the contraction
of the group would have given long (3, which is found only in
Latin, but immensely extended,' since it there corresponds in
the formation of adverbs to the final of Greek: certe=
*certed, facilumed,4 probe, docfe, bene, male, etc.
5. Ablative (2).-The Sanskrit ablative dgvat, which corres-
ponds to equod, may always be replaced by an ablative dyva-
tas, the termination of which reappears in a purer form in
Greek and Latin -tos. But Latin alone adds it to some stems
in 0-, funditus=*funde-tos (fr01TI the bottom, from top to
bottom), peni-tus (from the bottom, thoroughly, cf. penu,..s,
nomin., the meaning of which must have been modified). In
Greek it is no longer found except in a few adverbs, €
in-tus, € which were so little understood to be ablatives
1 Supra 65.
2 Of. however supra 65 note.
s Supra 77 c.
4 Senatusconsultum de Bacchanalibus.-The Oscan. arnprujid = irnprobe:
the termination of which recalls that of the ablatives of the Brd declension
marid, airid=aere, has led some to suppose an intrusion of the forms of thE
Brd declension into the domain of the 1st. But the conjecture stated in thE
text seems more probable.
19cr
GREEK" 'AND LATIN GRAM1\lAR.
that a new ablative termination was attached to them, whence
the form (also Ode ix. -239).
6. Ablative (3).-The last mentioned ablative termination
(Sk. -dhas) appears in Latin and Greek under the double form
-de and -(J€V, of which the form -(Ja=*0rJ seems to be a reduced
doublet (cf. the adverbs and € Lat. €
Latin has not kept this affix in its declension and has only the
t\VO adverbial forms inde and unde. In Greek, on the contrary,
and especially in the language of Homer, the ablatives in -()EV are
remarkably numerous and frequent: common nouns, aypo-()€V,
otKO-(J€V, (JEO-(JEV, ovpav6-(JEv; proper nouns, 'IAt.o-()€v, KOplV()O-()EV;
pronouns, 7rO-()EV, O-()EV, dAAO-()EV, aUTo-BEV. The last mentioned
formations have survived in classical Greek.
7. (l).-The termination of this case was cer-
tainly an -a, whether long or short does not matter here, for the
contraction of this vo\vel with the final vowel of the stem must
,have given rise to an Indo-European -a, which reappears in the
:Doric forms 7ro. (=*qe-a,or *qo-a, which wa:y"?), aUTO. (this way),
aAAo. (elsewhere), etc., Ion. Att. dAAY], (on foot, inst,rum.
of pedestrian), (doubly), (everywhere),
(quietly), etc. It is true that these forms, w"hich are exceedingly
common, are ordinarily written 7rij, l1AAYJ, etc., and regarded as
datives; 1 but, in the first place, the (, adscript is not constant,
and in the second place, it was only natural that the Greeks,
having become incapable of recognising in these forms an
instrumental masculine, should have taken them for the .dative
fenlinine, on account of a merely external resemblance.
2
The
fact is that .the (, adscript here is a mere graphic elnbellishment,
and the instrumental use harmonizes perfectly with the meaning
of all these adverbs of manner and the phrases answering to the
1 Indeed Herodian strictly enjoins this spelling.
2 An attempt has been made to justif.v the view that 7rfl is a feminine, by
understanding oo£i; but what must be understood with 7r€sfl or OLXn?
Moreover 7rallT-1J, Dor. though of analogical formation (inf1·a 204, 9),
seems to show that the Greeks, at the time when they created this word,
were still conscious of the masculine character of the termination; for other-
wise they would have created *1ra<Ta *7ra<T'7.-1 ought however to point out
that the view stated in the text is rejected by most grammarians, the most
authoritative of whom (cf. G. Meyer, § 388) unanimously hold that the type
'lrfi is an instrumentalferninine.
P ARISYLLABIC DECLENSION.
191
question qua. Hence it also seems preferable to see instru-
mentals masculine and neuter in the four Latin pronominal
forms qua = 7ra, hac, illac, istac rather than to have recourse to
a problematic ellipse of via, to justify the feminine.
8. Instr1f/Jnental (2).-It is not certain that this case, the
sign of which in Greek is -efn- and which is not found in
Latin, existed in the singular in Indo-European; at any rate
in Sanskrit it appears only in the plural, under the form -bhis.
2
However that may be, this form, which classical Greek has
entirely lost, is still fairly common in Homer: 3 (on
the right), v (on the left), XUAKO-cPLV (with bronze),
(J"TpUTO-cPI.V, EK 7rU(J"(J"UAOepL (from a peg, ad. viii. 67),
etc.
9. Dative.-The primitive termination was *-ay, or perhaps
*-ey, but it makes no difference here which it was, since the
initial vowel can have had no other effect than that of lengthen-
jng by contraction the final 0- of the stem, Z7r7rep, equo==
*ekwo-ay or *ekwo-ey.4 This declension, together with that
of the a- stems, is the only one in which Greek has preserved
a true dative.
10. Locative.-On the other hand it has almost entirely lost
the locative, the sign of which was a simple -'1£; the only traces
of it are to be found in the forms 7ro'i (whither ?)== *q6-i, or
(w-hither, relative),5 OtKOL (at home), Eol. TVLOE (here), aAAVL
(elsewhere). It will be seen that the final vowel of the stem
has the form 0, but the form e would perhaps be more regular;
at any rate it is certain that the form OtKEt exists and that Doric
has adverbs like TELOE TOVTEL uVTE'i, to which may be added the
Panhellenic EKEI.. The Latin locative, humi (on the ground),
domi (at houle), the question undecided, since i may re-
either ei or oi; the archaic form however is humoi==
*hu1no-'i. This very important form has only retained its loca-
l On the 71 f¢€t..KVCJTLK07l, cf. S11Jp1'a 79, 1.
2 This form is not entirely unknown in Greek. cf. the doublets a.f..L¢l and
af..L¢ls (around) and the advb. t..LKPL¢ls (sideways).
. 3 "\Vhere it is not restricted to the instrumental function, but may also be
used indifferently as an ablative or locative.
4 Of. supra 24 A and 26, 2.-Hence we must beware of identifying in
Latin the dative equo =*equo'i with the abl. eq'llo=*equod.
5 It must be observed that these locatives have taken an illative sense.
192
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
tive function in; the above examples and in proper names of
towns and places, Lugduni (at Lyons); in all other cases, and
even in these nouns themselves, it has taken the meaning of a
genitive, and everywhere replaces the primjtive genitive, of
which Latin shows no trace: equ'i, serv'i, dcnnin'i, etc.
11. Genitive.-The pro-ethnic termination was -syo, cf. Sk.
dfva-sya, and the oldest Greek form tTrTrOLO goes back quite
regularly to *7:lrTrO-uyo.l From the latter to the classical type
tTrTrOV the stage of transition can only have been *iTrTroO through
loss of intervocalic L, and this consideration alone would be
enough to prove the existence of this *tTrTrOO, though it is no-
where read. But there are more direct proofs of its existence.
}"'or (1) several verses of Homer where the form in ov is read
'\vill not scan, and the scansion becomes correct if we restore
the form in 00; thus the ampp.imacers 'IALov, Ai6AOlJ evidently
cannot occur in a dactylic verse.
2
(2) The genitive OOV of the
relative pronoun which is read in Homer, is evidently a
barbarism invented at a later period to restore the metre which
the reading oiJ had violated; it is only necessary to substitute
00 for it.
3
(3) This restoration is again forced npon us almost
as strongly, wherever the final ov is supposed to be shortened
before a following vowel, e.g. 'IALov € (II. ix. 686), ovpavov
(II. vi. 108), etc., where we should read 'IALo',. ovpavo',
etc., with elision of the second o. (4) The same restoration is
possible, though not necessary, wherever the OlJ of th'e genitive
forms the second part of a foot, e.g. at the end of a verse
MeveAaov KvoaALfJ-0Lo, where it is certainly an improvement to
read MevEAaoo. (5) Hence the reading ov (or w in the original
Homeric .LEolic) is only entirely justified when the termination
of the genitive begins a foot, a case which. is comparatively
rare.
4
(6) We shall see later on that the genitive of the 1st
1 Snpra 39 C.-=-This termination is not met with outside the o-declension
and seems to have been borrowed from the pronominal declension, infra
217,9.
2 Hence we shall read 'IA[oo 7rpo7rapoL8€ (II. xv. 66, xxii. 6), Al6Aoo KAUra
oJJJ..Lara (ad. x. 60), and so also II. vi. 61, xv. 554, ii. 518, xxii. 313, etc.
3 11. ii. 325, ad. i. 70; the last 0 of course being long by position.
4 The presence in Homer of three forms of the genitive which evidently
cannot have been coexistent is one of the many facts which show the
artificial character of the Homeric language. .
P A.RISYLLA.BIC DECLENSION.
193
decl. masc. 7roA{rao is undoubtedly borrowed fro'm the 2nd; but,
if it had been imitated from t7T7TOI,O, its form would be *7ToA{rul,o;
hence it must have been formed in a dialect in which the pro-
nunciation at the time was *t7T7TOO. (7) There is nothing incon-
ceivable in the loss' of the form *t7T7TOO, if the Homeric poems
have been translated into a language which no longer possessed
this 'genitive (the language of the Ionian rhapsodists); it is
rather the preservation of the type in OLO which might surprise
us, did not the metre absolutely require it, together with many
other archaisms:
The forlns OEOtO, t7r7TOLO, survived, through imitation of Homer,
in the language of poets of all periods. Prose retained only the
contracted forms of *OEOO, *Z7r7rOO, namely, Lesb. Bceot. Dol". (}f.W,
t7r7TW, Ion.-Att. Of.OV, t7r7rov.
By a process the reverse of that in Latin, which has super-
seded this genitive by the locative, Greek employs the genitive
of certain pronouns in a locative sense: 7rOV (where ?), of)
(where), aVTOV (here), etc.
1
(I88) II. Dual.-1. Direct Case (nom.-voc.-acc.): the final
vowel (probably -e, if we may judge from 7rOO-€, etc., of the Brd
declension) having been contracted, in the Indo-European
period, with the thematic vowel 0-, the result was an 0, which
forms the Greek termination, t7r7rw=*eklvo==*ekwo-e. Latin
has lost. this form, except in the two vvords duo 2 and ambo ). and
even here it only serves for the nominative masculine and neuter
and the accusative neuter; the accusative masculine has the
plural form, duos, ambos. Besides ovw Greek also has ovo, a
much commoner form, the shortening of which is still unex-
plained.
2. Oblique Case (1) (exclusively Greek).-Neither Latin nor
any other Indo-European language shows anything analogous
1 For the sake of completeness may be mentioned also: (1) the locative
in -0, (1rOOL, '1:\[00,), produced by the combination of the Lof the locative with
the ablative termination -O€V; (2) the illative OLKOVO€, obtained by the addi.
tion to the ordinary accusative of a demonstrative and enclitic particle
which intensifies its meaning; (3) the more obscure illative otKaO€ (imitation
of lL:\ao€? cf. also ¢(ryao€) ; (4) the rare illative i ~ -CT€, which is quite ob.
scure, 1rOCT€, (i:\:\OCT€.
2 But commonly duo, supra 77.
o
194
GREEK AND LATIN GRAM:MAR.
to the case-ending used in Greek for the genitive, locative,
instrumental, dative, and ablative dual. This termination is
-Lf,V (the first t is a y) in the language of Homer, t7T7TO-UV oep()aA-
/LOLL1/, afterwards contracted with the stem and so producing
the forms t7T7TOf,V (dissyllable), oep()aApJoLv, etc. Did this termina-
tion belong to the Indo-European period? or is it entirely the
creation of Greek? It very hard to give any reply to
this question, except that we do not see whence Greek could
have derived it. The most probable view is that there is a
very close relation between the oblique case of the dual and the
locative plural; for t7r7TOUV is the same as t7T7rOUrLV with the
regular loss of the intervocalic (T.!
3. Oblique Case (2) (Latin).-The forms duo-bus, ambo-bus
are not pIurals, since there is no case in -bus in the Latin 2nd
declension. Now Sanskrit has in the dual an instrum.-dat.-abl.
termination -bhyam, dvabhyam = duobus; hence it is prQbable
that the Latin -bus here is a relic of an old dual termination,
corrupted through the analogy of the termination of the dative-
ablative plural of other declensions.
2
(189) III. Norninative- Vocative: t7r7TOL, equi 3 =
*equoi (the old fornl poploe == populi and others are cited by
Festus). It will be seen that Greek and Latin agree in adding
a -y to the stem; but in this respect they diverge from the
Indo-European type, ",-rhich in this declension as in all the
others had the termination -es, e.g. *ekwos == *ekwo-es, Sk.
dQVCIS.
4
!Ience vve should expect *equos; but, on the
other hand, the termination oy was regular in the pronominal
declension, e.g. Sk. te == *toy (they); hence it is easily conceiv-
able that phrases like TOL *Z7T7Twr;, isti* equos would l)ecome TOL
i7T7Tof" isti equi. This is not the only case in which the o-stems
have borrowed from the pronouns, and in this particular case
1 Of. infra 189, 5.-In the solitary form OU€W the thematic vowel seems to
be e-; but ouo'Ll! likewise exists.
2 The ·other cases of duo and ambo are borrowed from the plural system,
as is likewise the case in Greek with au-crt, the locative of ova.
3 Written also ei (equei) and e = e(PLOIRVlYIE, Ep. Scip.)
4 It is noticeable that an the Italic languages, with the exception of Latin,
kept this primitive form: Osc. NVVLA.NVS = Nolanos (inhabitants of Nola),
Umbr. IKVVINVS = Iyuvinos, in Latin Nolani, 19uvini.
FARISYLLABIC DECLENSION. 195
the borrowing was aided by the analogy of the termination -ay
of the 1st declension, 'Tal. KE1JaAaL, which was comparatively
regular.l Latin also had a nom. pI. in -es, -is, -eis, 1nagistr-es,
etc., attested by a good many inscriptions of the 6th century
of Rome; this was evidently borrowed from the 3rd declension
(cf. patres from lJater, and 1nagister), and did not pass into the
classical language.
2. Accusative.-The termination of the acc. pI. is always
*-ns,2 hence *equo-ns. We still find 7ovr;, EAEVBEpOV'),
etc., in Cretan and A.rgive inscriptions. Everywhere else the
phonetic changes already explained
3
took place: Lesb.
Dol'. Emot. i7r7fwr;, Ion.-A.tt. L7r7rOVr;, Lat. equos. The type with a
short vowel, 'TOS BEor;, etc., which is common in inscriptions and
in the Doric of Theocritus, comes from syntactical positions in
\vhich the v was dropped without any compensatory lengthen-
ing, e.g. 'Tor; BEor; but o-Ef3oJLaL 'Tor; BEOVS, and has thence
been extended by analogy to other positions..
3. Instrumental.
4
-The case in is in Homer instru-
mental plural as well as singular: (with the gods),
(by the bones), etc.
4. Dative-Ablative.
5
-The original form of this case is re-
vealed to us by that which in Sanskrit serves as instrumental,
ayvtiis, hence *equois, in other words, it is the form of
the dative singular with the addition of the s of the plural;
then, by a regular process of shortening,
6
==
The type eq1fJeis, which is very common, is only another spelling
of the same form.
5. Locative.-The pro-ethnic termination of this case was
*-su in all declensions. In this particular declension it was
added to the stem, not directly, but by means of a semi-vocalic
epenthesis, viz. y, the precise origin of which is unknown; hence,
instead of #.<ekwo-su, the Indo-European form would be *ekwoy-
1 Of. infra 195, 1.
2 Or perhaps at a very remote period *-lnS, fonned by the addition of the
s of the plural to the form of the acc. sing.
3 Supra 47 C.
4 The ablative plural is everywhere like the dative, infra 4.
5 And instrumental in classical Greek as well as in Latin.
o By what is called Osthoff's law
7
supra 76 and 77.
196
GREEK AND LATIN GRA1\'IMAR.
SU, which is reflected in Sk. dQve-su, etc. If then the locative
were *t7r7rOL-a-V, whence *t7r7rOLV, it be easily explainable;
but we nowhere find the slightest trace of such a termination,l
and again the Greek form t7r7rOLa-L t7r7rOUTLV has nothing corre-
sponding to it in any cognate language. There is however
something corresponding to it in Greek itself in the oblique
case of the dual t7r7rOUV; hence there seems some probability
that Indo-European had a loco pI. *ekwoysu and a loco dual
that these two forms were preserved ill Greek as
regards their function, but confused .in respect of their form,
and that lastly the intervocalic 0", regularly dropped in t7r7rOUV,
reappeared in t7r7rOLO"LV through the analogy of the very nnmerons
forIns of the 3rd declension (7roO"O"{v, TE{Xf.o"(J"LV, etc.), in which it
vvas not intervocalic and therefore necessarily remained. But
this is evidently merely a rudimentary attempt at explanation.
One point in it however must almost certainly be maintained,
namely, that the final v of this form is not paragogic, but
forIns an integral part of the termination; 2 t7r7rOLO"Ll( must be
original, whereas t7r7rOLa-L been curtailed on the analogy of
other forms in vvhich the v was really paragogic, e.g. perhaps
*t7r7rOe:pL and *t7r7rOrpLV.
This locative has scarcely survived except in the language
of poetry and in the prose of Herodotus, and moreover has
been entirely confused with the dative; not only is the one
case used for the other, but they are made to agree together,
just as if they "rere one and the same case. We know how
common are such phrases as 7rOAAOLO"LV and 7rOAAOLr;
av()p6J7rOLO"L. In classical prose, as in Latin, the lost locative
plural is replaced by the dative-ablative.
6. Genitive (l).-The original termination of the gen. pl.,
vvhich must have been *-om, was kept only in this declensieYn,
where, by contraction with the thematic 0-, it produced 0, e.g.
*ekwom-=*ekvJo-orn, Gk. t7r7rWV, Lat. deum In Greek
this genitive is the only one in use. In Latin it is archaic;
1 Except perhaps in the adverb € which would thus be locative plural
of a stem *f.L€TaK- of the 3rd declension.
2 This is proved by the fact that this v never appears except in the plural:
TrOcrcrL and Trocr(J-[-TJ, but TrOO£ and not *Troolv.
3 The exact correspondence between the endings of 8€[i71 and deum, and
PARISYLLABIC DECLENSION. 197
but, while it was generally superseded by the genitive in
it yet held its own permanently: (1) in the language
of poets ;_ (2) in formulre" especially legal and liturgical formulre,
going back to remote antiquity, e.g. Deurn 1 (3) in
official la?-guage and terms relating to money, 1nIlia ses-
tertium, not sestertiorum, and so also not
rum, fabrurn (title of a public official), etc.
7. Genitive (2) (Latin).-The gen. pI. of pronouns ended
regularly in *o-s01n., e.g. and we have
seen that the pro:nominal declension had a great influence on
the one which we are now dealing with. Again, the gen. pI.
of the 1st declension in -arUl1l likewise goes back to Indo.-
European. Lastly, from the time when final syllables in m
tended to become short, the Latin gen. pI. was no longer dis-
tinguished from the acc. sing. All these causes cOll1bined to
bring about the creation aud. extension of an analogical genitive
in -orum, equorum, servorun1, which almost entirely superseded
the former one.
§ 2. Neuters.
(190) The declension of neuters differs only in t\VO points
from that of the masculines and feminines.
1. Norninative- Vocative-Accusative singular. -The nomi-
native neuter is always like the accusative., which has the
ordinary termination -111: 'vyo-v jugu-m. The vocative neuter
has everywhere been assimilated to the nominative.
2. Vocative-Accusative pluraZ.-The ending of
this case is a in \.,.edic Sanskrit, but (1 in Greek and
Latin, 'vya juga. How is this difference to be explained?
Let us suppose that the termination was originally a; then we
ought to have, in Greek and Latin, not only *'vya
*yuge-a contracted, but also, in the Brd for exalnple,
*rp{a, *tria. This supposition lacks probability, for we do not
also the known laws of Latin sounds, entirely forbid the hypothesis that
is a syncopated form. of deihuln. .
1 Gen. of Dr, con-sent-ea "the gods who are or sit together" (the twelve
great gods).
198
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
see how all these long terminations could have been shortened.
Let us suppose, on the other hand, that the terrnination was
it; we can then explain very easily the long vowel of the Sk.
yugcl. = *yuge-a contracted, and the short vowel of the Gk.
Tp{-a, and we can also easily see how in a combination like
Tp{a the short ending of the first word might influence
the long ending of the second and shorten it. I t is to be
observed that the reverse process likewise took place, at any
rate sporadically, if we may judge from the form
Ion. which it is generally agreed to explain through
the combination KOVTa (three tens))
But this explanation will not hold good for Latin; for, sup-
posing we admit the existence in old Latin of a combination
*bona opesc'l, then, if *bona had become bona through the
analogy of *opesa, the final short a would have been changed
to e (supra 36 A a), and so the phrase would have become in
classical Latin *bone For the a to have been kept, it
must have been long; in other words, in the combination *bona
opesc'l, just as in *opesa must have becolne *opesa
through the analogy of Moreover we have indubitable
traces of this long quantity in the imparisyllabic neuters (infra
206, 2). Later the final vowel was shortened through an un-
known cause, possibly through the analogy of the shortening of
the same terluination in the nominative singular of feminine
nouns (infra 193).
§ 3. Accidental Modifications.
(r9!) Among the modifications, all very slight and strictly
phonetic, which certain t:ypes of this class have undergone,
nlay be mentioned in Greek: (1) the contracted type,
7rAovS-, Oo-TEOV Oo-TOVV, xpVo-€OS- Xpvo-ovs-, where hovvever the ordinary
lavvs of contraction are interfered "\vith by the action of
analogy; 2 (2) the type with metathesis of quantity,3 called the
Attic declension, Aews-=AYJoS-, Aayws-=Aaywos-, etc., namely: Sing.
1 [The plural Yllga is held to have been originally the nom. sing. of a
feminine collective noun by J. Schmidt, Die Pluralbildungen der Indoge1'-
rnanischen Neutra (Weimar, 1889), reviewed by the author in Revue Critique,
1889, xxviii. 113.J
2 Of. supra 72. 3 Supra 76 O.
P ARISYLLABIC DECLENSION. 199
nom. A.ew-s==Ion. A."1o-s==Aao-s, acc. AEW-V==A"1O-V, date A.Eef!==A"1C:;,
gen. AEW==*AEW-O==*A"1O-O; PI. nom. Ae<§==A."1o-{, avwyew==*avwyew-a
== *&'vwYYJo-a, ace. Aews==*A.ew-vc;== *A"1o-vC;, date A€U;S gen.
AEWV==A"1wv,l etc. (dawn) which is equivalent to the im-
parisy] labic (gen. has passed by analogy into this
mode of inflexion.
2
In Latin must be mentioned: (1) the type showing apocope
in the nOlll. sing.; ager, puer, dexter, etc. ; 3 (2) the contracted
type in io-s, ftliu-s, VaZeriu-s, voc. ftli, ValerI, gen. sing.
Valeri.
4
If the Latin grammarians are to be believed, the
last two forIns differed in accentuation, gen. Valeri, voc.
Vdlerio;)
SECTION II.
STE:NlS IN a-.
(192) This class includes a large majority of the feminines,
a few masculines (chiefly in Greek), but no neuters. It corre-
sponds to the 1st declension in Latin and to the nouns in a
("1 and apure in Attic) of the 1st declension in Greek.
In this system of inflexion, the stem is even less variable
than in the preceding one. We can find at the most only a
few traces of alternation between ii and abefore the termina-
tions.
6
The Indo-European type however is difficult to restore,
since the Sanskrit declension here shows peculiarities which
do. not occur in and Latin.
§ 1. Ferninines.
(193) I. Singula-r.-1. Norninative: with no ternlination,
Dor. veep€Aa, Ion.-Att. VEepf.A"1, Dor. and Att. (J"oep{a, (ujL€pii) ,
1 Most of the grammarians teach that these nouns keep in all cases the
accent of the nominative; this can only be the result of a somewhat curious
action of analogy.
2 vVe also find the acc. fjpwp for f}pwa (Herodotus).
3 Supra 79, 2 and 70. 4 Supra 73, 3.
;; This accentuation would take us back to a very primitive period, when
the vocative (as is still the case in Sauskrit) threw the accent as far 1ack as
possible, without any regard for the law of three syllables, e.g. * V{ileT; e.
6 rrhere is also a very remarkable shifting of accent in the infleXIon of
r-a (one, root L, cf. o!-o-s): nom. t-a (Hom. t-a), acc. rap, gen. las, date
200
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
xwpa, Ion. uoep{'Y/, XtiJp'Y/,1 Lat. terrii, etc. As far as we
can go back into the Indo-European period, these nominatives
appear without any visible termination, which however need
not surprise us, for this is not an isolated case; many similar
instances will be found in the imparisyllabic declension. But
a more serious difficulty is the regular contrast between the
long vowel in Greek and the short in Latin. The identity
of the two vowels is indisputable; for ante-classical Latin had
the long vowel, as is proved by luany scansions in Saturnian
verses and even in Ennius;2 but how can this vowel,
originally long, have become first common, and then short?
Various explanations have been offered, but all insufficient.
(1) A purely phonetic shortening: but this hypothesis is in
contradiction to all we .know of Latin phonology. (2) Con-
fusion with the vocative, '\vhich must have had the short
vowel: but, if the prehistoric vocative had been *terrra, it
would probably have become Lat. *terre.
3
(3) A phonetic
shortening, originating in iambic words, fuga==- bona,4
and thence extended to the termination of other words: this
hypothesis is the least untenable, though it assigns a quite
disproportionate influence to the law of iambic words. Per-
haps it would be better to start from the acc. sing. *terram,
,vhich would be changed to terram in accordance with the law
regulating final syllables in m, and from this the short vowel
might very easily have crept into the nominative.
2. Vocative: the simple stem without any termination, and
'hence like the nominative in Greek and Latin. Homeric
Greek however shows traces of an' old vocative in a, whether
primitive or not we cannot say, vVftepa, Kovpa.
5
3. Accusative: -m, presenting no difficulty, Gk. v€ep€A'Y/-Jl=
vEepeAii-v, Lat. terra-m=*terra-m.
4. Ablative (l).-It is probable that this case did not exist
1 Of. 37.
2 Quoius forma virtutei parisuma fuit (Ep. Bcip.).-Nam divina Monetas
filia docuit (Saturnian verse of Liv. Andr. ).-Et densis aquila pinnis Obllixii
volabat (Enn.).-Familia tota (Plaut. T1·inUl11,. 251).
3 Sup"a 36 A a. 4 Supra 77 C.
5 II. iii. 130, Ode iv. 743; CaHim. iii. 72.-0nly Slavonic is in agreement
wLh Greek on this point; the Sanskrit vocative is a9ve (mare).
PARISYLLABIC DECLENSION. 201
an the original a-declension; neither Sanskrit nor Greek
shows any trace of it, and the Latin ablative, terra=terrad,
praedad (001. Rostr.),l noctu Troiad exZbant capitibus opertis
(Saturnian verse of Naevius), used also as a locative (in
like in horto=*hortoi or hortod in 2nd declension), may have
been formed by analogy from the ablative of the·o-stems.
5. Ablative (2): no trace in this class of stems.
6. Ablative (3): recognisable in a few Greek forms like
, 7Tpwpii-BEV (ti prorei), etc.
7. Instrumental (1).-We have seen that the adverbs in -a
are instrumentals of the masculine-neuter genderJ :2 Butit is
quite possible that they include some feminine instrumentals;
as the vowel resulting from contraction would necessarily be
Ct in either case, we have no means of distinguishing them.
8. Instrurnental (2).-Homeric Greek: (\vith the
head), f3{YJ-epL (by his might), f3{YJ-qn (with greater
might); agreeing with the locative in afL' epaLVOfL€vYJ-epL, etc. ;
from EU"XapYJ EU"xapa (hearth), EU"Xap6-epLV (Od. v. 59, vii. 169)
with analogical intrusion of the thematic vowel of the 2nd
declension.
9. Dative.-The dative termination -ay (or -ey) must have
'been contracted in Greek with the final a- of the stem, whence
a termination ay, VEep€A'{/=VEep€AUL, xwpq.=XWpUL. In Latin
apparently this contraction did not take place,3 so that the
form was or *terra-ei, which regularly became terrai.
This is the actual archaic form of the dative. Later we find
the dissyllable terrae; can aZ have become contracted to ae
In the absence of any other evidence this point cannot be
decided; but it is more probable that terrae' is the locative
\vhich will next be discussed, confused with the dative.
10. Locative.-The termination of the locative being -'rt, the
word xafLa{ is generally explained as the locative of a lost
stem *xafLa- (earth). But xafLal would presuppose *XafL'O.-t and,
1 This form is a pseudo-archaism; at the time of the .erection of the
column only PRAIDAD could have been written. -
2 Supra 187, 7.
3 Perhaps because it was prevented in Indo-European by the presence of
an intermediate sound -y- which is retained in the Sanskrit declension, e.g.
ar;va-y-ai (to the mare).
202
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
besides the fact that the accent of violates the accentual
laws of the 1st declension, that *xufLi- does not exist,! and
that the thematic vowel a is rather remarkable, it must be
observed that the corresponding Latin form is Romae, which
presupposes * for *Romd-'i would have become *Rorn'l.
Hence it is probable that xafLa{ must belong to another
class of stems,2 and that in Greek the locative *xwpi-'l, was
entirely confused with the dative. In Latin the two' forms
remained distinct; but, by reason of their partial likeness, the
cases were equally confused; the locative being and
the dative RonU2'l, the Latins said indifferently for either case
Roma/i or Rornae; moreover, as in the 2nd declension, the
locative assumed the functions of the genitive. Then the loc.-
gen.-dati terraI, R0111ilI, gradually gave \vay before the loc.-
gen.-dat. terrae, the former inflexion, which is still
very common in Lucretius, has become by the Augustan age
a mere poetic archaism.
11. Genitive.-The usual termination of this case "vas *-es
or *-os; 3 it is probably *-es, which, by contraction with the
a of the stem, has given the termination as: Gkl VEe:pEAYJt; ==
VEe:p€AaS, xwpas and xwpYJr;,4 Lat. filius Latonas, divlna Monefas
filia, escas (of food), cited from Livius Andronicus. This
genitive retained its place in Latin only in the phrase pater-
farnilias; it was superseded by the locative, as in the 2nd
declension.
(I94) II. Dual.-1. Direct Case: I.-E. *ekway (Sk. dgve,
two mares), seems to be represented with a fair degree of
accuracy by the two Latin forms duae and arnbae. In Greek
the dual of the 1st declension is rare and late (it is not found
in Homer 5), and is certainly a new formation; for, if xwpii
(two lands) "vere primitive, we should have in Ionic *xwPYJ, not
xwpa. Hence the long vowel of xwpa is simply imitated from
that of i7r7rw.
1 The form XafJ-Ovt€ is certainly analogical, infra 195, 2.
2 Infra 204, 11. 3 infra 204, 14.
4 The mere contrast between the accentuation of K€¢a'AfJ and €
shows that the latter form is due to a contraction.
[j Except in the case of a few masculines: 'Arp€loa (the two Atridre).
P ARISYLLA.BIC DECLENSION. 203
2. Oblique Case (1) (Greek): wanting in Homer, later the
rare ty"pe which is evidently modelled on i7r7rOLV.
3. Oblique Case (2) (Latin), dua-bus,
(r9S) III. Plural.-I. Vocative.-The ordinary
termination *-es, by contraction with the thematic vowel a,
produced a termination -as, attested by Sk. dyvas (mares) as
well as by Oscan and Umblian. But Greek and Latin seem to
have lost this case and to have replaced it by the nominative
dual: V€¢EAat., xwpar. like Sk. d9ve,. Lat. terrae, like
a1nbae.
2. Accusative: *-ns.-Gk. (we read in Cretan
etc.), whence Lesb. Dor.-Ion.-Att. xwpas, some-
times simply the short vowe], ()vpas (Theocr.) ; 2 Lat. terras
== *terra-ns. The demonstrative -o€ added to a few accusa-
tives of this class formed an illative in -fl'€, e.g. {jvpa'€ == *avpa-
lI<T-O€ (towards the doors, cf. Lat. joras) , € etc., and this
terlnination -a'€ was aftervvards extended, vvith the same
function, to nouns whose very meaning excludes the possibility
of their use in the plural, e.g. Xap_a.;€ and xafJ-af,€ (to the
ground).
3. Homer. ()vPYJ-epr.v, KAurlYJ-ept.v, etc.
4. Dative-Ablative is in Sanskrit no type corre-
sponding to the dative-ablatives in and -is, xwpafs, terris, .
and this type is wanting even in Homeric Greek. These facts
lead one to think that Greek and Latin each developed it
separately on the analogy of i7r7rOfS *equois (ter1>is == terrais).3
5. Dative-Ablative (2).-There is nothing to justify the
opinion that the Latin forms dea-bus, liberta-bus,
1nanibus dextrc£.-bus (Liv. Andr.) are new formations. Sanskrit
has an instr. pI. dr;va-bhis, a dat.-abI. pI. dyva-bhyas and an
instr.-dat.-abl. dual dr;va-bhyara, all three of vvhich approxi-
mately correspond to the Latin form.
4
Still, if this form is
of Indo-European origin, it was only kept in the case of a
1 Supra 188, 3 and infra 195, 5.
2 E.g. Syracus. 65, like 70S 8€os, su,pra 189, 2.
3 The dative in -y/lS, which is very common in Homer, (KO[XTlS py/va-l, II. i.
89) shows in its termination the influence of the locative in -TJLa-L (infra),
with which it is used interchangeably.
4 Cf. infra 206, 5.
204
GREEK AND ·LATIN GRAMMAR.
few words where it was needed, in order to ·distinguish the
feminine from the masculine deis, ftliiS, etc., and was after-
wards extended to similar instances.
1
6. Locative.-In Latin the locative was superseded by the
dat.-abI. In Greek it ought to be *xwpa-a-v; but we have
already seen the regular substitution of -a-I-V for -a-v,2 whence
the type xwpa-a-I-v, which serves at once as a locative,
dative, ablative and instrumental in Homer and Herodotus, and
which has been preserved in classical Greek only in the type
ITAaral-ua-(,v, with a strictly locative function. The
analogy of the termination -Ol-a-I- of the 2nd declension caused
the addition of an L subscript, K€epa'A:fja-u', a spelling which is
almost invariable in manuscripts, but not in inscriptions.
Another termination -al-a-L (Old Attic), more directly modelled
on -OUTL, seems to have only spread very slightly.
7. Genitive.-This case has borrowed its termination *-SOUl
from the pronominal declension: Sk. = Gk.
rwv=*ra-wv; whence Gk. xwpa-wv=*xwpa-a-wv, Osc. egrrla-zum
(rerum), Lat. terra-rum == *ter1·a-sum. The well known form
xwpawv is £oJic and Homeric; it is contracted in Doric, xwpav;
in Ionic it of course becomes whence XWpEWV; it is
contracted in Attic, xwpwv. The perispomenon is the rule,
except in adjectives like where the gen. pI. fern. has.
yielded to the analogy of the masc.-neut., whence ep£AWV instead
of probably because oxytones like KaAo-s necessarily
had the same accentuation in all three genders, In
Latin, the syncope indigenum, which occurs only
in poetry and in masculine compounds, is an artificial imitation
of that which was wrongly supposed to occur in the gen. pI. of
the 2nd declension
§ 2. .llfasculine.
(196) In Latin the inflexion of the masculines presents no
peculiarity: sC1'iba, agricola, parricida, are declined like
1 Low Latin equiibus, anirnttbus, etc.
2 Supra 189, 5.
3 This assimilation was not universal; the KOLVf] accented XL'Xlwv opaXfJ-{;.p,
but pure Attic Xi.'XLWV opaXfJ-Wv. 4 t:>upra 7.
P ARISYLLABIC DECLENSION.
205
terra. In Greek they differ from the feminine only in three
cases of the singular, in ,,,hich, from the mere fact of their
gender, these masculines tended to beeolne distinguished from
the feminines of the 1st declension, and to approach in their
forIn the masculines of the 2nd.
1. Nominative.-The regular type without any termination
still exists in the of Homer: P:fjT{€Ta Z€Vs-, V€ep€A'Yj,,/€p€Ta
€ etc.l In the same language we find nominatives with
final a, vvhich are merely vocatives fulfilling the function -of
nominatives: ;'7r7rOTa (borseman), (herald), (singer).2
Lastly, at all periods, we find the nominative with the termina-
tion the only one admissible in the classical language:
= etc. Is this formation original?
It has been contended that it is so, on the strengtth of the
two Latin forms paricidas and hosticapas (hostium captor)
cited by Festus; but it seems difficult to base a theory on
two forms so doubtful and so isolated. It is probable that the
Greek in this case is due to the analogy of the other declen-
sions,3 especially the 2nd, and that the two Latin nominatives,
if they ever existed, have the same origin.
2. Vocative.-The vocative has remained purer than that
of the feminines, 7fOALTa, Tup.la. In certain words, however,
especially patronymics in -{c'Yj-, -ao'Yj-, it has taken the long
vowel of the nOlninative, but without the Kpov{o'Yj, cEpJLE{U,
TELP€o-{'Yj (Od. xi. 139).
3. genitive of the stem 7fOALra- would natu-
rally be but, when once the nominative had taken
the the genitive was no longer distinguished from it, and
this fact favoured the creation of a new form. As the Greeks
had *Z7r7rOO by the side of so by the side of nom.
they formed the gen. 7fOA{ruo. This remarkably simple ex-
1 Unless they are, as in the following case, merely vocatives in which the
short final vowel has been lengthened by an accident of prosody. The use
of the vocative is justified by the frequency of invocations such as €vpvo7ra
Z€V (0 Zeus with the thundering voice!) which came to be treated as set
formuloo and of which only the second term was any longer declined.
2 The expansion of the vocative has been so great in this class of stems
that it may agree with an accusative (€vpuo7ra Z?]v), with a genitive (l1T7rOra
¢YJpos Arat.), with a dative (KuavoxaLra IIo6€LoawvL, Antimachus), etc.
3 See also supra 132 note.
206
GREEK AND LATIN GR.A:M1VI.AR.
planation has nothing against it except the single form
TAu(J{uFo, which is found on a Corcyrrean inscription (the F is·
almost inexplicable).! Whatever may be the case in regard
to this, the JEolic form 7rOA{TUO has regularly corresponding
to it, in Doric 7rOA{Ta, and in Ionic *7fOA{TYjO, whence 7rOA{TEW.
The genitives of the in -ii, f30ppa are Dorisms,
of \vhich the late Greek and modern Greek genitives in -Yj,
are imitations. In ancient Attic they appear to have
been unknown.
vVhat then must be thought of the Attic and comnlon Greek
genitive 7rOA{TOV, Tafl-{ov? It has recently been attributed to
the contraction of == *7fO'A.{TYjO. But it \vonId be very
strange, to say the least of it, that Attic, in vvhich, as we.
kno\v, Inetathesis of quantity was so prevalent,2 should have
had *7fOA{TEO \vhere even Ionic has 7rOA{TtW, especially when it
has f3uCYLAEWS as contrasted with Ionic f3a(JLAEOS. It is better
H then to abide by the old view that 7rOA{TOV is simply due to the
analogy of the ending -ov of the 2nd declension, which is itself
contracted from the -00 which produced 7fOJdTUO. Thus analogy
a-gain travelled along the same road which it had already taken
four centuries earlier, so much logic, we might almost say
necessity, is there in its apparent caprices.
3
Lastly we must mention the influence which has been
exercised on these stems, especially in the Ionic of Herodotus,
by forms like of the Brd declension, on account of the
identity of their termination S in the nominative; we find the
vocative accus. OHT7rOTEU, etc. On the other hand
the acc. 7pLrJPYjV, gen. € etc., belong to the
best period of Attic.
SECTION III.
STEMS IN i- (GK. -y'U, LAT. -ie-).
(197) We have seen above how an Indo-European accusative
of feminine stems, *woqi- (voice), *"spekz- (look), became in
1 This may be simply a wrong spelling, or an arbitrary sign for y (TAao-laLO?
on the analogy of L7r7fOLO). In any case, it is exaggerating the importance of
this isolated form to base on it the hypothesis of a primitive genitive of the
2nd declension in -a-Fa.
2 Supra 76 Band C. 3 Supra 112 and 151.
PARISYLLABIC DECLENSION.
207
Greek 6erer(lV, in Latin speciem, from which forms each language
derived a different system of inflexion. The process in Greek
is of the simplest character; on 6ererav was based a nominative
oerera, cf. xwpii xwpav, and so also in the case of all nouns in a
of t.he 1st declension, fLoveru (Lesb. fL0'ieru, Lacon. fLwa) == *fLovTya,
== *ooKTya, p{'u== *Fp{oya, afLl-AAu == *afLf-Aya, yAwa-a-u == *yAwxya,
a-epu'ipu == *a-¢apya, etc. If yAwa-era had then been declined
strictly on the analogy of xwpa, the gen. sing. ought to have
been and so on vvith the other cases; but it is easily
conceivable that the long vowel of *xwpas would lead to a
similar lengthening in yAwa-a-as,l Ion.-Att. yAw(J"a-'YJr;, so that the
two declensions no longer differ except in the nOill. and acc.
sing., which show the original short vowel.
In Latin we have similarly :-Sing. acc. abl. specie:
terran2; gen.-dat. speciei, like terrai; Plur.
110m. species, which perhaps recalls the lost nom. pl. *terras;2;
a0C. species, cf. terras; abl.-dat. speciebus, cf. deabus; gen.
specieru1n, cf. terra'rum. There remains only the nom. sing.
species, which cannot be conlpared either with tel'ra or *terra,
and requires a different explanation.
The fact is that the Latin 5th declension is far fronl being
uniform and primitive. Various types of very dissimilar orjgin
have found their way into it under the influence of analogy,
although its main basis consists of felninines like
pauper'ies, avarities, etc. Thus dies==*diews is equivalent
to ZEvr; == *ZrTvr;, and properly belongs to the 3rd declension; 3
but, its acc. dierrn == *cliern == being like that of speciern, etc.,
it follows their mode of inflexion.
4
Res was also of the 3rd
declension, but its acc. has made it follow in the
same direction. Lastly, spes was a stem in -es-, as is abundantly
proved by the verb spe)·-are and the adverb
spere (according to one's hope), whence was afterwards derived
1 Thus 'YAwcrcrat (dat. sing.): 'YAwcrcratS (dat. pI.) = xwpat: xwpxu.
2 Unless it is merely an accusative with the function of a nominative, or
a form due to the analogy of the Brd declension.-Cf. supra 195, l.
3 Cf. infra 213. Hence Die:)piter=ZdJs 7rarYjp is simply the nominative of
the compound of which Jupiter=Z€u 7ra
T
€p is the vocative.
4 It has even taken their gender; though originally masculine, we know
that in actual usage it belongs to both genders.
208
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
an adjective prosper; hence. the acc.- was *sper.;.ern, but the
of diem, rem, nuben2 produced spem, and then the
rest of the declension followed in the same direction. It would
have. been equally possible to decline nubes *nubei *nube, and'
if this did not happen, there is no lack of attempts in this
direction; for fames (gen. has in the abl. fame instead
of tabes (consumption) has an old abl. tab;;; or rather
tabe, and tabes (stain) an old abl. lab?; (Lucr.) which is doubt-
less only another mode of writing *zabe.
Hence we see \vhat has taken when once dies, res,
spes, etc., had .passed into the 5th declension, the nominative
of the speciem, etc., whatever its original form, had to conform
to their likeness.
p
CHAPTER II.
ll.VIPARISYLLABIC DECLENSION.
(1g8) To avoid any confusion, it will be best in this declen-
sion to carefully distinguish and study separately, first the
terminations themselves, and next the various forms which
the stem may take in consequence of the addition of these
terminations. This distinction is possible, and even easy, in
every case except the nominative singular of the mascuFne"s
and feminines, in which the modification of the stem is often
the only sign of the case. Hence this fundamental case must
be considered first.
SECTION I.
NOMINATIVE SINGULAR.
(1gg) We have seen that the nom. sing. is sometimes char-
acterized by the termination -8, while sometimes it has no affix
at all) This variation is reproduced here on a very large
scale, and nominatives may be distinguished as sigrnatic, e.g.
epAEt/J, and non-sigmatic, narnely, those in which the only
apparent case-sign is a lengthening of the final syllable of the
stem, e.g. epEpWV, Formerly this lengthening was ex-
plained as being simply the result of an older -s, which had
been lost with compensatory lengthening. But this hypothesis
cannot be maintained, since it violates phonetic laws; for it is
clear that, if well attested sigmatic nominatives like
€ (historically proved), have become Xe{p, etc., then
the supposed' forms *epEpOVT-t;, could only have beconle
*7raTe{p, not epEpWV, none of the Indo..
European languages show any -s in words of this type, cf.
especially. Sk. bhdran, pita, Lat. pater; and, if the correspond-
1 Supra 187, 1, and 193, 1.
209
210
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
ing Latin word feren-s has an s, we know that this very fact
shows that it is not original.
1
Hence we are forced to con-
clude that, if these nominatives ever were sigmatic, their final
s had already disappeared in the Indo-European period, and
this is sufficient to justify the distinction we have made. On
further examining this distinction, we find that a few nOlnina-
tives (very rare) combine the sign -s with the lengthening,
and, lastly, that none of these signs occurs in the nominative
of neuter nouns, to which a special place must be assigned.
§ 1. Sig1natic Nominative.
(200) We Inay classify as follows the stems in which the
parent-speech admitted final s, which is reproduced with lnore
or ]ess fidelity in Greek and Latin.
1. Vocalic sterns: Gk. €
(Lacon.) ; 2 Lat. avi-s, acri-s (vvhence acer 3),
gens == *genti-s,4 suavi-s ; rnanu-s, fT'uctu-s, su-s, gru-s, etc.
2. Diphthongal Lat. die-s,5 Dor.
Lat. bo-s, == with the exceptjon
ho,,,-rever of derivatives in -ow- and -oy_,6 althou.gh Greek, the
only language which retains them, has introduced the siglnatic
nOlninative into some stems of the former class, e.g.
cf. gen. ==
3. Gttdtural orr labial Gk.
e15wlfr, etc.; Lat. audax ferox,
feZ?;X; pleb-s, Aet'hiop-s.
4. ending in a pure dental: the dental is assimilated
to the s, and then the group ss is reduced to a single s, =
== == 7== Similarly
1 Sup?'a 47 c.
2 From this stem vlv- come the forms VL€OS, etc., which are so common in
Homer. The stem vlo- of the 2nd declension is likewise Homeric.
s Supra 70.
4 Supra 118 (syncope in imitation of dens and similar cases).
5, Cf. supra 197.
6 Cf. supra 131 and infra 213, III.
1 We must restore these forms, not *71"alS, *mi£les, wherever the last vowels
have to be scanned as long, e.g. II. xxii. 499; for if these vowels had been
long by nature, they would certainly have remained so, cf. l'JplILS, pa1'ies.
OPllLS however is read in II. xxiv. 219 ; here the shortening must be due to
the analogy of 71"o'A.LS, {1\71"LS.
IMPARISYLLABIC DECLENSION.
211
EA7r{'), KOVepOTYj') = *KovepoTaT-'), OpVIS = *opvi()-') (gen. opvi()-o')); Lat.
lap7is, pietas, virtus, pecus (?) (ud-is), etc.
5. Sterns ending in a dental preceded by a nasal (-nt-): the
nominative is always siglllatic, Gk. oov')=*OOVT-'),
oa'Kvv') = *OELKVVVT-r;, TV7rE{') TVe:p()E{') = *TV7rEVT-') *TVe:p() EVT-'), Avo-as
(Lesb. AV(J"aL')) = *Avo-avT-'), 7ras = *7r4VT-')J Xap{EIS = *Xap{FEVT-'), etc.,
Lat. dans, stans, *sens = *siJt-s, iens - *iyiJt-s, dens = >'k-diJt-s ; 1
with the single exception in Greek of the participles of the-
matic forms; Latin, through analogy, inserts the s even in
these forms, jerrens, amans, nocens, etc.
6. Nasal stems.-Here lengthening largely prevails; still a
few sigmatic forms are found, KTE{') (conlb) = *KTEV-'), Ei') = *o-EfL-'),
and doublets like OEApi') OEAe:piv, (arch.) sangu7is sanguen,
\vhere we cannot say \vhich form is the original one. But in
hiem-fi at any rate the final -s is shown to be irregular by the
corresponding Greek word (snow) = *XLwfL.
2
The adj ectives
in -av- always have p,f.'Aas=*fLEAaV-'), TeLAaS, cf. fLEya').
7. stems.-Lengthening is usual, except after l, Gk.
aA-'), Lat. sal,3 and in Xf.p-'), later XE{p, Dar. This COIU-
pensatory lengthening crept into the oblique cases, so that
the regular Homeric XEp-O') became xapo'), and so also XHp{,
XELpE, etc.; XEp(J"{ and XEpOLV, however, survived. We may add
also p.eLKap-') (blessed, also p.uKap) , and fLeLpTV,) (witness, also
fLeLPTVp) , the stem of which is not at all clear.
§ 2. Nominative jo'r1ned by Lengthening.
(201) 1. Diphthongal sterns: Gk. cf. gen.
= and so also 7rH()ce, AYjTuJ, etc.
2. -nt-stems: simple lengthening (only in Greek) when the
group -VT- is preceded by the thematic vowel 0-, e:p€PwV e:pf.pOVT-O'),
lowv lOOVT-O'), AVo-wv, etc.
3. Nasal nominative formed by lengthening is
far commoner t.han the sigmatic nominative. In particular, it
is universal in the numerous stems in -en-, -on-, -men-, -mon-,
1 Supra 123.
2 Of. supra 48 A, and infra 208.
8 Is the loss of the s here phonetic? Of. pul-s (pottage).
212 GREEK AND GRAMMAR.
e.g. Gk. TtpYJV, aeppwv, K'VWl
1
(voc. KVOV) ,
aKp..wv etc., Lat. lien (gen. lien-is). Latin, in its
-en-stems, which however are very rare, has generally lost
the lengthening, e.g. pecten instead of *pecten, through the
analogy, either of the oblique cases (gen. *pecten-is,. later
pectin-is) or of the nominative termination of the neuters
(ncnnen =*gno-rnrJ). In the -on-stems it not only reproduces
the lengthening, but also drops the final n of the stem, e.g.
(horn/in-is), origo, hirundo, consuetudo, etc.; this seems
to represent a still more primitive form of the Indo-European
nominative.
l
In many cases the lengthening does not seem to
be confined exclusively to the nominative; but in these cases,
either the stem already had a long vowel, which did not admit
of a fresh (e.g. perhaps aiwv- etc.
2
), or the long
vo,vel of the nominative was improperly extended to the oblique
cases, as will be seen later on: 3 Gk.
QEAA1Jv-os-, Lat. lien lien-is, sermo serrnan-is,
edo edi5n-is, latra etc.
Notice also the lengthening in two rn-stems, X()WV = *X8wp-, .
XLwV=*XtwfL (but Lat. and Gk. and in the
comparatives, the stem of which ends in a nasal only in Greek,
not in Latin, /LE{'WV
4. Liquid is almost invariable; but it
disappears in loAatin, owing to the shortening of every final
syllable ending in r': (ace. 7faTlp-a), pater=*pater;
with long vowel extended to the oblique cases so
also in ¢wp and f11r; OWTWp (gen. victor = *victor,
suror = *sororr, where the original long vowel is sho\vn by its
having passed into the oblique cases.
5. stems of this class show the long vowel in
the nOluinative, namely :-(a) the and feminines in
-os-, -es-, Gk. = € € etc.,
Lat. honos and honor == *honor, arbos and ar'bor = *arbor (gen.
arbor-is, honor-is), caedes (cf. the infin. caedere,4 degener =
1 The true nominative in Greek would therefore be *l1Kf.LW, *7rOLf.L1], and so
also *7rar1] *pate, *OOT1j *OWTW *dato, eto, (of. Sk. pita, data). The nand r
Inust have been restored to the termination through the analogy of the
oblique cases.
2 Of. s'tlpra 154. 3 Infra 210. 4 Supra 125.
IMPARISYLJJABIC DECLENSION. 213
*degenerr==-*degcnes, etc.; 1 (f3) the comparatives in -yos-, Gk.
fLEt,wV complicated by nasalization, Lat. l1uxjor = *l1uxjor =
*111iijos, cf. neut. 1najus ==- *1najos; (y) the perfect participles
in -w6s- (Gk. -FO(T- and ... FOT-), AEAol/lrWS (neut. AEAOL7TOS, gen.
AEAol,7TOr-OS).
§ 3. N0112inative tvith double case-sign.
(202) The combination of both signs of the nOluinative is a
quite exceptional corruption, e.g. aAw7TYjK-S (gen. aAw7TEK-OS), but
is COllInon to Greek and Latin and probably very ancient in
(Dor.) 7TWS and pes, which, as "\ve have seen 200, 4],
cannot go back to *7To3- s and *ped-s, "\vhere the vowel would
only have been long by position; hence we must restore *7T6J3-s
and ped-s, cf. acc. 7To8-a and ped-ern.
2
The Attic 7TOlJS 7TOVS is
another corruption, still unexplained.
§ 4. N0112inative-Accusative of neuter nouns.
(203) In neuter nouns and adjectives, the essential char-
acteristic of the nominative and accusative singular, which are
. always identical, is the absence of any case-sign, as may be
seen at a glance by comparing them with the corresponding
masculines.
1. Vocalic stems: Gk. tOpL, (J"{va11't,-d.urv, yovv, yA1JKV; Lat.
acre = forrte, rnare, animal == *ani1nal'i,-(arch.) pecu,
genu, corn1L (?).
2. Explosive ste112S: Gk. yUAa==- *yaACiKT, fLEAt = *J1-€ALT,
(foreign) ==- *E!7rYjAv3, nlasc.-fem. E7rYjAvs; Lat. lac == *liict; but
adjectives like audax, .ferox, felix have assimilated the neuter
to the masculine-feminine.
3. -nt-stems: Gk. Tt()EV == *TdJ€VT, OEtKvvV, TVep()€V, 7rav,
3
Xap{EV,
-¢lpov == *¢Epovr, loov, etc.; in Latin, assimilation to the masc.-
fern., ferens, prudens.
1 In cints, pulvts, the short vowel seems to come from the oblique cas-es,
unless these words are neuters which have passed into the masculine declen-
sion.
2 The same double case-sign probably in 'fOX (F6if;) , lex (legere) , 'rex (regere) ,
KAWY; (KAf7rTW), with an extension of the long vowel to the oblique cases.
3 The circumflex must be due to the analogy of 7rQ,s; moreover, 7rp01rall
is found in Ii. i. 601 and a1fall in II. xx. 156.
214
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
4. Nasal stems: Gk. lV==*a-E/l-, j1-tAav,-TlpEV, EDOatj-tOV,-OVO/l-a
= *lJVOftr!; Lat. nomen, fulmen.
5. Liquid stems: Gk. = etc.; Lat. jecur,
femur, marmur, cicero
6. -s-stems: (a) Gk. "IEvo,;, ElryEvE';, uvaLol,;, Klpas, Lat. genus,
((3) Gk. ea(J"a-ov, Lat. majus == *majos; (y) Gk.
AEAOL1rO';, AEAVKO,;.
SEOTION II.
OASE-ENDINGS.
(204) I. Singular.-l. Norninative masc.-fem.: supra 200-
202.
2. N01ninative of neuters: supra 203.
3. Vocative.-The Indo-European vocative consisted of the
simple stem without the addition of any affix; luoreover, it
threw back the accent as far as possible. The latter charac-
teristic is naturally no longer apparent except in Greek; and
even there it survives only in a few cases, e.g. 7raTEp. The
former characteristic, on the other hand, can still be recognised
very clearly in Greek, and it may be said that the essential
distinction between the vocative and nominative is the absence
in the vocative both of final -s and of lengthening.
2
Neverthe-
less, the analogy of the dual and plural and the neuters, in which
these two cases were alike from the beginning, has had a great
influence on the voc. sing. in t\VO respects: on the one hand, in
certain forms, especially oxytones, it has become entirely
assimilated to the nominative; and on the other hand, even
where a separate vocative exists, its use is almost optional,
and the nominative often takes its place.
s
Examples: 7rOAL, yAVK'V;-Zev, i7r1rEV, A'Y}TOt ;-Jva== *FavaKT,
yVVUL == *YVVULK, 7rUL == *7ratO, but generally the nOlllinative,
and even in ordinary speech ;-XUp{EV, f-LEAav, ATav, epEpov ;-
KVOl/, >f A7rOAAOV ;-7rUTEp, (JWTEp, OWTOp ;-OLOyEVE,;.
1 The long vowel in iJowp and 7T"VP is still unexplained.
2 Hence the vocative nenter is always identical with the nominative.
3 (Ed. R. 629, en 7T"OALS 7rOALS; ilJid. 14, o.At:., if, KpaTvvwv OlOt7rOVS xwpas EfJ-YjS
(KpaTVVOJl 015L7fOV would scan) ; PrO'Jneth. 88, if, OLOS ale1]p, etc.
IMPARISYLLABIC DECLENSION. 215
Latin has carried the corruption much farther; in this
declension the only vocative it retains is Ju-piter, which also
fulfils the function of a nominative. Everywhere else it is the
nominative \vhich fulfils the function of a vocative: avi-s,
manu-s, felix, lapis, prudens, homo, pater, victor, nt1bes, etc.
4. Acc'itsative of masculines and feminines.-The ternlinatjon
is which appears very plainly after a vowel; 7roAt- v,
-iXf)v-v, yAVKv-V; Lat. turri-l1z-11zanu-1n, !ructu-l1Z.
But in Latin a confusion took place between the ending of the
i-stems and that of the far more numerous consonantal stems,
so that avcm, collC1n were formed like patre1n ; 1 the regular ter-
mination i-m was kept only in a few stems, and in certain words
which had become adverbs and so were no longer thought of in
connexion with declension : (ace. of pars = *parti-s),
= whence the not uncommon adverbial suffix
-tim -sim, sensim, confestim, pcdetentirn, etc.
When the stem ends in a consonant, the final 112 naturally
becomes n:!, and produces in Greek -a, in Latin -Cl1Z: 7roo-a ==
*71"00-11
0
2 and ped-enz, homin-ern, epEpovT-a
7TaTEp-a patr-cn2, etc.; after a semi-vowel, i7T7fEa = =
AY]Toa (AY]TW) = *AY]Toy-a or *AY]ToF-a,'2 but also Dol'. AaTw-v, Ion.
AY]TOV-V.
Greek has not remained free from confusions between these
two classes of stems. On account of the similari ty of the
nominatives, the stems xaptT-, opv"if)- and others have bor-
rowed their accusatives from 7ToAt- and similar stems, and hence
we £nd XapLV, opv"iv 3 (also opv"i()a), etc.; on the other
hand, while the comInon accusative was €VpV}I', we find in the
poets the form €VpEa corresponding to the gen. €VPEO';. The
form f)vyaTEpav (on the model of 8oTapav) belongs only to very
late Greek.
1 The analogy started from the identity of the datives, avem : avi =
patrem : patrie
. 2 'So also in Latin after a long vowel; thus the stem sfi- makes S'llem=
*S1LW-rt!' by breaking up the 11, supra 71 and 112. .
3 "Epl.v: #pl.S = 7rOAI.V : So KOPVV (II. xiii. 131) and Kopv8a (n. xi. 375),
'",i;WKpd:rl]v (supra 196 in jill e) , fjpwa, Att. fjpw, but Ion. 1)pwv, etc. The same
phenomenon must have taken place in Latin, if we may judge from the
comparison of eZcf,vis (gen. eTclois) with KAElS = KAI]Ls= *KAOJlo-s (gen. KAELO-6s).
216
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
5. Accusative neuter: always like the nominative.
6. Ablative (l).-Admitting that there originally existed in
this declension an ablative in d preceded by a vowel,! of ,vhich
there is no trace in Greek or Sanskrit, Latin, in any case, can
only have kept it in i- and e.g. puppi =*puppid=
*pupp'i-ed (?), and rnanfi = *ma'nud == *1nanii-ed (?). But it is
also possible that *puppid and *manud were formed simply on
the analogy of the relatioD between servos and *servod in the
2nd declension. HO\\Tever this may be, it is quite certain that
puppi, manu are the only true ablatives of this declension,
in other words that patr-e, for example, cannot go back to
*patred, since final d is only lost after a long vowel. The
ablative in -e is therefore very likely a locative; 2 it certainly
fulfils the function of the locative (after in, sub, etc.), and
has been confused with it in a manner which will be explained
subsequently.
The ablative has remained pure in the u-stems (4th decl.) :
1nagistratud (8. C. de Bacch.), mant1, genii., and the supines
in -tu,?' with the exception of the very rare barbarismfructo.
The ablative of the i-stems, in which the final d is still
found on old inscriptions, rnarid, claS'id, turri, acri, ani1nal'i,
has not only been kept in certain words, but has even spread
beyond its proper limits. We find ai/rid, coventionid, although
the stems are consonantal, ais- (brass), covention-, etc., and, in
old Latin, corpore and corpori, 111ajore and major'i,prudente and
prudenti are used indifferently, probably through the influence
of the regular dative pritdent-i and the identity of the two
cases in the 2nd declension (servo). In classical Latin this
alternation is scarcely retained except by the poets, and then
only in steIns ending in -nt- or an explosive (abl. felicz); but in
inscriptions it is much more common. Of course this £nal 'i
could also be written ei or e: whence the scansion Gnaivod
patre p1'ognatus (Ep. Scip.); and also probably the word
DICTA-TORED (Col. Rostr.) which, if not a pseudo-archaic barbarism,
must be read with the e=i'f, like NAvALED=navaZid in the
same inscription.
1 Presumably *-ed, supra 187,4. 2 Infra or an instrumental, infra 10.
3 Supra 119. But sue, g1 ue, like ace. suem.
IMPARISYLLABIC DECLENSION. 217
But the opposite phenomenon also took place, and that too
over a much "rider area; that is, the termination -e of the
ablative (locative) of consonantal steIns was extended to the i-
stems, and on the model of pede, patr·e were formed ave, ove,
igne, colle, etc. The regular termination scarcely ever
remained unchanged except in the neuters (mare, ani1nal),
where it prevented the confusion of the ablative with the
nominative,2 and for the same reason in the declension of
adj ectives in -i-, -ri- and -li-.
in Greek the ablative of the Brd decI. is entirely "\vanting.
But the termination of the adverbial ablatives of the 2nd (<Toepws-)
was wrongly extended to the Brd, and from f3paSvs-,
St-aepEpwv were formed the adverbs f3paDEws- (slowly), <TaepEws-
craepws- (clearly), DLaepEpovTWS- (differently), Hom. TEXV1JEVTWS- (Od. v.
270), just as if the stems were *f3paDEo-, *craepEo-, *a-aepo-, *Dta-
epEpOVTO-, etc.
3
7. Ablative (2).-1t is possible that the form ovofLaToc;, which
is usually regarded as a genitive, ought to be divided ovofLa-Tos-
and explained as an ablative in -tos from the stem ovofLa-: from
this form and from the nom. pI. ovofLaTa would come the inter-
polated T of the Greek declension, which is wanting in the Latin
nomin-is.
4
We find the same ablative in Latin rad'ic-i-tus, with
the insertion of an i on the analogy of
8. Ablative (3).-Some examples of this are found in HOlner,
.qW-8EV (from the dawn), usually with the insertion of a con-
necting-vowel 0 on the analogy of the -o-stems and the genitive
7rUTpOS-,
5
e.g.7rarp-o-()f.l', Ilt-b-()EV, aA-6-0EV.
9. Instrumental (l).-lf, as there is a tendency to admit, the
sign of this case was *-a, we may recognise it in afL-a (together),
perhaps in 7rap-a (cf. gen. 7rap-OS-, date 7rap-a{, loco 7rEp-{, which are
used as prepositions) and in 7rEDa, which was used by the
1 Thus ave: ari (nat.) =patre : patrie
2 Hence the analogy in question must have taken place after the change
of final to e (rna're = but before the loss of the final vowel of
=animaJe.
3 It will be seen that the confusion between two systems of inflexion bas
been the chief cause of the deviations in declension in both languages; but
in Greek it is the 2nd dec!. which has had a preponderating influence, in
Latin the declension of -i-stems. We shall find many examples of this.
4 Of. supra 115, 4, and infra 210. 5 Of. supra 179. \
218 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR•
.LEolians for fJ-ET& (with) and \vould correspond to Lat. ped-e.
rn 7r&VT-YJ, Dol". 7raVT-a, the long vowel at the end is due to the
analogy of the parisyllabic declension.!
10. Instrumental (2).-Only a few examples in Homer: =
*F'i-¢L, c£. Lat. vi-S, In Latin only i-bi and
u-bi (from a demonstrative stem cf. u-ter), with a final
lengthening of obscure origin.
2
11. Dative.-The Indo-European termination was probably
*-ay, which reappears in Greek in the two types of infinitive
represented by 86flEv-aL and most probably also in xajL-a{,
dative of X()wv. Possibly a faint reminiscence of it is to be
traced in Homeric locatives ending in a long vowel, such as
7raTEpi, K6pv()"i, vYJi, which would thus combine the -L of the loca-
tive with the long quantity of the dative. Everywhere else in
Greek the dative has disappeared, being entirely superseded by
the locative. In Latin, on the contrary, it is the dative which
has prevailed and which is found in all stems of the 3rd and
4th declensions, rrnanui (often replaced by the abl. 1nanu, espe-
cially in Oaesar),4 ped-i, patr-i, victor-I, etc. The
spellings ped-ei and ped-e are also found. In i-stems, the
final -i was naturally contracted with that of the stem (OV'l =
*ovi-i or *ovey-i), and, starting from the purely external resem-
blance between ovi and pedi, analogy assimilated to one another
many of the terminations of i-stem8 and consonantal stems, ave
like pede, pedes like OVeH, etc.
12. Locative (1) (no termination).-This case appears, not
only in infinitives like 86flEV and AVELV = *AVEFEV,5 but in (Dor.),
locative of a stem of which alEC (Hom.), aE{ (Att.)=*alFEa--t is
the locative in -L, as well as in alEv (Ion.) from a stem *alFEv-,
cf. alwv.
6
13. Locative (2).-The termination is -'1: Gk. 7r6AE-l, (1a-TE-t,
7ro8-{, oVOflaT-t, 7TaTp-{, alooL==
*alooa--t, yeVEL=--=*yEVEa--L, etc. In Latin, though it does not seem
so at first sight, this case has been preserved almost equally
1 Supra 187, 7. 2 Of. infra 225, 6.
3 Supra 115, 5, and 130. 4 Cf. the supines dictii and dictui, supra 119.
5 Supra. 115, 5, and 130.
6 Cf. also the locative with no termination X8fS (yesterday) = Sk. lzyas,
the date her-i (yesterday), and the locative with termination he1'e =*hes-t
IMPARISYLLABIC DECLENSION. 219
well. It is not difficult to recognise it in rure == *1"U1'-'i,
Babylon-e, and all similar words, which are still used in a
locative sense without a preposition, although the dative rurf,
has also come to be \vrongly used with the same function'!
Hence the conclusion is irresistible, that the so-called ablative
in -e, which may be used either as a locative (in pede), instru-
mental (pede, by foot), or ablative (a l Jcde) , was originally
really a locative, ped-e =*ped-'i, h01n'in-e, nornin-e, patr-e,
dator-e, aC1"-e, gener-e, etc. Consequently the locative has only
been entirely lost in the 4th declension, and even there rnanit
may go back to quite as well as to *1nanud.
14. Genitive.-It is highly probable that Indo-European had
two terminations for the imparisyllabic gen. sing., or, to speak
more accurately, two forms, one normal, the other deflected, of
the same termination, *-es and *-oS.2 However this may be,
Greek recognises only the deflected form: I.XBv-oc;,
7fOO-Oc;, aK/-L0V-Oc;, epEpOVT-Oc;, 7faTp-Oc;, aloovc; == *alooo--oc;, yEVOVc; ==
*yEI/Eo--Oc;, etc. In Latin, on ,the other hand, the only traces of
this termination are a few archaic genitives, senafu-os,
Caesa1"-us, It is, however, represented in the
gen. sing. of the 4th dec!., manus; for it is much easier to
understand the contraction of uo or uu to u than of uiJ, still less
ut'?, But, with these exceptions, the termination -es is univer-
sal, either under the archaic form -es (Salut-es, CC1"e1".;.es,
A1Jolon-es), or under the classical and more familiar form -'is,
su-is, ped-is, pat1'-is, 11zajor-is, etc.
The ending of the gen. sing. of i- stems is the only peculiarity.
It would seem. that the proper form ought to have been *ovf,s=
or *ovey-es. The short vo\vel in OV1,S is no doubt due to
the analogy of the consonantal stems.
4
(205) II. Dual.-Entirely lost in Latin.
1. Direct Case.-This case, with its ending -e, seems to have
been preserved in a purer form in Greek than in any other
1 Of. the triplet mane rniine (in the morning). .
2 Possibly they were syntactical doublets. Similarly we find -mes and
-mns as the termination of the 1st pI. of verbs, infra 247, l.
3 The incorrect genitive seniinis due to the analogy of the 2nd declension.
4 Thus avis: ped'is =ovi : pedi, and so in all other cases.
220
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
language, even Sanskrit: 7rOO-€, Xf.'ip-f., aVEp-e, etc. But its
existence is only established in the case of a few stems, and in
several it is only apparent; thus Tf.{XYJ, aa-TYJ (Att.) cannot be
contracted from *Tf.{Xf.f., *da-TEf., as it is taught by the ordinary
grammars, but are plurals used as duals.
2. Case.-Whatever may have been the original
termination of this case, it is evident that, if a stem i1r7ro- gave
i1r7rO-U.1
J
, a stem 7T6o- could give anything but *7To8-yLV;
hence we luust recognise in Hom. 7Too-oLLvand A.tt. 7TOO-OUI an
analogical extension of the endings ouv OLV of the 2nd declension.
(206) III. Plural.-l. Noyninative- Vocative masculine and
feminine: terluination *-es, retained in Greek,
lx()v-e;, == € etc. Hence
we should expect in Latin *ped-"rts =*lJed-es, which would be
confused with the gen. sing. A.nalogy guarded against this
confusion: the i-stems regularly formed oves (also written
oveis and ovIs)=*ove.y-es, cf. and this ending
-es became the regular" termination of the 3rd decl., ped-es"
homin-eis, ferent-Is, etc.
But what, then, is to be thought of rrnanus? In any case
it cannot go back to cf. su-es. Can it go back to
*rrnanu-es? This is hardly possible, since sttcrrn has remained,
and *sues has become suis. It is much more likely that 1nanus
is an accusative plural used as nominative. It was easy for
such a confusion to take place in Latin, where the nom. and
acc. pI. of the 3rd decl. were to all outward appearance
identical.
2
2. Vocative-Accusative neuter: termination *-a,
Gk. Tf.{XYJ=Tf.{Xf.-a and KEpa=*K€paa--a, l1a-Ty/=*l1O"Tf.a, Lat. gener-a,
11zari-a, nrnnin-a,3 etc. Here also the influence of the i-stems'
) Thus pedes: pedi =oves: ovi. It will be seen that the identification of
these two classes of stems, startiug from a single point, was extended to all
with logical strictness. The short quantity is believed to appear in tU1'bines
and fores (Plaut. Trinum. 835, Stich. 311).
2 Thus manfls (nom.) : manus (ace.) =pede.;; (nom.) : pedes (ace.).
3 In those cases where the Latin termination a appears as long, e.g. the
Saturnian line mors perfecit tua ut essent omnia brevia (Ep. Scip.), we must
suppose that the lengthening is due to the analogy of the originally long
final vowel of the 2nd dec!., juga, cf. sup1'a 190, 2. It was this lengthening,
which certainly existed sporadically, that in this particular instance kept
IMPARISYLLABIC DECLENSION.
221
made itself felt, but it was restricted to the participles and
adjectives in -nt- and c-: thus the regular
etc., became ferent-ia, prudent-ia, audac-ia, felic-ia, victric-ia,
etc. Silent-a was still used in an old tragedy)
3. Accusative masculine and feminine.-The sign *-ns after a
vowel, *-1}S after a consonant, pervades the whole declension: Gk.
(Herod.) == iX()vs == *lX()vv-s, Spvs, etc., 7roS':'as ==
*7roS-1}s (cf. 7roo-a == 7rOLp-EV-aS, cpEpovT-as, etc., Lat,.
avis (also written aveis and aves) =*avi-ns, 1nanus ==
pedes==*ped-ens==*ped-1}s (cf. and quoties), homin-es,
ferent-es,patr-es, etc. The partial likeness between the nom.
aves and acc. avis, which the fluctuating spelling tended to
increase, and that between the acc. avis aves and the acc.fe1'1entes
ferentis, caused them to become entirely confused, so that in
the 3rd decl. the nom. and ace. became identical. In Greek,
lx()v-as (Hom.), 7roAI.-aS (Hom.) and 7rOAE-aS are due to the intru-
sion of the termination -as borrowed from the consonantal stems.
The same is the case with 7rEAEKEas, (we should expect
*7rEAEKVS, cf. acc. sing. 7rEAEKV-V, '\vhich are formed
on the analogy of the genitives 7rEAEKE-OS, etc. The Attic
forms 7rOAELS, 7rEAEK€tS, == EVyEVEtS == *EvyEvEer-Es, are
nominatives used as accusatives, just as we have seen above that
rnanils is an accusative used as nominative. Similarly the stems
in -'YJv- have i7r7rEas == == and l,7r7rEtS == The
form 0PVIS or OpVEfS (CEd. R. 966) for opv;:()as is due to the analogy
of 7roXis or 7roA€ts (cf. supra 204, 4).
4. Instr·umental.-A few examples in Homer: Ilber-ept. (behind,
·cf. Lat. nat i-bus), OpEer-cpt., with insertion of the -o-
af the 2nd decl., KOTVAYJSOlI-O-ept.v (Od. v. 433). In Latin it was
conf'lsed with the dative-ablative.
5. Dative-Ablative-Instrumental (Latin).-Indo-European had
a termination *-bh'lis (Sk. -bhis) for the instr. pI. and *-bh'ios (Sk.
-bhyas) for the dat.-abl. pI. The former would have become
in Latin *-b'is, the latter *-bl?5s, These two terminations
the final vowel ti from being regularly changed to e, cf. supra 35 A a, and
my Esq. rnoi·phol. IV. (Douai 1887).
1 Gell. xix. 7. The analogy started chiefly from the date pI., i11fra 5
(prudentia : prudentibus = acria : acribus).
222
GREEK AND LATIN GRAiv.lMAR.
seem to have coalesced in -bus,1 which is used in all three
functions: avi-bus? arcu-bus, bo-bus, su-bus, nubi-bus == *nubes-
bus.
2
Except in this last case and others like it the
termination -bus is never added directly to stems ending in a
consonant, but requires the insertion of a connecting-vowel -i-
borrowed from the declension of the i-stems: the regular
*ped-bus, etc., have been superseded by ped-i-bus,3
ferentibus, patT'ibus, honofribus, generibus, etc.
This analogy has extended even to vocalic stems, since
likewise exists, and it has· changed *fructu-bus to
!frftctibus,
4
leaving scarcely any forms unchanged
except pOfrtubtts, tribubtts, partubus, arcubus, the last
three perhaps because otherwise they would have been confused
with the date pI. of pars, arx and ars.
6. Locative (Greek).-The primitive termination *-o-v was
superseded by -o-L or -o-LV; 5 where the 0- was intervocalic and
so was necessarily dropped, it was restored on the analogy of
those cases where, not being intervocalic, it regularly remained:
?TOAE-o-L, lX()V-o-LV, i7r7rEV-Cn, epAEtJ;{, Hom. 7roo-o-{
== *7TOd-CTl" with reduction 7ro(J"{, epEpOlJlfl. == (Lesb. epEpOl.o-l.)
== *epEpOV(J"o-L == epEpOVT-o-L, 7raTpalf-L == *7raTr-(J"L (Sk. pitt-su), Hom.
TE{XElf-o-L and with reduction TE{XEo-L. This ending -E(J"o-l. has a
very curious history; the "\VThole ending being taken for a ter-
mination of the loco pI. \vas introduced as such into stems of
all classes, Hom. 7rOA{-Eo-(J"L, lfV-Eo-o-L, 7rOd-EO"O"L, K'VV-ElflfL,
MVPfLLdOV-Eo-o-t, aKovovT-Eo-o-L, XE{p-Eo-lfL, avop-Eo-o-L, KEpa-Eo-O"L, etc.,
etc., and at last it actually contaminated the forms which had
served as its starting-point, e.g. €7r€Eo-o-L == *FE7T-Eo--EO"-o-LV, VEepEElf(J"L,
etc. Cases of contamination by means of -EO-I. are very much
rarer, XE{p-Eo-(. (II. xx. 468), avaKT-Elf(' (Od. xv. 557). The alter-
1 The archaic quantity -bus is very rare and due to mere accidents of
prosody. Of. the archaic form nave-bas =naviblts.
2 This correspondence, which was not given in the part dealing with
phonology because it has not been reduced to a law, must nevertheless
be provisionally admitted, as being the only way of explaining the deviation
in the declension of words like nubes, infra 212, II.
3 Thuspedibus : pedi (dat. sing.) =ovibus : oVi.
4 Here, however, phonetic influences may have had something to do with
the change, cf. optumus and optimus" and supra 30.
5 S'&pra 189, 5.
IMPARISYLLABIC DECLENSION. 223
nation of and led to the doubling of the (J" in
etc.
A barbarism which is very rare in literature, but very
:common in inscriptions, consists in the transference to this
declension of the terrninations belonging to the loco
and date of the 2nd decl): 7raVT-OIS, etc.,
(in the eyes) and (cf. nOln. dual O(J"(J"E) in Hesiod
and Sappho, etc.
7. Genitive.-The primitive was *-om, and there
is nothing to hinder us froln believing that Latin accurately
reproduces it in its ending -i:urn: bo-u1n, 1nanU-U1n
(contracted 2), homin-uln,
gener-um, etc. On the other hand the long vowel in Greek
shows, here as in the oblique case of the dual, the introduction
of the ending of the 2nd decI., 7rOAE-WV, € lX()v-wv, 7TOO-WV,
epEpOVT-WV, KVV-WV, 7TaTEp-wv, € etc.
In Latin, the analogy of the i-stems had a great influence
on case, and led to the substitution for of a termina-
tion -iu1n, in a few nouns, arc-ium, but especially
in those adjectives which take -ia in the nom. pI. neut.,
vorac-ium, vict1'7[c-iurn, ferent-ium,
etc. In the last class of words the genitive in survived,
chiefly in the poets, and the constant co-existence side by side
of the two forms sapientium and even led to the
suppression of the i in some genitives which ought to have
contained it, canu1n, (of bees), }uvenum,
SECTION III.
VARIATIONS OF THE STEM IN DECLENSION.
(207) The variations of the stem in declension depend on
a vowel-gradation, which is sOlnetimes very clear, sometimes
hardly perceptible or even entirely lost; this gradation usually
1 Thus 7raVTOlS : 7raVTWV = Z7r7rOlS : Z7r7rWV.
2 .lEn. vi. 653.-The curious ablative alituum for alitum can only be
explained through the analogy of the 4th declension.
3 Thus 'U/rbiul1L : urbibus =ovi71m : ovibus.
4 J\!Iore simply canum : canibus = pedum : pedibrus. Juvenum might be the
gen. of a stem cf. Sk. (young) and the derivative
224 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
affects only the last syllable of the stem, called the predesi-
nential syllable. It makes no difference, so far as the gradation
is concerned, whether this syllable belongs to the root or to
a suffix.
The gradation may include only one degree, when all the
cases are assimilated to one another, sermo
sermonem sermonis,. or two, which is the most frequent case,
SWTWp SWTopa horno hom'inem hom'1.,nis; or three, that is,
a strong forln, a middle form with the last syllable of
the stem short, 7raT€pa, and a weak form with the last syllable
of the stem reduced, 7raTpo,;.
But the possible variations do not end here; we often find a
much larger number of grades, especially in stems whose last
syllable is capable of taking the deflected form. Thus in the
single stem *ped- "ve can distinguish: a strong and deflected
form (1rW')) , a strong and normal form (pes), both due to the
lengthening of the nominative,l a middle and deflected form
a middle and normal form (pedem), lastly a weak form
with reduction and complete loss of the vo"ve1
2
in the com-
pound (day after a feast), which reveals to us the
theoretical possibility of a gen. sing. * === In both
languages, but especially Latin, analogy naturally levelled
luanyof these original distinctions.
So great indeed has been its levelling influence that it is
impossible to determine (at least Inerely froin the survey of
Greek and Latin, with which alone we are now concerned) what
cases corresponded respectively to the strong, middle, and weak
forms of the last syllable of the stem. All that we can say is,
that in all probability the nominative singular was a strong
case, the accusative strong or middle, the vocative and locative
TIliddle, the other cases "veak; 3 but Greek, which has confused
the locative with the dative, treats it as a weak case when it
makes any difference at all.
The origin of the vowel-gradation, which is mainly duo to
the fact that in certain cases the last syllable of the stem
1 Of. supra 202. 2 Cf. supra 41, l.
3 In the plural even the accusative seems to have been a weak case, but
this point is still very obscure. Greek treats it as a iniq.dle case.
IMPA.RISYLLABIC DECLENSION. 225
\vas reduced through its accent being transferred. to the ter-
mination, is shown most clearly by Sanskrit. But Greek still
shovvs it by the striking contrast in accentuation between
7raT€pa and 7raTp{. Further, the accentuation,
which was the primary cause of the gradation, has remained
unchanged in luany stems from which the gradation has dis-
appeared, namely in all monosyllables, Eva EV{, 7rcfYi 7rOOa
7roo{,1 and so also in the plural, 7rOOWV 7rocr{, and
in the dual, 7rOOE 7rOOOLlI, but here probably through the analogy
of the singular, for the law of gradation in the plural seems to
have been different.
(208) Graclation is so general and so constant a factor in
the \vhole system of inflexion that we are enabled to assert
with almost absolute certainty that it dOlninated even those
stems in which it is least apparent. Where it has been lost in
declension, it often reappears in derivation, which is subject to
the same laws. Thus, in spite of ternporis, the regular
declension ternpus *ternperis (cf. generis) is revealed to
us by the derivatives temper-are, tempes-tas (cf. gener-are),
an·d vve see at the same time that the 0 of *temp6s, *corpos
has been wrongly extended to the oblique cases. So also the
primitive declension honos *honesis is shown by the derivatives
hones-tu-s, hones-tas, by the genitive oner-is, which belongs to
an identical steln,2 and, as the formation of honos is undoubt-
edly identical with that of the Greek alow-;,3 we shall hence
infer the existence of a declension € more ancient
than the declension *aloocro<;. So, lastly, the reduced
form -is- of the comparative suffix -ios-, though no longer found
in the declension of the comparative, appears before the
secondary superlative suffix, P.i:y-Lcr-TO-f), par-is-sirnu-s.
4
This is not all. The declension of such stems, when viewed
in each language separately, seems uniformity itself. But it is
only necessary to pass from one language to the 0 ther to per-
ceive the primitive variety, which has been changed to uni-
1 With the single exception of the participles, 8€LS 8€JlTOS, OOVS OOVTOS, and
of 7raS in the plural only, 7rallTOS 7raJlTl 7rallTWlI 7raa-L.
2 Supra 78, 2. The exact opposite took place in onus, which kept the e in
declension and introduced the 0 in derivation, onus-tn-s.
s Supra 124, 1. 4 Supra 126. .
226 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
farmity by each language after its own fashion. Let us
consider, for example, part of the possible declension of the
two Indo-European stems, *pod- (foot), (snow, winter),
and see what Greek and Latin respectively have made of it:
N. *p8d-s
7rWC;, 7rOVC; ( == *7rWO-C;) pes==ped-s
A. *pod-rrf or p6d-1rf
7roO-a ped-em
L. 7rOo-t ped-e
D. *pd-dy
"
ped-i
G. *pd-6s, *pd-es
7rOO-OC; ped-is
N. *ghifhn
X"wv == *xuJfL
2
_A.
*ghiom-n;} x"ov-a 1

L.
X"ov-t.
hie1?l-e
D. *ghim-dy
"

G.
X"ov-OC;
hie1n-is
We see what has happened, apart from the other corruptions
already studied. T'he long vowel of the nominative has
mained; but Greek has generalized the deflected form of the
root or suffix, whereas Latin has generalized the normal form.
The result is that the weakest form has entirely disappeared
and is no longer to be found except in derivatives, Gk.
(suprra) , oVff-X"fL-O-C; (icy), Lat. bzrnus (of two years)==*dv:t-
h:tm-u-s.
§ 1. Stems ending in an explosive.
{2og) Apart froIn what has been mentioned in connexion
<'with 7rOVc; pes,3 the stems of this class no longer show any
vowel-gradation, not even a lengthening in the nominative,
since in these stems the nominative is sigmatic. The quantity'
and character of the vowel in the last syllable of tbe stem
remain the same throughout the whole declension. Never-
-.theless, in Greek alone, the stems in -OVT- show
Jengthening in the nominative, and the character of the vowel,
1 The v, which is regular at the end of XLI.!JV (supra 48) has passed by
analogy into the other cases.
2 Of. supra 200, 6.
3 And a few similar cases, supra
I1VIPARISYLLABIC DECLENSION. 227
which is different in each language, but remains constant
throughout in each, leads one to think of a declension with
vowel-gradation, such as *epEpEvr-t, *cf;>EP?}T-6s. We
even find in the Doric of Heraclea (Magna Graecia) such a loco
pI. as 7rpaG"G"ovruG"G"t, which is usually explained as a corruption
. of *7rpaG"(]"a(]"(]"t =*7rpa(]"(]"1}T-G"l, cf. SkI
§ 2. Nasal Ste1ns.
(210) I. in -en-, -men-.-There IS a curious relic
of a complete system of vowel-gradation in the declension
(much mutilated, it is true) of (sheep), cf. Hom. 7rOAV-PPYJV:
nom., not used; acc. proved by the gloss of Hesychius
pavao llpva, but changed to llpva through the analogy of the
other cases; loco apv-{; gen. apv-os = *Fupv-6s = *Frv-os with
complete reduction of the steIn. The corresponding loco pI.
vvonld be *Fpa-G"{ = *Fp1}-(]"{, and there are still traces of the
sonant nasal in the second a of dpva(]"(" which has however
been corrupted through the influence of apv{.
While has generalized the weak form, exactly the
opposite process has taken place in (diaphragm, heart,
mind) in which the middle grade has prevailed throughout;
acc. loco epPEV-{, eppEV-OS for *epapv-6s, nOIn, pI.
etc. Neverthel ess eppaa{ (=*epPrt-a-{) is still found in Pindar.
In ordinary Greek this eppuG"{ became eppEG"{ through the in-
fluence of the loco sing. epPEV{.
Most of the stems in -en-, -1nen- are declined like epp1v:
llppY)v dppEV-OS, 7rOLp.,EV-OS, etc., and loco pI. 1 instead •
of *7fOLp.,aa-{= *7fOtjJ-v1}-a-{, because of Lastly, a still
further degree of corruption consists in the generalization of
... the long vowel of the nominative: (eruption)
(spy) loco pI.
It is this last stage which is reached by Latin, vvith this
limitation, that, if Latin has the long vowel in the nominative,
it keeps it in all cases (lien lien-is), and, if the weak cases
1 ¢p€CJl, 7rOLf.tf.O"{, eannot of course go back to *¢p€1I-CJl, *7rOLfJ.€1I-O"L, which
would have bec.ome *¢p€LO"l, *7rOLfJ-€LCJL.
228 GREEK AND LATIN GRA1\lJ\tIAR.
have kept the short vowel, it passes also into the nominative
(pecten pectin-is).1
II. Stems in -on-, mon-.-In the declension of the stem
KVWV, as of the weak form prevails: nom. sing. KVWV;
acc. Kvv-a for *Kvov-a, through the analogy of the weak cases;
loco KVV-{; gen. KVV-OS; nom. pI. Kvv-es for *Kvov-es; acc. Kvv-as;
gen. KVVWV; loco KV-cr{ like eppecr{, etc.
2
Latin has an exact counterpart to KVWV in car-o, stem. car-on-;
nom. sing. car-a; acc. carn-e1n instead of *caron-em or *caren-
ern on account of the weak cases, date earn-/[, gen. earn-is;
nom. pI. earn-es, etc. The reduction is not carried so far, but is
still quite plain in: nom. sing. acc. homon-ern or rather
heman-em (arch.),3 either regular or corrupted from the regular
through intrusion of the long vowel of the nomina-
tive, afterwards superseded by on the analogy of
the follo\ving forms; date hornin-i = $homen-/[ or
gen. nom. pI. etc. There perhaps existed
a form \vith complete reduction, *homnes, which, being pro-
nounced and written o1nnes, and nleaning successively" men,
all men, all," led to the creation by analogy of the nom. sing.
omnis (Breal).
This type of gradation was lost in Greek. Latin kept and
even extended it, applying it to a- large number of stems
in -on-, chiefly feminines, irnago, or/[go, ferruga, consuetudo,
and to words borrowed from Greek,4 Apollo, arch. gen.
Apolon-es, whereas the ordinary and classical declension is
Apollin-em Apollin-is.
Except in the case of KVWV, Greek extended to the whole
declension the form -OV-, -fJ-OV-: € € ete.; loco pI.
for = *ayeJLf}-cr{. Latin has nothing parallel
to this. But, like Greek, it has a large number of stems still
further corrupted, which have generalized the long vowel of
1 Pectinis however perhaps has the reduced grade, since it may go bftck
to *pectlJ'nis just as well as to *pectenis. We have already seen the pos-
sibility of the declension *felen *felnDis (gall), supra 113.
2 Thus Kvu-l: KVlIL= ¢p€u-l: ¢p€lIl; but not *KvlIu-l, which would have be-
come *KUU-l.
3 VultUT'US in silVis miseTUnt mandebat hornonem (Enn.).
4 This shows the remarkable vitality of this form of declension.
IMPARISYLLABIC DECLENSION.
229
the nominative: .o.,iwv € € legio
legion-is, natio nationis, edB edon-is, etc.
III. Neuters in Gk. -fto." Lat. -men.-No gradation:
== and == *nom1}n-is (cf. Sk.
- in Greek, insertion of T, except in lac. pI. ==

IV. in €iC;==*a-EjL-C;; the regular declension
would be, nOlll. €Tc; lv, acc. *tft-a lv, loco or a-ft-{, gen. *(jfL-oC;
(cf. fern. pia == *a-fL-{a). \.;Y're find lva EVOC; EVt through generaliza-
tion of the v of tv and of the strong form.
2. For XUVII and hiem-s, see supra 208.
3. XOwv == *XOwp." cf. the adj. xOufL-aAo-c; xo.,fL-YJAo-C; and Lat.
nom. XOwv, acc. XOov-a for *xOoft-a; probable date
xafL-a{ == *X( O)n;IfL-a{; the other cases XOov-{ XOov-oc; on the analogy
of XOov-a.
§ 3. Stems.
(211) I. Ste1ns in -er-, -ter-.-In this class, several stems,
especially nouns of relationship, have kept the primitive
gradation with more or less fidelity: nom. sing. acc.
7raTEp-a, loco 7raTp-{, gen. 7raTp-OC;; nom. pI. 7raTEp-€C;, acc. 7raTEp-ac;,
loco 7raTpaa-(. == *7rUTt-a-t (cf. Sk. pitf-su), gen. 7rUTEp-WV. Such is
the classical paradigm; but, although the declension of
is the best preserved of all in this class, it contains at least
one form that has been corrupted; the acc. pI. ought perhaps
to be reduced, *7raTpaC;; the gen. pI. certainly ought to be, just
as much as the gen. sing., and moreover 7raTpWV is found in
Homer (Od. iv. 687, viii. 245); hence 7raTEpWV must be due to
the analogy of 7rUTEP€C;.
This analogy spread over a wide area in course of time; in
the Home.ric age it created 7ro.,TEpOC;, p.,YJTEPOC; by the side of
P-YJTPOC;; ftYJTEpt, likewise Homeric, is probably the primitive
form, cf. Sk. matdri. So also OvyaTEpoc; was formed on the
model of OvyuTEpU, and on the other hand OvyaTpa. (II. i.' 13),
oVYUTP€C;, OvyaTpac; (II. xxii. 62) on that of OvyaTpoc;. The word
that has received the worst treatment in· classical Greek is
1 Of. however, s1lpra 154 and 201, 3. 2 Of. s1lpra 204, 7.
230
GREEK AND LATIN GRA1\fMAR.
the regular declension of which would probably be: sing.
nom. voc. av€p, acc. aVEpa, loco *avEpr. or avop{, gen. 1
pI. nom. € acc. or loco avopaa-r., gen. avopwl/.
In Homer ,ve often find the regular fornls aVEpa and aVEp€(),
but the ordinary language generalized throughout the whole
declension the weak stem avopa avop€() avopa().
The same is the case in Latin. Except in the nom.-voc., the
strong or middle form of these stems was lost, and was
said instead of *pater-ern=7faTEp-a, on the model of patr?; and
patris.
In Greek the Inic1dle form was generalized in
(gen. acrTl.p-O(), but loco pI. and other words, and the
long vowel of the nominative in all the nouns in denoting
the agent:
II. in -or-, -tor-.-There remains no trace in Greek
of a declension OWTWp, *owTEp-a (or oWTopa), *OWTP-O(), if such a
declension ever existed. These forms show no gradation, "\vith
the exception of the lengthening of the nominative: OWTWp,
oWTop-a, OWTOP-O(), oWTOp-crt.
In Latin, the long vowel of the nominative passed even into
the oblique cases: *dator dator-is, etc.: then, the
final syllables in r having been shortened, the result has been
that the nominative, which was the only case entitled to a long
vowel, is the only one that has a short vowel.
§ 4. Sigrnatic Ste?ns.
(212) I. J.llascuZines and ferninin.es in -os-.-In Greek,
simply lengthening of the nominative: aiow() *aloocr-a (alooa
aiow) *atoocr-o() (aiooo() aloov()). Latin shows more variety:
vocalic change without lengthening, venus vener-ern=*venes-
em; lengthening ,vithout vocalic change, arbos arb01"-ern =
*arbos-ern. But, in the immense majority of cases, we find
a series of corruptions, some phonetic, SOlue analogical, the
history of which is as follows; originally honos *honos-is;
extension of the long vowel of the nominative, *honos-is;
rhotacism, honor-is; analogical extension of the r to the
nominative, *honor; shortening of the last syllable, honor.
1 For CtVOpos=*uvp-6s, cf. supra 47 B.
Il\JIPARISYLLABIC DECLENSION. 231
II. ]{asculines and fe1ninines in -es-.-In Greek, lengthen-
ing of the nominative: € *tf€VOEcr-U (tf€VOEU € etc. So
also in Latin, CeT'es Gerer-is, but with rhotacism extended to
the nominative and consequent shortening, celer, degener.I
Originally this class included in Latin a larger number of stems
than have been preserved: by cOlnparing, for example, 11/l"lbes
,vith Gk. VEepO'; and Sk. ndbhas (gen. ndbhas-as), sedes with
EOO';, 1noles with 1noles-tus (cf. hones-tu-s), etc.,2 it is easy to see
that the regular declension was nubes *nubes-is. The dat.-abl.
pI. *nubes-bus became nubi-bus, \vhence through analogy a date
sing. nubi 3 and all the rest of the declension, as though based
on a stem *nubi-. The result is that, except in the nom. sing.,
the declension of nubes no longer differs from that of avis.
III. Neuters in -os- (- es-) .-The gradation in these stems
is well known: the 0 appears only in the nOll.-acc. sing., T€LX0';
*rE{XEcr-o,; (TE{X€O'; T€{XOV';), funuH *funes-is (funeris), etc. In
Latin, however, several steIns have generalized the 0; *te1npos
*ten1,pos-is, *corpos *corpos-is, vvhich becalue phonetically
te1npus etc.
IV. Neute1's in -as-.-This declension, which is confined to:
Greek, shows no gradation, but is based on tv-vo stems, one in'
-0.0--, the other in -ar-: KEpU'; KEpur-o,;, and also *KEpUcr-O'; (KEpUOc;.
KEpW';), *KEpUo--U (*KEpUU KEpa), etc.
4
V. Greek perfect parrticipZes.-The sigmatic form of the
suffix (*-Focr-) appears only in the nOll. sing. (A€.\VKW,;
and in the formation of the felninine (AEAvKVL'U == *AEAvKVcr-LU).
All the rest of the declension is based on a dental stem, with
1 Perhaps also shortening without rhotacislll in the form cinis = *cine.., (for
cines?), on the model of the oblique cases (*cines-is changed to cineris).
2 In spite of the difference of quantity in the radical vowel, which may,
in all these cases, depend on a very ancient modification of the root. Of.
supra 124, 2.
3 Thus niibi : nubibus = ovi : ovibltS. On the other hand it was probably
the regular gen. *nuberum which gave rise to the archaic gen. boverum cited
by Varro.
4 Supra 129.-The dative (locative) sing. K€Pg. still remains to be accounted:
for; Lbeing subscript only after a long vowel, we ought to have K€pca. The
form KEpq. must be regarded as a mere variation of spelling, unless (which is
highly improbable) it is a true dative (*KfpaL= *Kfpa-aL).-The Hom. nom.
pI. 7fpa (II. ii. 237), Kp€a (II. viii. 231), go back to 7fpa, Kpfa, the final a being
shortened in imitation of the other neuter plurals.
232
GREEK AND LA.TIN GRAMMAR.
no gradation: 1 A€AVKOT-a € etc. The long vowel of the
nominative has spread to the other cases in a few Homeric
forms, € fJ-€fJ-awT-a; the Attic €fTTWTa is a contracted
form of Ion. €CTT€WT-a == €
VI. Conlparatives.-Greek has two stems: one ending in a
nasal, which has passed from the nom. sing. to all the other
cases, }-t€{'wv fJ-€'i'ov € the other sigmatic, no longer ap-
pearing except in acc. sing. and nom.-acc. pI., but in these cases
preferred in classical Greek to the nasal stem: acc. sing.
(masc--fem.) }-t€{'w==*}-t€{'oa==*fL€l'oa--a;2 nom. pI. (masc.-fem.)
€ == * € € == * € € used also as acc. pI. ; 3 nom.-acc. pI.
neut. fJ-€{'w == *fJ-€{'oa == *}-t€{'oa--a.
Latin has only the sigmatic stem: originally *rnajos
then 1Juljoris and as above in the case of
honor. The nom. sing. neut. rnajus reluained uncontaminated,
but the rest' of the declension has a long vowel on the analogy
of the masc.-felu., e.g., neut. pI. majora instead of *major-a, cf.
*fJ-f.{'oa--a.
§ 5. Diphthongal Stems.
(213) I. Monosyllables.-l. Stem *dyeJ))- (sky, day); from
pre-historic times the w was liable to disappear under certain
ill-defined conditions, cf. Lat. dies, the declension of which is
analogicaI.4 The gradation is still very plain in the Greek
declension: nom. € == = * and (dialectical)
c::=die-s; voc. Zev, Lat. Ju(piter); ace. (Dor. j).(i-v in Theo-·
critus)==die-1n; loco j).d=D,.,J-{; gen. with,
reduction of the stem-syllable -etv-. This primitive declension,
was liable, in the various dialects, to aU kinds of corruptions,.
the t"vo most important of which are also classical: on the one,
hand, j).d gave rise to an acc. 6.{a, the ordinary form in
use; on the other, the acc. being in its turn declined as if
1 Of. supra 128.
2 It is scarcely necessary to observe that fLElrw cannot come from fL€lropa,;
there is no similar case of loss of medial p.
3 The acc. p,€lrovs cannot be contracted from *p,droas. The assimilation
here is due to the neuter, where the two cases are, quite regularly, identical.
4 Called the 5th declension, cf. supra 197.
IMPARISYI.JLABIC DECLEl\fSION. 233
it were a stem ending in -en-, gave rise to the Homeric declen-
sion ZYjv-{
2. Stem *gO'LV- (ox, CO\V, Sk. gau-s) : nom. ]}Qr.
Lat. bo-s; acc. f30V-II f3w-v, and f30a (rare) -= *f3oF-a =
Lat. bov-e1n; loco f3oF-{ bov-e ; date bov-i; gen. bov-is, etc. ;
gen. pI. boum-=*bov-om.
2
3. Stem *naw- (ship).-Sing.: nom. Ion. v'YJv-s-
through analogy of oblique cases; acc. vaF-a-=*natv-Yf!; whence
Ion. and New Ion. v€a,4 Att. vav-v; loco Dor. viiF-{ vii-{, Lesb.
va-t, Hom. and Att. v'YJ-i; gen. Dor. vii-os-, Hom. v'YJos-, New Ion.
VEOS-, Att. vEws-.
5
-Plur.: nom. vaF-€s- vaES-, Hom. and Att.
Hom. and New Ion. v€€S-, late Attic vallS- borrowed from acc.;
acc. Dor. vaFas-, Ion. New Ion. v€as-, and Att. vallS- on analogy
of acc. sing.; lac. vav-(]"{-= *viiv-(]"{, Ion. through analogy
of the other cases; gen. Dor. vii-wv, Lesp. vawv, Ion. V'YJwv, New
Ion. and Att. VEWV. Thus there is no gradation.-In Latin, the
analogy of the regular dative nav-Z caused this stem to pass
into the -i-declension.
6
II. Stems in -Yjv-.-The stem *i7r7rYjv- is declined throughout
without gradation. By the side of the ordinary nom. sing.
i7r7TEV-S- =*i7T7TYjV-S-, is found a dialectical variation with loss of
the semi-vo\vel as in die-s, e.g. (Arcad.); this variation
is proved especially by Doric proper names, e.g.,
as is shown by the corresponding Latin form
Achilles, Ulysses, borrowed doubtless from some Doric dialect
of Magna Graecia. This ending of the nom. sing. led to a
sporadic confusion of these nouns with proper names in -es- : 7
thus the word "Ap'YJ-s-, which in Lesbian is nom. "ApEv-s-,
gen. "ApEV-OS-, etc., has in Homer the corresponding flexion
"Ap'YJ0s- =- *',Ap'YJF-os-, but also the analogical flexion, voc.
"ApE';, gen. "ApEos-, etc.
1 The same anomaly occurs in the declension of rl-s, infra 220, 6.
2 The form *.Q'w- with complete reduction occurs only in the derivative
*(31] =*gw-a, which forms part of the compound fKarO/L-(3-1] (sacrifice of a
hundred oxen).
3 SupTa 76, 1 A. 4 Supra 76, 1 B.
5 Supra 76, 1 C. 6 Thus navis (nom). : '1'lavi= avis: aVi.
7 This confusion is naturally complete in words borrowed by Latin,
.Achilles Achillis like llubes llUbis.
234
GREEK AND LATIN GRAl\IMAH.
v\7ith this exception, the declension is of the simplest
character.-Sing.: nom. bnTEu-s-; voc. L7nTEV; aoc. Lesb.
L7T7TYja, Hom. Dor. and New Ion. L7T7TEa, Att. i7r7TEii; loco
whence and l,iT7TEZ; gen. Hom. evv Ion.
L7T7rEOS', Att. L7T7TEwS'.-Plur.: nonl. € New Ion. L7T7TEE';, Att.
and acc. New Ion. Att. i7T7TEiis by
metathesis, sometimes with simple shortening, lastly
and borrovved from the nominative; lac. L7T7TEV-o-{,
Panhellenic; gen. New Ion. and Att. i7T7TEWl'.
III. Stems -ow- and -oy-.-Stems which have "the sig-
matic nominative (e.g. 1 have the long vowel in all cases:
== etc. The other stems 2 have jt only in
the nom. sing., 7TEdJc.§ 7TEd)o-a. Declension: nom. AYJTc.§ == *AaTwy or
AYJTW == *AiiTWF ; vOC. ace. Ion. AYJTOVV (cf. (3ovv), Dor. AaTWV
(cf. (3wv), but comlllonly AYJTW
3
== AYJToa == *AiiToy-a or AiiToF-a; the
other cases present no difficulty. The external resemblance
between these stems and those in -ov- led to many confusions
between the two classes: thus ITv()w (Delphi) became ITv()wv,
\vhence the two parallel declensions IIv()oL and TIvBwvoS'
IIvl1wVL; we find the nom. pI. ropyovE';, from ropyc.§, in Resiod; and,
on the other hand, in Sophocles, the genitive aYjoovS', from &Yjowv.
4
§ 6. Vocalic Stems.
(214) The stems in -i- and -u- follow tvvo very different
modes of declension, which seem to correspond respectively
to an original long or short quantity in the termination. An
i or it in the stem is not subject to any gradation; it is
simply split up into a vowel and semi-vowel (iy, uw) be·fore
terminations beginning with a vowel; then, on the loss of the
semi-vowel, there remains only a short vo\vel, e.g. iXBv-S', gen.
iXBvo<;. On the other hand, 'i and u are subject to a
special kind of gradation; they take the normal forms ey and
ew before terminations beginning with a vowel,
and remain reduced before a consonant. Greek maintains
1 Supra 200, 2. 2 Supra 131.
3 \Ve should expect *AYjT:iJ, *1r€L8w, etc., but the accentuation has been
disturbed through the analogy of the nominative.
4: 'AcT7rlS, 230; Ajax, 629.
TMPARISYLLABIC DECLENSION.
/'"
235
this distinction perfectly in the -u-stems, but in the -i-stems
the two modes of declension have been confused.
I. Sterns in -u-.-l. Without gradation: lX(}v-s iX(}v-v iX(}v-oc;;,
Spv-s Spv-6s and even 0pv-6s on analogy of nom.; and also VEKV-;
VEKV-OS (but the Homeric quantity VEKVS is probably more
ancient). The contrast between the declension of su-s and
rnanu-s in Latin has already been pointed out.!
2. This contrast however is the only relic of the primitive
gradation in which seems no longer to have a stem
*maneu- corresponding to the Greek alternation yAVKv- *yAVKEF-.
-Sing. NOln.: 7rEAEKV-S, ({a-TV, yAvKv-S )'AVKV. Acc.: 7rEAEKV-V,
(la-TV, )'AVKV-V (yAvKEa analogical 2) )'AVKV. Loc.:
whence 7rEAEKE'i 7rEAEKH, /la-TE'i /la-TEL, )'AVKE'i yAVKEL. Gen.: *7rEAEKEF-
os, vvhence 7fEAEKEOS, /la-TEOS, yAVKEOS; in Att. 7rEAEKEWS, /la-TEWS
(but not yAVKEWS, which belongs to a much later period of
Greek) are due to the analogy of forms like i7f7rEws.
3
-Plur.
Nom.: whence 7rEAEKEES /la-TEa ({a-TYj, yAVKELS
yAvKEa (very rarely contracted). Acc.: regularly *7rEAEKVS,
*)'AVKVS ; 4 but, through analogy of the other cases, Hom.
7rEAEKEas, yAvKEas; Att. 7rEAEKE1S, yAVKELS, through extension of the
Loc.: regularly *7rEAEKV-CYL, *yAVKV-a-L (Sk. svadu-
8U) ;' but, through extension of the stem 7fEAEKE-, which \vas
supposed to appear in the other cases, 7rEAEKECYL, tJ.a"TE(JL, yAVKE(J(,.
Gen. : 7rEAEKEWV, U(JTEWV, )'AVKEWV.
II. Ste1ns in -i-.-Accordlng to what we have just seen, a
stem *7rOAL- (town, cf. 7rOAL-TYJ"S) 5 would bepome in the gen.
*7rOAtY-os, whence 7TOAl.OS, whereas a stem 7rOAL- would become
*7roAEY-OS, whence 7rOAEOS; but 7rOAL-S and similar words gener-
ally show both modes of declension, according to the dialect.-
Sing. Nom.: 7rOAL-S, ¢Va-L-S. Acc.: 7rOAL-V, ¢Va-L-V. Loc.: Honl.
and New Ion. ?roAL=*7roA(,(,; Hom. 7roAYji, in ","hich the long
vowel seems to arise from a yery old locative form attested by
1 Supra 204, 4 note, 6 note, etc.
2 Supra 204,4.
3 Thus approximately 7r€A€K€WS : 7r€A€K€WV = l,7r7rEWS : l7r7rEWV. The accent
irregularly drawn back in 7r€AEK€WV clearly shows that 7r€A€K€WV and 7r€A€K€WS
had a reciprocal influence on one another.
4 Supra 206, 3.
S We find in Homer 7rOALS (II. xvi. 69) and 7rOALV (II. xvi. 57).
236 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
Sanskrit (Vedic agna, from stem agni-, fire); Hom. 7TOAEL==
*7TOAEy-t, whence Att. 7ToAEt, e:pv(J"EL. Gen.: Lesb.
New Ion. and (contracted ; Hom.
and following 7ToAYJ'i; Att. Nom.:
7TOAYJfS; Att. Acc.: regular (Hom.,l
Herod.):=; through analogy of the other cases,
and Att. borrowed from nominative.
Loc.: regular 7ToAL-crl. (Herod.), but commonly 7rOAE(Tt through
extension of the E of the other cases. Gen.: generally 7TOA{WV,
but Att. 1TOAE(J)V with accentuation modified through
In Latin, the declension in -'i- is the only one preserved, and
the gradation is retained only in the nom. p1. oves, contracted
from *ovees == *bvey-es, cf. 7rOAElS.
2
§ 7. Heteroclites.
(215) One of the commonest features of both Greek and
Latin grammar is the existence of so-called heteroclite nouns,
the declension of which is based upon two or three different
stems, e.g. yvvaLK-a or, on the other hand, senex
(==*senec-s) sen-em sen-is j and this well-known peculiarity,
would scarcely call for anything beyond a reference to the
practical grammars, but for the fact that certain heteroclite
nouns form an important class, common to both languages, and
going back ultimately to the parent speech. These nouns are
the neuters in *-r(t),3 Gk. -ap, -wp, Lat. -ur, which form their
oblique cases from a stem in -n-, to which Greek has further
added a T, which nlay be compared with that of words like
cf. Lat. nornin-is,4 so that, corresponding to Sk. ydkrt
(liver) gen. yak'n-ds, Greek has Latin' jec-ur
*jecin-is (the difference of quantity may be disregarded for our
present purpose).
Greek has several examples of this kind of declension:
:= uTEap (fat):= gen. UTEiiTOC;:= ;
VDWp, vDaT-oc;, cf. Sk. uddn-, and Lat. where the
1 1rOX€LS and 1rOXLaS illnst be corrected to 7rOAlS II. ii. 648, Ode viii. 560.
2 Of. supra 206, 1. 3 Of. supra 127.
4 Of. supra 115, 4, and 204, 7.
IMPARISYLLABIC DECLENSION. 237
n of the suffix is reflected -in the root, etc. But in most
neuters in -ap and wp analogy has assimilated the oblique cases
to the nom.: OEvap (palm of the hand) OEvap-os, (spring)
Several also are indeclinable.
In Latin especially this analogical process was considerably
developed. From the prinlitive declension femin-is,
Latin derived, on the one hand; the gen. and the other
oblique cases resembling it, on the other, the nom. sing. femen.
Similarly the declension jecur *jecin-is became jecur jecor-is J.
but the lost form *jecin-is still survives in the curious genitive
jecinor-is, in which both suffixes appear. It is, to say the
least, very probable that iter must have had a genitive *,itin-is ;
but the nom. iter gave rise to a genitive 'iter-is (attested by
the grammarians), then the joint influence of these two forms
. produced the ordinary genitive itiner-is, which in turn gave
rise to a little used nominative itinere This accumulation of
suffixes is not unknown to Greek: thus ovap (dream) has the
genitive ove{paT-os, a form which, apart from the vocalism and
the addition of T, is the exact counterpart of jecinol"-is, itiner-is,
with the two suffixes arranged in the opposite order. It was
inevitable that confusions of all kinds should arise in declen-
sions having so unusual an appearance.
l
1 We may also ITlention: (1) the declension of 'Y6v'fJ, o6pv, Hom. loco oovp£
= *oopF-£, nom. pI. 'Y0vvara = *'YavF-ar-a, Att. oapara, 'Yavara, supra 40 C a ;
(2) that of Kapa (neut., head), Ion. KaprJ, nom. pI. Kap1}-a'T-a. (II. xi. 309),
gen. sing. Kpciros= *Kpa-ar-6s (?), etc.
CHAPTER III.
PRONOMINAL DECLENSION.
(216) .... i\mong the stems which follow the pronominal declen-
s.ion two classes are to be distinguished, the demonstratives
. and the personal pronouns.. The essential characteristic of
the demonstratives is that they have a system of inflexion which
agrees much more nearly with the nominal declension than with
that of pronouns proper; they also vary according to the gender
of the object designated, whereas the personal pronouns' have
only a single form for masculine, fen1inine, and neuter: 0 ~ TO,
but EyW for all three genders.
SECTION I.
DElVIONSTRATIVES.
§ 1. Ter1ninations.
(217) I. Singular.-1. Nominative.-Greek always has the
ordinary - ~ ; the feminine forms have no termination, as is
also the case with the masculine of the stem o. Latin has
as many as three masculine terminations: (1) -s, i-s, q ~ ~ i - s ~
etc.; (2) short e, with no further termination (still rather
obscure), iste, ille; 1 (3) i, which appears to be equivalent
to oi and which is almost equally obscure; 2 hi-C, qUi. The
feminine has the ordinary ending it; but the stems which have
in the masc. i = *oi, have in the fern. ae = *Cii, hae-c, quae.
The nom.-acc.. neuter has a special fOrlTI, the saIne in both
languages: its termination is -d, Greek T6 =*TO-O, cf. Latin
istu-d =*isto-d, tlAAo aliu-d, T{ qui-d, etc.
1 They may be old vocatives, cf. supra 196, 1, or imitations of the regular
ipse, infra 221, 7.
5l Cf. however 219, 1 note.
238
PRONOMINAL DECLENSION. 239
\
2. Accusative: -1'n, Gk. v, Lat. -m: TO-V, istu-rn, etc.
3. Ablative (1): Gk. OVTW == *OVTWO; Lat. ista == *istad,
ista == *istad, qu}; (hovv) = *q'UId, etc.l
4. Ablative (2): Gk. 7rO-()EV, aVTo-()EV,2 etc.; Lat. 'Un-de (the
nasalization is imitated from inde, supra 187, 6), so also *cunde
== *quon-de in alicunde, cf. U.:.bl, *cu-bi.
5. (1): Gk. etc.; Lat. qua, ha-c
(this way), ista-c, illa-c.
3
6. Instrumental (2): Gr. aVTo-ep(, ; 4 Lat. (locative sense) ib-i,
*c1.JJbi=*qui5-bI in alicubI, l.,t-b};, from a stem u-, found also in
the conlparative ali-b'l with final lengthening perhaps on
the analogy of the dative, cf. ti-bi.
7. Locative: Dol'. TEL-DE, etc., Gk. (illative sense) 7ro'i, etc.,
Lesb. etAAvt, (far off, cf. 5 Lat. hi-c==hei-c==(here),
istI-c, illI-c. The illative hu-c=*hoi-c, istuc, illuc, cur (why)==
(the I)" is a particle of the same kind as the Gk. pa apa),
corresponds phonetically to the accented (not enclitic) 7rOL.
8. Dative.-:-Greek has the ordinary dative endings in the
-0- and -a-stems: Ti- Til. But in Latin the termination -};
of the dative, instead of being added to the final -0- or -a- of
the stem, appears to elilninate and supersede it; instead of a
dative *illa, *illae, which would seenl to be required by the
ace. illu-1n, illa-1n and the corresponding Greek forms, we have
ill-I for all three genders, as in the imparisyllabic declension.
It is probable that this ending, at first belonging exclusively
to demonstratives of the imparisyl1abic declension (qui-s, i-s),
was extended to the others by analogy. This much is certain,
that, having spread side py side with the genitive termination
-IUS (infra), it was added to stenlS \vhich were nominal in t1).eir
origin and resembled pronouns only in meaning: thus unu-s
( == Gk. has dat. un-I, sollu-s (== soll};, alter (com-
parative in -TEpO-) alte1?-i, though the nom.-acc. neut. unu-m (not
*unu-d), etc., would suffice to prove that their original declen-
sion was nominal.
1 Suprq- 187, 4. The nasalization of the adverbial ablative kin-c,
illin-c is probably due to the analogy of inde, infra.
2 Supra 187, 6. 3 Supra 187, 7.
4 Supl'a 187, 8. 5 Supra 187, 10.
240 GREEK AND LATIN GRAM::M:AR.
9. Genitive.-In Greek no peculiarity; -a-stems, ,o'io==*,o-a-yo,
-a-stems, ,as, imparisyllabic stems, But in Latin
the genitive of the demonstratives shows a special termination
-'ins, shortened :tus, which is not found in any other language
and is most perplexing to the gramluarian. The following is
the most probable explanation of its origin.
Let us take, for example, the form ejus. The demonstrative
root i, in its normal form and with the addition of the suffix -0-,
may have produced a stem *ey-o- *eo-, of which the nom.-sing.
luasc. would be *eu-s (cf. acc. eU-1n) and the locative (used 'as geni-
*eZ. On the other hand, the same root, V\?hen itself acting
as stem, has a nom. sing. i-s, of which the genitive would natu-
rally be *i-os *i-us (cf. patr-us).3 Let us suppose now that
these two synonymous forms were linked together by a sort of
pleonasm which is very COlnmon in all languages; this would
give the combination *e'i the transition of which to ejns
(often written eiius) is easy to understand. In the same way,
to *ill'i, *istz, *qUO'i, the regular genitives of the pronouns ille,
iste, quZ, etc., \vas attached the same genitive *ius of the
pronoun is; whence the pleonastic forms illiUS, istius, quoZus
(Ep. Scip.), in which the accentuation illius and not *illius,4
recorded by Martianus Capella, seems to point to an old ,con-
traction from *illi ius.
Are there any direct proofs in favour of this ingenious
hypothesis? No, but indirect proofs are abundant. In the
first place, it is certain that the genitives in -z- (fern. -ae) existed
in the demonstratives; they are found occasionally in the
comic poets, e.g. istzmodz, aliae rei in Lucretius. As to *ius,
F. Meunier has thought himself justified in reading it in a
verse of Piautus, where it is supported by the reading of two
manuscripts.
5
Lastly, nothing is more in harmony with the
genius of popular language than pronominal pleonasm; we have
only to compare, in vulgar French, the phrases, " l'homme qu'il
vient, cet hornme que tu lui as pris son couteau," and in German
1 Supra 187, 11, and 204, 14. 2 Supra 187, 10.
3 Supra 204, 14. 4 Cf. 11lem. Soc. Ling. iii. p. 187.
5 Set eccum parasitum quai mi ius auxili6st opus, Persa 83. We certainly
find quorum eorum in Trinum. 1023. Ot Mem. Soc. Ling. i. p.45.
PRONOMINAL DECLENSION. 241
declension the double dative denen, the double genitive derer,
etc. [Of. the pleonastic use of which in vulgar English.]
However this may be, this termination -ius was wrongly
extended to a certain numoer of stems of nOluinal origin:
un-ius, sol-ius,· alter-ius, neutr-ius, ull-ius,
l
null-ius.
This corruption is not very ancient; n'fiJlli is still found in the
comic poets, and neutrum meaning" the neuter gender" always
has neutri in the genitive.
(218) II. Dual: only in Greek; no peculiarity, except that
the fern. is not used, the masc.-neut. taking its place: TW not rii,
TOLV not raLv, TOVTW not TavTii, etc., TW € (the two days).
(219) III. Plural.-l. Nominative.-The termination of
luasc. and fern. parisyllabic stems is *-y, which we have already
seen introduced into the nominal stems: 2 Gk. (Dor.) TO-{, Ta-£
(OL, aL); Lat. isti == *isto-i, istae == *ista-i. Imparisyllabic stems
have *-es: T{v-e;;. The termination of the norn.-acc. neut. is the
same as that of the nouns: ra, aVTa, T{v-a.
3
So also in Latin
ista, illa, qui-a (probably neut. pI. of qui-s); but we also find
an ending ae, hae-c, quae, istae-c, the origin of which is not
clear.
4
2. The accusative, locative, and instrumental-dative-ablative
do not differ from those of the corresponding nominal stems.
3. Genitive.-In the pro-ethnic period the pronominal gen. pl.
had a special termination *-sam, proved by the Sanskrit demon-
stratives (masc.-neut. fern. ta-sam). This termination
can no longer be seen in the masc.-neut. of Greek demonstratives,
which have been assimilated to the nominal stems, TWV, TOVTWV,
EK€{VWV; at the most it would only be possible to recognise it
in the Doric accentuation TOVTWV == *TOVTO-crWV. But in the fern.
we have Dor. Tav, Att. Twv==Lesb. rawv=*Ta-crwv, and Dor.
TavTav==*ravTa-crwv. So also in Latin: fern. ha-rum=*ha-sum,
ista-rum, etc.; masc.-neut. ha-rum, probably for *ho-rum=
*ho-sorn, with lengthening of the thematic vowel on the analogy
of ha-rum.
5
1 ullus = *oin-los, diminutive of unus.
2 Supra 189, 1. 3 Supra 206, 2.
4 Probably it is due to the addition of a demonstrative element -i (cf. Gk.
oVTocr-l), so that quae = *qua-i, and so also in the nom. sing. masc. and fem.,
qUi, quae, etc. 5 Of. supra 189,_ 7.
R
242 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
§ 2. Stems.
(220) I. Greek.-l. Stem 0- TO- (demonstrative in the lan-
guage of Homer, where the article is unknown, article and
relative pronoun in that of Herodotus, article only in :ordinary
Greek, except in the expression 0 € ••• 0 OE •••). In Indo-
European, the two stems *80- *to- alternated in declension; the
first characterized only the nom. sing. masc. and fern. (both
without termination, *80, *sa); the second appeared in all other
cases. This is also what happens in Greek, especially in Doric,
where the nom. pI. masc. and fern. is Tot Tat; but in ordinary
Greek the analogy of 0 produced oi ai. The dual TW (TO.)
everywhere remained unchanged.
By the addition to this stem of the particle oe, there ,vas
formed a demonstrative of more precise meaning, ooe Tooe,l
corresponding in meaning to the French" voici" (here is). The
declension is the same as before; the particle is indeclinable,
but by analogy the case-endings were sometimes added to it,
loco pI. TOLa-oECn and TOLCTOECTCTLV (Od. xxi. 93, ii. 47) in Homer, gen.
pI. TWVOEWV in a fragment of Alcaeus.
2. Stem O-DTO- (a demonstrative contrasted \vith the former
as meaning "voila" (there is) and "\\rith the following one as
meaning" this"). Whatever opinion may be held as to the
origin of this pronoun, it is not difficult- to recognise in it the
stems 0-, TO-, cOlnbined in different ways, whence arises the
exact parallel between the two declensions 0 TO, TOV etc.,
and ODTOS aVTT} TOVTO, TOVTOV Tavrfjv, etc.
2
Hence the Doric nom.
pl. masc. and fern., TOV7"Ol- TUvTat, is the only regular one; the
ordinary forms 01JTOL a1JTaL are imitated from and oi ai.
The influence of a9-alogy did not stop there; the Panhellenic
ablative is OVTW, not *TOV'T<O; we find in inscriptions forms like
o-DTOV and Ol)TWV; and lastly the stem TOVTO- nowhere appears in
the declension of cOlnpounds=)ike TOLOVTOS TOa-OVTOS, gen. TOLOVTOV,
etc. Moreover, the regular nom. sing. neut. TOLOVTO TOO"OVTO is
1 Of. the illative OLKOVQ€, supra 187, 11, last note.
2 Notice however that the common gen. pI. is TOVTWV for all three genders,
not' *TavTwv in the fern. (cf. in the adjectives ¢lA.wP in all genders, supra
195, 7), but in Doric regularly TaVTaV.
PRONOMINAL DECLENSION.
243
superseded in Attic, and already to some extent even in Homer,
by a nominative with a nominal termination, TOl-OVTOY TOa-OVTOV.
3. Stem KELYO- (that): Hom. KELYOS and EKELVOS, Attic prose
EKELYOS, Lesbian Dar. and Its origin is
obscure; it has no special peculiarity.
4. Stem aVTo- (pronoun denoting identity) : the oxytone accen-
tuation seems to separate it etymologically from the preceding
stems,l but in any case it has been entirely assimilated to them
in its declension.
5. Stem 0-: relative pronoun o-s 0 (=*0-0), identical with
SkI yd-s ya ya-d, which presupposes a primitive stem *y6-.
The epigraphic form (Locr.) FOTl-, like the adverbial ablative ws,
seems to belong to a different stem *sw6-.
2
6. Stems 7rO- T'l-- TE-=I.-E. *qo- *qi- *qe-: 3 interrogative and
indefinite pronouns (enclitics in the last case).
A. *?TO-S ?Ta 7rO, Ion. *KO-S KO, not used in the nominative,
but frequent in the other cases; ?TWS ?TOBEV 7rOL ?rOV 7roBl-, Ion. KWS,
etc., cf. comparative ?TOTEP0\; and KOTEP0\;'
B. TL-S T{=Lat. qui-d. As is shown by Latin and
Sanskrit, the stem ends in -i-: hence the ace. sing. masc.-fem.
should be *TL-V. To this form *TL-V was pleonastically added a
new accusative suffix, TeV-a, and from T{v-a was formed the false
stem Tl-Y-, on which nearly all the declension is based: 4 sing.
TLv-a TLV-OS Tl-V-L; pI. TLV-ES T{v-a\; TLv-a TLY-LOy. Bnt the true stem
TL- is still traceable:-(a) in the nom.-acc. sing. neut., T{=*TL-'8;
((3) in the loco pI. TL-a-{, which cannot be explained through
*Tl-V-o-L; (y) in the word aa-o-a, Attl aTTa (nom.-acc. pI. neut.), in
which the group 0-0- TT is sinlply the representative of the group
Ty of the neut. pI. *TL-a=Lat. qui-a, pronounced as a mono-
syllable *Ty-a.
5
1 Of. Mem. Soc. Ling. vi. pp. 96 and 139.
2 The word ws in Homer often makes a preceding vowel long by position ;
we must therefore read Fws, e.g. It iv. 471, vi. 443, etc. Of. however L.
Havet, JJlelanges Renier, p. 371. 3 Of. supra 57, 1.
4 Of. supra 213.-Zend however has an accusative cin-em=rLlI-a.
5 SupTa 39 0 o. The initial a is simply the final a of the neuter word
which necessarily preceded the enclitic *na; thus in Ode xix. 218, we ought
really to read */YlnrOLa (J(Ja instead of '07r1rOl' (i(J(Ja; cf. in French m'amie
(my dear) written rna 'lnie, whence the word une mie. [So in English a nadder
has become an adder, and conversely an eke-name (i.e. an additional name)
is now a nick-name.]
244 GREEK A.ND LATIN GRAMMAR.
C. T€-, not used in the nominative, often replaces in the
oblique cases (especially in Attic and Herodotus): Hom. Tf.O
'Tf.WV ; New Ion. TEV 'TEOUrl,; Att. 'T0l) 'TO, etc.
.7. The stem 0- may be combined with each of the preceding
stems in turn, to form various indefinite pronouns. The form
of composition is both syntactical and non-syntactical.l
A. With 7T'O- KO-: non-syntactical Ion. etc.; syn-
tactical, probably norn.-acc. sing. neut. * OO-7TOO 2 *OO-KOO, whence
the stems 07T7T'O- OKKO-, and hence the doublets
etc.
B. With TL-, generally syntactical:
3
Oo--TIS, *OO-TI" whence
Homeric OTTI" gen. etc. The form OTt arose later, after
the loss of the final 0 of through the simple juxtaposition
of 0 and TI,., The nom.-acc. pI. neut. is d.Tl,Va, but also (Att.)
a.TTa == *aTya == *a-Tl,u.
C.. With TE-: non-syntactical in the forms O-TOV (Hom. gen,
OTT€O, Od. i. 124), O-Tep. which may be substituted in Attic tor
etc.; syntactical with TE indeclinable in the forms
(IL i. 279), (fJo-TE (so that), etc.
8. The stems 7T6,- T6- and -0- in secondary derivation form
various correIative words, such as 7rOTE (Dol". 7TOKU) TOTE OTE,
(and an obscure
form), and similarly 07TOT€ 07r7rOT€, etc. But these stems have
nothing pronominal about them except the root, and their
declension is purely nominal, e.g. neut. oio-v, not *01:0.
9. The pronoun 0 DELva (so and so), gen. TOl) or better
indeclinable, has not yet been clearly explained.
4
(22I) II. Latin.-i. Is: the two stems i- and eo-, which
both come from the root i (one, cf. Gk. and one, alone),
5
alternate somewhat capriciously in declension :-Sing.: nom.
i-s, ea, i-d; acc. eU-1n, ea-1n (arch. i-m), i-d; abl. eo, ea; dat. ei;
gen. ejus==*ef ius. Plur.: nom. ei, and more commonly ii
1 Supra 176.
2 Cf. KCl7nr€'(jE =*Ka.r 7T'HrE..
3 Sometimes non-syntactical in Homer, ()TLPa (Od. viii. 204), ()TLPas (II. xv.'
492).
4 For the most recent etymology see Baunack, Stud. i. p. 46, who writes
it as one word, oo€wa.
:> Of. upra 108 and 109.
PRONOMINAL DECLENSION. 245
(through intrusion of the vowel of i-S),l eae, ea ; acc. eos, eas, ea;
dat.-ab1. (eis) iiS; gen. eiJ-r'Ltm, ea-rU1n.
2. Hic.-To the demonstrative stem ho- is added in declen-
sion an indeclinable particle -ce, syncopated to -c; all the cases
do not take it; but nevertheless it is capable of being added,
under one of these forms, to the majority of demonstrative
\vords.
2
-Sing.: nom. hiC, haec, hoc (the 0 is long only by
position, the true spelling would be *h6cc = hod-ce); acc. hun-c
= han-c, ho-c; able hoc, ha-c; date h'Lti-c and gen.
hujus, probably influenced by the vocalism of cui and cuj'LtS
(infra).-Pl.: nom. hi, hae, hae-c; acc. hos, has, haec; dat.-abl.
hIS; gen. harurn, ha-r·u1n.
3. Iste.-This word is probably a combination of the two
stems i- and to-, and hence ought to be declined: nom. masc.
*i-s tu-s, fern. *ea ta, acc. *eum tu-rn; but the element is has
ceased to be declined.-Sing.: nOill. ist'Lts (arch.) and iste, ista,
istud; acc. istu1n, istarn, istud; able ista, ista; date isti; gen"
istius=*isti ius.-Plur.: nom. 'isti, istae, ista (and istaec on the
analogy of haec); acc. istos, etc.
4. Ollus.-This archaic pronoun, of which numerous forITIs
are found in old Latin and the dative oUi even in \TergU,
ought probably to be written olus, if we may judge from the
adverbial form olim (formerly); but its etymology is unknovvn.
The spelling with II is due to the analogy of the following
word, of which it seemed to be merely a dOTI blet.
5. Ille.-The declension is exactly the same as that of iste.
6. * whence 'idem, pronoun denoting identity.-In
formation it is to be compared with O-OE; the pronoun is declined
and the particle added always remains unchanged. The
genitive ej1.lsdem for *ejudem is due to the analogy of ej'L(;S, cf.
cujusdanl, etc.
7. Ipse.-This pronoun likewise contains an indeclinable
particle -pse and ought to be declined *is-pse, ea-pse, *ipse
=*id-pse, acc. *eum-pse, etc. Some of these forms exist as
archaisllls, and the ab1. fern. sing. ea-pse survived even to the
1 And to dissimilate it from the date sing.
2 E.g. hujusce and even hocce where the particle occurs twice over, also
istic, illic, etc.
246
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
latest period of Latin in the adverbial phrase reapse (really)
But, by a strange anomaly, the pronoun as it
appeared in the form of the nOll. sing. neut. became indeclin-
able, and the particle was declined,l so that the declension of
ipse became exactly like that of iste, with the exception of the
neuter ipsurn instead of *ipsud.
8. StenlS == Gk. 71"0- (relative pronoun) and qui- == Gk. r{-
(interrogative and indefinite).-These two stems, closely aUied
both in form and function, \vere to some extent confused in
their declension, so that each of them owes part of its declension
to the other: for a stem qui- in the gen. pI. could only become
not quo-rum, and again the date pI. of quo- was quIs
(cf. not ..3
A. Quo-.-Sing.: nom. qUi, quae
1
quod; acc. quem (borrowed
froln the true accus. remaining as a conjunction
denoting tilne), qua-1n,4 quo-d; ab1. quo, quc/;; date ==
gen. ciijus -== = quoi-i1-lS (?).-Plur.: nOln. q1.tei
qU"l, quae, quae; acc. quos, quas, quae; dat.-abl.
(arch. and poet.), in prose (borrowed from qui-s); gen.
quCt-ry'u1n.
B. Qui-.-Sing.: nom. masc. qu./i-s, Osc.. pi-s, feInt arch. qui-s,
5
class. quae (borrowed froIn the preceding stem), neut. qui-d;
acc.. for (cf. avern for avim), quam (borrowed),
quid; abl. q1.l0
7
qua (both borrowed); date CUi; gen.
Plur.: arch. nOlll. masc.-fem. ques 6 (cf. aves), neut. *qui-a
(preserved as a conjunction), in classical usage qUi, quae,
(all borrowed); acc. quos, quas, quae (do.); regular dat.-abl.
but also queis (boITo\ved); lastly, gen. and
quarurn.
It is hardly necessary to mention the combinations qui-
cU1nque, = aZiquis, etc., the
1: Ct in French the pI. q1lelconques, which ought to be *quelsconque.
2 This genitive really existed, according to the grammarians.
3 Qttibus even gave rise to the barbarisln hibus (i long because of hiS?) or
ibus = *iiblls, which is found in Plaut. Curcul. 506.
4 Which likewise fulfils the function of a conjunction (comparative); the
correlatives are tum, (tun-c) and tam, acc. masc. and fem. of the stem to-.
5 We find in Plautus (Epid. 509) : quis illaec est mulier? etc.
6 Which is found several times repeated in the Senatusconsultum de
Bacchanalibus.
PRONOMINA.L DECLENSION. 247
declension of which differs in no respect froln that of
and quis.
SECTION II.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
§ 1. Sterns.
(222) What makes the declension of the personal pronouns
very complicated and often obscure, is not merely the unusual
character of several terminations, but also and more especially
the multiplicity of the stems which alternate in the declension
of each pronoun. Hence it is important to determine at the
outset these stems and the various forms which each of them
may assume.
I. In the 1St person, three steIns: (1) that of the nomina-
tive singular, which is an isolated form, (2) and (3)
*no-.
1. Nom. sing.: Gk. eyw, Lat. *ego ego; the Sk. suggests
that the nasal at the end of the Greek doublet eywv (Hom.),
Emot. l,WV, is not wholly epentheticaI.
2. Strong stem vveak *1n-, in all the other cases of the
sing. in Greek and Latin. The stems *eme- and likewise
occur, but only in Greek.l There is also the stenl *1n- with
an unexplained, but priInitive, addition, *-S1ne- which
appears in the Greek plural, namely, nOlll. pL (1Iesb.) l1flflE'.;=
*aap.E('.;) = (cf. Germ. uns [Eng. us]) == as vjJ-ttEr;;
== *yu-sm-e infra.
3. Stem *no- (cf. Sk. acc. pI. nas), in the Greek dual and
Latin plural.
(223) II. In the 2nd person, four stems, (tu-, tw-,
etc.), *yu-, *wo-, and lastly *a-¢o- (exclusively Greek).
1. The stem *tew- is common to Greek and Latin, vvhere it'
characterizes the whole of the singular. In the nominative the
1 Is this due to prothesis? or (which seems very improbable) to the
analogy of or, lastly, were they primitive forms, to be compared with
the manifold stems of the other pronouns, but lost everywhere except in
Greek? The question seems insoluble.
2 Of. Sk. sma and Lat. *sme-d (ablative ?), intensive particles.
248 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
J
is a vowel, e.g. primitively *til and *til, which may be seen
respectively in the Doric TV (TV) and Lat. tfi (cf. Hom. TVV'Yj,
II. xix. 10). In the other cases there is an alternation between
the forms *tewe,-' *tew-, *twe- and In Doric and Latin
the w after the t is simply dropped. But, in the other Greek
dialects, the group TF becomes u, e.g. acc. ut==TFt.; then, the
initial u spreading throughout the whole declension, Lesbian,
Ionic, Attic and the have in the nom. sing. en) instead of
the regular Doric TV (BCBot. TOV == TV).
2. The stem with the addition characterizes the
plural in Greek as in Sanskrit (abI. yusmdt, like asmdt in the
1st pers.): Lesb. 15fJ-fLfS for Dar. vfLfS (long v), etc.
3. Stem *wo- (cf. SkI acc. pI. vas): in the Latin pIural.
4. Stem *a-epo- (?): in the Greek dual, with no parallel else-
where; of unknown origin, like the stem *a-epe- of the Brd person.
(224) III. In the 3rd person, two stems, *sew- and *(jept.-
(in. Greek alone), but only the former is primitive. It is quite
certain, indeed, and Latin alone is a sufficient gaarantee of the
fact,! that the stem served both for the singular and plural.
Further, the pronoun *setv- does not, strictly speaking, belong
to the Brd person; it is the pronoun for all persons and
numbers.
s
From the point of view of Indo-European syntax
phrases like ego se geram (I shall behave myself), vos -sibi
placetis (you please you1rselves), a1nisimus suam rnatrem (we
have lost our mother), quin sine rivali seque et sua solus amares,
etc., would be quite correct, and we still £nd corresponding
usages at the present day in the Slavonic languages. In Latin,
this pronoun reluained strictly reflexive, but in its use was
restricted to the Brd person. In Greek the corruption "vent
much farther; the pronoun E- was used, either as reflexive, or
as a simple pronoun of the Brd person, and we know that
Homeric usage is invariable in this respect. Hence it was felt
necessary to create a plural for it, and the stem *a-ept-, the origin
of which is very obscure,3 was called npon to ful£l this function.
1 Its evidence is likewise confirmed by that of Sanskrit, Teutonic, and
Slavonic; cf. Germ. sie irren sick (they deceive themselves).
2 This accounts for the fact that it has no nominati ve.
3 Is it an instrumental in -¢>L of the stem 6F-, e.g. a--¢lv, which, being
taken for a date pI. and wrongly divided 6¢-lv, gave rise to an imaginary
PRONOMINAL DECLENSION. 249
Then, in the classical period, both stems fell into partial disuse;
as pronouns of the Brd person the demonstratives
etc" were used, and in the reflexive sense l- barely survived
except in the combination €
The single stem of this pronoun takes the four forms *sewe-,
*sew-, *s'UJe- and *sw-. The Latin declension retains only the
last two, in which the group sw becomes s. In Greek, initial (J"
is changed to the rough breathing and medial F disappears, e.g.
€€ =*o-€F-€; on the other hand, initial o-F is changed to the
rough breathing, e.g. € Hence the doublets which
the whole of this declension. Hence also, even in
Attic, the double form €uVT6l/=*cr€F' aVT6v and aVT6v==*crF' a&6v,
and so also in the 2nd person, o-€uVT6v corrupted from *TEUVTOV
== *TEF' uVT6v, and the regular CTUVT6v == *TF' uV'r6v.
§ 2. Ter1ninations.
(225) I. Singular.-We may represent the Greek and Latin
declension concisely as follo,vs, placing on the same line the
forms recognised as being mOiphologically identical.
1. N. €-yw, ego.
2. A. EfJ-€ fJi, rne.
3. Ab {me.
4. • €fJ.€-8€v (p,€8ev?)
5. D. € (mi?)l
6. rJl't-hi.
7. L. (?) EfJ--lv.
8. EfJ-€?O €fJ-fO €fJ-ou.
""( , ''''',''
9. G. €fJ-€OS €fJ-€lJS €jLOUS.
10. mei, (mis).
rv, crv, tit.
rF€ 2 'fE, crE, teo
teo
cre-8€v.
rol croll
ti-bi.
r€-lv, rill.
TeO T€V, cr€W (Jeo crov.
TEOS, T€VS.
tUi, (tiS).
fe, g (Lesb. Fe), se.
se (sed).
€-8€v.
fO?, or.
si-bi.
fLV, LV (plv, v[v).
flo go €V 015.
ovs (?).
sUi, (sis? )
1. The has been explained, 222 and
2. Divergent forms appear already in the accusative; the
long vowel of Latin is confirmed by Sk. ma, tva; the Greek
formations represent, either another accusative, equally primi-
stem crif>-, to which other terminations were afterwards added? But in this
case we should expect a vowel between the cr and ¢. The problem still
remains to be solved, in spite of many learned attempts to do so.
I Much more probably a mere contraction of mihi.
2 We find in Hesychius rpe' (Je. € Cf. supra 40 in fine.
250
GREEK AND LATIN GRAlIMAR.
tive, containing a short vowel, or perhaps the ablative, which
we are about to consider, confused with the accusative.
3. The Sanskrit ablative mdt, tvat would require in Greek
an ablative *pi.8, whence pi, cr€, E, which are found
in the accusative. In Latin *med became med through the
analogy of the long vowel of the acc. rne, then the, d ,vas
dropped after a long vowel: me, te, se. The last word, meaning
"by oneself, apart," was afterwards used in the sense of " with-
out" (se dolo, without fraud), and also as a verbal prefix, e.g.
se-cedeT'e, literally "to go by oneself," se-cernere, se-clrfide1"e,
etc. But the primitive form with short vowel still survives in
the disjunctive sed (but), literally" this point being put on 011e
side, except that...."
4. The ablative in -Bev needs no explanation.!
5. The termination of the Greek dative is -ot: 1st pers. EfL-ot
and enclitic fL-ol. The 2nd person was already *toy in Indo-
European (Sk. te), which explains the fact that, even in Ionic-
Attic, the non-assibilated form occurs as an expletive
particle; hence crot, like 0-.,), is analogical. In the Brd person
oI=*o-F-oL (Lesb. FOL) , and EOL==*crEF-OL perhaps on the analogy
of the strong cases,.
6. The Latin dative corresponds to the' Sanskrit forln
But the correspondence is incoluplete;
it is probable that the Latin terluination was assilnilated to
that of the nominal dative (patri). The law regulating ialubic

vvords allovved the scansion mih/i, tib'i, sib'i, which was sanctioned
by the classical language.
7. We have treated as a locative the case in , which lnight
likevvise, however, be regarded as an instrumental, a dative,
or even an accusative. It is certain that it is often used as an
accusative, probably on account of its final nasal. The forlus
€fL{v and T{V are Doric, and are especially common in Theocritus;2
we find Tetv == *TeF-{v in Homer (II. xi. 201), F{v = *<TF-{v in Oretan
inscriptions; the forms Zv and EtV = *o-eF-{v rest almost entirely
on the evidence of the grammarians. But, as a substitute for
ill Chilu), we very often find, with a da or accusative function,
1 Supra 187, 6.
2 This author also very often uses the nom. sing. TV as an accusative.
PRONOMINAL DECLENSION. 251
in Homer fJ-{v, in the tragic poets v{v (even in the plural); the
origin of this initial nasal has not yet been clearly explained.!
The vowel of the termination is generally short; Theocritus,
however, always has the scansion EfLiv and Till, and we shall see
that the corresponding forms of the plural -l show the same
alternation.
8. The forms EfLELO, etc., go back quite naturally to *fpi.-a-yO :
Hom. EfLELO, EfLEO, New Ion. and New Dol". EfJ-EV
j
New Dol". and
Att. EfJ-OV (enclitic fJ-EV fJ-OV) , etc.
2
9. The forms EfLEO';, EfLEV';, etc., are Doric" and due to the
analogy of the genitives of the imparisyl1abic declension.3
10. The Latin genitive 1.nei, tUi, is the genitive of a
possessive adjective transferred to the pronominal declension<4
The archaic genitives rnis, tiS, come from the imparisyllabic
declension.
(226) II. Dual.-The dual forms (1) vw., vepv, (2)
a-epw'i a-epw, a-epWLV a-ep0v, (3) (very rare) a-epWE a-epW"tl
/
, are isolated,
and probably new formations.
(227) III. Plural.-The same is the case, though to a less
extent, with the plural forIns. In fact, it is now established
beyond all possjble dispute that orig,inally the pIural termina-
tions differed in no respect from those of the singular; in other
words, the idea of plurality lay, not in the terluinations, but in
the stem. Sanskrit, for example, has in the abI. pI.
yusmdt, just like tvdt in the abI. sing. But already in
Sanskrit, and perhaps even in the Indo-European period, the
plural terminations· of the nouns and demonstratives were
transferred an::tlogically to the personal pronouns·. In Greek
there still remain some traces of the primitive usage. There
are none in Latin.
A. Greek.-l. The as far back as it can be
traced in Greek, already has the ending on the analogy of
the nominal plural: *ufLfLfS, vfLfLfS, \vhence Hom. and Lesb.
aJLJLE';, Dol'. ufLfS (long u, the rough breathing probably on
1 We must take into account the probable confusion between Yv =*a"f-lv
and r-v=Lat. i-nt, ace. of the pronominal stem i-, supra 221,1. On the
nasal of !-tlv and vlv, cf. Baunack, Stud. i. p. 48.
2 S'ttpra 187, 11. 3 Supra 204, 14. 4 Of. inf1'a 227 B.
252 GREEK AND LATIN GRA1IMAR.
the analogy of (long v), Booot. etc. The HOlneric,
Ionic, and Attic forms (long v) are due to the analogy
of the nom. pI. of the stems in -f.cr-,l and the stem crepl-, which
is much later than the others, nowhere appears except with
this long termination,
2. Accusative.-The oldest forms are ({fLfLf., l)fLfLE, crepE,2 found
in Homer (Dar. afLE, VfLE, crepE, and Lesb. ({a-epE.). But, as early
as the Homeric period, there were formed on the model of
etc., the new accusatives 3 the same
forms appear in New Ionic; Att. vJLOS, and in poetry'
tJfLOS, (II. v. 567).4 The last word even .has a nom....
acc. neut. o-epEa in Herodotus and the Attic poets.
3. Locative (dative).-Originally probably *UfLp..LV *VfLfLLV (like
€fLLV TLV in the sing.): Hom. and Lesb. /lfLfu (II. ix. 427) l1fLfL'iv,
vJLfLl. (II. vi. 77) l)fLfLLV, o-ep'iv uo-epl.; Dol". afLLV afL{V, VfLLV (Booot. OVJLLV)
vplv, crep'iv; Att. VfLLV iJfLLV, a-ep{(]"l.v. The last form,
which is found also in Homer, is evidently due to the analogy
of Tur{v and other nominal locatives, as is also the case with
Lesbian afLfLE(Jl.v.
4. Genitive.-The termination being the same as in the sing.,
the genitive must have been *ufLfLf.LO *VfLfLELO. cf. EfLELO. These
endings were pluralised to *afLfLE{wv *VfLfLE{WV, and thence: Lesb.
ufLfLEWV, VfLJLEWV, crepEWV; Dor. afLEwv afLwV, VfLEWV crepEWV; Hom. Ion.
VfLE{WV a-epE{WV, crep/.wv ; 5 Att. VJLWV, a-epWv.
B. Latin.-l. Nom-Ace.: nos, vas, cf. Gk. dual vw.
2. Dat.-Abl.: no-bis va-bis. If we may trust the evidence
of Sanskrit, it is possible that there existed in Latin a dat.-abl.
*no-b'ios and an instrum. *no-b'is.{) I t was the latter form
probably \vhich survived, with both functions, but with its
termination lengthened on the analogy of the dat.-abl. of the
2nd nominal declension.
1 Thus Y]f.L€lS: Y]f.LEWV (gen.) =eirY€V€Ls: €iry€v€wv.
2 As in the sing. Ef.Lk, T€, e, Sk. abl. asmat.
3 Thus 'hf.L€as : 'hf.L€lS = €iry€veas : €irY€V€Ls. In these forms the group €a
almost inva.riably forms only one syllable.
4 According to the grammarians, the perispomena are orthotone, forms in
which the accent is thrown back are enclitic, and so also in the case of
the dative.
'5 Here synizesis is natural1y the invariable rule.
ef. supra 206, 5.
253
3. Genitive: nostri, vestri; nostrum, vestrum. These are
respectively (as in the sing. etc.) the primitive gen. sing.
and gen. pl.1 of the corresponding possessive adjective.
§ 3. The personal pronouns in syntactical juxtaposition.
- (228) In Greek and Latin all the forms of the personal pro-
nouns are capable of being strengthened by the addition of a
pronoun denoting identity. In Latin the juxtaposition remains
syntactical throughout, ego ipse, tUi ipsius, and
each word retains its own declension. The same holds good as
a rule in Greek: EyW <TOt aVT<tJ, vfLwV aVTwv, (J"e:pas
etc.; in certain cases, however, the first word has be-
come indeclinable. The regular acc. Ep..' aVTov= Ep..'E aVTov, being
written as one word EfLavTov, produced the apparently corre-
sponding forms EfLavTov,'2 and the same is the case with
(J"€avTql (J"UVTOV, EaVTOV aVTql; then in the plural, the stem *a-F-
belonging originally to all three numbers, EUVTOLS
aVTOlS, EaVTWV aVTWV. Polybius even uses EaVTWV as a reflexive
pronoun for all three persons.
3
In the Ionic of Herodotus an exactly parallel analogy seems
to have started from the gen. sing. Epio aVTOV contracted to
EfL€WVTOV, whence €fL€WVTOV, and similarly (J"€WVT<tJ, etc.
§ 4. Possessives.
(229) The possessive adjectives are derived from the pro-
non'linal stems, whether strong- or weak, by the addition of the
suffix -6- :-(1) Lat. me-u-s; (2) Gk. (Hom., Lesb.)
€ € Lat. tuus=tovos==*tevos,4 Gk. (HOlll.; Ion., Att.)
(3) Gk. (Hom.) € Lat. suus==sovos==
*sev-o-s, Gk. (Hom., Ion., Att.) 5 in
1 Of. supra 225, 10.
2 Even a nom. sing. is quoted from the com-ic poet
3 Of. supra 224. -
4 Of. supraoS2A a.
5 The adj ective €6s ()s may in poetry fulfil the function of a plural posses·
sive, "their," and eventually that of a reflexive possessive of the other two
persons.
254 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
Greek in the plural also, Lesb. d.P.fL0c;, 15P.fL0c;, a-epoc;, Dor. attor;,
-up.or;, a-epoc; ((jepEOc;).
The only form which seems irregular is the Latin vocative
of the possessive pronoun of the 1st person, mi. This ought
probably to be regarded as the archaic genitive of the corre-
sponding pronoun,l which, in the common expression ftli mis,
assimilated its termination to that of the word which accom-
panied it.
In the plural, as there was not originally any pronoun of the
3rd person, the other two formed a pair. This explains the
other mode of forming derivatives, by means of the suffix
*-tero-, the regular function of which we have already seen: 2
Gk. (Lesb.) attp.E-TEPO-c;, (Dor.) attETEpo-c;, VttE-TEpo-r;, (Hom., Ion"
Att.) VfLETEpor;, Lat. nos-ter, ves-ter. Analogy afterwards
created in Greek a possessive of the 3rd person, a-¢ETEpor; , and
those or the dual, Jlw"tTEpor;, a-¢w"tTEpor;; and the external re-
se·mblance between a-¢ETEpor; and a-<pwtTEpor; sometimes caused
the latter to be used for the dual of the 3rd person, and the
former for the plural of the 2nd, as in the second verse of the
"Epya KaL cHJ1-Epat.
1 Supra 225, 10. 2 Suyra 121, 5, and 159.
II.-CONJ1JGA.TION.
(230) The comparative study of the Grroco-Latin system of
conjugation includes :-
(1) That of the indeclinable prefixes (augment and
reduplication) ;
(2) That of the person-endings;
(3) That of the modifications which take place in the verbal
stem through the addition of these endings, in other words, the
study of the tenses and moods and their inflexions.
255
CHA.PTER I.
AUGrvIENT AND REDUPLICATION.
(231) The augment and reduplication have many points in
common: first their form, for both contain as a general rule the
vowel e; both are indeclinable elements of conjugation, and at the
same time very unstable since they do not form part
of the body of the verb, and may be detached from it; lastly,
both are essentially signs of the past tenses: the augment, in
Greek, and there only in the indicative, characterizes all the past
tenses, except the perfect; the reduplication, the perfect in all
moods and the pluperfect. By general agreement the augment
is now regarded as a shortened demonstrative stem, a kind of
index finger pointing the action expressed by the verb back into
the past: 1 thus, *e bhere-t " formerly he bears," 2
whence" he was bearing, he bore."3 The origin of the redupli-
cation is much luore obscure.
SECTION I.
AUGMENT.
§ 1. Form of the Augment.
(232) The augment in Greek is called syllabic or tem-
poral, according as it affects a verbal form beginning with a
consonant or a vowel. But this distinction is only apparent: it
1 Hence in Greek those moods of the aorists which are without the augment
do not contain in themselves any notion of past time: €L7r€ (say), ¢U'Y€LV (to
flee), etc.
2 Of. in Latin ZegU, which, apart from the augment, resembles
€ € gA€'Y€(r) much more closely than A€'Y€LS A€'Y€t.
3 So in the oldest Greek (Hom.), all the augmented tenses express all
shades of past meaning without distinction. The notion of the past is con-
tained in the augment and not in the form of the verb.
256
A.UGMENT A.ND 257
is connected with 'the fact that the e of the augment, which re-
mained unchanged before a consonant,. was, as early as the Indo-
European period,l contracted with the initial vowel of the verb,
and so lengthened it: *e bhere-t (he vvas bearing), but *e age-t,
whence *aget (he "vas leading, Gk.
(233) I. Syllabic augrnent.-l. The ordinary form is an l-
prefixed; E-cpEpE, E-f3ovAE-TO, EEI/lfE (Hom.) == *E-FEL7T€.
2. Very rarely E- is found: the rough breathing is in this case
due to the analogy of the non-augmented form. Thus (to
creep) == *o-Ep7rW (Lat. serpa) ought regularly to become in the
imperfect *E-o-Ep7rO-V, whence *EEp7rOV *€lP7rOV ; but instead of this
we have Eip7rov, imitated from etc. So also in EL7TETO
(he was following), (he was standing), EWpWV (I was,seeing)
EaAwv (I was taken), and various other cases, ,vhere the initial
rough breathing crept in from to-TYjKa (== *a-E-o-Ta.-K-a) ,
opaw, aA{a-KofLaL, etc. But we find in Homer aA-To, from CiA-Ao-fLat.
==sal-io.
3. There is also occasionally found an augment with long
which in all probability is not primitive: (I went),
(Hom. Ef3ovAETO, EfLEAA€, which belong also to
the classical language), Hom. (I made like, from
YJE{OYj (he knew), also luyYj (it was broken)==
from root Fay, EWpWV == EaAwv == etc. In
several of these forms the long vowel is regular : thus is
the form ",vith temporal augment of the root El (to go); so also
go back to the forms with prothesis 2 E()EAw, l"t(J"KW,
doublets of ()EAw, ta-KW. Being referred by the speakers to the
latter forms, they gave rise to the mistaken idea of the existence
of a syllabic augment with long vowel, and this kind of augment
became still further extended in Byzantine and modern Greek.
4. The initial nasal or liquid of the verbal stem is sometimes
doubled after the augment in poetry, either through spontaneous
reduplication,3 or through imitation of the regular reduplication
1 We must therefore beware of restoring in Greek *ga')'ov, *g€xeOV, * gopro,
etc., to explain 7}"'/ov, 7}"Aeov, &pro; moreover, it will be seen that the two last
could only have become in Ion.-Att. *elXeovand *evpro or *ovpro.
2 Supra 79.
3 Cf. Havet-Duvau, Metr. 50.
s
258
GREEK AND LATIN GRA1V[MA.R.
of lppEE (it flowed) == lVVEOV (I swam) == e.g
lA'Aaf3E,
5. When the syllabic augment is prefixed to a verb beginning
with a consonant which, when occurring between two vowels,
is lost, it is usually contracted with the vowel thus placed next
to it: EipyutETO (he was working==*e-FEpyutE-To),
or Ei7T'op.YJv==*e-o-e;ro-JLYJv (cf. Lat. etc. 1\1:ore-
over in certain cases, in which contraction did not take place,
the syllabic augment may still easily be recognised: Hom. EEL7T'€
(class. Ei7T'E) , euvuo-o-E (he ruled), class. euyYJ, EaAwv (cf. info
aAwvaL), ewvovJLYJv (I was buying) == Lat.
== *ves-no-m, etc.
6. By a wrong extension of the diphthong H thus resulting from
contraction, and especially through the analogy of the reduplica-
tion in H of EtAYJ¢q.,2 were created the rare forms,
8LELAEX()YJ.
(234) II. The temporal augrnent is lunch less uniform in
character than the syllabic augluent, and requires the following
observations.
1. An initial long vowel naturally cannot. be affected by the
augment: (to be quiet), Hence probably arose
the analogy which led to its suppression even in verbs beginning
with a short vowel.
2. Initial cr., e, 0, when augmented, become respectively ii (Ion.-
Att. w: aym, Dor. £iyo-v, (I "vas) == ==
*es-n:h root e(]"; tiJP-TO from Op-VV-JLL,_ etc.
3. Through analogy, initial Land vmay become "i and v (Hom.
iaxov, they cried, II. ii. 394), but as a rule they remain un-
changed.
4. The initial diphthongs al, oi and av in ordinary Greek be-
come yj, and YJv; el and EV remain unchanged in COlumon Greek,
but are augmented in good Attic, ElKutw (to conjecture) VKa'OJl,
EVp{fYKW EVpl.0YJ; lastly, initial ov is never changed.
1 Thus the difference between €Lp7r€ (cf. Ep7r€LV) and 1J"A8€ (cf. f"A8€lV) is con-
nected with the fact that the former, quite regularly, has the syllabic, the
latter the temporal, augment. In Doric, where €€ is contracted to 'Yj, we
have regularly 1JXov, etc. The Lesbian fOrIn dhooll (Att. €LOOll = still
shows the Fof the root FLO.
2 Of. infra 238, 6.
AUGMENT AND REDUPLICATION. 259
5. Analogy often introduced the temp·oral augment into verbs
beginning with a consonant which was afterwards lost: thus
OiKEW == *FOI.KEW (cf. FO'iKO-S vzcus) ought to have imp£. *EO{KOVV;
instead of which it has so also in Hom. iKE-TO (initial I),
unless the rough breathing is a late development, Att.
(inscr.) by the side of and the verb lo{w (to sweat)
=*O"Fio-£w had already in the earliest times lost all trace of the
syllabic augment. In certain cases both augments seem to be
present: thus the regular *EOI.VOX0Et, (he poured, wine, Fo'ivos) and
the irregular <:JVOXOEI. may have coalesced in E<pVOXOEI., which is
found for example in II. iv. 3, though there is nothing to prevent
its correction to EOI.VOX0El..
§ 2. Use of the Augrnent.
(235) We have seen that the augment does not form an
integral part of the verbal form. It was originally a separate
,vord. Now the laws of Indo-European accentuation, re-
vealed to us by \Tedic Sanskrit, required that the verb should
be unaccented in a -principal sentence, accented only in a sub-
ordinate sentence. Hence in a principal sentence the verb
was enclitic, the accent resting on the augment, e.g. *e bheret ;
in a subordinate sentence the augment was proclitic, the accent
resting on the verb, e.g. *e blu!ret, and then the unaccented
augment tended to disappear, Gk. ¢EpE. So also, from
the remotest period, the. moods other than the indicative had
no augment, inasmuch as they scarcely ever appeared except
in te sentences.
1
According to this, it would seem that the Greeks ought to
have said (he went), but AEYW OTt. (I say that he went).
But, in Greek as in Sanskrit, the augmented and ullaugmented
forms were so confused as to be used one for the other; the
latter forms even in a sentence, in the language of
Homer and the poets, who drop the augment or not, as they
please; and the augmented forms even in a subordinate sen-
tence, at all periods of the language.
1 Breal however (Mem. Soc. Ling. vi. p. 333) prefers to see in the loss of
the. augment merely a phenomenon of syntactical phonetics.
260
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
The usage in this respect is as follows. HOlner and his
imitators use an unlimited license;' almost the same is the case
with the elegiac and lyric poets; by the iambic, and especially
the tragic poets, the augInent is rarely omitted, except by
the latter in choruses, lyric pieces, and the narratives of
n18ssengers, which alV\rays have a certain aInQunt of epic
colouring;' in the prose of Herodotus, the augment is only
absent in iterative verbs; 1 lastly, ill classical prose, the
augment has definitely gained the day, and
r
apart from the
aforesaid irregularities of the temporal augment, is never
absent except occasionally in the pluperfec,t; moreover it is not
certain that even this was allowed in good A.ttic.
In Latin, on the contrary, it was the opposite analogy which
prevailed; as far as we can go back, there is no longer a trace
of any augmented forIn, and even the imperfect erarn shows a
short vo\vel, as 'contrasted with the long vowel of
§ 3. Place of the Augment.
(236) Though originally distinct froln it, the augment can
only be placed immediately before the verb; hence in simple
combinations of a particle and a verb the augment is inserted
between these two elements, ol.af3a{vw ciLEf3atvov, €
7r€pt.€yEV€TO, etc. If however the verb is derived froln a COln-
pound and s-o forms an inseparable whole, the augment is
put at the beginning: aJ1-epurf3YjTEw (to dispute)
. aVTc,OtKEw (to defend a suit against)
But it was inevitable that some confusion should arise
between these two classes of words, which in many cas-es could
scarcely be distinguished except by the etymologist. Thus
sometimes the particle seemed to form part of the body of the
verb and on that account received the augment, especially
when the verbal whole thus forlued differed greatly from
the simple verb il? meaning, as in the case of f.7r{crTaJ1-at. (I
know), which no longer retained in any degree the -meaning
of icr7'Yj/Lt.; hence the imperfect and similarly in
1 Supra 142. 2 Supra 149.
3 Of. supra 178. There is no verb *{37]TEW or *OLKEW.
AUGMENT AND REDUPLICA.TION.
261
Attic, (I clothed), EKa(JEv8E (he was sleeping),
(I was sitting down).l The opposite analogy, \vhich was
especially common in late Greek., produced the forms infW7rTEVOV,
(I was suspecting), (he prophesied),'l and even
St,y}TWV (I was managing), OL'fJK6vovv (I was serving), for EOLa{Twv,
EOLaKovovv, in which verbs there is really no prefix ouf. The
most curious phenomenon is the addition of both the true
and the false augment in the classical fOJ;'IDs (from
av-Exop.aL), EOLyJTWV (Demosth.), (PIato),
V
VTE
f36A'fJ(jE (he met), etc.
SECTION II.
REDUPLICATIONI
§ 1. For.m of
(237) Reduplication in Greek may take three forms:
syllabic before a consonant, temporal before a vowel,
and syllabic before a vowel. Latin seems to knuw only
the first form, and even that has become almost 0 bliterated.
(238) I. Syllabic reduplication before a consonant ,consists
essentially in the repetition of the initial consonant of the verb,
followed by the vowel e: Gk. Al.-AoL7r..,a, OE-oopK-a, AE-Av-K-a; Lato
de-d-z, pe-pend-z, pe-pig-z, te-tig-t, ce-cid-z, ce-crd-z; the re-
duplication is obscured in sedi == *se-zd-i == *se-sd-z, root sed,
Gk. Z,w == *a-{-cro-w,3 and the relation of sedeo to sedz produced
venz from venio, legi from U!go, etc. The principle laid down.
""viII now be examined in its applications.
1. The vowel of reduplication is always E in Greek. III
Latin it is often" assimilated to the vowel of the verbal root:
i in di-dic-i; 0 in po-posc-i, mo-rnor-di (arch. etc, ;
l..l in pu-pug-i (from pungo, arch. pe-pug-i), tu-t1ud-i (from
lunda),
4
etc.
1 Hom. tKaO,sov (Od. xvi. 408).
2 There is no verb *¢?]T€VW or -x-CnrT€Vw.
3 Of. supra 87, III, and 90, X.
4 This corruption took place on a larger scale in Sanskrit.
262
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
2. In Greek, -an aspirate is chattged in reduplication to the
corresponding non-aspirated consonant: 7r€ep{>":YJfLUL =*ep€-cfJtAYJ-fL
uL
,
cf. SkI ba-bhar-a (he bore) =I.-E. *'bhe-bhor-e; 1 so also T€-B€LK-U,
K€-xuv8-u, etc. .
3. When a group of consonants occurs at the beginning of a
word, the whole group is never reduplicated; but its treatment
differs in Sanskrit, Greek and which seems to show that
each of these languages has corrupted its own fashion the
primitive reduplication of the whole group. In Greek the first
consonant alone is reduplicated: f3€-f3AYJ-K-U, KE-KTYJ-fLaL, t-o-TYJ-K-a
=.*'a-€-a-Tii-K-U, lppwya (I have broken) =*F€-Fpwy-a, etc.
2
In
Sanskrit it is often the second: fa-sth-itT (they stood), root
stha. In Latin both are reduplicated, but the first disappears
from the radical syllable: stetz for *ste-st-i (through analogy of
de-d-i), spopondi (I promised) for *spe-spond-i, from spondeo.
4. Initial (j in reduplication naturally becomes the rough
breathing: ta-TYjKU; €lfLe;tPTUL (it has been given as a share) =
*cr€-a-p.ap-TaL, root (reduced) *smer (to share, cf. € and j1-oZpa
=*a-p.6p_y-u),3 etc. Now it might happen that this rough
breathing was changed to the soft breathing, either dialectically,
.through simple psilosls, e.g. Hom. .£01. € (he shared) =
*a-€-a-p.,oP-€, or generally, through the proximity of another
aspirate, e.g. Again, in re-
duplication initial F was lost in Ionic-Attic,5 whence (I
€ (I hope)=*F€-FoA7r-a, (I have
worked) = *F€-Fopy-a, EPPVYJKU, etc. Hence in the
last two cases the reduplication did not differ from the sy1l0bic
augment; this led to the substitution of· the syllabic augment
instead of partial reduplication in an initial group of con-
sonants. The general rule in regard to the use of the t\VO
prefixes is as follows: when the second consonant is a liquid
or nasal, partial reduplication takes place, yeypuepa, f3€(3AUepU,
'T€TpifLp.aL, fL€fLvYJp.aL, though dialectical inscriptions show many
1 Of. supra 6l.
2 The very rare forms pepv7rwp'€71a (Od. vi. 59), peptcp8aL (Pind.) are new
formations, based on pV7r6w, pL7rTwafter the loss of the F, when the pwas
taken lor the initial lettel'. .
3 Of. the Greek expression 1} elp,app.€V'fJ (sc. TUXTJ, p,o'Lpa) ".fate."
4 Of. supra 61. 5 Of. sup1'a 40 A.
AUGlVIENT A.ND REDUPLICA.TION. 263
instances of the substitution 6f the augment, which is general
in the Panhellenic if, on the other hand, the second
consonant is an explosive or sibilant, or if the initial consonant
is the augluent alnlost everywhere prevails: € (cf. the
reduplicated form € (in prose however
(I spit), (I have folded),
(I have frightened, but also 7T"€7T"TYJXa and Hom. € Z
(it has been split), '(it has' been pricked), (it has
been thro\vn) from (J€VW =*(J(J€VW=*qyewo (Sk. cyava-1ni), and
so almost al\vays with (J" followed by a consonant.
5. When once the reduplication had been confus'ed with the
augluent, it was liable to the corrnptions nlentioned above 3 as
being due to the analogical extension of the long augment:
thus the pf. EopiiKa is not uncommon, but mostly we find EwpaKd
on the model of EWPWV; so also EiiAwKU and even € € (II. xix.
328), €WpyH in the text of Homer, the latter forms being-
pluperfects \vith an internal temporal augment, unless they are
merely copyists' errors.
6. In the reduplication of F, when the two F's had fallen away,
the vowels, being left next to one another, were contracted,
when contraction was possible: € = € €rpYJKa
(I have said) == *F€-FlpYJ-K-a, The diphthong of €LpYJKa was
reproduced in the three A.ttic perfects €LAYJepa 4 (Herod. A€Aa(3YJKa),
€iAOXa €t.A€yp.aL in compounds, but the simple € €
exists in good Greek), €t'A:YJXa (from Aayxavw, in Homer regularly
AEAoYXa), where the radical YJ is certainly due to the analogy of
ELAYJepa.
(239) II. reduplication occurs under the same con-
ditions as the temporal augment and is subject to the same
laws: 5 /1yw aLpEw YJP''f}Ka, iKV€oJLal, acj>'ix(}aL inf.; but evpYJKa,
(I anl wounded), etc. It has been suggested that this
augment occurs in the Latin forms egi (from ago), *epi (fr.om
*apio, coepi = *co-ep'i), and that in these cases the e was due to
the Indo-European contraction of ea (e.g. *e-ap-), and
was afterwards extended by analogy to fec'i from facio, cepf,
1 94.
3 Supra 233, 3.
5 Supra 234.
2 7fL7rTW has 7rf7rTWKa, never
4 Thus, e'tA:f]¢a: *'h7rrw =efpTJKa:
264
GREEK AND LA.TIN GRAMMA.R.
from capio, etc. But nothing is more doubtful than the
pro-ethnic contraction of ea to e; and it is much better to see
in egi, feci, the normal form of the roots which appear in
the reduced form in ago, facio, capio ; 1 more especially as the e
of the Latin perfect was also supported by the analogy of sedi,

(240) III. Syllabic redttplication before a vowel, often
vvrongly called Attic reduplication, is common in Homer
than the preceding kind, and is found in all dialects. It consists
of the reduplication of the entire initial syllable of the verb,
but with a short vowel, whereas the verbal syllable has a long
vowel: b7r-W7r-a, bA-wA-a, bo-wo-a, EO-'t}O-ws (having eaten), ap-iip-a
ap-'t}p-a (I have fitted), etc. These few radical forlnations, which
were very simple and probably primitive, served as models for
others of a more cOInplicated character, such as (and
Hom. through a corruption), (from EyElpw),
(root EVEK, cf. aor. OA-WAEK-a (I have
caused to perish, cf. OA€-K-W), ofL-wfLoK-a (from bfLvvfLl, to swear,
fut. 0fL6-(J"W), etc.; and secondarily for actual barbarisms'- in
which the entire termination was transferred froln one of the
above forms, e.g. (I have eaten, root EO), (from
ayw), evidently modelled on This common mode of
formation is confined to Greek.
3
§ 2. Use of Reduplication.
(24I) There is no doubt that in Indo-European -the re-
duplication was liable to disappear, probably under the same
conditions as the augment. There is even an unquestionable
instance of aperfect which must have entirely lost all reduplica-
tion in the pro-ethnic period, since there is no 'trace of it in
any language; viz. *w6y¢f-a -(I have $een, I know), Sk. ved-a (I
know), Gk. oIo-a, Lat. Goth. vait (Gerln. ich weiss [Eng.
I wotJ). But in Greek, the reduplication had become
fixed in the Homeric period, just as was the case with the
augment in the classical period, so that, apart from the
1 Supra 41, 2 and 3. 2 Supra 238.
3 Cf. the same type of reduplication in the aorist Q,')'-a')'-Elv (snpra 90, IX)
and in the oxytone feminines, a')'-w')'-1 (supra 110).
AUGMENT AND REDUPLICATION.
265.
caprICIOUS variations of the temporal reduplication, we can
barely glean a few instances here and there of perfects without
reduplication. It is Herodotus who supplies the. most examples:
oTKa for etc.
In Latin the opposite process took place. Latin, like Greek,
had inherited from the beginning a few non-reduplicated per-
fects; in another type, e.g. sedi, the reduplication remained,
but "vas no longer perceptible, and we have seen tllat this type
was extended by analogy; lastly, in the whole - of a very
irnportant class of so-called perfects the reduplication was
regularly absent, nalnely in the old sigmatic aorists which
became entirely confused with the perfect; 1 hence there was
abundant reason "vhy this "element should tend everywhere to
fall into disuse. Accordingly the perfects mentioned above
are almost the only reduplicated perfects in Latin. In all the
perfects in -u/i, -vi, and the great bulk of radical perfects, there
is no reduplication, no-v-i, le-v-i, fec-i, vic-i, tul-i (for te-tul-i) ;
much more is this the case with all the false perfects in -si,
which never had it, v?;xi, jinxi, panxi (Cl. pepigi, both from
pango). Further, in Latin as in Greek, the perfects which
have reduplication keep it in all moods: pe-pender-a, pe-
pender-i-m, A€-AVK-W, A€-AvK-OC.-jJ-C..
§ 3. Position of Reduplication.
(242) The position of the reduplication is essentially the
saIne as that of the ali.gment, 7r€pC.y€yOV€, but O€OVCJTVX1JKa, and the
same irregularities are also noticeable, though much rarer: 2
false initial reduplication in € false medial reduplica-
tion in € € for € (we have journeyed) ;
double" reduplication in oE'6trJT1JfJ.at, WOO7fE7rOL1JfJ.EV1J. In Latin,
there remains only a trace of reduplication occurring between
the particle and the verb, in the fOfIllS rettulit =
repperi = *re-peperr'i; as a general rule, even when the simple
verb is reduplicated, the cOInpounds lose the reC1.uplication
(im-pend-i, con-tig-i).
1 Supra 96. 2 Supra 236.
OHAPTER II.
PERSON·ENDINGS.
(243) The persc;>n- or conjugation-endings correspond
to three categories in the system of verbal inflexion: person,
numb.er, and voice. The first two have already been defined.!
Voice denotes the relation of the verbal concept to the
subject; it is called active or middle (mediopassive),
according as the aGtion is thought of as taking place in regard
to others or in regard to the subject himself. Indo-European
had, in both voices, person-endings corresponding to the three
:p.umbers, and to the three persons of each number. Greek has,
kept both voices; it has also added' to them some exclusively
passive forms, some of which (the futures) are conjugated like
the middle, others (the aorists) like the active.
2
It has likewise
kept all three numbers; but the 1st person dual has disappeared,
and the other two persons are lost in soine dialects, and rnay
in all be replaced by those of the plural without making any
difference.
3
Latin has l m ~ t all trace of the dual, at least as
regards its grammatical function. It has two voices; but its
mediopassive, which is peculiar to Latin and contains nothing,
or next to nothing, of a primitive character, cannot be compared
with that of Greek, and will require separate consideration.
Indo-European distinguished, in each voice, four classes of
person-endings; those of the tenses called secondary (aug-
luented tenses), those of the tenses called principal or primary 4
1 Supra 184 and 222 seq. 2 Supra 98, 102, 103 and 146.
3 Cf. supra 184. From the fourth century B.C. the dual forms are no
longer found in inscriptions.
4 For the sake of brevity these will be called respectively secondary and
primary endings, and, without prejudging the question as to which series
is the more primitive, the secondary, which are simpler and shorter, will be
considered first.
266
PERSON-ENDINGS 267
(present, future), those of the perfect, and those o! the im-
perative. We shall find the same classes, more or less confused
and corrupted, in Greek and Latin.
SECTION I.
ACTIVE VOICE.
§ 1. Secondary Endings.
(244) The secondary endings in Greek are added to the follow-
verbal forms: (1) non-thematic aorist,l (I
poured); (2) thematic aorist, (3) non-thematic im-
perfect, €-T{()y/-V, €-OE{KVV-1/; (4) thematic imperfect, (-AVO-V; (5)
sigmatic aorist, (-Av(J'-a; (6) pluperfect, €-AEAVKE-a, €-AEAVKEI.-V;
(7) optatives of all tenses, oO{y/-v, AV(J'El.-a; (8) aorists passive,
€-rv7ry/-lI, €-AV()y/-V. In Latin the secondary and p'rimary series
have been confused,2 and the resulting series is used for all
tenses of the verb, except the perfect indicative and the im-
perative.
(245) I. Singular.-1. The secondary ending of the 1st
person is *-m after a vowel, and consequently *-n;} after a
consonant: in Greek, -v and -a respectively;3 in Latin, always
-rn, because the termination is added only to vocalic stems,
except possibly in e'1"arn, which may be corrupted for *er-ern
= cf. G·k.
4
The termination after a vowel is every-
where very plain: Gk. €-o{ow-v, (-AEYO-V, €-AEX()Yj-V, AEX()E{y/-V,
etc.; Lat. lega-1n, lege·re-rn, si-m,
videri-m, etc. In Greek however the optatives of thematic
tenses, which, like the others, have the secondary endings
throughout the rest of their inflexion, have adopted the
primary end{ng -pAJ in the 1st pel's. sing.: Avot-p.t, n AV(J'Ol.-P.t,
and so also Av(J'ul.-p.l., AEAVKOI.-P.I.. The regular 7pErpOl.-V is found
1 Of. sup1'a 86.
2 Except, however, the 1st pers. sing. of the thematic tenses, infra 249.
3 Of. supra 48 A and 3.
4 Of. the pIp£. videram=*vider-ent e?), supra 149.
5 This Inay be represented by the formula AVOLIU: AVOLS = OcLKJlVP.L: O€lKJlVS,
and cf. infra 249, 1 A.
268
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
in a fragment of Euripides, and it has even been proposed to
restore ZSOLV in a verse of Sophocles)
The termination after a consonant was for a long tiIlle not
recognised. This is not to be wondered at, since the Greeks
themselves, long before Homer, had confused it with the stem;
in presence of a system of inflexion like € €
etc., it was hard to imagine that the a was the sign of the 1st
person. Yet, if we just consider that € have
exactly the same relation to the roots X€F, OYjK, that bas
to the root f)Yj, that in certain cases the reduced forms of both
roots follow parallel lines (e.g. Srd sing. aor. mid. like
€ and, lastly, that., if € were stems, the
1st pers. sing. in these tenses would have the simple thematic
form without any special sign, which iInplies a in
terms, ,ve shall easily be convinced that the a in the one series
strictly corresponds to the v in the other. This relation be-
comes clear from the equally evident correspondence of the
·same two sounds in the acc. sing. and acc. pI. of nouns, L7r7rO-V
7roS-a, i7r7ro-vS 7roo-as. Hence the concluESion is forced upon us that
in €
EA€AVKEa == *E-AEAVKECT-n:!, etc., the -ct is the sign of the 1st
pers. sing. This -a, which was regular in the 1st pers. sing.,
and, as \vill be seen later on, in .the Srd pl.,3 was extended by
analogy to the rest of the inflexion.
2. The endin,g of the 2nd sing. is always -8 (.Gk. €
DO{Yj-S, Lat. legil-s, legeba-s, sie-s, veli-s), which in Greek,
in tenses of which the first sing. ends in -a, is added to the
false stem in -a, E-AvCTa-s, etc.
S. The regular ending of the Srd sing. is -t: Gk.
E-¢epe == SkI d-bharcl-l, oO{Yj, ¢lpOL == SkI bltdre-t, etc. ; Lat. lega-t,
legeba-t, sie-t, veli-t. But in Greek those tenses which in 1st
sing. end in -a, have in Srd sing. the ending € through the
1 (Ed. R. 832, the construction 7rp6a-B€JI f} ••• lO€LJI being very rare, if
not incorrect.
2 t'Ex€a, etc., are therefore, properly speaking, what the ordinary
grammars call 2nd aorists, ·not 1st aorists; i!x€va is perhaps a 1st aor.
(sigmatic) with regular loss of intervocalic (J ; in it the analogical influence
of tA€L1j;a (supra 69, 1) was balanced by that of i!x€a.
3 Infra 247, 3. .
PERSON- ENDINGS.
269
analogy of the perfect.l On the other hand the accidental
resemblance between the two types and Ei7rE == *Ei7rET pro-
duced the type Ei7ra, etc,., formed like
(246) II. 1st pers. is wanting. The 2nd and Brd
end respectively in -TOV and -riiv (Dor. -riiv, Ion.-Att. -r1Jv) == Sk.
-tam and €-()f.-T1JV, €-AVE-rov €-AVI.-TY]V, €-AV<Ta-rOV
€-Ava-a-T1JvJ etc. On account of their great resemblance and the
exact similarity of the corresponding primary endings,2 these
two forms vvere easily confused; -T1JY is not unfrequently found
for the 2nd person,
3
and '-TOY for the Srd.
(247) III. Greek has two terminations, in
Doric, -fLEV in the other dialects, €-AVO-JLE';, €-AVO-fLEV. The first
would correspond to I.-E. *-mes, cf. Sk. -mas; the second to
I.-E. or more simply perhaps I.-E. *-me (cf. Sk. -ma)
with a paragogic v, which was originally not permanent, but
afterwards became so. Now in Sanskrit these ter'minations
correspond respectively to the distinction between the primary
and secondary tenses: bhdra-mas=epl.po-fLEr;, but a-bhara-ma==
€-epEpo:-JLE(v). Hence it is probable that Doric extended the
primary ending to' the secondary tenses, whereas the other
dialects, on the contrary, generalized the secondary ending,
epl.pO-JLEY, infra 251, 1..
Latin has neither *-r-nes, nor -me, but an ending peculiar to
itself, -mus 4==: *-mos, which evidently has the same relation to
the Doric as the termination of 7raTp-6r; has to that of patris
=*patr-es.
5
Hence we may assume for the parent-speech the
doublet, probably syntactical, *bhero-mes *bhero-mos, of which
Doric has generalized the first term, and Latin the second.
2. In Greek, always -TE==I.-E. *-te, cf. Sk. -ta, -tha; in Latin,
always *-tes (?). Sanskrit has, as primary ending
of 2nd dual, -thas, to which Latin -tis phonetically corresponds;
1 Infra 252. Thus, tJ\vcr€ : = AEAVK€ : At/l.VKa.
2 Infra 250. , .
3 Regularly perhaps in Attic, according to the most authoritative gram...
marians: e.g. €lXfTrj'v, CEd. R. 1511. On the other hand, Ka8€vO€TOJl (Od.
viii. 313).
4 The very rare instances of the scansion -mils have no value from a
point of view, cf. supra 206, 5.
5 Supra 204; 14.
270 GREEK AND LATIN GRAJ\fMAR.
hence it is possible that es-tis originally meant" yon two are,"
that this termination passed into the impf. era-tis, and that
at length the dual was used with the function of the plural.l
But it is also possible that the endings *-tes and *-te stand to
one another in the same relation as *-mes and *-me, the one'
being primary, the other secondary. Lastly, it is possible that
*-tes and *-te formed a syntactical doublet.
2
. this
may be, the termination is quite unknown to Greek, and
in Latin -te only occurs in the imperative.
S. The ending of the Srd pI. was *-nt after a vowel, *ftt
after a consonant, whence in Greek -V(T) and -Ul/(T) respectively,
in Latin al\vays -nt (.except possibly erant for -}f..<er-ent == *es-td).3
The ending after a vowel is especially plain in the thematic
tenses, g-epEpO-V, g-epvyo-v; the vocalic ending after a consonant
is most easily to be recognised in the sigmatic aorist, for
*E-Ava--tit ; 4 everywhere else, and even in this case, it
has been corrupted or obscured by various accessory circum-
stances.
A. At first sight, the ending of the sigmatic aorist and the
non-thematic aorist (after a consonant) seenlS to be a simple v,
f.A:Va-U-V, but this is a mere illusion, arising from the fact
that the person-sign U has been extended throughout the whole
inflexion of the aorist.
5
The origin of this corruption is pro-
bably due to the Brd pers. pI. even more than to the 1st sing. :
the relation -of to EA:vOfJ-EV caused EA:va-UfJ-'EV to be produced
on the model of then the doublet -}f..<f.Ava-!LEV EAVa-UfJ-EV gave
rise to a similar doublet *EAVa-TE EAVa-UTE; at length the second
series of forms finally prevailed, and, on the analogy of the
relation between EAVETE and there were based on EAV(J'UTE
the forms EAva-UTOV, EAva-aT'Yjv. The same process took
place in the optative of this aorist: 1st sing. AVa-EtU==*AVa-ELY-n:t,
Srd pI. A-ua-EtUV == *AVfTEtY-tit, \vhence the inflexion AVa-E[U-
ftEV, etc.
1 Of. supra 195, 1, the dual of the 1st decl. used as plural.
2 M. L. Havet has very ingeniously pointed out that, in those verses of the
comic poets which require the scansion esti' nunc, etc., there is no reason
why we should not read equally well *este nunc.
3 Supra 49, 1. 4 Of. infra 284, 2.
5 Cf. supra 245, 1.
PERSON-ENDINGS.
271
B. According to "vhat we have just seen, the regular type
of Brd pI. in all the other optatives wOllld be *ooL-av=
*oOLY-fft, *8t.ooL-all, *AvoL-av, etc. But the a becarne € through
the influence of the sing. oO{YJv Ol.oo{Yjv, whence Brd pI. OOLEV Ol.OOLEV,
and the same vocalism also passed by analogy into Avol.€V,
,AVcrOl.EV, Avcral.EV, although there was no sing. *Avo{YJv.
C. In the non-thematic aorists (after a vowel), the termina-
tion being -vCr), we mnst regard as regular the Homeric forms
- (they stood)=*E-o-ra-vr, Eepav, EepVV were, 1st
sing. etc., and the forms found in insc:riptions EOOV (they
gave), € (they put), O(EyVOV, etc.; so also in the aor. passive,
Hom. oafLEv (they were conquered) = *( J)-oafLYJ-vr.l But from
a -very early date the whole ending -crav of the sigmatic aorist,
being taken for the termination of the Brd plural, was wrongly
introduced into all these tenses, and thus there arose the forms
E-o{oo-crav, J-oafLYJ-<rav, E-Av()Yj-<ra-v,
etc., the only forms recognised in classical Greek. This
analogy extended still further, since we find such forms as
E-Aaf3o-crav (they took), etc., in inscriptions, chiefly
BCBotian and of late date (2nd century B.C.).
§ 2. Primary Endihgs.
(248) As a general rule, it seems that most, if not all, of the
prImary endings, \vere originally derived fronl the secondary
endings by the addition of an i. This purely empirjcal la"\v
can be verified in Greek in the case of the 1st, 2nd, and Brd
sing., and 3rd pI., ,vhich are respectively -fLL, *-o-L, -TL, -vrL; it
cannot be verified in Latin, because in Latin it was just these
four terminations which generalized the secondary forIn.
(249) 1. The parent-speech had two termina-
tions for the 1st sing., one for the thematic, the other for the
non-theluatic tenses. -
1 76, 1 A. Of. oa/J-€p (II. xii. 14), p.l'}'€p (Od. ix. 91) and from the
aor. in -f:)YJ, lfJJ.Xf:)€lI (II. x. 180), hpof3YJf:)€P (11. v. 498), KC/.,TEKTC/.,f:)€P (II. xiii. 780,
Od. iii. 108), 1rAYJcrO€P (Od. iv. 705), etc.
2 It is possible that and once had the same meaning; if
lcrTYJcrC/.,1I was then taken to be the 3rd plural of nothing further was
needed to cause the extension of the ending -(Jc/"P.
272 GREEK A.ND LATIN GRA.MMAR.
A. The thematic termination cannot be determined, when
considered solely by itself; it consisted of a single vowel,
which had been contracted in the pro-ethnic period with the
final o· ot the verbal stem; the analogy ot the perfect however 1
is a ground for believing that this vowel was a, e.g. Gk. epEp-W,
Lat.Jer-a =*bher-o == *blu!r-o-a, and in the subj. epEp-W=*bher-o-a
(cf. 1st pI. epEp-W-jJ-EV) =*bher-o-o-a.'2 The only thematic tenses
in Latin being the present indicative, the future of the 1st and
2nd conjugations, and the future perfect, it is only in these
that the ending -a is met with; but in Greek it characterizes
all futures and subjunctives. It has however been to some
extent contaminated by the influence of the non-thematic ter-
mination -jJ-L; lEolic in particular conjugates in -jJ-1. a good many
verbs which in the common language are verbs in -W,
E7ra{vYj-jJ-t, yEAat-jJ-L; so also BCBotian, ep{AEL-jJ-t, 7rO{EL-jJ-L;
and to the same must be ascribed t!te ending -wp.t
in the 1st sing. of the subjunctive, which is not uncommon in
Homer, etc.
4
B. The n.on-thematic termination *-mi is kept unchanged
in Greek: El-p.{ (Lesb. gp.-p.t, Dar. = *;'a--p.{, ET-jJ-t,
aE{Kvv-jJ-t, etc. It may have been superseded here and there by
the termination -W, in consequence of the transition, already
mentioned, of a verbal form from the one conjugation to the
other; 5 thus (J-{3EVVVELC; (Pindar 6) points to a 1st sing.
but this phenomenon is rare and rather late. In Latin it is
general and very ancient; it is only necessary to compare fer-a
with fer-t, vol-a vvith vol-t, e-o with i-t, etc. The non-thematic
termination (of course secondary) survives only in the forlll
su-m, and even this form is corrupted.
7
1 Infra 252.
. 2 Of. supra 143.
3 It is very possible that, in some of these verbs (e.g. especially KaA€-,
supra 97) the JEoHc inflexion was the more primitive.
4 Thus fOWfLL : fOWfL€V = fOOLfLr. : foor.fL€V, cf.. supra 245, 1. The same cor·
. ruption is general and invariable in Sanskrit in the present indicative, e. g.
bhtira-mi (I bear), for *bhtira = ¢fp-W.
5 Of. supra 88 and infra 274.
6 Pyth. i. 8. Of. Hom. t€v')!vvov (II. xix. 393), O€'KVUW by. the side of
OelKlIUp.,r., and infra 274 to 276.
7 Of. infra 272.
PERSON-ENDINGS. 27.3
2. The ending *-si (Sk. -si) undervvent more corruptions than
an:r other. Indeed, it can scarcely be recognised at all.
A. Among the non-thematic forms, it is still recognisable:
in eT== == SkI dsi (thou art), the relation of which to I.-E.
esi == *es-si (cf. Hom. €cr-cr{) can be easily perceived; in eT (thou
goest)==*eT-L==*eT-O"L, SkI e-si; perhaps in in which the t
subscript, if not a mere invention of the grammarians, can only
be explained by a form *epyj == *epYj{ == *epYj-o-{, with final adq.ed
,as below. According to this we ought to have *T{()YJ, *o{oce,
*oe{KvvL == *T{()Yj-o-L, *O{OW-o-L, *OE{KVV-o-L, etc., cf. SkI ddda-si (thou
givest); but vve have instead with an
obvious intrusion of the secondary ending) The same phe-
nomenon naturally took place in Latin: es == *es-s, I-8 for *I-si ==
*ET-o-L, fer-s, dtl-s, sttl-s (vI-S is still unexplained).
B. In the thematic conjugation, the SkI bhdra-si would corre-
spond to Greek *epEpE-crL, whence *epEpEL. Nothing like this is
found in the active; but in the middle we find, in A.ttic only, a
2nd sing. epEpEL, AVEL, as contrasted with epEPYJ, AVYJ 2 of the
and all the other dialects; and as there seems to be no phonetic
connexion possible between epEPYJ and ep€pEL, we may infer that
the latter is a regular form of the 2nd sing. active, which
the Attics had kept, transferring it to the voice on ac-
count of its external resemblance to epEPYJ. The almost Pan-
hellenic forln of 2nd sing. active, AVErs, is evidently
corrupted; it probably contains the primitive form, *epEpEL,
*AveL, to which was added a secondary ending because the
sign of the 2nd person was no longer perceptible. However
strange this process may seem, it appears historically proved
in the case of (supra), and it certainly is so in (thou
art, Hom., Herod.) and (thou goest), well authenticated
doublets of the regular eT. The subjunctive has similarly
derived from the regular *epEPYJ *epEpYj-o-t, or, more simply,
modelled upon in accordance with the obvious analogy,
by which a short syllable in the indicative always corresponded
to a long syllable in the subjunctive.
The form € which is given as Doric and is found
1 Thus rl81J1i : rl8eTe = €Tl81Js : €T£8eTe.
2 Of. inf1'a 264, 2.
274 GREEK AND GRAl\fMAR.
in Theocritus (ap.,EAyfS, (JVp{crOES) , is evidently due, so far as it
ever had any existence at all,l to the analogy of the secondary
tenses,2 and is parallel to the Latin forms legis==*lege-s,
== *monee-s, amclS == *amae-s, audis == etc.
3.. The sign of the 3rd sing. *-ti (Gk. E(J-T{ == Sk. ds-ti) occurs
in all the non-thematic forms, but is assibilated after a vowel,
epYJ-cr{ == *epii-T{, OE{KVV-(Jl; Dol". and Emot., with-
out assibilation, Accordingly we should expect,
in the thematic tenses, Dol". = Sk. bhdra-ti, and Ion.
but the PanheIlenic forms are epEpn, which can-
not go back to * and must come from the analogy
of 2nd sing. epEpns, AVELs.
3
Similarly in subj. epEPYJ, AVYJ. The
forms which are so common' in poetry, nlight
be regarded as regular (e.g. if vvere
found in Doric, and if moreover the subscript did not indicate
at once a new forluation based on dyYJ with pleonastic addition
of the ending as in 1st sing. based on ayayw.
In Latin, -t, secondary ending: es-t (he is), es-t (he eats) =
*ed-t, fer-t, vol-t, da-t, sta-t, i-t ;-legit == *lege-t, a1nat ==
. == *:arrnae-t, etc.
(250) II. Dual.-No 1st person; in 2nd arid 3rd, -rov with
no distinction: i-TOV, T{()E-TOV, AVE-TOV, etc.
(251) III. Plu
r
ral.-1. The regular ending is Lat. Dol".
-fJ-ES, in all other dialects -p.,EV introduced from the
tenses: 4 Z-fJ-EV', T{()E-fJ-EV,-epEpO-fJ- EV, epEpW-fJ-EV; Dol". Z-fJ-ES, O{OO-fL
ES
,
-AVO-fJ-ES, AVW-fJ-ES; Lat. -
legi-mus, etc.
2. Gk. -TE, Lat. -tis: 5 Z-TE, O{OO-TE,-AVE-TE, AVYJ-TE; es-tis,
vol-tis, fer-tis,-legi-tis, etc.
3. Originally *-nti after a vowel, *-ifti after a con'sonant,
6
.
whence in Greek and In the thematic conjugation
\ve find Dor. C1yW-VT?, Bmot. every-
vvhere with assibilation whence Lesb.
1 It does not occur in inscriptions.
2 Thus Af)'€S : € € = € € : EAf),€T€.
3 Thus ¢EP€I. : ¢Ep€l.S = € € : If¢€p€';.
4 Sup1'a 247, 1. 5 Supra 247, 2.
6 Supra 247, 3, and 248.
PERSON-ENDINGS. 275
U7rayyEAAOC,O"(, , ypa¢WLO"(" Ion.-Att. ¢EpOVO"(" cpEpwerL. In the non-
thematic conj ugation, Dol". ¢a-vT{, T{(}E-VTL, O{OO-VTL, OE{KVV-VT£,
Ion.-Att. epa-er{, Tc,{JELerL, OLOOVerc" oE£KvverL.l The last three forIlls,
though correct, are not strictly Attic; the true Attic type,
TL(}E-aO"L, OC,OO-aerL, OELKVV-(iCT£ (Herod. (,O"TEaa-(, = is due
to the intrusion o{ the ternlination -aVTL of the consonantal
verbal stems.
The last termination is visible in Ion.-Att. tCiCTL (they go)=
cf. SkI ydnti, and Ion. (they are) = of
which the regular form with reduced root ,vould be *(fVTL=
*O"-avTL. The,Bmot. EVT{, Att. ELa-{, is merely *(fVTL iIlfluenced
by the vocalism, accentuation, and unaspirated initial vowel
of ELfJ-l, EO"T{,
In Latin "ve find trerno-nti =Dor. TpEfLO-VTC, (they trelllble), an
isolated and doubtful form, inferred fron1 Festus to belong to
the Song of the Salii. Z The secondary ending is the only one
historically authenticated; it is al\va:ys consonantal, because
it is only added to thematic forlns, or forms \vhich have been
wrongly made thelllatic by analogy: e1u-nt,
'ij.:!e1"o-nt = Gk. )¢EpO-V, etc. The forills da-nt and
sta-nt, however, seelll to contain only the 'simple root.
3
§ 3. Enclings of the Perfect.
(252) The Greek and Latin systellls of inflexion in the per-
fect cannot be compared directly with one anQther; the former
is to a large extent prinlitive, whereas the latter has been
greatly corrupted: It will be best to consider each separately.
I. Greek.
person: -a= Sk. -a=:I.-E. *-a: oIo-a=FoLo-a (I
know, SkI ved-a), AEAOL7r-a, AEAvK-a. .
2nd: originally -Ba = SkI -tha = I.-E. *-tlia: oIO"-Ba = *FoLo-Ba(Sk.
vet-tha); (thou wast), root E'; with temporal reduplication.
1 The accentuation has been disturbed; we should expect *rUhun, etc. But
the accentuation of OtOou(J"t was probably modelled on that of the contracted
form. OYjA-OVCH (cf. EO[OOVS, ET.l8et, infra 280), and similarly with the other forms.
2 Cume tonCis, Leucetie. prai tet trenwnti. The' verse Inight be scanned
perhaps as a Saturnian, but tremunt would violate the metre.
3 On amant for *amao-nt and monent for cf. sup1'a 73, 1.
GREEK .AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
These two forms are the only regular forIns of the 2nd sing.
of the perfect retained in Greek; the a of the 1st sing. and 3rd
plur. (AtAol-7r-a, AEAo{7r-avT£) having become an integral part of
the stem, as in the sigmatic aorist,l the whole conjugation of
the perfect was based on a false stem A€Aol-7ra-, to which was
simply added in the 2nd sing. the secondary and primary
termination -so, A€Ao£7ra-so, € In spite of, or rather from
the very fact of, its rarity, the terminatIon -()a $pread outside
. its proper -sphere: being no longer up.derstood to be a
perfect, was taken for an imperfect, a mere doublet of the
syllable -()a was then regarded as an expletive suffix which
Inight be added to all forms of the 2nd sing., and
this illusion gave rise to such forms as T{()Yja-()a (Od. xxiv. 476),
ifEta-()a (Plato), E()€AT/a-()a, {3aAour()a, etc., which
are found more or less in .all dialects, but especially in Homer.
Brd: -E == Sk. -a == I.-E. *-e : OTO-E == FOt:O-E (Sk. ved-a, Goth. vait,
Germ. er weiss), AEAo£7r-E, A€AvK-E.
In the dual and plural the terminations are the same as in
the primary tenses:
Dual 2nd Brd: '{a-Tov==*F{o-TOV; in the other verbs the
. termination is added to the false stem in -a-, AEAo{7ra-TOV,
AEAvKa-Tov.
Plural.-1st person: '{O-fL€S' iO-fL€V 3 (Sk. vid-md, Goth vit-um,
Germ. wir and the new formations o'{oa-fL€V, AEAo{7ra-fL€v,
A€AvKa-fLEv•
2nd: '{a-T€==*Fi8-T€, and o'{oa-.T€, A€Ao{7ra-T€, A€AvKa-T€.
Brd: '{a-aa-I- (the.cr on analogy of '(a-TE) for *roiicrL == *F{o-avTl ==
*wid-1jti,
4
A€Ao{7racn == Dol". A€Ao{7ra-VTI-, A€AVKa(J"l-, etc. In late
Greek we find also the termination (7rE7rO{YjKav) , evidently
borrowed from the sigmatic aorist.
5
1 Supra 245,
2 Late Greek even created .the form oLoas, and perhaps actually the
barbarous pleonasm o£6'8as.
3 Att. f6'fJ-€lI on analogy of r6'T€ and feraerL.
4 The form !erallTL, being taken as a present (cf. ¢avTl ¢afJ-£) , produced in
Doric the verb feraj.lL, I know (feraTL in Theocritus), and the .Ajjolians conjugated
oIaa like the present of a verb in -fJ-L (",/OL07JfJ-L' hrlerrafJ-aL, Hesych., cf. supra 40
;injine).
5 . [Cf. Classical Review, 1888, ii. 66, 117, 162.J
PERSON-ENDINGS.
277
(253) II.
If we transfer to Latin the regular paradigln which has just
been studied in the case of Greek, we shall obtain,
1nutandis, the following forms: sing. 1 2 *vits-te,
l
3
*vid-e; plur. 1 *1;id-rrtus, 2 *vits-tis, 3 *vid-ent; and, on 'con-
trasting these with the real forms, we can see the general
features that characterize the substitution of the latter for the
former. Just as Greek has generalised a .stem AEAOi7ra.-, so
Latin has based its flexion on a false stem vidi-, Nothing
. can be more simple; but abound as soon as we wish
to go into details. However, let us make the attempt., so far
as it is possible.
Singular.-lst person: vzd-i, l"iqu-i. The Greek termination
-a is active, the Latin ending -i is ITliddle and corresponds to I.-E
*-ay, Sk. -e (cf. Sk. babhuv-a, I was, mid. babhuv-e=Lat.l11-i
This termination was naturally introduce.d into the sig-
matic aorist which was confused with the perfect: diX-z, vix-i.
2nd. If, instead of the active *vits-te, we aSSlune the corre-
sponding middle form, we shall have *v/f,ts-ti = *vid-ti. It is
true that this form does not exist; but we find a counterpart
to it in such a form as which it is quite unnecessary to
explain through a syncope of dixisti; for it represents very
exactly a sigmatic aorist stenl dix-=Gk. to which a
perfect termination has been added. Hence vve can see how,
aided by the 1st sing. vidi, etc., the primitive forms *vitsti,
*cecitst"i, dixti, *vixti, might be s1,lperseded by vld/istz, c;ecidisti,
dixisti, vixisti, etc., and secondarily *lic-ti by liquisti, *pepic-ti
by pepigisti, etc. v'{e Inust add, finally, the probable influence
of the stem *V"ides-, *liques-, which appears in the perf. subj.
(vider-o==eLoEw), in the optative (vider-im=EioE{-fjV),2 etc., and is
certainly not .absent from the indicative (cf. infra 3rd plural
and the formation of the pluperfect, infrra 298); and vve
then be able to form some idea of the analogical influences
which have crossed one another in this conlplicated formation.
3rd: vidi-t, by addition of the secondary ending -t to the
false stem in -i-. .
person: vidi-mus, which perhaps goes back
1 Supra 64 A. 2 Sup1
0
a 144.
278 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
phonetically to *vIdes-1nus, as .goes back to *nubes-
bUS,l and which probably aided the extension of the false stenl.
similarly
2nd: vidistis for *vits-tis, like vidisti.
3rd: tulerunt (Verg.), viderunt and videre. The quantity
viderunt is archaic and probably prilnitive: only scanty relics
of it survive in the Augustan age. This seems to go
back to *vldes-ont, the formation of which is not clear. Still
more obscure is 1fidere (such is the invariable quantity),2 the
long vowel of vvhich has passed into 1)ide1'"unt, tulerunt. So
also with the aorist used as perfect, ¢lixere, dixerunt.
§ 4. Endings of the I1nperrative.
(254) In all probability Indo-European had only three forIns
in the imperative, those of the 2nd pel's. sing. and plur. and
that of the 3rd sing. l\loreover, .the last form cannot be re-
garded as verbal; its ending *-tod (cf. Ved. Sk. -fat), vvhich
exactly to that of the ablative,3 obliges us to see
in it a sort of nominal exclamation, the form of \vhich was .
independent of the number of persons to ",,,holn it was addressed.
4
But, in Greek as in Latin, this termination was unconsciously
connected wjth the primary termination *-ti of the 3rd plur.,
a personal sign was seen in it, and the plural forms were then
derived from it by analogy.
(255) I. Si11gular.-2. It is inlportant to distinguish IllOst
carefully-the non-thematic and the thematic forlns.
A. In the ilnperatives, Latin has two types of
2nd sing., vvhile Greek has a large variety.
(a) In Latin, the root-stem vvith no suffix: es, fer
i
'i, sta, del;
so also Greek Zo-TYj, 7rLft7rPYJ (burn), 7rW (drink). This is the
classical formation for verbs in -va- and -VV-: ouftlla (Sappho),
o-f3ElIVV, etc.
(f3) Gk. -0(, == Sk. -dhi, -hi == I.E. *-dhi: in the preS8nt, ta--()£
1 Supra 206, 5.
.2 It may be observed that Sanskrit likewise shows an r in the 3rd plural
of the perfect: act. dadLZr, mid. dadire (they gave), cf. dederunt and dcdere.
Ci. lIIem. Soc. Ling. vi. p. 373.
3 Of. supra 187; 4.
4 Of. in French [and English] "silence!" Germ. "schritt ! "
PERSON- ENDINGS.- 279
2 Supra 65.
4 Supra 90 in fine.
Ebe) =: *cr-Ol. with prothesis, t-Ol. (go), epa-or, Hom. o{ow-Ol., etc.;
in the non-thematic aorist, Hom. KAv-f)1. (hear), etc.;
in the perfect, (know) == *F{O-Ol, KEKAv-O", TEOVa-"O" (II. xxii.
365); in the aorists passive, epavYj-f)L, AVf)Yj-TL,l forms which are
general and classical.
(y) Gk. -s, a very rare termination, borro\ved fro-111 the
secondary and primary tenses: in the non-thematic aorist, OE-S,
€-s, So-s.
(0) Gk. -OV, a termination peculiar to the imperative of the
sigmatic aorist and still unexplained: Avd-ov.
(e) Gk. (dialectal) a syntactical doublet of the -TW of the
Brd sing. (cf. OVTW OVTWS),2 taken for a form of the 2nd sing. on
account of its sigmatic ending: epaTws ·&.vuYVWBL (Hesych.). Lat.,
as in the 3rd pel's., es-to, used as a future imperative.
Lastly," a sporadic and partial transition to the thelnatic
conjugation 3 produced the forms T{BeL = € € (cf. ep{AEL), 8[00v =
*S{OOE (cf. Ot]AOlJ), O€{KVVE (cf. Ave), etc.
B. (a)' In the tp.ematic imperatives, the conimonest and in-
deed the only primitive form consists of the bare stel? with the
vowel e and no suffix: CPEP€ == Sk. bhdr.a, A€L7r€, Ave,-:-LoE, A{7r€;
Lat. lege, rnone = *1nonee, etc. In late' Greek Aov = Aov€, 7rav =
7rav€ by contraction.
(f3) Gk. -S, on the analogy of the non-thematic forlns, in o-XES
for crXE (indic. and € (say) for € indic. *Zcr7rW
= *a-{-(J"7r;'W from root o-E7r (Lat. in"-sec-e).4
(y) In Molic, through transition to the -non-thematic conju-
gation, forms like cpLAYj (Theocritus), imperative of ep{AYjfLt.
5
(8) E.Af)€-TWS (SalalIlinian) like epaTws above; Lat. Zegi-to, used
as a imperative, a distinction which is not original.
3. Gk. -TW == *-TWO, Lat. -tad (arch.), -to, always: 'L-Tw,
ep6.-Tw,-A€yE-TW; Lat. es-to, legi-to.
(256) II. -TOV, primary and secondary termina-
tion, Eo--T?V, epEP€-TOV.
6
-3. -TWV: cpep€-TWV, formed from
Brd sing. etc., by addition of the final v of Eo-rov.
1 Supra 61 in .fine.
3 Supra 88 and infra 274 seq.
5 Of. {,(jT'J] and supra 249, lA.
6 Thus ¢ip€TOll : € € (2nd pInr.) =i-¢lp€TOP : hplp€T€•.
280 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
(257) III. Plural.-2. Gk. -1'€, Lat. -te: ;o--T€, <P€P€-1'€; es-te,
fer-te,-legi-te =*lege-te; in Latin only, es-tote, legi-tote, analo-
gical future imperatives.!
3. As this form did not exist in Indo-European, Greek and
Latin can only have derived it from the 3rd sing., by various
analogical processes which can easily be restored:
(a) Addition of the -v which we have seen in all the second-
ary endings of the 3rd plur., Hom. t-1'WV (rare);
((3) Addition of the 3rd plur. termination of the sigmatic
aorist, -a-av,'2 a form very much used in the a little less So
. in pure Attic, ep€p€-Twcrav;
(y) A type chiefly Doric (-V1'W) and BCBotiail (-vOw), on the
analogy of € and the primary 3rd plur. epEpO-VTt, namely
SO-VTW, ep€PO-V1'W, also the only form known to Latin, sunto,3
.
(0) The same type with the addition of the termination -v,
thus showing two signs of the plural, Homeric, Ne\v Ionic and
Attic of the best period, SO-VTWV, <P€PO-VTWV;
(€) The same type with addition of the suffix -(Tav (dialectal
and very rare), Delph. EOvTwcral
/
•
SECTION II.
MIDDLE VOIOE IN GREEK.
(258) The middle voice of Greek may be used, according to
the tense or verb in question, as active (the reflexive E?hade of
meaning being often imperceptible), or passive, or both alike.
. Nearly all its terminations go back to Indo-European, but
they have been subjected to corruptions which for the most
part are still unexplained.
§ 1. Secondary Endings.
(259) Tbeoretically it seems that the secondary'terminations
of the middle are derived from those of the active by the
addition of a vowel which is a in Sanskrit, 0 in Greek; but this
1 Thus legitote : legito (2nd, sing.) = legite : lege.
2 Like EOO(TaV, sup1'a 247, 3 C.
3 Tbus sunto : esto =sunt : est.
PERSON-ENDINGS. -281
law only holds good in Greek for three forms (in Sanskrit only
for two).
(260) I. The termination is -/-tiiv (Lesb., Dor.),
whence Ion.-Attl -p.:YjV, and is still unexplained: E-06-f,tYJv, ETdJE-
JLYJV, oO{-JLYJv, epEpo{-p.:Yjv, EepEp6-p:Yjv, EAL7r6-JLYJv, etc.; it is added in
the sigmatic aorist to the false stem in -0..-: EAvo-a-jLYJv.
2. The termination is -ero == Zend -ha = Lat. -re 1: EOOV = *EOOO
= E()OV, 001:-0, epEpOL-O, £epEPOV = *£-epEpE-ero, £Averw =*£-
.Avo-o..-ero, etc. In the impf. EO{OOo-O, ET{()Eo-O, EOE{KVVo-O, etc. (but
thou couldst), the terminatiori -0-0 has been restored on
the analogy of the cases in which the 0- could not be dropped,
plup. tAEAELt/JO and cf. EAEAvo-O.
3. Gk. -TO, SkI -ta: E-()E-TO, £-O{OO-TO, OLOOL-TO (accentuation
modified on analogy of OYJAOl:T0 ), epEpOL-TO, E-epEpE-TO, £-AVo-o..-TO,
£-A€AV-TO, etc. . .
(26I) II. Dual.-l. The ending "JLE()OV, which is in no way
primitive, is a mere hybrid form, based on the ending of the 1st
plur. -jLE()o.. and that of the 2nd dual -er()ov. It is scarcely met
with in texts, and in any case it never belonged to ordinary
speech, in which the plural was used for the dual, as in the
active voice. Perhaps it is a mere analogical invention ot the
grammarians. E.g. 7rEPLOWjLE()OV (?) II. xxiii. 485, which, how-
ever, is a primary form.
. 2, 3, resp.ectively -o-()ov, -er()YJv, which are liable to be confused,
like -TOV and -TYJII in the active: evidently due to a combination
of the dual form of the active with that of the 2nd plnr.
luiddle.
2
(262) Plural.-l. Greek has two terminations, -jLE()o.. and
-/-tEer()a; but the latter, which is rather common in Homer and
the poets generally, never appears in prose. Indeed, it seems
to belong exclusively to the Homeric dialect, the poets having
borrowed it for metrical reasons.
3
The form -jLE()o.. (c£. SkI
-mdhi) is certainly the only primitive form; but the other,
1 Of. supra 34 A0, and infra 267. The Sanskrit ending is -thas, cf. supra
101 note.
2 Thus AV€(J"OOV : AV€(J"O€ AU€T01J : AU€T€.
3 € for example, cannot be used in a dact:ylic verse, and scarcely
in an iambic or trochaic metre.
282 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
which is very ancient, probably goes back to the distant period
in which there still remained a distinction in the 1st plur.
active between a secondary ending *-ftE and a primary ending
-JLEr;;, and it o\ves its (j to the latter form; 1 in other words,
-fJ-EBa is secondary, while -jJ_€(J'Ba is an analogical primary termi-
nation; then, the two forms being confused, the Greeks used
indifferently EepEpoJL€Ba and EepEpOJLECrBa, and also epepoJLE(J'Ba and
epEpOp-€()a. "
2. Sk. Gk. -crBE for -BE = *-9FE. Whatever may be
thought of this last restoration, it is certain that the Greek (j
is epenthetic. To explain it, we must go back to the" perfect,
in which the same termination -eE is very often preceded by
a dental explosive, which is naturally changed to <T: €
(ye know) *7r€-7rVO-eE, 7r€7rEL<TBE = *7rf.-7rELB-Oe, AEAYJ<TB€ = €
etc. Now this (j, "\vhich appears in the rest of. the perfect
inflexion, is Jiable to disappear in the 2nd sing.: by reduction
of the group, 7rf.7fV(J<TUL becomes 7r€7rV<TUt,'2 which is exactly like
A€AvcrUL; nothing more was needed to produce A€-Av-cree,s and
then a general termination -<T()e applicable to all the Iniddle
forIns, E-T{Be-<TeE, E-AVE-<TBE. It is a remarkable fact that the
perfect, froln which the corruption started, is likewise the only
tense which enables us to discover the corruption; for, unlike
any of the other tenses, it has sporadically retained the older
termination: thus AEA€tepBe, eLAYJepBe can be explained nluch
better through *A€-A€L7r-Be, €i-AYJep-BE than through *A€-A€L7r-<T()e;
*ef-AYJep-<TBE, and 7f€-epuI/-Be (ye have appeared) cannot possibly go
back to *7rf.-epUV-crBE, which would have become- *7f€epucree.
4
•
3. In Indo-European probably after a vo\vel, *-f}td
after a consonant, Gk. -VTO and -UTO: (-DO-VTO, E-T{Be-vTo, E-ep€PO-
PTO, e-AEAv-VTO; but Hom. K€{-aTo (they lay) =*KE{Y-f}TO, in the opt.
()YJ<TU{-UTO (Od. xviii. 191), in the plup. after a consonant (old Attic
inscr.) E-TeTax-uTo. The forms of the 3rd plur. in -aTO are very
common in Homer, so much so indeed that they are found even
in cases where phonetic laws would require the n to remain a
1 Thus ¢€pOfL€(JOa : € € € : *J¢€POf.k€, ef. supra 247,1.
2 Supra 69, 6.
3 Thus "AlA.v(JO€ : "A.D\V(JaL =1Te7fv(JOe : 1rbrv(JaL.
4 Cf. supra 47 C.
PERSON-ENDINGS. 283
consonant, e.g. Hom. (Od. vii. 97) analogical for
E-(3€f3AYJ-VTO. They are also very common in the New Ionic of
Herodotus. In the classical language, on the contrary, they
have entirely disappeared; by the side of e(JETO: e(JEvro, EAvETO:
EAvovro, etc., this plural in -aTO might well seem an anomaly,
when the original nasal fronl which the a had arisen ""vas no
longer perceptible. The ending -vro was introduced wherever
this substitution was' possible: E-Avo-a-vTo., oLooLvro,
epEpoLvro,l etc. When the group thus obtained would have been
unpronounceable, namely in the pluperfects of roots ending in
a consoiJ.ant, e.g. f.-TETaX-, the language preferred a periphrasis,
€ (they were posted).
§ 2. Pri1na1"y Endings.
(263) The law which derives the primary terminations from
the secondary by the addi tion of an i;3 would hold good in
Greek for the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd sing, and 3rd plur. Inid., if, as
the theory \vould presuppose,
3
the secondary terlninations \vere
respectively *-Ta, *-VTO, instead of -p.iiv, -0-0, -TO, -vro.
This is all that can be said with a view to connecting the two
systems with one another.
4
(264) I. Singnlar.-l. 41ways -!-tal" OE{KvV-jLaL,-¢€pO-
!-tat, epEpw-fLaL, Avo-o-fiaL, etc.
2. Ternlinatiol1 -.craL, vvhence -at in the thematic forms:
*epEpE-o-at = Sk. bhd1'a-se, indic. Avy; =AvEat, subj. Avy; etc.
In the A.ttic substitutes AVE(" and this form is even
adopted by the in the three verbs f30VAEL, and OfELo
A.s, it is hardly pos.sible to reconcile AVy; arid AVEL, AVEL must
probably be regarded as an active form trans£erred to the
midc1le,5 especially as the form AVy; is very common in Old Attic.
In the non-thematic presents, r{(jE-craL, o{OO-a-UL, etc.
(but Hom. o{'YJat,), the ending has been restored in its
1 Thus ¢fPOLlITO : ¢fPOLTO =f¢fPOllTO :'J¢£peTO.
2 Supra 248. But here the i becomes y, because it follows a vowel.
3 Supra 259.
4 It Inust also be observed that in Arcadian the primary ending of the
3rd sing. -TOL COlnes closer still to the -TO.
5 Supra 249, 2 B.
284
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
entirety through the analogy of the perfect AEAvCTat, which was
itself imitated from AtA€ttf;at.
1
3.,' Gk. -rat == Sk. -te: T{()€-raL, epEp€-rat, epEpY]-rat.
II. Dual.-1. -P.€()ov (?), as in "the secondary tenses, supra
261.
2, 3. -a-()ov, as in the active -TOV,. supra 250 and 261.
tIll. Plural.-1. -p.€a-()a and -{L€Oa as in the secondary tenses;
Hom. and poet. epepojL€a-()a, class. ep€pojL€Oa.
2
2. -a-O€ for *-O€, as in the secondary tenses.
3
3. After a vowel -vraL, T{()€-VraL, S{oo-vrat, epEpo-vTaL, epEpw-vTaL ;
ai.ter a consonant -araL, Hom. K€{-aTaL KEaraL (they lie) == *K€{Y-f}Tat.
Ne\v Ionic considerably extended the latter ending (rd}EaraL,
ia-rEaTaL Herod.),4 which was eliminated by the classical lan-
guage, K€LVTaL.
5
§ 3. Endings of the Perfect.
(265) The perfect in Greek took the primary terminations.
I. Singular.-1. AtA€Lp.-jLaL, AEAV-{LUL, etc.
2. AEA€Ltf;aL == € (thou hast been pricked), 7r€7rva-aL
(thou kno\vest) == 7TE7TV<T<Tat, etc., whence A€Ava-aL for *A€AvaL, the
intervocalic a- being similarly restored everywhere, except in a
few Homeric forms, {3E{3A1JaL, jL€p.vy]aL.
3. AEA€l/lr-rat, YE1pa7i'-ruL, AEAv-ruL, etc.
II. Dual.-1. A€A€{jL-,U€()ov (?).6-2, 3. -Oov and -a-()ov (like 2nd
plur. -O€ and -a-O€), AEA€Lep-OOV, AtAv-a-(}ov.
III. Plural.-l. A€A€{jL-jL€ea, A€Av-jL€a-()a, etc.
2. AEA€Lep-O€, 7TEepav-()€, 7TE7TVa--()€,-AEAv-a-()e.
7
3.- After a vovvel, A€Av-vrat; after a consonant, Hom.
(they (Sk. as-ate), T€T€Vx-arat, Eppao-aTat. (they
have been sprinkled), Old Att. (inser.) Y€1pa¢-arat; termination
-araL extended in poetic language, and in New Ionic,
1 Supra 260, 2. 2 Supra 262, 1. 3 SlLp1'a 262, 2.
4 Of, supra 262, 3, and Att. n(Jea(JL, supra 251, 3.
5 Thus K€LVTUL : K€ITUL =TLfJ€VTUL : TLfJ€7(t./".
6 Bead in Sophocles, Electra 950.
7 Supra 262, 2.
8 With Ionic shortening, EaraL (II. iii. 134), and plup. €taro for 7juro (II.
xviii. 504, Od. i. 326, etc.).
PERSON-ENDINGS.
285
OiK€aTal. (they are settled), lost in the classical language, 'l/vTat
(they sit), and regularly superseded by a periphrasis, Yf.ypap-fL€VOL
f.icr{v.l .
Endings of the I1npe
r
rative.
(266) All the terminations of the imperative middle, except
those of the 2nd person, are modelled on those of·the im-
perative active.
z
I. Singular.-2. -(TO, secondary ending: non-thematic pre-
sent, T{(Jf.-cr9, o{oo-a-o, ZcrTa-a-o, OE{KVV-(TO, and also, regularly, T{(JOV,
o{oov, non-thematic aor. (Hom.) epao, Att. eov=Hom.
(J€O = *(JE-a-O, oov=*ooo, etc.; perf. AEAELt/J0, AtAvcro; thematic
pres. <P€pOV and (Ion.) ep€pf.V = ep€Pf.o= *¢Epf.-O"O, etc. The form
peculiar to the sigmatic aor., Af.7t/J-at, Avo--at, is probably ,the
same as that of the infinitive acti ve',
3
with the accent. thrown
back (inf. impel". ¢{AYjO"Qt) as in all the conj ug.ated
forms.
4
3. -O"(Jw, like -TW in the imperative acti\:"e.
5
II. Dual.--2, -O"()ov, -O"()wv, cf. -Tal', -TWV.
III: Plu
f
ral.-2. -cr()f., secondary and primary ending: T{()f.-(T()f.,
oo-o-f)f., AVf.-cref., AEAv-a-f)f., Avo-a-O"f)f..
3. (a) Kpivl.-a-()w (inscr.), like 3rd sing. ((3) Avl.-cr()wv (modelled
on AVE-TWV), chiefly Attic. (y) 'AVE-crf)WO"QV (modelled oli AVE-
TWa-QV), common Greek and Attic. (0) Otoo-a-f)w =*OtOO-va-()w,
aVf.Ao(]"(Jw==*av-f.Ao-va-(Jw, etc. (modelled on AVO-VTW),6 chiefly in
Doric. (f.) L-P.€Ao-a-()wv == *-vo-()wv (modelled on Avo-V'Twv) in
Old Attic.
SECTION III.
THE LATIN MEDIOPASSIVE.
(267) The Latin mediopassive has a passive function in the
case of those verbs which have an active form (lego lego-r), and
an active function in the verbs called deponents (sequo-r=
1 Ut sup1:a 262, 3. 2 Supra 254 seq.
3 S'upra 167 note. The use of the infinitive as an imperative is very
common in Greek. 4 Of. supra 81.
5 Thus AVE(J()W : AU€(J()f;;= AVETW : A-U€T€.
6 Thus' *Av6v(J()w : AVf(J()W=Av61/TW : AVETW.
286
GREEK AND :tATIN GRAMMAR.
€ which are conjugated only in the Sometimes
the t,vo voices are interchanged thout the meaning of the
verb being thereby e.g. fI)j and fierrr,I soleba1n. and
SU1n.
This being assumed, among the terminations of the Latin
mediopassive there are only three which seem prinlitive and
are directly comparable with those of Greek, namely: in the
present, 2nd sing., seque1'e == == *seque-so,2 a prilnary
form with a seeondary ending, equivalent to a Greek un·-
augmented form *l7TE-a-O, just as, in the active, for
*lege-si corresponds to in the present, 2nd pIur.
legi1nini (estis), sequirnini == a nominal form
which does not belong to the conjugational ; 3 lastly, 2nd
sing. imperate seque-re == Gk. E7TE-a-O. To these must be added,
in the 2nd sing. of the present, the alternative form lege-ris,
seque-ris, derived froln the imperate by an analogical
process very easy to restore.
4
T\vo of the forms of the present are thus accounted for; but
\vhat explanation is to be given of the others? The problem
is still unsolved. We might assume, indeed (but even this
would be rather bold), that· the 1st plur. vehimur is only a
syntactical doublet of vehimus, through rhotacislll before an
initial vowel, the LatIns having said vehimus if'tins
.but vehimu1" in that then' vehimus and vehi1nU1" were
differentiated, the one to an active, the other to a middle sig-
nification, and that the ending of gave rise through
analogy to vehit-ur and vehunt-1lr; and that, lastly, vehO-1" vvas
formed from veha through a clu111sy imitation of the relation
of vehimus to The simplicity of this explanation
is very enticing; but unfortunately the same terluin-
ations in rare founel in Celtic,5 where rhotacism is unknown.
1 Supra 125.
2 Of. supra 34 A 0, and 260, 2.
3 Supra 32 A 115, 7 and 156.-As legimini corresponds equally well to
t the infinitive :AeyEf.L€lIat, we are at liberty to see in it a combination of the
infinitive (with locative lueaning) and the participle; this would also ex-
plain the fact that legimin"i retains the same form for all three genders.
4 E.g. lege'ris : lege1'e = legis : lege.
5 Hence Windisch (Abhandlg. d. phil.-kist. Xl. d: I{gl. Sachs. Ges. d.
PERSON-ENDINGS. 287
The saIne objection and many others even more serious from
the standpoint of scientific phonology, must lead us to reject the
old theory (correct from a merely point of vie\v),l
which explained the middle through the agglutination of the
reflexive pronominal element se (veho-r == *veho se, etc.). All
that \ve can affirm with certainty at present is that Sanskrit
also has some middle terminations in 1'0
1
w-ithout even attempt-
'ing to enter into details in regard to the manifold corrnptions
which Sanskrit on the one hand and Latin. on the other must
have introduced into the primitive type.
2
.
However this may be, it is certain that from the paradigm
lego-1", lege-re lege-ris, legi-tur, legi-mur, legi-1nini,
the Latin language abstracted terluinations which it transferred
unchanged to the futures, and imperfects. The
perfect and the tenses derived from it \vere supplied by peri-
phrastic 'expressions, lectu8 surn or
With the single exception of legere, the imperative was
likewise formed analogieally: 2nd sing. lege-re, and legi-tor on
the model of legito; Brd sing. legi-tor; 2nd plur. legimini(este);
Brd plur. legu-ntor on the model of In old Latin there
is also a form of the 2nd and Brd, sing. fa-mino,3 modelled a,:p-
proximately onfarnini and the relation of este to esto.
Wissensch. x. p. 449) has thought that the Latin mediopassive can be
entirely explained from Celtic. But, though his view rests on a large
l1urnfJel' of })Jl:LUSlble data, it eaunot be accepteu in its entirety.
1. Cf. sllpra 224.
2 For a quite recent hypothesis, see Revue critique, xxiv. p. 237.
3 Leg. XII. Tab. i. 1, q1.li in jus vocat, ni it,' antesta,m,ino (or -rninor,
throngh a double corruption) =" if the'defendant sUlumoned to appear in
court refuse to present hinlself, the summoner shall prove the fact of his
refusal by witnesses."
CHAPTER III.
VABlATIONS IN THE STEM OF THE TENSES AND MOODS.
(268) After the three verbal categories of voice, number,.
and person, it only remains for us to study those of tense and
mood. Tense is the relation of past, present, or future,
affecting the verbal concept. This relation itself is susceptible
ot a large number of different shades of meaning: for example,
a past fact may be regarded from the point of view of its con-
sequences ·in the present, "he is dead," Gk. TE()V'fJK€, or solely
as past, in order to state it and detail the circumstances of it,
"he died yesterday at six o'clock," Gk. € the present,
again, may state an· actual and momentary fact, "I say U," or
a habit, "I smoke very little," or a general property, " man
speaks," to say nothing of the present so often used as a future,
"I am going this evening," Gk. f.ij-tL (I shall go). The languages
with which we are concerned are far from having a special form
for each of these delicate shades of meaning; these shades of
meaning are deduced from the tone of the speaker and from
the sentence taken as a whole. On the other hand, in each
tense, the fact expressed by the verb may be thought of either
as constant and positively affirmed, or as eventual and
relative, or as simply desired and subordinate, or, lastly, as
obligatory and commanded: to distinctions correspond
the four moods, indicative, subjunctive, optative, and impera-
tive, the only moods known to the Indo-European languages.
l
The formation of the stems of the different tenses and moods
1 We have seen that the and participles are not verbal moods,
but nominal forms. They will, however, be recapitulated under the head of
conjugation, as well as the supines, verbal adjectives, and ·gerundives. It
has been thought better to present a complete view of the verbal system, and
not to break too far with the usages of practical grammar.
288
VARIA.TrONS IN THE STEM OF THE TENSES AND MOODS. 289
has been analysed in detail in the investigation of 'primary and
secondary derivation. It only remains to consider the logical
grouping of these stems in the conjugational system, and the
regular variations to vVhich they are liable through the addition
of the person-endings.
As regards the first point, it will be remembered that many
Latin tenses have in practical grammar a different name from
that which they have in cOlnparatlve grammar, in other words,
that their ordinary function does not strictly correspond to
their theoretical function. In the account the Latin
tenses will appear under the Greek categories to which they
morphologically correspond; but at the same time, under each
Greek tense, we shall mention the Latin tense having the same
function.
(269) The variation of the conjugated stems in respect of
gradation may be summed up in two main laws:
I. The non-thematic forins 1 are distinguished as strong or
weak, according as the grade of the syllable immediately pre-
ceding the termination is normal (deflected in the perfect only)
or reduced: ,the strong form properly appears only in the
singular of the active, the weak form in the plural
and dual of th"e active and in the whole of the middle,
e.g. Ti()YJ-ftt. T{()f.-ftf.V T{()f.-ftUt.2
II. In the thematic forills the vowel ejo, immediately pre-
ceding the termination, takes the form ° in all the 1st
persons and in the 3rd plural, but everywhere else the
form e: epEpW epEpO-ftf.V epEpO-VTt, epEPO-ftUt. epf.po-ftf.()a (-ftf.()ov?)
epEpO-VTUt.; .epEpn,:; epEpn epEpf.-Tf. epEpE-TOV, epEpf.-Ut epEpE-TUt. epepf.-a-()f.
epEPf.-a-()ov.
The first law is very often interfered with in its applications
by analogy; in Latin, owing to the comparative rarity of the
non-thematic forms, only faint traces of it remain. On the
other hand, the second law is always observed in Greek, and
1 Supra 86.
2 Of course Greek, as throwing the accent as far back as possible, and
a fortiori Latin, no longer retain any trace of the changes of accentuation
which originally caused these variations and which are often revealed to us
by Sanskrit: e.g. €'t-P.L tp.€JI, Sk. e-mi and cf. supra 42 and 207.
U
290
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
'almost always in Latin in those forms which are certainly
thematic; for if we conjugate the regular paradigm of the
present, we obtain, on the one hand veho and vehunt==-*veho-nt,
on the other vehis =*vehe-s, vehi-t, vehi-tis. There remains
only vehi-mus instead of *veho-mus==-Dor. But *veho-
rnus certainly became veh'lIJmus, a well authenticated archaic
form confirmed by sumus and volumus. What was the next
stage? Did vehumus phonetically become vehirnus, as
became optimus or *manubus manibus? 1 Or was vehirnus
rather developed through the' influence of vehitis, as one
is led to think on account of and volumus; which
apparently remained unchanged because they had not by their
side a 2nd pers. *sitis or *volitis? Whatever solution is
adopted, it will be seen that the Latin thematic flexion is
scarcely less pure than the Greek. It is only necessary to
point out the alternations once for all.
(270) The Greek conjugation distinguishes seven tenses:
present, imperfect, future, future-perfect, aorist, perfect, and
pluperfect. To these may be added the verbal nouns contain-
ing no notion of time. Latin has confused the aorist with the
perfect, just as, in the moods, it has confused the optative with
the subjunctive, and the subjunctive vvith the future: v"id"i and
dix"i are treated as the sanle tense, and so also and ;
feres is a subjunctive used as future, and ferres a corrupted
future 2 used as subjunctive.
SECTION I.
PRESENT.
§ 1. Indicative.
(271) There is a great variety of signs for the present; 3
there is none for the indicative; this mood, in all tenses, aSSUlues
the form of the tense itself vv"ithout modification.
1 Supra 30, 139 and 206, 5.
2 At once future aorist subjunctive, and perhaps future sub-
junctive, on account of the quantity of the last vowel of the stem, cf. supra
106.
s Supra 87, I, II, 88, 89, VI, 90, X, 91, 92, 93.
VARIATIONS IN THE STEJ\tl OF THE TENSES AND MOODS. 291
(272) I. Active.-1. The non-thematic presents of all classes,
€ Zj-t€V, T{()Ej-t€V, S{OOj-tEV, (Dor. i(TTaj-tEv,
Saj-tvaj-t€v, € O€{KVVf-t€V, etc., in Greek, show gradation
with unusual regularity. Latin retains no trace of it: it has
like is, fertis like fers, like stas, etc., the strong
form having prevailed everywhere, except in damus, datis,
where the weak form prevails.
l
But the inflexion of the root
*es (to be) in each language requires special mention.
Gk.: the sing. with strong forIn, regular; plur., 1st E(Tj-t€V
for *(T-f-tEV, 2nd €(TTE for *(T-TE (cf. Sk. s1nas, stha), 3rd Ion.
= (Att. €i(T{ = BCBot. €VT{) 2 for = Sk. santi; dual
€(T.T6v· for *(T-T6v. The strong form of the sing. has passed into
the plural and dual. It will be observed that the forms of the
root are subject to this corruption; e.g. the optative €Zy)V::B
*EfT-yy]V for *cr-yy]-v (Sk. I..Jat. siem).
Lat.: sing., 1st sum (instead of *esmi or *esn:h which would
have becolne *erem), very probably on the analogy of sumus; 3
2nd es = *es-s, 3rd es-t, regular; plur., 1st sum.us for *s-mus,
with u on analogy of the themati.c presents (volu1'nus, *agumus,
etc.); 2nd estis for *s-tis, intrusion of the strong form; 3rd
sunt for *sent=*sfft(i), through analogy of agunt. On
the other hand, the weak form of the plural" being introduced
into the singular, gave rise to the enclitic st,. so common in the
comic poets and in colloquial Latin.
2. Thematic presents: AEYW, lego, suprra 249) 1 A.
(273) II. Middle.-1, Always the weak form,. o{ooj-tat,
qvvaf-tat, O€{Kvvp.af" etc., except in K€l,j-tat
t
which has the strong
form (cf. the deflected root in KO{Ty), bed)" through an irregu-
larity which goes back to the parent-speech, gete (he lies).4
There is no corresponding type in Latin. .
2. Thematic:
1 This does not mean that there is a gradation in das: dtitis. If das
had the strong form, the vocalism would probably be *dos (cf. Gk. and
supra) 41 in fine) ; hence we must see in it the influence of the analogy of
amas.
2 Supra 251, 3.
3 Thus sum, : sumus=sim : simus.
4 Transition to the thematic conjugation in KEo-lIraL (Od:xvi. 232).
292
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMl\1:AR.
§ 2. Subjunctive.
(274) I. Active.-We have seen that the subjunctive has
regularly: in the non-thematic tenses, the root in the normal
form and with a short thematic vowel before the person-
endings, e.g. Hom. LOp.-EV (dactyl) = €L-O-p.-EV (let us go); in the
thematic tenses, the vocalism of the indicative and a long
thematic vowel through Indo-Europe[Ln contraction, e.g. AEyoo,
AEyoo-p.-€V, AEY'Y/-r€.l The weak grade of Lp.-EV contaminated LOfL€V,
which is more common in Homer as a tribrach than as a dactyl.
But the greatest corruption of all is due to the confusion of the
two types, which were originally distinct: on the one hand
there was the flexion Loo LOfL€V, on the other the flexion AEyoo
AEyoofJ-EV; it was inevitable that, owing to the exact similarity
of the 1st persons of the singular, the other persons also should
tend to become assimilated to one another, and that the long
vowel, being regarded as the necessary sign of the subjunctive,
should gradually be extended to all the verbs in -fJ-L. Accord-
ingly, from the Homeric period, Greek scarcely knows any
other type than LoofJ-€V, iLfJ-EV==(.oofJ-€v==*(.(J"WfJ-€V, Td)wfJ-Ev=rd)EoofJ-€v,
OELKVVoofJ-EV, ete.
This subjunctive in its turn was not without infll1ence on the
other ITloods: thus OELKVVoofJ-EV called for a corresponding form
OELKVVOp.-€V in the indicative; that is, the transition from the non-
thematic to the thematic conjugation, which is fairly COlnmon
in Greek and almost invariable in Latin,2 had its starting-point
here; and we seem to discern a similar relation between Loop.-€V
and the participle lwv.
3
In the subjunctive of the non-thematic present, the only
Latin correlative is the future era == *es-o, 1st pI. er-1--1nUS,
possibly also fero, which might be the subjunctive of a verb
*fer-1ni as well as the ipdicatjve of a verb fer-o.
4
To the
thematic present morphologically corresponds the Latin future
leges, which stands to AEYTlC; for *AEY'Y/C; as legis == *leges stands
to AEy€IS for AEy€C;; 5 but the vowel e was extended throughout
the whole of the inflexion ( l e g e m ~ t s == G·k. *AEY'Y/fJ-€C;), except in
1 Supra 89, VII and 143. 2 Of. Sup1'a 86,87,88 and 249,1 B.
3 Supra 123. 4 Supra 89, VII. 5 Supra 143.
VARIATIONS IN THE STEM OF THE TENSES AND MOODS. 293
the 1st sing., which was taken from another tense.! From the
point of view of Ineaning the Latin correlative is legas.
(275) II. Middle.-The type vvith a short vowel is entirely
superseded by the type \vith a long vowel, DHKJlvwj-tal, like
Ai.ywj-tal,. Dialectically Greek has also another type, either
primitive, or more probably analogical, formed by lengthening
the predesinential vowel of the indicative: 'WvvvVTCtI, (Od. xxiv.
89), rn7YVvVTal" Dor. Dvvaj-tUI,.
Long vowel: Gk. AEyWj-tUl,, AEyn, AEyWj-tE()a, AEYYJ(JeE, Lat.
(legar), legeris, the corresponding forms in regard to
being legar, legaris, etc.
§ 3. OlJtative.
(276) I. Active.-1. The optative of the non-thematic'
present has the sign -tYJ- in the strong forms, -t- in the weak
forms,3 and this alternation is generally very strictly observed,
Tl,eE{YjV 'neELj-tEV, Dl,DO{YjII DI,DOLj-tEV, EiYjv EYj-tEV, etc. But in New
Ionic and late Attic the strong form passed into the plural,
thus producing forms like DI,DO{Yjj-tEJI, EiYjj-tEJI, with the bysterogene
ending -(Jav. in the 3rd pI., Dl,Do{Yja-av, EiYj(Jav.
4
111- Latin, on the contrary, it is the plural which has ilnposed
its stem on the singular; there is no trace of gradation except
in (sies siet arch.) everywhere else we find the
weak form, veli1n, 5 (called subjunctive3).
In the verb EIj-tl, and all the verbs in -vv-j-t'- there appears,
based on the model of iWj-tEV, DHKVVWj-tEV, an optative iOl,j-t1, 6 (also
lo{YJv infra), OEt.KVVOI,j-tt., corresponding to a thematic indicative
*tw, OEI,KVVW, the regular forms *DHKVV{YjV having disap-
peared without leaving the slightest trace of their existence.
2. In the thematic present, the sjgn is -1,- with no gradation,
AEY0l,fLl, AEY0l,fLEV, TtfLUOl,fLl, Ttj-tUOI,fl,EV (Attic Ttj-tu2Yjv = Ttj-tao{Yjv on the
analogy of Dt.DO{YJv).7 Latin correlative, very doubtful,
(?) or (?), 144.
1 Supra 104, 143 and 147.
2 Thus /YlrYllVTCU : p7}'YlIVTaL = cp€p'rJTaL: ¢ep€TaL.
3 Supra 95. 4 Supra 247, 3 C. 5 Sllpra 95.
6 Hom. tOL, and even (may he be)
7 Later, in vulgar Greek, ¢LAef?'rJlI on the model of and even ocP'rJlI,
ofJr;/L€lI.
294 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
II. Middle.-Properly the \veak form, Tt()E{fJ-YJV, ot.oo[fJ-Yjv (never
ovva[p.Yjv,l ,etc.,-AEyO[fJ-YjV. The very rare type
OELKVVO[fJ-Yjv is analogical.
§ 4. I'rnperative.
(277) I. Active. -1. When the 2nd pel's. sing. has no
termination, it has the strong form, Z(jTYj, CE[KVV; in Greek
before terminations it has the weak form, t(jTd.TW, CE{KVVTE, TtBeTw,
OtOOTW, fBI., frw, and even fa-()t. (be) == *(J"()t, though the other persons
have the strong for111 as in the indicative, Latin
uses the strong form indiscrinlinately, sta stato, i ito, es esto,
except in dato date.
2. Thematic: AeyE AeyETE, lege legite.
II. Middle.-l. Non-thematic: as in the active: Gk. T[()EUO,
o[coa-o, Za-Taa-o, CE{KVVa-O; Lat. fare, dare.
2. Thematic: Aeyov==*A€yEuo, legere.
§ 5. Infinitive.
(278) I. Active.-1. Hom. Aeol. etc. :
Ton.-Att. Elvat == *(a--vat, TL()f.Vat, OtOOVaL, CELKvvvat, etc., the
formations being without any etymological connexion, either
'\vith one another/
z
or with that of Latin ire, stare, dare, esse,
ferre.
3
2. Hom. .£01. 6.KovefLEvaL, (like owing- to
the flexion ep{}\.Yjp.t 4), epEpefJ-Ev; Ion.-Att. AeyE£v == *AeyE-FEv (?); 5
Lat. legere; the same relnark applies.
II. J.lliddle.-Gk. T{()Ea-BaL, o{oou()aL, CE[Kvvu()at,-AeYE(J"()at ; 6 Lat.
dart, ferrt-legt, legier (arch.), anu'iri arnarier (arch.); 7 the
same remark applies.
§ 6. Participle.
(279) I. Active. - 1. Gk. TL()E[e:; == *TdJe-vT-r;;;,8 ia-Tas, Otoove:;,
OEtKVVe:;, irregular tWV and €wV, contracted C:Sv, whence was formed
1 Transition to the thematic conjugation in p.apllolp.eOa for p.apllal-p.eOa
(Od. xi. 513).
2 Supra 115, 5, 130, 156 and 167. 3 Supra 125.
4: Supra 249, 1 A. 5 Supra 167. 6 Supra 130 and 167.
7 Supra 125 and 161. 8 Supra 47 C, 123 and 200, 5.
VARIATrONS IN THE STEM OF THE TENSES AND MOODS. 295
by analogy a new declension cZv (the contraction of €
could only have given Lat. iens, *sens (sons), stans,
dans, dens, fans. .
2. Gk. A€ywv, Lat. legens.
1
II. Middle.-1. Gk. € € € € €
Lat. femina==*()YJlJ.l.vy], jaminf, (you .speak), daminf" perhaps
dorninus.
2
2. Gk. € Lat. legimini (perhaps alumnus), entirely
obsolete however except in the 2nd pI. of the mediopassive, its
function being supplied by the verbal in -to-, datus, lectus,
secutus, so far, that is, as the essentially past meaning of the
lat ter form allows.
SEOTION II.
IMPERFEOT,
§ 1. Indicative.
(280) I. Active.·-1. The gradation is as regular in the Greek
non-thematic imperfect as in the present, on which it depends:
i(jTYjV i(jTaJL€V, ET{()YjV ET{(}EfL€V, EO€{KVVV EO€{KVVjLEV, etc. The purely
Attic forms € ETtOn and EO{OOVV EO{OOV are due to the
analogy of and The only exceptions a!e €lfl{
and €1fll" which have generalised the strong form.
Imperfect of EifJ-{.-Sing. 1st: Hom. naturally
confused with the perfect 4 without augment, Honl.
contracted, Att. or rather the latter form being
modelled on Brd sing. in accordance with the relation of
ET{OYjV to ET{()Yj. 2nd: == and ordinarily Att. bor-
rowed from the perfect. Brd: (Dar.) = Att. and
much oftener € € € a perfect form.-Plur.
1st: € 2nd: and usually because of
Brd: with hysterogene addition of the affix -(jav 5 (an
original would have become Hom,
1 Supra 160, 200, 5, 201, 2 and 209.
2 Supra 115, 7 and 156.
3 Of. supra 251, 3 note, and in the optative OLOOLfJ-€P (for O[OOLfJ-€P) on thE
model of OTJAOLfJ-€V. .
4 Supra 252, 1. 5 Supra 247, 3 C.
296
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
is also an analogical flexion (a (as (aTE
(Herod.) and a thematised flexion (EO}') in Homer.
I1npe'rfect of EY,uf,.-Sing. 1st: and dual:
YlfLEV == -oTE, DCTal!, TITOV, ifT'Y]V, with no gradation.-Weak
form only in tCTav (poetic).-The other Attic flexion fjEl,V VEl,S ifEt
belongs to the pluperfect.l-There are also in the poets three
thenlatised flexions, one with the augment, another with
no augment, ETov, and a third with weakened root, tov on the
model of subj. tw.
Latin has nothing to be compared with these forms, except
erarrn== (a (?), which in any case has been corrnpted,2 and, with
no gradation, pI. eriirrnus. All its other imperfects were ob-
tained by means of a special suffix, ibarrn, dabarn,3 and the stem
of this fSuffix also does not vary, ibarnus.
2. Thematic: Gk. legebarn.
II. Middle.-l. The weak form always, ETdJ',u1]v, EOI. oo,u1]J',
EOEf,KVV,u1]V, etc., except in EKE(jL1]V like KE'ifLat, and the impf. mid.
(not Attic) of EijL{, like the impf. act., etc.-
Lat. dabar, with no morphological correlative elsewhere, and
naturally without gradation, pI.
2. Thematic: Gk. EAeY0ft1]v.-Lat. legebar.
§ 2. Other rnoods.
(281) In Greek the moods of the present are also those of
the imperfect, since, on the augment being taken away, the
stem of the two tenses is exactly the same. Latin alone has
developed an imperfect subjunctive, .legeretn, (pass.
legerer, mid. sequerer), which has already been connected" in
its origin with the Indo-European aorist subjunctive, used in
Greek as a future indicative.
4
SECTION III.
FUTURE IN ALL MOODS.
(282) The future indicative being always thematic,5 its per-
sonal and modal inflexions are very simple. the only
1 Of. infra 298, 3. 2 Supra 149. 3 Supra 104 and 147.
4 Supra 106 and 150. 5 Supra 97.
3 Sup1'a 105 and 147.
5 Supra 103 and 146.
VARIATIONS IN THE STEM OF THE TENSES AND MOODS. 297
moods of the future are in Greek the indicative and optative,
in Latin the indicative and imperative (imperative present used
as future).l The subjunctive in particular is generally supplied
by that of the present (tinIeo ne pluat, I fear lest it may rain),
and we know already how close are the relations in Greek and
Latin between the subjunctive and future.
I. Active.-l. Indicative: Gk. AEtW, erTEAw (pI. (TTEAol;-
JLEV, (TTEAEITE), etc. The morphological correlative in
Latin is *esso and esse1n, faxo and faxern, etc., legere1n,
arnare1n: the first forms, which are rare, have kept the grada-
tion, faxo, faxis = *faxes, etc.; the others have lost it, ex-
changing e for e (esses for *esses), and generalising this e in
all persons, pI. esse1nus, etc.
z
The functional correlative is
arnabo 3 and legarn leges.
2. Optative: Gk. (Att. JLEVO{YJV).
3. Infinitive: Gk. == *AEy-erE-FEv (Eol. &tEp..EV);
supplied in Latin by a periphrasis, esse).
4. Participle: Gk. lecturus.
4
II. Middle.-l. Indicative: == AI.toJLat-, (J"TE-
AOVJLat, etc.-Lat. i1nitabor and sequar seque1'is.
2. Optative:
3. Infinitive: AEtE(T8uL.-Lat. esse.
4. Participle:
III. Passive.-l. Indicative: (TTaA1eroJLuL, etc.-
Lat. arnabor ancllegar legeris.
2. Optative: (TTaAYjero{JLYjv, AEx8Yjero{JLYjv.
3. supplied in Latjn by
a periphrasis, lectu11I ir'i, which requires a short explanation.
We know the origin of the supines, and we know that the
phrase eo litsurn means" I go to play." Hence a phrase
'ire will mean" I go to the sight," and, as sight can be taken
either in an active or passive sense, the meaning of the phrase
will be either" to go to see" or " to go to be seen." In v'isurn
'iri the latter meaning has prevailed. The forIn 'ir'i is not the
1 Supra 255 and 257. Exceptionally imperate fut. o1:<T€ (Od. xxii. 481),
OlcrETW (II. xix. 173).
2 Of. supra 106 and 150.
4 Sltpra 121, 6.
298 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMl\IAR.
cause of the passive meaning; for we know that etymologically
irI, has the same meaning as I,re.I But it is very likely that
the passive meaning of the expression caused the ending i to
prevail, because custom had confined amare to the active, and
arnarI, to the passjve.
4. Participle: O"TaAYjO"0fLEVOc;, AEX()YjrrofLEvoc;.
SECTION IV.
FUTURE-PERFECT.
(283) This tense scarcely exists in Greek except in the
passive voice; there are however a few examples of the active
voice, (I shall be dead), or middle, (I shall
remember).z It has the same moods as the future.
Latin has no similar formation. It supplies its place by a
perfect subjunctive, vI,dero==*eiDf.W,3 legero, etc., middle secutus
ero, pass. lectus era (cf. Gk. AEAEYfLf.VOc; 6'».
SECTION V.
AORISTS..
§ 1. Indicative.
(284) I. Active.-1. The radical non-thematic aorist is, next
to the non-thematic present and imperfect, the most !emarkable
instance of the retention of the original gradation. We must
however distinguish the case in which the root ends in a vowel,
f.-()Yj-v, and that in which it ends in a consonant, *;'-XEF-a.
4
A. The two forms alternate regularly: l()Yjv (()EfLEV, €DWV
€DOfLEV, €(3iiv (Ion. €(3Yjv) and Hom. Brd dual (3UTYj v, etc. In the
so-called roots with metathesis
5
the long vowel is regularly
used all forms: €TAYjJ1-EV, €YVWfLEV, This was nlost likely the
starting-point of the analogy which levelled the inflexion of
many radical aorists, ever since the Homeric period, and of
which the most remarkable instance is the inflexion €O"TYjV
€O"TYjfLE1/, which does not vary at all.
B. The regular inflexion would be €XEa *€XVfLEl/, (I burnt)
1 Supra 125. 2 Supra 100 and 146. 3 Supra 144.
4 Cf. supra 245, 1. 5 Of. supra 90, VIII note.
VARIATIONS IN THE STEM OF THE TENSES AND MOODS. 299
==*€-KoJ-a) *€KavjLEV, €(}YjKa 1 *€(}€KjL€V, *€-KT€l/-a € (=*E!-KTtt-
jL€V), etc. The last form was faithfully retained in the plural
and dual, and from the 3rd pI. was even formed an ana-
logical3rd sing. €Kra (Hom.). We shall also find in the middle
the equivalent of *€xvjL€v. But, as a general rule, the entire
stem of the sing., including the a of the 1st person regarded as
a thelnatic vowel,2 was transferred without modification to the
plural and dual, EXEajL€V and EX€VUjL€V, € etc.
Latin has nothing that can be compared with these forms,
except that its present .stat=*stiit resembles €crTYj (*crTa-r. with-
out augrnent) much more closely than any other Greek form.
2. The sigmatic aorist is a non-thematic aorist ending in a
consonant; hence its regular inflexion would be €-A€l,lfI-a, *EA€l,lfI
= *€ € * € = *€A€l.tf-r, *€-AUf;-fL€V, *€ € *
But we know \vhat took place = the a of the 1st sing. and 3rd
pI. was added to the stem; 3 while, in regard to the root, the
\veakened form *€ALlfIav was retained and even extended to
the sing., especially in verbs "\vhich already had the weakened
root in the present, € € cf. (J"XC'w == *crX{8-yw, crrC'w,
etc. ; 4 in all other cases it was the grade of EAalfla, sometimes
modified (EAvO"a for *eAevO"a), which prevailed, and in any case
there is no longer a trace of gradation in the transition from
the singular to the plural and dual.
A fortiori this uniformity is absolute in the Latin inflexion,
dzx"i dzximus, which is that of the perfect.
3. Non-thematic aorist; €Aa(3ov, EA,L7rOV, €epvyov, etc.; in Latin,
barely a few traces of this formation.
5
(285) II. Middle.-1. A. The regular weak form in E(}EfLYjV,
€oofLYjv, etc.;' the long vowel of metathesis in Hom. (it
filled itself); the strong form (very rare) extended in Att.
for wvafLYjv, from ovlvYjfLL (to benefit).
B. The regular weak form in €xvro, Hom. XVTO (it was poured),
€O"crvro, Hom. O"VTO (it was thrown, 1st sing. act. €O"cr€va) , U7rEKTarO
(he was killed); the strong form and the false stem in a ex-
tended in € etc.
1 Cf. supra 99.
3 Supra 245, 1 and 247, 3.
5 Supra 90.
2 Supra 245, 1 and 247, 3.
4 Of. supra 96.
300
GREEK AND LATIN GRA1\tIMAR.
2. The false stem in a of the sigmatic aorist passes into
the middle with no modification: EAHtf;ap:YJv (for *E-A{tf;-fJ-YjV) ,
EcrxuraftYjv, EAvcrafJ-Yjv, etc.
3. Thematic: tAaf36fJ-Yjv, E¢vy 6p,Yjv, etc.
(286). III. Passive.-The stem of the two passive aorists of
Greek shows not the least trace of gradation, and it may be
doubted whether any gradation ever existed in its flexion, e.g.
ETlnrYjv ETV7rYjftEV, EAEXBY]V EAEXBYJftEV; for not a trace of it sur-
vives in the Latin forms jaces jacet which, apart
from the augment, exactly coincide with ETV7rYjS ETV7rYj ETV7rYjftEV.l
§ 2. Subjunctive.
(287) I. II. Active and ffiliddle.-l. The only regular sub-
junctive is naturally that with short thematic vowel,z of which
Inany examples are found in Homer, e.g.
OWOftEV, YVWOfLEV, but which was super-
seded in the classical language, as in the present, by the sub-
junctive ,vith long vowel, crTwfLEV=crTEWftEV==HoITl. eil
== BEYJ == Honl. f3WftEV, OWfLEV, BWfJ-at, etc.
2. The sigluatic aorist subjunctive with short vowel was like-
wise very common in the Homeric dialect, e.g. (II. i.
144), and survived up to the end with the function of a future
indicative; 3 but in its original function it ,vas superseded
by a subjunctive vv"'ith long vowel, which may very well have
been originally a future subjul1ctive,4
3. In the thematic aorist the long vowel appears, and pre-
sents no difficulty: Aaf3w, Aaf3wfLEv, Aaf3wfJ-at, etc.
III. Passive.-The regular subjunctive with short vowel,
Hom. oafLY;ETE, superseded from the' time of Homer
by a subjunctive with long vowel, the only form
recognised in the classical language, (TV7rEW) TV7rW, (TV7rEWfLEV)
TV7rWfLEV, AEXBw AEXBwfLEV, etc. In Latin the form jaceo exactly
co!responds to TV7rEW, and, being taken for an indicative, must
1 Of. supra 98. 2 Supra 89, VII and cf. 274. 3 Snpra 97.
4 The same accident may have happened in the aorist subjunctive esses,
ferres, which is shown by the long vowel to be a future subjunctive, supra
106 and 282.
VARIATIONS IN THE STEM OF THE TENSES AND MOODS. 301
have had an important share in causing the partial transition
of this passive form to the thematic flexion.
§ 3.
(288) I. Active.-The gradation is fait.hfully kept through-
out, f3u{Yjv f3uLfLEV, (JTU{YjV crTULfLEV, (}E{YjV (}ELfLEV, oO{Yjv oOLfLEV, etc.'
But each regular form has a corresponding by-form,
(3U{YjfLEV, (JTULYjf1- EV, (}E{Yjf1-EV, OO{YjfLEv,l less used in good Attic; and
we already find (JTU{Yj(JUV in Homer (II. xvii. 733). The analogy
of the subjunctive with long vowel gave rise to an optative
of which various forms are found in Herodotus and
Attic writers, and in partie-ular *()OLTE in (the accent
thrown back o\ving to the contraction being forgotten).
2. It is clear that the optative ot the sigmatic aorist ought
strictly to be *i\.nf;-{Yj-v *i\.{t/J-"i-fLEV. No such form is found; but
we may be permitted to restore one which is very much like
it, namely *A€l,t/J-E{Yj-V, *Avcr-E{Yj-V. The precise origin of this
interpolated E is not very easy to determine; but it may at
any rate be observed that it has an exact correlative in the
perfect optative Eio-E{Yj-Jl/ and better still in the Latin siglnatic
aorist optative However this may
be, the regular inflexion gave a 3rd pI. AE{t/JEI,UV = and
on this form AE{t/J€l,UV, as on that of the indicative EAELt/Juv,4 was
based by analogy a new mode of inflexion, wrongly called
lEolic, AE{t/JELU, AE{t/J€l,U';, AE{t/J€l,E, etc. In good Attic it is com-
bined with the follo\ving Inode of inflexion, thus forming the
paradigm AVcrULfLl" (and AVCfELE (and AVcrUl,),
AV(JUl,TE, AV(JELUV (and AV(JULTOV, AVcrU{TYjV.
The inflexion AV(JULfLl, needs no comment; it is the
optative based on the false stem AV(Ju-.
3. In the theluatic aorist, 'Aaf30l,fLEv.
II..ZJIiddle.-Always the \veak form, vvith no irregularities,
()E{P.YjV, OOLfLYJv. False thematic vowel introduced in New Ion
7rpO(J() EOLTO, Att. 7rP0(J(}OLTO and 7rp0(J()OLTO.
2. AV(Ju{fLYjV, A€l,t/Ju{fLYjv, like AV(JUl,fLl,.
3. In the thematic aorist, Auf3O{fLYjv, Al,7ro{fLYjV.
1 Of. supra 95 and 276. 2 Of. supra 276, 1 in fine.
3 Supra 144 and infra 294. 4 Supra 247,3 A.
302 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
2 Of. supra 81. 3 Sup1'a 130.
5 SUp1'a, 90.
III. Passive.---:-The inflexion shows gradation: TV7rE{YjV TV77"EL-
/LEV, Av(JE{YjV AV()Elp,EV, etc.; but also TV7TE{1JfLEV, AV()E{YjfLEV, as abuve
(JE{1JV (JELj1-EV.
§ 4.
(289). I. II. Active and In the imperatives of
radical aorists, the long vowel, at any rate in the active, is as
common as the short, and in any case one or the other remains
the whole of the inflexion. On the o[.le hand we
have ()Is (JEToo, oos OOTW,-(JEa-(JW, ooa-(Joo, on the other hand
yvw(Jt (metathesis), whence KAV()t (a sort
of compromise between *KAEV()t and *KAV()t, cf. KAvoo and KAe(F)os).
2. The sigmatic aorist, with the single exception of the 2nd
sing. Ava--oV and Ava--at,l is based on the false stem in a, Ava-a-Too,
Ava-a-a-()oo.
3. Thematic: Aaf3e, loe, El:1fe, EA()e,'2 A{7TE, epVYE, etc.-ioov and
loov, "lo!" (accented like loe), A{77"OV, epvyov, etc.
III. Passive.-The imperative has the long vowel with no
gradation, TV77"1J(Jt (cf. jaceto), Av(J1JTt
§ 5. Infinitive.
(290) I. Active.-l. lEal. oOj1-EVat OOfLEV, LEol.-D,?r. a-TUj1-EJ/,
etc.; Ion.-Att. Oovvat = Cypr. o6FEVat,3 (JEtVat= *()eFEVat, yvwvat=
yvwFEVat, whence ovvat, etc.
2. Sigmatic: Ava-at, AEtt/Jat ,
3. Thematic: Aaf3Ew=Aa{3€Ev=*Aaf3/.-FEv (?), At77"ELV, etc.
II. .il!Iiddle.--l. ooa-(Jat, ()ea-(Jat.-2. Ava-aa-()at (through the
false stem Ava-a-).-3. Aaf3ea-{jat, loea-(Jat.
III. Passive:
§ 6. Participles.
(291) I. Active.-l. oovs=*OO-VT-S, etc.
4
-2. Ava-as=*Ava-a-vT-S
(false stem Ava-a-).-3. Gk. Aa{3wv, At77"WV, epvywv, etc.; Lat.
parens, *facens in the compound in bene-ficent-ior, etc., which
evidently bear the same relation to pariens 5 and faciens that
epvywv bears to f1tgiens.
1 Sup1'a 255, A 0 and 266, I.
4 Supra 123.
VARIATIONS IN THE STEM OF THE TENSES AND 1\fOODS. 303
II. ]j,fiddle.-1. OOfL€JlOe;, (JEft€voe;.-2. Al)(raft€vor; (false steIn
AVO"U-).-3. Aa{30ft€Voe;, At7rojL€Voe;.
III. Passive: TV7r€{e;, Av(J€{r;, like (J€{e;, TL(J€{r;.
SECTION VI.
PERFECT.
§ 1. Indicative.
(292) I. Active.-The original "gradation of the radical per-
fect 1 differs very little from that of the other tenses: in the
indicative active, the 1st sing. had the deflected grade, FOLo-a,
or perhaps the normal grade, e.g. *F€LO-a; the 2nd and 31'd
sing. certainly had the deflected grade, FOLO"-Ba, FOLO-€; all the
other forms had the weak grade, F{o-ft€v, etc. This perfect oioa,
the inflexion of which we have already seen,2 is a valuable
relic, almost unaltered, of the old alternation. Other examples,
though less complete, are no less convincing; for they all go
back to Homer, and were only gradually eliminated in later
Greek. The following are the most certain examples: yE-
yov-a, pI. yE-yU-ft€V = *yE-Y1}-ft€V; ftE-ftOV-U, pI. fLE-fJ-U-ft€V, dual
ftE-fta-TOv; 7rE-7rovB-u (I have suffered), 2nd pI. 7TE-7rUO"-B€ (II. iii.
99, Ode X. 465, Aristarchus's correction for the impossible
7rE7roO"B€) = *7rE-7r1}()-T€, cf. 7rUB€LV; OEOOOU (I fear), .which is restored
in Homer in place of O€{ow (false present, really contracted from
*o€{ooa), and is equivalent to *O€-oFOL-a (root oFa, cf. oEoe; =
*oF€L-oc;) , pI. OEOOt,ft€V (written O€{OLft€V) = *oE-Qh-ft€v, Att. OEOLfL€V,
etc.
The principle of uniforluity acted in two different directions.
Sometimes, but very rarely, the weak forIn of the plural and
dual prevailed throughout the whole of the flexion; thus,
for example, on OEOt,ft€V was based the classical form OEOt,U, on
€ the classical which superseded the Homeric
on YEyaft€V, ftEftUft€V, the Homeric 3rd plurals y€yaiiO"L,
ft€fJ-aiiO"t" which would presuppose in the 1st sing. *YEyua,
*ftEfLuu, and the same nlay be said of the Attic forms EfFTUO"L.
1 Supra 87, III. 2 Supra 252.
3 Conversely EL"AY/'Aov8flv€JI (II. ix. 4)).
304 GREEK AND LATIN GRA¥l\lAR.
f3€f3U(JL. Sometimes it was the vocalism of the perfect middle
which was extended, and hence we find the hysterogene [orIn
TETpUepU TETPOpU, from 7"pE7fW), on the model of TETpUp,p,UL.
But usually the normal or deflected grade of the sing., to-
gether with the final a of the 1st sing., spread to all the other
forms, and so the regular forms *Af)\.aJJjL€v, *7fE7fUYfh€V, *7rEepVYfh€V,
*7rE7rL()fh€V, *AtAL7fP,€V, etc., \vere superseded by the uniform in-
flexion AEAYJ{)a € € 7rE7fYJYU (for *7rE-7rWY-{)u) €
YUfh€V, 7fEep€vya 7r€ep€Vyufh€V, 7rE7rodJu 7r€7ro{(jap,€v AEAOL7rU A€AO{7rUjJ-€V,
and so in a hundred other cases.
1\1uch more does this uniforll1ity of inflexion appear in the
aspirated perfects, which are a 1nere variety of the radical
perfects,! and the perfects in -K-, which are an exclusively
Hellenic forlnation.
2
In the latter the weak grade is not
uncommon, because the perfect is Inodelled simply on the
present, e.g. AtAvKU like Avw, ((JXLKU like (JX{tw, or on the perfect
middle, ((JTuAKU like ((JTuAfha".
In the perfect endings being middle,3 though different
from the middle endings of Greek, we' should expect to find
regularly the weak grade of the root; and, as a matter of fact,
the grade is fairly comInon in Latin, especially in those
perfects which are shown to be least corrupt by their retaining
the reduplication: tu-tud-i (cf. Sk. tu-tud-e), pu-pug-i, cec'Tidi,
pepuli, tuli, etc. But the lo:o.g vowel, ,vhich ,vas regular in the
sing. of the active, had made great inroads into this fornlation,
e.g. had become vidi through the influence of *vide
== € and hence the lost active generally its
vocalism to the middle, which alone survived; v''idi, Vier, legi,
egi, fec'l (cf. ((jYJKU and TE(jElKa), mOvi,.ftlgi, /t1i (andfUl: throll.gh
subsequent shortening: so also vve find in Sk. babhuve in the
middle like babhuva in the active, in spite of the change in'
accentuation). Whatever the vocalism, however, it of course
remained uniform, both in the aorist conjugated as perfect and
in the secondary perfects in -vi and -tli.
4
II. Middle.-The perfect middle, having originally only weak
forms, necessarily remained more free from corruption than the
1 Supra 87 in fine. 2 Supra 99, II and 146.
3 Supra 253. 4 Of. supra 96, 105 and 148.
VARIATIONS IN THE STEM OF THE TENSES AND MOODS. 305
active, which included both weak and strong forIns. This may
be e[Lsily verified: the Greek perfect, especially in the oldest
forms, very often shows the vveakened root: to TE{VW, for ex-
anlple (== *TEV-yW), corresponds Hom. == (cf.
TaT6s == tent/us); to ()E{VW (to strike), Hom. (he has
been killed) 1: to TP€1rW, T€Tpoepa, Hom. TETpajhjhat == *TE-Tr1r-jhat ;
to (jT€AAW, == *l-(jT1-jhat; to etc.
When the vocalism of the perfect middle \vas corrupted, it was
modelled on that of the present, never on that of the perfect
active: thus became € on the analogy of AE{7rW,
not on the analogy of except, of course,
\vhen both vocalisms agreed, AEA:rJ()a .The perfect
(I have brought forth) on the analogy of TEToKa, belongs
only to very Greek.
Latin, with the exception of its so-called perfect active, has
no similar fornlation; it supplies its place in the middle and
passive by a periphrastic tense, secfitus SU111 , lectus SU112, cf.
AEAEyp.,EVOt d(J"{.
§ 2. 5Mbjztnctive.
(293) I. Active.-The perfect not being a thematic tense, the
subjunctive with short vo\vel would be the only regular formation,
and we do find two exanlples of it in Homer, Eiaop.,Ev, 7rE7rO{()Op.,EV.
But, here as everywhere, the long vowel was introduced, and so
on AE{1rWp.,EV, 'AvWp.,EV were based the forms AEAO{7rWp.,EV, AEAvKWjhEJI.
Greek has only one example of the type, so common in Latin,
formed by addition of the thematic vowel to a secondary stem
with suffix *-es-: ElaEw == (I may know) ==Lat. v'id-err-o.
2
It has imposed on it, as on the other forms, the long vowel,
Elaw ElaTJs Elawp.,Ev, whereas Latin regularly has the short vowel,
v'iderr'is == *veid-es-es. In Latin this subjunctive has the function
of a future-perfect; in its function of subjunctive it is super-
seded by the optative v'ide
r
ri112.
II. Middle.-A form with short vowel, in
Hesiod; a few forms with long vowel, Att. K€KTwp.,at==Ion.
1 Cf. supra 57, 4. 2 Supra 143 and 144.
x
306 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
K€KT€Wftat == € and so also jJ-EfLvwfLat, KEKAwfLat; usually
a periphrasis, AEAeYjJ-lvos 6>, in Latin lectus era (future-perfect),
and in function lectus sim.
§ 3. Optati'l-"e.
(294) I. Aetive.-The regular forlnation would evidently be
*Ft8-{'Y]-v, *A€-AL7r-{'Y]-V, and there are a few instances of it in
Homer, €a-Ta{'Y]v =*'a-E-a-Ta-{'Y]-V, TETAa{'Y]v, TE()va{'Y]v. But the sub-
junctive AEAO{7rW AEAVKW has its equivalent in the ordinary optative
AEAO{7TOtjJ-t AEAvKOLfLt.
The formation Eio€{'Yjv (==*F€LO-Ea--{'Y]-V) Eio€Lp.EV is unique,!
whereas its Latin equivalent videri1n viderimus (called perfect
subjunctive) has been extended indefinitely.
II. Middle.-A few regular forlnations, Hom. and Att.
jJ-€jJ-vrlft'Y]v = *'ft€-ftva-i-fL'Y]v, Att. KEKTrlfL'Yjv; some based on a false
stem, Att. ftEfLvCjTO == fLEftVEC1JTO == usually periphrastic,
AEAeyjJ-Evos Et'YjV; Lat. lecttts sim.
§ 4. Imperative.
(295) I. Active.. -The perfect imperative is extremely rare;
in Homer, ho,vever, we find a few very regular examples of it,
always with the root weakened before the terminations, OE{Ot,()t
which should be corrected to OEOOt()(, == *oE-oFt-()t (fear),2 KEKAv()(,
(hear), (stand), and we may correct 7TE7rEta-()(, (.LEsch. Eum.
599) to TrE7T'ta-()" (believe), on the model of the Panhellenic and
classical ta-()t (know). The short vowel is also found in two
forms with metathesis, TETAa()t, TE()Va()L. But this is all.
3
Late
Greek form.ed, on the model of A€AVKW and A€A:VKOtftL, a thematic
imperative Af.AvKE, not found in good Greek, and, if necessary, it
could always have recourse to the periphrasis A€AvK&>S la-()t.
II. Middle: AtAv(]'o, AEAELtf;o, etc., with the vocalism of the
indicative, and with no gradation.
1 Of. however o€oL€l'Y} (he might fear) in Plato. Of. supra 144 and 253.
2 Of. supra 292.
3 In Latin, an isolated perf. imper. =/J-€/J-aTVJ (11. xx. 355) =
*me-m1J-tod.
VARIATIONS IN THE STEM OF THE TENSES A.ND MOODS. 307
§ 5. Infinitive.
(296) I. Active.-Regular in == == *De-DFt-FfVat.
As a general rule, by the mere addition of the suffix
to the stem of the indicative,whatever this may be,
€ Some dialects (Lesb., Dor.) have a the-
matic infinitive, yeyovetv, DeDvKetV, which must be compared with
AeAvKw and Ae/\-JKOtj-tt.
III Latin vidisse, legisse, dixisse, with no etymological con-
nexion wjth the Greek form.
2
II. Middle.-The ending is -(}at, and analogically -cr(}at, as
in the 2nd pI. indicative -(}e and -cr(}e; 3 AeA€x(}at, AeAe'iep()at,-
oeDocr()at, AeAvcr(}at. In Latin, a periphrastic infinitive lect1.trn
esse.
§ 6. Participles.
(297) I. Active.-The root is regularly in the weak form
before the suffix 4 in a certain number of Homeric and
classical perfect participles: == as contrasted with
oLDa; (it is likely) = as contrasted with ;
feme Ecrrav'ia; == (yE-yov-a) , ==
(p.-E-j-tov-a), and even, through analogy, yeyav'ia, j-tej-tav'ia,
for *ye-yv-vcr-ta, But as a general rule the suffix
is simply added to the stem of the indicative,
The Attic feluinines Ea-rwcra, yeywcra are
new formations modelled on TLp.,wcra.
Latin has no fornlation of this kind; it supplies its place by
the verbal in -to-, in all middle verbs, secitt1.ts (having followed),
and sometimes, though very rarely, even in active verbs, cenatus
(having dined), otherwise, by a periphrasis.
II. Middle.-The suffix -JLEVO- is added to the stem of the
indicative: €
.
Latin supplies. its place by lectus, lictus, sc'lissus, etc.
1 Supra 130 and 167.
3 Supra 130, 167, and 262, 2.
2 Supra 125 and 161.
4 Supra 128 and 166.
308
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
SECTION VII.
PLUPERFECT.
§ 1. Indicative.
(2g8) I. Active.-For the pluperfect there are various modes
of formation (Latin knows only one); they may be classified
as follows.
1. The pluperfect is essentially merely the augmented tense
of the perfect; hence it has the same stem and the same
gradation) There are several Homeric examples of this form-
ation; they all correspond to the perfects which in their
inflexion have best preserved the original vocalism : E{KT'fjV
(they resembled) = *(E-)FE-F{K-T'fjV; 7rE7rodJa, E7rE7rd)fJ-EV; yEyova,
yEyaT'fjV (Od. x. lB8); fJ-EfJ-OVU, fJ-EfJ-aa-av. In the Brd plural, as
in almost all the augmented tenses, the termination -<Tav has
been introduced, EOE{oLa-av, ETE()vaa-uv.
2. Another pluperfect, almost the only one used in classical
Greek, was formed by the addition of the aoristic suffix -E<T-,
the same a's in EioEW and EiOtIy/v, to the perfect stem: 2 the typical
'form is 1st sing. Hom. vvith long augment,3
and the inflexion, which shows no gradation, is that of the sig-
matic aorist. So also EAEAO{7rEU, EAEAVKEU, etc. Hence we find in
Ionic the forms: 1st sing. EAEAVKEU, 2nd Brd EAEAVKEE(V),
etc., Brd plur. EAEAVKEa-UV (for *EAEAVKEUV, through re-introduction
of the a-); whence in Att. the inflexion: 1st sing. EAEAvK'fj, 2nd
Brd EAEAvKEL and EAEAVKELV, 3rd pI. EAEAVKE<TUV. To this
perhaps corresponds Latin viderarn, which in any case has been
corrupted by SOlne unknown cause,4 and likewise shows no
gradation, Vidertimus.
3. On the Brd sing. EAEAVKEL analogy based in Attic a new
mode of inflexion, in accordance with the relation of ET{()'fjV
ET{()'fj; in other words, the whole tense was conjugated on the
basis of a false stem, EAEAVKEL-, namely: EAEAVKELlI
EAEAvKEL, EAEAVKELfJ-EV EAEAVKELTE EAEAVKELa-UV (less usual than
eAEAvKE<TUV), EAEAVKELTOV EAEAVKE{T'fjV.
1 Of. supra 292.
2 Of. supra 233, 3.
2 Cf. sup1°a 101 and 253.
4 Supra 101 and 149.
VA.RIA.TIONS IN THE STEM OF THE TENSES AND MOODS. 309
4. The subjunctive A€AVKW and the optative € natu-
rally called for a pluperfect *EAEAVJ<OV. This formation is rare
in: texts and is exclusively dialectal: Ey€yWV€ (he had cried) is
found in Homer, €-1r€¢VKOV in Resiod. It is easy to understand
the influence which it may have had on the creation of false
presents like 7r€epVKW, O€oo{J<w (Theocr. 58), avwyw,
y€ywvw, etc.!
II. J.1fiddle.-In the Iniddle the pluperfect is strictly the
augmented tense of the present, and calls for no further remark:
EA€AVflYJv, EA€A€{JLJLYJV, etc. Latin supplies its place by a peri-
phrasis: visus eram.
§ 2. Other' Moods.
The Greek pluperfect, being merely the augmented tense of
the perfect, has no other moods than the indicative (cf. supra
281). Latin formed through analogy (supra 150) a tense called
pluperfect subjunctive, legissern, amavissem, periphrastic in
the middle voice, vis'tltS essem, secutus
SEOTION VIII.
VERBA.L NOUNS.
(299) 1. Supine, active and passive (Latin): visum
lectum lectii.-These are respectively the accusative and abla-
tive of a stem in -tu-,2 the meaning of which may be either
active or passive.
3
Of course custom alone, not the form of the
case, caused the differentiation of meaning between these two
forms.
2. Future Participle active (Latin): stem in -turo-,
visurus, related to nouns denoting agent.
4
3. Verbal in -to- (Latin and Greek), past participle, in Greek
usually passive, in Latin passive in active verbs and active in
deponents, used secondarily in Greek to express the idea of
possibility: € (said or able to be said), (broken or
1 Of. supra 89, VI in fine.
3 Cf. supra 282, 111,3.
2 Supra 119, 158, and 204, 6.
4 Supra 121, 6.
310 G ~ E E K AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
breakable); lectus, fractus, v'iSus, secutus, solitus, intuitus,
etc.!
4 Verbal in -rf.o- (Greek), future participle passive denoting
obligation: Af.KTf.O'i (to be said), etc.
2
5. Verbal in -ndo- (Latin), with the same function as the last
formation: Zegendus, sequendus, etc.
3
6. Gerundives (Latin): respectively the genitive, dative,
ablative and accusative or the preceding stem: dissimuZand'i
causa, operam dare quaerendo, v'ires acqu'irit eundo, inter
cenandttm, etc.
4
1 Supra 117 and 158.
8 Supra 137, 156, and 171.
2 Supra 133, 156, and 169.
4 Supra 115, 5.
CONCLUSION.
(300) Here our comparative study of Greek and Latin comes
to an end. We have surveyed in all its divisions the grammar,
properly so called, of both languages, stating in each case the
correlations and divergencies. 'Ve have almost always been
able to account for these, by bringing them back historically
and logically to two principles, as simple in their character as
they are constant in their application: the agreenlent, based
upon phonetic laws which are absolutely inviolable, goes back
to a common origin; the divergence arises from the particular
development of each language when left by itself, and in this
development itself the essential factor is linguistic analogy,
which is a special form of the association of ideas. Is it
necessary at this point to warn the reader that this book cannot
be a dictionary, and that many derivative or grammatical forms
have had to be purposely excluded from an introduction which
it was important not to make unduly long or complicated?
Among these forIns there are many which the student, with a
little reflection and with the help of the method into which we
have striven to initiate him, will be able to explain by himself
without difficulty. On the other hand, there are some problems
of this kind, very few, let us hope, before which he will be
brought to a standstill; there are some of which we could not
have given him the solution, because in the present stage of
the science they are insoluble, and perhaps ,viII always remain
so. These details are of little importa;nce. The essential point
is that, alike in their general outlines and in their fundamental
framework, Greek and Latin should appear to us to be really
identical, not because of superficial and ill-observed resem-
blances, but because of characteristics which the minutest
analysis only serves to bring out in a yet stronger light, and
311
312
GREEK AND LATIN GRAM1\£AR.
because of the very essence of their nature; that eveTy gram-
marian, however vast or howev(jr ljmited his horizon, should, in
order to survey it, arm himself with a scientific and precise
method, which may defend him from arbitrary comparisons and
hasty conclusions; that, lastly, a clear, exact and fruitful idea
of the evolution of language should take the place, in the minds
of our students, of the imaginary entities and etymological
fancies of former times.
INDEX OF WORDS.
N.B.-This index does not include, as a general rule: (1)
nominal forms other than the nominative singular, and verbal
forms other than the 1st pers. sing. of the present indicative
(except in cases which have a special interest); (2) the com-
pounds which will be found; in the chapter on composition
(175 ff.); (3) secondary and tertiary derivatives, etc., which
must be sought under their respective endings in the index of
terminations.
The references are to the sections (1-3°0).
I.-GREEK.
'A- (priv.) ... ... 49 alows 124, 181, 201, 208, a\¢6s ... 60
a-, a- (copul.) 49, 61 212 ••• ... 202
d')'avos ... 39 alEl ... 204 lifJ-a
... 204
a"'/€Lpw 57 aLEV ... 204 afJ-apnivw
93
a",/w,; 39, 112 aUs ..• 204 afJ-{3p0(Jla 48
a"'/opa ... 57 a18f}p 36,136 tifJ-{3POTOS
48
a",/pos 36, 70, 79, 116 aUJw 36,41 afJ-El{3w •••
57
{1",/xw ••• 36, 46, 58, 89 a17r6AOS ••• ... 179 afJ-fA"'/w •••
79
a",/w 36, 41, 58, 89, 234, al(JeaV0fJ-uL 93 afJ-Epa ... 9,193
239 alwv 112, 154, 201, 210 afJ-ES
... 227
a",/w",/?] 41
aKfJ-?]S ... ... 120 lifJ-LA\a ••• 37,197
dOfJ-Y;s ..• 120 aKfJ-Wv ... ... 115,201 tifJ-fJ-€
... 227
aEl ••• ... 204 CiKOLTLS ••• ... 61 ap.fJ-€s ... 222,227
etfAWS 72 aKoAov(JOS 34,61 afJ-fJ-os
... 229
a'Y]owv ... 213 aKwKf} ... 110 CtfJ-v6s
63
af}p.•• ... 136 aAEl¢w ••• 51 dfJ-¢l
60,187
&'(Javaros ... 181 aAKL (loc.) ... 176 UfJ-¢£s
... 187
'A(J'r/vu ••• 37,72
aA\aYIJ ••• ... 62 CtfJ-¢OP€VS ... 79
'A(J'r/vaa••• 37,72 a\\arrw 62 ava 79
'A(Jfwat€ 47,195 a\\OfJ-aL••• 91,233 aVaLO?]S ••• 124,181,201
'A(J'r/vala 37,72 Ci\AOS ... 39,112,217 40,65,204
'A(JfW7J 37 aAAVL ... ... 217 l1Y€fJ-OS' ••• ...... 78
aOp6os 61 a\oxos ••• 61 aV€Y;Los ••• 79
... 61 a\s ... 200 avf}p 47,136,211
313
314
GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
aVT!
... 36 {3alvw ... .. 57,91 j'lvop.aL ••• ... ... 63
ltVTAOS
... 122 {3a.KTpoll ••• - ... 121 'YLlIWUKW ... 63
ltvw
... 187 [3aAAw ... 52,90 'YA€UKOS ••• ... 111
avw'Yw
... 298 {3alla 57 'YAUKVS ••• 111, 203, 214:
liop
... 136 {3ap{3apos 60 'YAwuua••• ... 112,197
aOToll
24 {3apos ... ... 124 'YlIWfJ.?J ... ... 114

49,61 {3apus ... 57,111,124 'YVWTOS ••• ... 35
a7ras
... 61 {3a(TLA€VS ... 76 'YovaTa ••• ... 40,215
a7rLK€rO ••• 78 {3acTLs ... 59 'Y0vlIara••• 40
a7rAOOS ••• 49,68 {3auKw ... ... 92 '}'OllU 58,203,215
a7rO 79 {3auuwlI ••• 39,126
rop'Y'w ... ... ... 213
lJ.pa ... 217 {3a¢f} ... 110 'Youvara••• ... 40,215
apapluKw 92,240 {3tA€J.tvoll ... 115 'Ypa¢€vs••• 76,131
,ApY€L¢OllT?JS ••• 132 {3EAOS ... 52,57 ypa¢w ••• ... 63,87,89
apyos ... 58 {3EvOoS ... 49,124 'YUlIf} 57,215
lipyupos ••• ... 58
f3?JAOS ... ... 116
ap€O"KW •••
... 92 f3Aa7rTw••• ... 87 AaLrp6s ••• 121
ap€Tf} ... 92 {3AWO"KW••• ...48,80,92 oaKVW ... 93

... ... 213 ...47,57,93 oaKpu ••• 59
l1p()poll ••• 59,122 {3oXoJ.taL ••• ... ... 47 oaJ.tllaw ••• 88
apLur€p6s ... 159 (3opci ... 57 OciJ.tV?JJ.tL.•• 88,94,272
lipKroS' ... ... 52 f3ovAop.aL 47,93,233 oap(}avw ... 93
(gen.) ... 113, {3ous 76,213 oaO"us ... ... 72
apow ••• 51 [3paovs ••• 59 oaUAOS ... 72
... 62,127 {3pEp.,W ... 117 O€OOlKW ••• ... 298
l1pp?JKros ... 40 f3p€TaS ... 129 o€Loia ... 40,292
l1PP?Jv
69,210
{3p
E
XW ... 62 o€low ... 292
l1pO"?Jv 69,113 {3pLO"oa ... 40 o€lKlIUP.L 32, 88, 94,249
apXL- ... 180
{3POVT.1} ... 117 272
apxw 89
{3p6ros ... 48 O€LKlIVW ••• ... 249
aO"rf}p 51,211 {3pWTUS •.. 119 € 116
liUTU 40, 119, 203, 214 {3ws ... 213 o€wa 220
au¢€ ... 227 OELlIOS 116
ar€p 49 raXa 65,203 O€Ka 58
aT€pOS ... 121 j'alJ-{3pos 48 O€Kas ... 136
aT?J 72 yaJ.tfw ... 48,97 OEJ.tW 34
aTLJ.taw ••• ... 178 y E"IaJ.t€lI ••• 43,87,292 € 59
aTlw ... 178 'Y("I0va •••41, 43, 87, 292 ... 118
aTTa ... 220
'Y€'Y
wvw
••• 89,298 OfP?J ... 37
aTTa ... 220
'Y
fAWS ... 136,174 oEpKop.aL ... 43
avara 72 'Y€lI€a • t. 37,72 ofppa ... ... 37
••• 36,93 j'€1I€f} ... 37 OfU7rOLVa . .. 112
avp?JKros ... 40
'Y€lIEOA?J••• ... 122 O€O"7rOT1'J S 132,196
aVTOll ... ... 224,228 'Y(lI€O"LS ••• ... 117 of}X€TaL ••• 57
alrros ... ... 72,220 'Y€lI€Tf}p ••• ... 97 OLaLraw ••• ... 236
avws ... 124 'Y€lI€Tf}S ••• ... 132 OLaKOllfW . .. 236
l1¢pwv 42, 113, 181, 201
'YElIOS 32, 34, 41, 42, 43, OLoaUKW••• 64,92
l1x(}op.aL••• ... 92 124, 181, 203 OLOWJ.tL . ..41, 87, 94, 272
aX7Jup.,aL••• ... 92 'YEpas 129 oLf?JJ.taL ••• ... 94
"171·· •
... 72 OLK?J 110
BaOlwll ••• 39,126
'Y71pas ... ... 129 olvlIW 93
{3a()os ... ... 124
'Y?Jpvw 36 O[lIW 93
{3ciOPOll ••• ... 122
'YL"IvoJ.taL . ..41,43,90 alOS 32
{3aOvs ... 49,111,124
'YL"'IlIWO"KW 58, 92, 238 ots ••• 40
INDEX OF GREEK WORDS.
315
ol¢>pos
... 41,109 etp,aprat•••. ••• ... 238 lp€v(Jos •••
41,124
OJAOS
59 elp,l 69,87,249,272 EOtS
127,204
OOP,€lI
115,204 eLp,t 42,87,233,272 Ep7rW
60,68,233
oop,ellat •••
115,204 e£lIup,t ...40,69,78 l!p(]"'Y)
'"
78
oop,os
34,59 ei7ra , .. ... 245 €pcr'Y) 78
37,197 €l7r€ .,. ,.,40,81,90
Epv8pos 41, 51, 59, 116,
OJpV
'"
'" 215
€ls •,. ......... 47 124
OOT1]p
121,201,211
eTs .,. 108, 200, 207, 210 lpws 136
OOTOS
41,117 EK •••
".
63
ES '"
47
oof/lIat
'" 130
EKarop,{3'I}
... 213 l!cr8YJs 69
OOVpi (loc.)
'" 215
EKaTOll ... 49,79 EcrK€ 92
opacrrf}s •••
132 EK€L .,. 187 Ecr7rfpa •,. 78
opf7r all011
116 EK€LlIOS
".
.,.220 €cr7r€pos ••• 40
OPOP,€uS .,.
131 EK€X€tpia 61 Ecrria 40
opDs
214 lKr08€1I ••• .,. 187
EcrxaTos ••• 134
ovas
136 EKr6s .,. 187 Erepos ... 121
ouvap,at .,.
88,233,273 lAacrcrov••• .,. 39 lTt.,. 59,79
OUO.,. ... , .. 188
lAarToll" • 39 lTOS 59
OVW
30,188 €AaXVS ••• 39,57 ETOS , .. 41
OWO€Ka .,.
... 40 lfAOWp , .. .,. 136 eD ••• ,., 72
owpea .,.
72 €A€u8€pos 51 e(Jaoe 40
OWpOll ... 35,116 tEAAas
... 136 evyell1]s42,124,181,201
owrf}p
... 121 EA7rls .,.
63,127
€(Jyews ". ••• ". 81
OWTWp 35, 51, 59, 77, 121,
€AWP 136 eUfKT'Y)s •••
".
.,. 132
201,211 €p,avroll ••• 228 e(Jtoe ,...,.233
EP,€V 115 euplcrKw ••• 92,234,239
E.,.
. .. 224,225 Ep,EW 34 evpus ,.. 111
la , ••
.. , ,.. 280 lp,p,a 115 e(Jwy; , .. ... 108
tap.,.
.,. 127,215 lp,p,€lI 115
lx€a
244 fr,
Eavrov
". ". 224,228 l!p,p,€vat .,. 115
lX€cr¢t .,'
.,. 125
iyw 58,77,216,222,225 Efl-f-lL 69,87,249 EXETA'Y) ••• ... 122,159
fyWlI .,.
.,.222 Ep,fJ-ope
".
,.. 238
Ex
eua ... 245
, .. 59
Efl-OS ... .,.229 ex8alpw ••• 52, 141, 145
t01]oa
33,240 EV , •• 32 €X8pos ,.. ••• 52,141
EOOS
59,124,212 €lI ••• 48,108,203 lxw 58, 61, 90, 124, 233,
€opa
... 116 lv(}a, EV(}€lI
... 187 238
low
32 lvtcr7re .,.
... 90 41
iowof} .,. 110
lfvtcr7res '"
".
, .. 255 €WS (subst.) ... 78,191
€et7rOV
90,233 ElIlIfa
32,40 €WS (conj.) 76
EfPYW
'"
79 Ell 11 Vp,t ... .,.40,69,78 EWVTOV .,.
... 228
fEpcr1]
79
lfvTepoll '" ,.. 121
E8fAW
79,233 €vros .. , 32,187 Ze(rYllv/u 39,88
elo€l1]l1
144,294 €vrocr8€lI ... ,.. 187
€ ... 118
elOfW
'" 144,293 € .,.
'"
40
1
68 Zeus 39,197,213
erOOS
'"
41 €OtKa .,. 238,298
!1]TEW 94
. elovLa
... 128,151 EOS •••
,'.
32,68,229
!vyoll 39,109,190
etow
89,293
€7rt(3oaL '" ." 207,208 ivyos .,. 30,109
elows
34,128,297 €7rLcrK07rOS 41
elKWll .,.
". 113 €7rLcrTap,at ... 236
ro'Ha
149,234,280
elKws , ,. 128, 297 ... ,.. 108 f}{31] ......... 39
€lAf}Aov8a 34, 41, 43, 87, €7rOp,aL ••• 57,233 7]OVS ...30, 41, 59, 111
240, 292 €7rOS 34,40 T]fAtOS 72
d'A1]¢a .,.
... 233,238 E7rTa 60,68 7;Ka 39
eLp.,a .,.
... ,.. 115 €pyov
'"
40,58,109 1jKa .,.
".
... 99
316
GREEK A.ND LATIN GRAMMA.R.
1]ALOS
72 LOj.t€V 43,87,252,292 220
11l
u
,"
41 LOj.tWV ... ... ... 115 ••• 77
11j.tCJ.L
265
LOpLS 28,116,203 KLlIfW ... 94
nj.tap
203 levaL ... 130,204 Klpll7]j.tL ••• 88
'hj.tfOLj.t1l0V
79
••• ...... 90 KLxavw •••
61
'hj.t€LS
78,227 Y7]j.tL
... 28,41,87 KA€YjOWV
163
'hj.tfpa ••• 9, 37, 193 ff.
l8apos 41 KA€LS
127
'hfJ.
E
P7] ••• ...9,37,193 LKKOS ... ... 40 KAfOS 72,124
'hj.tET€POS ... ... 229 LKlI€op.aL•.• 93 KAYjOWlI ••• ... 163
'hP.L- ... ... 33 LlI, YlI ... 225 KA7]7]OWV ... 163
7]j.tL ••
... 69,249
fos ••• ... 192,221 KA7]is ... 127
11
7ra
p 39, 52, 57, 127, 215
L7r7reUS 76, 131, 213 KALlIlIW ••• 93
np ••• ... 215
t7r7rOS ...32, 34, 40, 78, KALlIW 93,94
1]pws ... 131, 204, 213
112,187 ff. KAVTOS 30,58,117,124
7;(J8a 252,280
ts ... ... ... ... 29 KAVW 91
f}(J(Jov, !;TTOV... ••• 39
L(Ja/u 252 KAWtf! ••• ... 202
7]Xw ... 131 L(J8L (be) 79,255,277 KlI7]fJ.LS ••• 127
7]WS
78,124 f(J8L (know) ... 255,295 KO- 57,220
L(JOS ... ... 40,69 KOLT7] ... 117 273
8appos 69 f(j(JOS
40,69 KOAWVOS
' 47
8ap(Jos 69,124 Y(JT7]j.tL
7, 9, 37, 41, 87, KOj.t7]
9
8ap(Jus ••• 69,124
272 KOllL(JaAOS 68
8a(J(Jov •••
... 126 t(JTWp
... ... 121 K07rTW ••• 92
8aTepov ••• ... 121
fcrxw 90
... 127
8€LVW 57
i¢L••• 29,176,204 Kopevvv/LL 140
8eAw 79,233
f¢£Os 176 KOp7] 37,40
8ElIap ... 127,215
lX8us ... 214 Koppa ... 37
8eos ... 187 lwv ... 222 KOPVS ... 127,204
8€pa7raLVct 49,151
KO(JfJ-0S ••• 69
8epa7rwlI 49,151
Kaf3f3ctA€ 62,79 KOUp7] ... 37
8epfJ-7]
-
... 114 Ka87]j.tCJ.L ... 236 KpaT€pOS 121
8€pfJ-oS 57,114
••• 145 KpdTOS ••• 124.181
8EpOS ... 57 KaLW 39, 284 KpaTus ••• 39:126
8E(JLS
83
KctAEW ... 97 Kpel(JcrWlI 126
8€TGS
41,59,117 KaA7]j.tL ••• ... 249 KP€LTTWV 39
81]K7] 83,127
KaAos ... 179 Kp€j.tavVVfJ-L ... 140
87]A1]
33,59 Ka7r7r€(J€ 62, 79 Kplllvw ••• 93
8f)AVS
33,59
Kapa 215 Kplllw ... 93,94
8f}j.tct
... 41
Kapola ••• 52 KpLT1]S ... ... 132
81]p ... 66
Kap7] 215 Kpu[307]V 163
8Yj(Javpos 83
Kap7rOS ••• 57 KTelVW ••• 39, 47, 284
811y} (JKW 90,92 KapT€pOS 121 KTf,lIl1W ••• ... ... 39
8pCJ.(Jus •••
... 69 KCJ.Ta 79 KVlIEW 93,94
8paUAAos 69
KaTW 187 KUWlI 41, 47, 113, 201,
61,200 KELj.tctL 262,264,273 210
8v)'aT7]p••• 121,211
K€lVOS ... 220 Kwpa 37
8vj.tos ...31,59,114
KfA€v80S 34
8v(J8AOll •••
59,122 KfA7]S ... 124
Aa)'xcillw 9-3
8vw
31 KfAAW ... 69,97 Act)'WS ••• 191
8wfJ-GS 41,83
KfllTPOll ••• 51,121 ActLOS ••• 36, 112
127 KEpctS 58, 129, 212 Actj.t{3cillw 93,94
K€v8allw 93 Xctj.t7rcis 136
loLOs ; .. ... 151
K€v8j.tos 114 Xctj.t7rPOS
116
lolw
59, 234
K?] 187
XcifJ-7rw •••
... 116
INDEX OF GREEK
WORDS.
317
'Aav8avw
93

33, 37, 48, 121,
€
40
'Aaas
76 211

40
AfjlW
... 85,87,89,182 p.Y]TLS 59
A€LIM.Jv ••• 47
116 to ...
216,217,220
A€L7rW 34, 41, 42, 43, 57, p.La 68,210
lJ)!KOS
46
89
P.LKp6s 68
OO€
220
A€L1f;LS ... 118 p.Lv
... 225 oo€£va -
220
AfAOL7ra
34, 41, 43, 87, P.LVVW 88
ooovs
123
238, 252, 292 p.lcr)!w 67
'OOUcrfVS
59
€ ... ... 182 P.Lcrfw 69,180
... 110
AfVK'YJ
110
P.LcrOS 69
OOWV
123
AfUKOS
51, 108, 109
121
oIaa 34,43, 59,87, 241,
AfXOS 51 p.o'ipa ... 112,238
252, 292
AfWS
76, 191 p.oLcra ... 197
OrKaOf ... ... 187
A1]8avw
93 p.ov(J"a ... 37,197 OfKfL
... 187
AY]()W
89 P.OU(J"LOO€L 23,54
OfKOL
34,187
A1]OS
76 p.vs ...31,48,69
oIKOVO€ •••
.... 187
A1]TW 131, 213 p.wa 197
oIKOS
34,40
XLP.Y]V ... 115 81, 179
olMOS
114
ALp.7raVW 93

34
AL7ra 51 Navs
... 213 OLVOS
34
AL7rfW ... 42, 89, 90, 130 V€l¢fL
57 Divas
34
AL7rEV ... ... 167 P€KPOS 58
OroMaL
34,39,111
'AL7r'YJlI ... 167 PfKUS
58,111,214
OLOS
34,112,221
Xtcr(J"op.aL
40,91 VfP.€crLS •••
97
olos
... 220
AO)!aS ... 136 PEMOS 48
OLS 28,34,40,72,111
XO)!OS ... 85,182 PffJ.W
47,97 oIcr()a
59,64,252,292
XOL7rOS •••
... 109 VfOS 32,40,47,72
olwvos ... ... 34,111
AOVTPOV 121 V€OT1]S
37
()KKWS, ()KWS •••
... 220
AUKOS ... 57,109 PE7rOO€S
79
lJAAup.L •••
47,240
XU7r'YJ ... ... 110 VfUW
47 OAOS
40,51,112
Xurrpos ••• ... 116 P€¢EA1] •••
193
'OAUTT€US
59
... 121 P€¢OS
212
op.Lxew •••
39,58
AUW
39,91 VEW
92,102
()p.MaTa •••
63

92,102
lJvap
... 215
]{aKp6s 39,77,116,124 v1]vs 213
OVLV1]ML ••• 87,285
p.avTLs ••• 118 vLKaa.s
78 ()vojJ-a
'"
48,115,204
p.apllaMaL 88 v£P
... 225
34,57
p.ap7rTW
92 Vl7rTPOV••• 121
lJ7faTpOS
... 181
p.aXYJ ... 110 v£¢a
57,68 OrrOT€ ... ... 220
p.aX°fJ.
aL
89 vL¢€L
57 ()7f7rCLTa
63
fJ-ESwv ...
126 V0fJ-€US 131
07r7rOT€ •••
... 220
p.€LOtaw
68 pop.os
109
07r7rWS, 07rWS
... 220
p.,dSwv •••
126,201,212 vOfJ.os 109 ()p)!alloll
... 116
P.€£WV ... ... 126 VO(J"cPL
204
OPE)!W ... ... 51
fJ-EAL 48,136,203 VUKTWp ••• 158
••• 61,196
MevTwp
... 121 vUfJ-¢a (voc.) 193
OpVLS
'"
127,200,204
P.fVW
47.97 ·120
°PVUfJ-L
... 88,234
'fJ-epos ... ... 112,238 PVJS
30 opos
78
fJ-ecros ...
39,69
pcfJ
222,226
os (reI.)
39,220
fJ-E(J"(J"os •••
... 39,59,69 vwvvfJ-vos 115
os (poss.) ... 229
p.fTa
204
o(J"os
'" 220
P.Y]KOS
124
1-/"
40 o(J"cra
112,197
t!;€LlIOS
P.Y]VLS
116 € ... 40 l)crcr€
... 111
318 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
l)(J(Jos 220 7r€7rodJa 41,292 7ropif>vpa 23,54
l)(JTLS 220 7rE7rov8a 34,43,292
7rO(J€ ... 187
Br€••• 220 7rE7rTW •••
60 7rO(JLS ... 118
BTL 220 7r€pl 79,204
7rO(JOS ... 220
l)TLS 220 7rEPV'Y]IJ.L
... 88,116 7rOT€ ... 220
l)TOU ... 220
7rf(J(JW ... ... 60 1rOT€POS ••• ... 121
ouoas ... 129 7r€TavvvfJ-L ....... 140 1rOTVa ... 112
ov8ap
59 7rfTOfJ-aL32, 41, 60,89, 90 7rOTvta ... 112
OUAOS 40,78,112 € 34, 87, 292 1rOU ... 187
OUfJ-ES 23,227 7r€if>VKW ••• ... 298 1rOVAV 40
oupapos ••• ... ... 116 1rfj ••• ... ... 187,217 7rOVS ... 202, 207, 208
ovpos ... 78
62,88,108 ... 62
OUTOS ... 220 7r'Y]AlKOS ••• ... 116
7rpa(J(Jw 9,91
OVTW 65,187,217,220 7r1}AVL ... 217 7rpaTOS ••• ... 72
OVTWS 187,217 1r'Y]fJ-OP7} •••
115 7rpaTTw ••• 9,37
°XfW
... 124 7rL€tpa ...
112 7rp1}(J(Jw ••• 9,37
6xos
58,124 7rlfJ-7rA'Y]fJ-f.
92 7rpoif>pa(J(Ja ..• 151
6'/1
108,202
7rlpw 93 7rp6if>pwp
... 151
1rL1rL(JKW 92 7rpWTOS ••• 72,134
ITa8€lP ••• 43,90,124 1rL1rpa(JKw 92 IIv8w ... ... 213
7ra8os
... 124 1rL1rTW 90 1rvv8avofJ-at
93
?rai"s 72,127,200
?rL(JTLS ... 59,61 7rUp 16,203
?rats 72,127,200
1rL(JTOS ••• 61 7rWPW 93
1rdAAW ... 92 7rLTP'YJfJ-t ••• 93,140 1rWS ... 202, 207, 208
7raATOS •••
52 7rLif>av(JKw 61
7rQ..v ... 203 7rLWV ... 112
tpa..•
... ... 217
?ro.V01rT'Y]S ... 132 7rAa.P'Y]S ••• ... 127 papa ... ... 210
7raPT'Y] ... ... 204 1rAEKW ... 32,87,92 pEfW
40
1rapa
79,204 7rA1}8w ••• 92 pEW 34,51,69,110,233
1rapa{3Awy;
... 108 1rA1}p'Y]S •••
116

... ... 115
7rapai ... 204 ?rAO.K1} ... 110 p1}')IPVfJ-L
40,51,88,238
?rapos ... ... 204 1rAOOS ... 109
51
7raS 200,207 7rAOV(JtOS 59 p1}Tpa ... 40,121
1ra(J(JwP ... 39 7rAOVTtOS
59 p1}rwp ... ... 121
7raaxw •••
92 1rAOUTOS
59 pryos
29,68
1raT1}p 41,42,51,60,77,
1rO- 57,220,221 pifa
40,112,197
121,199,201,207,211 1rOEW ... 39 pi7rTW 92
1rafJpos ••• ... 127 1ro8€p 187,217 po1}
34,110
1raxvs ... ... 39 7r08L ... 187
127
1r€oa ... ... 36,204 7rOL ... 187,217 PWVPVfJ-L
... 88
1rEOOV ... 109
,
39
7rOL€W
1rel8w ... 32, 41, 59, 61 1rOLfJ-1}V 115, 151, 201,
},;aAOS ...
68
1r€L8w ... 131,213
210 (JavTov ••• ... 224,228
1r€L(Jr1}p ... 121 1rOlfJ-PLOP 115,151 (J{3€PPV€LS ... ... 249
1rEKTW ... 92 1rOLPf] 57,116 (J(3EPPUfJ-L 67,68
7rEA€KVS ••• . .. 214 7rOLOS ... 220 (J€aVTOP ••• ... 224,228
7rlA0fJ-aL
41 1rOKa ... 220 (JE(3ofJ-at ••• 63,68,116
1rEAWp ... ... 136 1rOKOS 92 (J€fJ-POS
63,116
1rEfJ-1r€ ... 45,57 1rOALS 41,111,214
(J€VW ... 68
'trEfJ-1rTOS
57,117 1rOAAOS ••• 40,112 (JLKva 37
7r€fJ-1rTOS
... 117 1rOAVpp'Y]P 40,210
(Jlpa7rL 28,203
1rEP'Y]S ... ... 127 1rOAVS ... ... 111 (JLPLS ... 127
'trfP8os ••• 34,43,124
1r01rapop ... 116 (JLP0fJ-at •••
... 159
7rEPT€ ... 32, 45, 57, 60 1rOPP'Y] ... 88,116 (Jtos ... 54
INDEX OF GREEK WORDS.
319
O'K€OaVVVjLL
140 ... 118
TPWYW 89
O'KE-rrTOjLaL
32,41 49,59 TV •••
223,225
O'Klovrl/,tL
88,140 ... 124 TVLO€
... .•. 187
O'K07rT] ... 41,110 ... 124 TVjL7raVOv
... 116
O'Kcf.,p
... 127 r€ (conj.)
32,57 rV7rTW
... 39, 91, 92, 94
O'jLLKPOS ••• ... 68 T€ (pron.) ... 220
O'jLus
... 68
... 68 ''t(3{3a'AA€LV ... 62
O'oepla ... 9,37 Te,,/w ... 68 ... 179
O'oeplTJ •••
9,37 T€LO€
187,217 vowp 78, 127, 203, 215
••• ... 117 rdvw
59,92 25,72
O'7r€lpw •••
68,91 rELp€a
... 129 ... 200
O'7r€vow •••
34,110 r€K€LV 90 UjL€ls 39,78,227
O'7rAT]V ... 64 TeKjLap ••• ... 127 ujLe)
... 223,227
O'7ropa ... 91 reKjLWp ••• ... 127 {jjLjL€
... 227
cr7ropas •••
... 136 rEKVOV ... 116 €
39,223,227
O'7rOV0ak"w
34 r€AELW ... 39 v7rep
30,60
O'7rovoYj •••
34,110 r€AEW ... 39 63,116
O'TajL€V •••
42,115 TEAAW 91,92 V7rO
30,79
••• 41,42,117 TEjLVW 90,93 VS •••
31,68
O'Teap
... 215 € 32,229 134
O'TE'YTJ ... 110 ... 129 VerT€pOS 78
€ 68 rep€TpOV ... 122
O'T€'YW
32,68 repjLwv ••• 115
<PaELvos ••• 69
uTdxw ••• ... 109 T€(J'(J'ap€s
40 epa€vvos 69
O'T€AAW •••
rexvTJ ... 32
••• 69
€
... 159
€ 217 ¢alvw 47

... 116
••• 116 69
O'TfjvaL
42,130
220
59,118
erTik"w 39,91 TL8aL(3wererw ••• 60
¢avos 69
... 109
TiOTJjLL 7, 41, 59, 61, 83, ¢€O'Y€LV ••• 24
(J'Toa
37
epEpVYj ... ... 116
(J'TOLCt
37 riKTw ...... 90 ¢epT€ ... ... 87
(J'TOpVVjLL
68 TLjLaw
39,84,180 ¢epw 34, 35, 41, 60, 89,
crrpa[36s. ••
109

... ... 84
249
(J'TpaTTJ'Yos 41 TLVW 93
¢EV'YW 32,41,89
(J'TpWjLVf]
115
28,57,217,220,221
¢Yj}-tTJ 37,41,114
UTV'YLOS ••• 39,112 TierLs
... 57
¢TJjLl 37, 41,87,249
(J'TVW
41 TLTa[vw •••
... 92
¢"hp ......... 66
crV •••
... 223,225 TLTpW(J'KW
92 ep8alpw ... ... 91
..• 108 Tlw
39,57 ¢8avw ... ... 93
O'US•••
68 TAaw ... 64
¢8Elpw ••• 39, 69, 91, 97
O'¢a'ipa •••
112,197
TATJTOS 64 ¢8eppw •••
39,91
O'epaAAw•••
68 ro- 216,217,220 ¢81vw ... ... 93
O'epe-
224,227 rOLos 220
¢LAL7r7rlS€L 83
O'epETEPOS ... 229 TOLOuros 220
¢AE'YW ... 108
O'¢os ... 229
110
¢AEi/J
O'¢w
... 223,226 ro(J'os
220
62,108
O'XEs ... ... 255 roerOVTOS ... 220 ¢6vos
57
O'Xlk"w 58,83,91 rOTE ... 220
¢opa 34,110
124,181,196
roJ ... 223 ¢opds
... 136
O'w/J-a 115
TP€Ls 39,59
60,110
rpeepw ... 61
¢OPEW 34,39
TavvjLaL
88 TpLaKovTa ... 190
¢opos
34,109
Tavvw ... 88 Tpl[3w ... 62,63,87 ¢opos
..• 109
320 GREEK AND LATIN GRA1tIMAR.
¢pa£w 141 XClp.,al ... ... 193,204 xopros 58,117
¢pa(J'(J'w
141 xavoavw ... ... 57 xpa(J'8aL ... 141
¢par"fJp ••• 121 Xdos
78 XPy](J'8aL ... 141
¢parYjp ••• 121 XapLS . .. 136,204 Xpv(J'€OS 25, 39, 72, 151,
¢parwp ••• 60,121 xapp.,ovrf ... 115
191
¢pYjv 42, 113, 201, 210
X
tLALOL
•.•
69 xvrAov
... 122
¢poDoos ... 72
X€LP
199,200 xwpa
. .. 179,193
¢V,,/Clo€ ••• ... ... 187 x€L(J'op.,aL 57
xwp'rJ
. .. 193
¢(ryoa ... 163 XEAALOL ••• 69
xwpos
... 179
¢vyYj 32,41,110
XEPVL1f
108
¢vfw 39 X€W 58 o/€voYjs ••• 124,212
¢vlw 39,91 XrfALOL
69
1f€Doos ... 124
¢DKOS ... 23
xrfv
47, 78
¢VAr] ... 116
xr;p
... 200 'OK.lwv 39,126
¢D'Aov ... 116
X
8fS ... 204 WKVS ... 111
¢V(J'LS 59,69
X
8wv ... 201,210 WfJ-OS 47,78
¢vw 39,60,91
X
tALOL 69 wpa ... 39
¢WV?] ... 41
X
LWV 48,201,208 cJJpos
39
¢wp 35,201 XAafJ-vS .••
127 WS ••• 65,220
XA6"fJ
78 w(J'r€ ... 220
XafJ-c1f€ ... 195 XOAOS ... 113
II.-LA.TINa
Ab ... 62, 79 agnus ......... 63 ante ... 36
abdoucit ... 26 ago ... 36, 41, 58, 89 ap- ... 62
abduco ...
62 agricola . .. 110, 195 apiscor... 73, 92
absens ...
123 aidilis ... 26 appeto ... 64
accaptare ... 32 Albius ... ... 60 applaudo 36
acceptus ... 36 albus ... ... 60 aptus 92
accurro
64 Alfius 60 apud ... 65
acer 70, 116, 152, 200 aliquis ... ... 221 aput 62
Achilles ...... 213 alituum (gen.) . .. 206 arbor ... 33,69,201
Aciles ......... 54 alius ... 39, 112, 217 arbos 33, 69, 124, 201,
acris 70, 116, 152, 200,
alloquor 34 212
203 almus ... ... ... 114 arefacio ... 147
acus 111 a70 ... ... 89 arena ... ... 78
adaugeo ... 36 a7ter ... 121,217 ,argentum, 58
adigo 36 alumnus ... 156,279 armentum ... 115
adultus... ... 142 alveus ... ... ... 73 aro 51
aedes ... 36,41 alvos ... 112,186 arvom ... 51, 112
aegrotus ... 141 arnbages ... ... 41 asellus ... ... 51
aenus ... 69, 73 ambire ... ... ... 60 assiduos ... 112
aequor ... 124 arnbo 77, 188, 194 auceps 36,40,79,179
aes... ... ... 73 arno 39, 73, 141 aucupium 36
aestumo ... 36 ango ... 36, 46, 58, 89 audax 200, 203, 206
aestus ... 41 anguis ... ... ... 36 audio ... ... ... 73
aevom ... ... 112,154 angulus ... ... 44 augeo ... ... 36, 96
agceps .. ~ ... ... 44 animal 77, 157, 203 augmen ... 115
agellus ... ... ... 79 animus... ... 78 augmentum ... . .. 115
ager 36, 70, 116, 191 annuo 47 augurium 36, 179
aggulus ... 44 annus ... 181 augustus 36
ag1nen ... 26, 77, 115 anser 47, 78 aureus ... 39, 73, 151
INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 321
cicer ..• ... . .. 203
cinis •.. 124, 201, 212
cito . .. 187
claudo ..• ... 79
claustru?n 51, 64, 121
clausus ..• ... ... 64
clavis . . • . .. 127, 204
Olodis ..• 73
On. (abbrev.). 55
coalesco... 73
cocus 34
coda 26
coe?no 73
coepi 73, 239
coeptu?n 26
cognitus ... 35
eognO?nen . .. 115
cognO?nentu1n ... 115
eogo 36,73
colligo ... 32
47
colloco ... 34
cdumba 57
conws ..• 120
cO?nis ... 165
cornisscfJri 141
coneO?"s ... 63
eoneulco 36
concutio 36
confeetus 36
204
conjicio ... 36
conJux ..• . .. 108
Oonsentes ..• 123, 189
consobrinus ... . . . 69
consul... 59, 77
conviciu?n 35
coquina 57
coquo 60
cor 52
cornu 58, 203
corpus ... . .. 208, 212
coventionid 204
cresco ... 92
122
culler 121
CU1n 34
cupa 82
cuppa 82
cur 217
cuspis 127
datoY' 35, 51, 59, 77, 121,
211
datus 41, 117, 279
debeo 73
decent ... 58
decet '" 62
decido ..• ... 36
decor ..• 124
clecus ... 124
dedi 238
defendo 92
degener 124, 201, 212
dego ... 73
deico 32,40
dmno ... 73
dens 123,200,279
denuo ... 40
deus 40,187
dexter 59, 79, 121, 191
di- ... ... 69
dico . .. 32, 40, 62, 89
dietatored . . • . .. 204
didici ... . . . 64, 238
dies 39, 77, 197, 200
Diespiter ... . .. 197
dif- ... ..• ..• 69
difeidens . . . .. . 26
dignus 44, 62, 63, 77
dis- ... 69
disco 64,92
distinguo . . . . . . H3
divos 32,40
dixi . .. 253. 284
dixti ...·253
do... 87,272
dolo?" 69, 124
dolus ..• 59
dO?ni ..• 187
dO?ninus ... 279
donI-us ..• 34, 59
donu?n ... 41,116
douco ••• ... 32
32, 89
duellum ..• 40
cluim ... 95,2'76
duo 30, 40, 77, 188, 194
40
dux 32
dvenos 40
dvonus 40
aurora... 124
autu1nnus 156
auturno 34
avis 34, 73, 111, 200,
204 ff.
Balbus ... 60
battue1"e . . . 26
bell'll/)n ... 40
bene 187
beneficenti01" 161, 291
bibo ... 60,87
208
bis... 40
bonus 40
bos 213
bubuleus 179
byssus ... ... ... 26
O. (abbrev.) ... 55
caedes 124, 125, 201
caelites... 120
caelu?n ... 51
ccwruleus 51
caesius 39
caldus 79
eCfJlidus . . . 79
callis 116
calor 124
candelabru?n 41
canis ... 206
cantus ..• ... 119
capesso... 145
capio 16, 39, 73, 91, 94
eapso ... 97
carnifex ... 30
carn'llfex . . . 30
carD 210
carpo 57
cassis ..• 127
cassus 69
cauda 26
causa 64,69
causidicus . .. 109
caussa 64, 69
caveD ... 68
celer . •• 124, 212
cenatus . . . . . . . .. 297
censor ... ... 77
centum, 49, 79
Ceres ... 124, 212
cerno 94, 122
certe ... 187
certo 65, 187
Dacru?na
danunt ..•
59
93
E ...
ec- ..•
eCU8
y
.' .. 64
63
34,40
322 GREEK AND LATIN GRAMMAR.
est (he eats)
et ...

elt1item . ..
ex

exi1nius
existu?no
exsul
exsulto ...
exterior
ferax ... 127
fero 35, 41, 60, 89, 249,
272
ferox . .. 200, 203
fe1"re 69, 125, 278
fert . . . 87, 249
fetus ... . .. 115
.fides 41, 77
fido
ficlus ... 41, 109
fiere 77,125
fieri 77, 125, 267
·filius 33, 59, 73, 191
:fingo ... 96
jio... 77,267
jirmus ... .oo 114
fiabru1n 59,122
jlebilis oo. oo. 138
fleeto 92
jluvius ... ... 112
foedus 26,34,41,124
fore ... 30
. .. 114
for111,o . .. 141
forrrtus 57, 114
frater 60, 121
jre11'w 92, 117
frendo ... ... 92
frigus oo. 29,68
fructus ... 119,200, 206
fruges oo. • •• 119
fucus ... ... 23
fuga 41,110
fugi 34,41,87,292
fngio 39,91
jid 31,34,60, 253,292
fulcio ... 141
fulcrum . . . 51, 122
fulgeo .oooo. 96
ful1nen ... . oo oo. 203
31, 59, 114
funditus 187
fundo 58
funebris . . . 69
funestus ... 69
funus ... 69, 124
fuo 39,104
fur 35,77,201
furnus ... 57
furor 30
fususoo. 69,117
... 112
59,118,200
58,203
26,40
34, 41, 69,
124
41,90
92
116
35
69
57,111,152
...... 69
57
200,204
... 110
... 204,217
...... 221
41,111
. .. 123, 200, 279
... 116
45,63,178
34,47,77
... 187,217
... 217,221
.oo 217,221
gigno
glisco
gnarus .
gnotus .
gradior
gl"avis ...
gressus
grex
grus
gulcfJ
Ibi
idenL
idu8
ie'ns
ignis
ignosco ...
ilico
illac
ille
illic
Habeo ... 16
hac 187,217
hello ... 78
hetnser ... 47,78
harena '" ... 78
haruspex 32,108
henwne1n (ace.) ... 210
herba ... oo. 60, 110
here, heri . . . . .. 204
herus ... ... 78
hic 217,221
hie (adv.) . .. 217
hiems 48, 200, 201, 208
kinc ... ... . .. 217
lwlus ....oo 78
lwnw 41, 47, 77, 113,
201, 207, 210
honor 69, 77, 201, 212
honos 69, 77, 78, 124,
201, 208, 212
58,117
... 196
... 217
... 78
oo' 187
oo. 113
lwrtus ...
hosticapas
huc
hU1rwrus
hU1rli
hU1nus ...
genius
gens
genzt
genua
genus 32,
... 39
... 117
Gaviu8 .
{jenitu8 .
edelX 127
edi11l 95
edo (vb.) ... 32,33
edo (subst.) 113, 201,
210
ef- ... 63
egi 41,239,292
ego 58, 77, 222, 225
enw ...•.. 48
ensis •.. 77
eo ... ... 87,249,272
eques . . . . .. 120, 179
equos 32, 34, 40, 78, 112,
187 ff.
elYMn 101, 149,235, 245,
280
ero 69,89,274
erus ... ..• 78
escit ... 92
esse . .. 125, 2?8
essenl ... 106,281, 282
e8t (he is) 32, 82, 87,
249, 272
87, 249
59 79
137
123
64
48
112
36
59
36
121
Faber 60
.fabula 122
facio 41, 59, 87, 91, 99
factor ... 121
fallo 68
{eMna 37,114
fa1nes '" 197
fari 37,41
fastigium. '" 151
{edeol'" ... ... 41
.f(lXem,·... 106,282
j'axo 97,282
292
feZ . . . . .. 113, 210
felix 200, 203, 204, 206
(elo 33,59
femen ... ... . .. 215
jem.ina 33,59,115,279
j'em,ur 30, 127,203,215
INDEX OF LATIN 'VORDS.
323
Jaceo 98,286,287,289
Jacio ... ... 98
iecur 30, 39, 52, 127,
203, 215
J'equr ... 55
J;udex 108
30, 39, 93, 190
jUl1wntum. . . . ... 115
iungo ..• 39,93,94
Jupiter 82,197,213
Juppiter . . . 82
juvenis ... 39,206
illinc 217
illuc 217
im, 221
in ... 32
in- (priv.) 49
inclutu.g 26, 30, 58, 117
. .. 115
inde 187,217
indigena 110,195
infans ... 37
inferus . .. 139
infi111us . .. 139
... 90
jnsece ... 90,255
inspicio 32
intellego 32
inter 121
interior 121
139
intus 32, 187
ipse 221, 228
i1"i ..• 282
is ... . .. 217,221
istac 187, 217
iste ... 217,221
is-tic . .. 217, 221
istinc 217
istuc 217
it ... 87,249
iter 215
itiner ... 215
?nedius ... 39, 59
?neio 39,58
?nel ... 48
1nelior ... . .. 126
1nemini... 34, 295
?nens 34,118
1nensor ... . .. 121
1nensura 64, 121
?nergo 109
?nergus 109
lneses 44
?nes-sis 118
met 222
1netior 121
rneus 229
1ni ... 73,78
1nigro ... 57
63,120,200
?ninister 159
1ninor 126
1ninuo 88
1nirificus 109
1nirus ... 68
1nisi 69
69
1nodo 77
1noenia . . . 26, 34
?noinicipi01n . . . 26
1noles . . . . .. 206, 212
11101estus . . • . .• 212
1nollis ... ... ... 59
?noneo 34, 39, 73, 141
lnorior .. . 91, 141
lnors 48
lnotus ..• 35
rnoveo ... 35, 105
rnulctra ... 121
lnulgeo ... 79, 121
lnunia 34
munio ... ... 34
lnunus ..• . .. 124
m,urus ... 34
1nus 31,48,69
Kalendae
Kartago
Labes •..
labor
lac
lacesso ...
lacio
lacri?na
55
55
197
69
65,203
. .. 145
... 145
26,30
lacrul1Uf; 30, 59
lacryma 30
laedo 69
laesus 69, 180
laevos . . . 36, 112
la1npas ... . .. 136
lapis 12'7,200
laquear... 157
Lares ... 69
Lases... ... 69
latus (borne) . . . 64
lectus 26, 117,279, 299
lectus (bed) ... . . . 51
lego 32,89
leigibus... ... 33
levis 28,57
lex... ... . .. 108, 202
libel" (free) 51
libet 30
licet 98
lictus ... 57, 117
lien 64,201, 210
lingua 59
lino 93
linquo 57,87,98
lis ... ... ... 64
locus 34, 64, 127
locutus ... 57
lubet 30
lubricus 68
luceo 51
lucifer... 109
luo... 121
lupus ... 57
lustruln. . . 121
lux 108
Maarco... 26
?nagister 79, 159
magnus... 39,77,116
?naJor 39, 69; 126, 201,
212
maJus ... 201, 203, 212
?nale 187
111ancipium ..• . . . 36
111ancupium . .• . . . 36
lnane, mani... . .. 204
?nanits 73,116,200,206,
214
'mare . . . 28, 203
?narid ... ... 26,204
. . . . .. 203
1nater 33,37,48,121
1naxinms ... . .• 139
Nare
nates
natio
nautcf;
navaled
navis
navita
nec...
neco
necto
... 68
... 206
118,210
... 132
... 204
... 152,213
...... 132
...... 79
34,58,141
...... 92
324
GREEK AND LATIN
Ob... 62
occisit 97
occurro... 64
ocior 39, 126
oculus . . • . : . 41
odor ... 59
offendo ... 57, 92
oinos 34,112
oleo ". 59
olim ••• 221
ollus ••. 221
olus ..• 78
ornnis ... 210
onus 78,124,208
op- ... 62
optinlUs . .• 139
opus '" 124
orioT 39,91
oscen 108, 179
ovis 28,34,40,111,204
ff.,214
187,217
69
69
69
121
116
221
64.117
. .. ' 64
40,82
40,82
32,57,82
57,217,221
... 217
... 219,221
... 221
... 221
... 127
... 221
". 57
32,45,57,60
Qua
qztaero .
quaeso .
quaestor

qualis .
qua1n .
qUCfJSSU8 .
qucfJtio .
fluattuor
q1,tatuor...
que
Qui
qui (adv.)
qltia
qlticu1nque
qzticlara...
quies
quilibet ...
quinctus
quinque
poploe 51, 189
populus... 51
porgo 79
portio . .. 118
posco . . . 64, 92
praebeo... 78
praeceps 86
ptaepes ... 32
praesens 123
praeses . . . . .. 108
praetor... ... 35
p1Ytetura . . . 35
'" 64, 92
prehendo 57
prenSlls... 78
prirnus . . . 189
profuglls 109
prohibeo 73
pr01no ... 73
1?ropiol" . .. 126
prosper... . .. 197
prudens ,208,204,206
]Judor ..• ... . .. 124
puer 70,191
puls ... 200

pulvis 124, 201
]Junio ... H4
pztppis '" . .. 204
purpurCfJ 23, 54
pltta 77
pyrands . . . 2G
pacont ... 90
pactu1n... 92
pagont ... 90
palurnbes 57
pando '" 93
pango 62, 90, 93, 94, 241
panis '.' ... 116
... . . . 90, 291
paricidas '" 196
paries '" 26, 73, 200
pario '" ... 90,141
parricida 110,179,196
pars . . . 59, 118
particeps . . . . . . 36
partint . . . 59, 118, 204
pasco ... 116
pateo . . . 93, 98
lJater 51, 60, 77, 121,
201,211
patrius... ... 39,151
patrus (gen.) ... 204
pauci '" 127
pa,x 62, D3, 108
pecten 113, 201, 210
pecto '" 113
pecn ... 203
peC1lS 127,200
peda 110
pedetentirn 204
peJor ... '" 126
pello ... 47,52,92
pend0 • • • • •• 34, 41, 87
penitus... ... . .. 187
pepigi '0" 62, 87, 238
per ... ... 79
perfidus '" 41
pernicies ... 112
pes 204ff., 207, 208
peto '" 60
pietas . .. 73, 164, 200
pinguis... 39
piscis '" 111
plaustnl1n 26,121
plebs 62, 200
pleeto 92
plenu8 116
plico 32
plodo 69
plosio 69
poenCfJ 26, 34
poeta 39
p01noerium ... 34
pondus' 34,41,109,124
popina. t • '.f f)7
". 122
90,92
Pabulurn
paciscor
nullus '"
nUTUs •.•
nutrix ...
neglego... 32
nemo 78
nemus '" 48
'" 79
nequinunt 93
neuter 26, 73, 217
nex 34,58
nidus ... '" 69
nihil '" 73
nil... 73 78
ninguit . . . . .. ' 57
nive1n (ace.)... 57,68
noceo 34,58,141
nocuos ... ... . .. 112
n01nen 48, 115, 201, 203,
210
nos . •• 222, 227
nosco 58, 92, 94
noster '" 229
notus ... ... 35
novem 32,40
novitas .. . . . . 37, 164
novos . . . 32, 40, 47
nox '" 120
nubes 124, 125, 197, 206,
212
73,217
30
79
INDEX OF LATIN WORDS.
325
quis 28,57,82,217, 221
quom . . . 34, 221
quotiens 47, 206
quoties ..• 47, 206
TCtbes 197
tagit 90
talis l1G
ta1n 221
tango 90,93,94
teg1nen ..• .. . . .. 115
tego 32, 34, 41, 68
tegula 68
tela ... . .. 116
telu111 .oo ••• .oo 116
teniO .. . oo • 47, 115
tempus 34, 124, 208, 212
tendo ... 59, 92
sparsu8... ..• 64
species ... 112, 197
spero . . • 68, 197
spes 197
spica, spicum. 179
splendeo ..• 64
sponeleo. . . . . . 87
stabili8 . . . . . . 41, 138
51, 59, 122
8tal1wn ... ... ... 41
8tare 37, 41, 125, 278
statim. ... ... 204
status (state) 41
sta,[zl8 (fixed) 41) 117
stella 51
steti 238
stipeneliu1riJ . . • 79
stlis ... 64
stlOCH8 ... 34, 64
stOOl . .. . 68, 87, 272
strictus . . . 93, 117
stringo... ... 93
structus... 26, 117
SHasor... ... 64
suavi8 30,59, 152,200
sub. . • . . • 30, 62, 79
subtem.en 64
subter;" 121
sudo 59
SU1n 249,272
... 63
sU/mrnus 63, 139
sU1npsi... ... 48
. . • 48
sup ... 62
super ... 30,60
8uperstes . .. 120
surgo... ... 79
sus 31,
SllU8 ... ... 32, 229
se (adv.) 225
secius... 39
secludo ... 36, 225
seco ... 62
secundu8 . .. 171
secutu8 ... 57, 279, 299
sed... ... 60,225
sedeo 59, 68, 90
sedes 59,124,212
sedi 238,241
seelulo ... 59
. . . 62
sella 59,116
semel 48,49
senwn 41, 115
seJrl.i- 33
senex 215
sensi1n ..• . .. 204
septem. 60, 68
sequor
ser1110 115, 201, 207
sero ...... 28
serpo 60,68,233
8e1"vi'zui.. . ... 151
Se1"VOS 34. 151
set... ' 62
sex... 68
8iceu8 127
sielo 90
sie1n 33, 73. 95, 245, 276
sil'va ... 26
73, 95, 245, 276
sim.plex 49,68,179
si1nul ... ... 49
sin"us 29, 95, 276
sincerus 179
8inguli ... 49
sinister. . • 159
sino 93
8isto 87
sUis 127
socius 34
sol... 77
soleo ... 267
sollus 40,51,112,217
SOht1n 59
solus 40
S01nnus . . . 40, 63, 116
sons . .. 123, 279
sonticus. . . . .. 123, 162
soro1" ... 40, 69, 201
sovos 32,229
spa1"go ... 64
sparsi ...... 64
... 63
'" 116
bl,122
51,122
... 122
157.200
...J 127
91. 141
... J 174
40,112
... 63
... 200
. .. 200
120
165
157
122
41
63
89
47
63
68
138
58,83,91
...... 62
62,96
62,64,117

... 204
40
127
97
221
79
93
32
51
32
79,242
'" 82
... 197
79,87,242
62,108,202
... 124,203
41,51,59,116
41,59,109
28,204
Radicitus
radix
'j"apax ...
'j"apsit ..•
reapse ..•
'J"eccidi ...
'J"edinunt
'J""ejacere
rego
1"epeto ..•
repperi .
reppuli .
res...
1"ettuli
1"ex
1"obur
1"uber
1"ujus
rure
Sabini ...
Scteer
scteclurn ...
saeCUlU11L
8aetu1"nos
sal ...
'salax
sctlio
sctlu8
salvos
Sct1nniurn
sanguen
sanguis .
satelles .
satullus .
Saturnalia
8aturnltS
satus
scabellu.1n
scabo
scala

scando .
scibilis .
scindo .
scribo .
scripsi ..•
8criptu8
se•.•
326
GREEK AND LAT1N GRAJ\tLMAR.
Xyslum 26
victrix ... 151, 170, 206
victus ... 119
vicus 34,40
viden 69
video 41
vidi 41, 59,87, 241, 253,
292
vinclul1L 122
vinculum, 122
vinunt 34
virtus 200
vis (force) 29
vis (thou wishest) 249
vivo ... ... 96
vixero ... 98
vixi 96,241,253
voco ... 34
volnus 124
vola 34, 57, 77, 249
volt 87,249
vonw 34
voralJo ... 62, 154
vorax 62,127
voro .•• 57
... 34
vorto 34
vos. . . . .. 223, 227
voster ... 34
vox 40, 90, 108, 202
. .. 112
79
73,191
. .. 79
... 69
'" ... 217
34,57
34,112,217
... . .. 179
52
121,204,217
venU1n
Venus .
vertex .
verto
Vertum.nus
vesper
Vesta
vester
vestis
vetu8
via
victor
Vacuos ...
valde
Valeri .
validus .
vas
vectus 26, 117
velw 58, 124, 125, 267,
269
veli1n ... 95,245
velle 34,69,125
Venafr01n ... ... 59
venio 39, 49, 57, 91, 94,
141
179,233
124,212
... 34
34
... 156
40,78
40
34,229
40,78,118
... 59
58
... 151,201
unde
unguis ...
unus
upilio
U1"SUS
uter
tentus 49,59
tenuis, tenvis 26
terebra ... 122
teres 127
terminus 115
termo ... . .. 115
te'J"ra 69, 73, 193 ff.
thesaurizo . . . . .. 141
tignu1n ... 32
toga 34,41,68,110
tollo 52.92
tondeo ... ... . .. 1 87
lovos 32, 40, 229
34, 251
tres 39,59
t1"ifoliul1L . . . 26
... 176
tu ... ... . •. 223,225
tuli 52, 87, 241, 253, 292
Tullius, Tullus ... 151
tUl1L, tunc . . . . .. 221
turris ... . .. 204
tuus
Uber (snbst.) . . . 50
ube'J" (adj.) ... . .. 107
ubi. . . . .. 121, 204, 217
ullus ... 217
Ulysses. . . 59, 213
. . . 47, 78
uncus ... 46
unda . . . 78, 215
INDEX OF TERMINATIONS.
The nominal terminations are given under the form of the
nominative singular (the termination of the genitive being added
in brackets, if necessary); the verbal terminations, under the
form of the first person singular active.
The references are to the sections (I-300).
I.-GREEK.
-ct (-as) 37, 110, 182 ff. -af5fJva ••• ... 141 (6) -€OS 39, 151 (1), 191
-a (-YJs)... 37, 112, 197 -af5fJvos ... 141 (6) -cpos ... 157
-a (2nd perf.) 87, 252, -af5T1]s ••• 85,141 (6) -ff5KW ... 92,142
292 -af5TLKOS 85,141 (6) -ff5TctTOS ... ... 169
-aoYJs ... ... 163 -aTOS 134n. -Ef57€POS ... ... 159
-ao£01' 151 (8) -aw 39,141 (1) -€vr;
-a[w 85, 141 (6) -00, ... 163 -€VW ... 141 (2)
-ala 39, 151 (1) -Ot 187 (11) n. -EW 39,141 (1)
-aLfJvl ... 249 (1) -orJV ... 163 -iw (fut.) 97,145
-cuva 49, 151 (5) -01]S ... 163 -ft ..• ... 195 (2)
-aivw 49,141 (3) -OWV 151 (8)
-fw 39,91
-(HOll ... 151 (1) -06v ... 163 -fwv ... ... 126
-aws 39,151 (1) -owv ... 163 -YJ ... 37, 110, 193 if.
-alpw 52, 91, 141 (4) -fa (plup.) 101, 146, 298 -YJ (adv.) 187 (7),204(9)
-alTaTos ... 169 -eta ••• 39, 151 (3, 4) -YJoov ... 163
-aiT€pos. •• ... 159 € ... ... 249 (1) -1]€LS ... 165
-dAlfJvOS ••• . .. 155 -€lV (inf.) ... 130, 167 -YJA?] ... 157
-av1] ... 116 -€LV (plup.) 101, 146, -YJAOS ... 157
-avov ... 116 298 -YJfJvl ••• ... 249 (1)'
-avos •.. 116 -€LVa ... ... 151 (5) -YJV (subst.) ... 113, 210
-avos ... 158 -elvw ......... 39 -YJV (aor.pass.) 98
-avw 93 -€LOV 39,151 (3) -YJvos ... ... ... 158
62,127 -€LOS ... 39, 151 (3, 4) -f}p ... ... 136,211
-ap (-apos) ... 127 -Hpa ... ... 151 (6) -YJpos ... ... 157
-ap (-aTos) 52,127,215 -elpw 39,91, 141 (4) -YJS (-€os) 124,161,181
-as (-doos) ... 136, 170 -HS (-€VTOS) ••• ... 123 -YJS (-'r]TOS) ... 120,127
-as (-avTos) ••• 123, 291 -€lS (fern. -€crcra) ... 165 -YJS (-ou) ... 196
-as (-aTos) • •• ... 129 -€Lcra 151 (7) -'l]crOfJvaL ••• ... 103
-as (-ou) ••• 196 -fiT'r]s ... 169 -?]T'r]S ... 169
-acra. ... ... 151 (7) -iVetL .•• 167 -Oa (adv.) 187 (6)
327
328 GREEI{ AND LATIN GRAMl\[AR.
-v (-aTOS)
-v (-EOS)
.-via
-U7lW
-upw
-vs (-EOS)
-TOS
-TOS
-TOS (ac1v.)
-Tpa •••
-Tp071
-TpOS
-TTW
-TTW7I
-TV
-TVS
-15W (fut.)
-TaTOS
-TEos
-TEpOS


•••
•••
(-TOU)
-TLKOS
-TLOV
-TLS

-T\OV
-TAos
-15EW (fut.) ... 97, 145
-(fOaL ••• 130, 167
••• 102 n., 146
••• ••• 146
-15La ••• 151
-15L/LOS • • • • • • • •• lvv
-15WS 151 (2),
-15LS 59, 118, 158
-151w (fut.) 97 145
-15KW ••• 92: 14::..
-15p.a 155:n.
-15p.os 155"11.
-1515W 91, 141 (5)
-1515WV • • • 39, 126
••• 132, 1m)
-15TOS ••• • •• 158
-15uv'l} • •• 170, 174
-«1.11I0S 170 n.
-15W (fut.) 97, 100, 145,
146
97,145
... 134,169
133,169
121,159,229
... 117
121,159,211
151 (6)
37,164
132,169
... 162
151 (8)
59,118
... 122,159
... 64,122
. .. 122
83,117,158
... 117
187 (5)
... 121
121,159
... 121
91,141 (5)
... 39,126
... 119
... 158
-TW 39,91,92,141 (5)
-TWp 35, 121, 159, 181,
211
...... 215
... 111,214
128,151 (4)
141 (3)
141 (4)
111,214
116,157
-/\/\W ... 52, 91, 141 (4)
-/\071 116,157
-AOS 116,157
115,156
-ME7I 115,156
-ME7IaL 115, 156
-M£7IOS 115, 156
114
115
115
-P.7I071 115
114
-p.07Ii] 115
114,155
-P.W7I
-71 (ephelk.) ... . .. 79
-7IaL (inf.) 130, 167
-vaw 88
116
88
-VLS 116
-VVUML 140
-vov l1G
-vos 116
-VUP.L 88
-vvs 116
-VUW 88.274
-vw I 93
(aor.) . 145
(fut.) ... 145
"-OELS ••• 165
-OLML ••• 144
-ows 39, 151 (1,4)
-ov 109, 187 ff.
-op ••• • •• 136
-os (-EOS) . 34, 124, 212
-os (-ou) 34, 109, 181,
187 ft.
••• ... ... 170
••• 164
-ous (-OVTOS) ••• ... 123
-ov15a 151 (7)
-ow 141 (1)
-pa... ... 116
-pLS ••• 116
116
-pOS 116, 157
-15a (aor.) 69, 96, 145,
245 (1),247 (3 A.)
-15aL/U ••• 288
-15€ (ac1v.) 187 (11) n.
-15ELa (opt.) .•• . .. 288
-15€LW ... ••• 1:11 (2)
-8£71 (adv.) 187 (6)
102,146
103,146
-OL (ac1v.) 187 (11) n.
... ... 122
-0/\071 51 (1), 59 (4), 122
-Opa ••• ••• • •• 159
-()p071 59 (4), 122
-()W ••• ••• 92,142
-L (-£os, -LOS) ••• 111, 214
-L (-LTOS) 136
-La 151
••• 163
-LaKOS ••• 162
... 163
-LOL07I 151 (8)
-l aLDS 151 (8)
-£tw 141 (G)
95,144
-LKOS 162
-L/\071 157
155
-L7IfOS 158
-L7IOS 158
-'i7l0S 158
-LOS 38, 112, 151
-LS (-EOS, -LOS) 111, 214
-LS (-LOOS) 127, 170
-LS (-LTOS) 136
••• 170
-L15KWll ••• 170
-L15KOS ••• 170
-L15KW 92, 142
-L15Ma 141 (6)
-L15MOS 141 (6)
-L1515a ••• 170
-L15TaTOS ••• 169
-l15TEPOS ••• 159
-L15T0s ••• 141 (6)
-L15TLKOS... 141 (6)
-L15TOS 126, 135
••• 169
-lw ••• 39, 91, 141 (2)
-LW71 39,126,161,212
-LWlI (patron.) 154 11.
... ••• • •• 169
-LWTLKOS •••• •• 109
-Ka (aor.) 99
-Ka (perf.) 99,146,292
-KEa (pIup.) 146, 298
-KEL7I (pIup.) 146, 298
••• 127, 162
-KOS ••• 162
-KW 103 n., 298
INDEX OF LATIN TERl\fINATIONS.
329
-W(J(lW •••
-WTC1.TOS•••
-WT€POS •••
-WT'YJS' •••
-WTLKOS •••
-WTTW •••
- -VS' (-1Joos)
-us (-vos)
-vw
-X
w
-w (vb.) ...
-w (subj.)
-w (fut.)
";.w (-oos)
-w (adv.)
-wXf]
oo. 127
111,214
... 141 (2)
103 n.
89,90,249
89,143,274
.oo 97,145
... 131,213
65,187 (4)
... . .. 157
-WAOV ••• ••• • •• 157
-WfJ-L (subj.) ... 249 (1)
-wv (-ovos) 113, 181, 210
-wv (-ovTos)123, 160,209
-wv (-wvos) ••• 154,210
-wp (-aTos) ••• 127, 215
-wp (-wpos) ••• ••• 136
-ws (-60S) ••• ••• 124
-ws (-OTOS) ••• 128, 166
-ws (-w)... •.. 181, 191
-WS (-wos) ••• 131, 213
-ws (-WTOS) 120, 136, 174
-ws (adv.) 65, 187 (4),
204 (7)
141 (5)
... 169
... 152
... 169
... 169
141 (5)
-a (-ae)... 110, 192 fr.
-aeus . . . 151 (1)
-ago . . . 62, 154
-al... oo. 77,157
-alis 51 (2), 157
-aliurn . .. 157
-am (subj.) 104,147
(fut.) ... 143
-aneus ... 158 n.
-ans ... 160
-antia ... 151 (7)
-antius... 151 (7)
-anus 158
-ar 157
-aris 51 (2), 157
-ariu1'n.o. . .• 157
-arius '0. • •• 157
..as... . .. 136
-aster 174
-atus 158
-ax 62, 127
-bam 104, 147
-bi 217 (6)
-bilis 138, 172
-bo 104, 147
-bris ... 69 (4)
-bru1n41, 59(4),122, 159
-bulu1n 51, 59, 122, 159
-bundus . . . ... 171
-clurn t 51 (1), 64 B,
-oulu1n 122, 159
-culus (dim.) . .. 157
-cundus . . . . .. 171
-cus ... oo. 127, 162
-de (adv.) 187 (6), 217
(4)
-do (vb.) ... 92
-do (subst.) ... . .. 163
-dus '" 163
-e (-is) ..• ..• 28, 111
II.-LATIN.
-e Cadv.) 187 (4)
151 (4)
-ela . .. 157
-ella 51 (3), 157
-ellus 51 (3), 79 (2), 157
-ern (subj.) ... 143, 144
-en . .. 113, 210
-endus ... . .. 171
-ens 123, 160, 209
-ensis '" ... 174
-entia . . . 151 (7)
-entius 151 (7)
-entus oo. 165
-enus . .. 158
-eo (2nd conj.) 39, 73
(1, 2), 98, 141 (1),
142, 287 in fine.
-er (-eris) ... 124, 212
-er (-ri) 70, 116, 191
-er (-ris) ... 70, 116
-es (-ei) ..•. .. 197
-es (-'eris) ... 124, 212
-es (-etis) . . . . .. 127
-es (-is) ... 124, 212
-es (-itis) ..• 120
-esco ... . .. 142
-esso ..• l45
-estis, -estris . .. 174
-estus ... . .. 158, 208
-eus 39, 151 (1)
-gnus ... ..• . .. 174
-i (perf.) ... 87, 253
-i (inf.) ..• . .. 125
-ia ... 112, 151
-iacus ... . .. 162
-ianus '" ... 158
-ico 150 n.
-icus ... 162
-ido .•• 163
-idus ... . .. 163
-ier (inf.) . .. 125
-ies ... 112, 151 (6), 197
-igo (vb.) ... 150 n.
-igo (subst.) 154
-ilis 157
-illo 150 n.
-i1n (subj.) ... 95
-ina 158
-ineus 158
-inquos 162 n.
-inus . .. 158
-io (3rd conj.) 39, 91
-io (4th conj.) 73 (3), 94,
141 (2,4,5)
-io (-ionis) ... . .. 154
-ior 39, 69 (1), 126,161
-iquos . . . . . . 162 n.
-is (-eris) . .. 124, 212
-is (-idis) ... . •. 127
-is (-is) 28, 111, 152,
181, 214
-isco ... ... ..• 92
1126 139 173
-'tssumus j , ,
-itas .•• 164
-iter (adv.) ... . .. 159
-ito 141 (1)
-itus ... 158
-itus (adv.) ... 204 (7)
-ius 39, 112, 151, 191
-ivos -ivus . . . . .. If>3
-ix ...151 (6), 170 n.
-jor '0' '0' 126
-la... . .. 116, 157
-limus ". 173
-lis .•• 116
-lo... ... ..• 92
••• 116
-lurnus ... . .. 173
Z
330
GREEK AND LATIN GRAM1v[AR.
-lus 157
-rna 114
-rnen . .. 115, 156
... 115, lq6
-1'nina . . . . . 115
-minus •.. 115
. .• 156
-1no .. 115
-1/wnia... 151 (5)
-rnus 114, 139
-na . .. 116
-ndus . .. 137, 171
-nis ... 116
;..no ..• 93
-nu . .. 116
-nurn . .. 116
-nuo ... 88
-nus (-ni) 116, 158
-nus (-nus) . .. 116
-0 (vb.) 77, 87, 89, 90,
249, 269
-0 (1st conj.) 39,73 (1),
141 (1)
-0 (-inis) 47, 113, 210
-0 (-onis) . .. 113, 210
-0 (adv.) 65,187 (4)
-olentu8. . . •.. 165
-olus ... . .. 157
-o1'n . . . . . . 34, 109
-ons (-ontis)... . .• 123
-or (-oris neut.) . .. 124
-or (-oris masc.) 69 (1),
77, 124, 212
-os (:...eris) . . . 34, 124
-os (-oris) . .• 124, 212
-osus •.• 165
-ra1n ... . .. 149
-re (inf.) 125, 161
-reniJ . . . . .. 106, 150
-ri (inf.) 125, 161
-rier (inf.) . .. 161
-rirn •.. 144
-rimus ... . .. 173
-ris . .. 116
-1"0 97 n., 144
-r·umus. . . . . . . .. 173
-rus ..• . .. 116
-sco ... ... 92
-se (inf.) •.. 125, 161
-sent . . . . .. 106, 150
-si (perf.) ... 96, 253
-sim. ... •.. .... 144
-sirn (adv.) ... 204 (4)
... . .. 139, 173
-sio 68 (6); 154
-so (fut.) ... 97
-so (1st conj.) 141 (1)
-sor . . . . . . 64, 121
-sse (inf.) . .. 161
-sse1n .... . .. 150
-su 1
-sui j (sup.)... 64, 119
(sup.) 64, 119
-SU1nus . .. 139, 173
-sura . . . 64, 121
-surio 141 (4)
-surus 64, 121
-sus (-si) 64, 117
-sus (-sus) 64, 119
-ta... ... '" 132
-tas ... 164
-tel' (-teri) 79 (2), 121
-tel' (-terius) 121, 217
-ter (-tri) 79 (2), 121,
159, 229
-ter (-tris) 121, 211
-ter (-trius) 121,
-ter (adv.) 121, 159
-tia 151 (2, 7)
-ticius . .. 162
-ticus ...... 162
-ties ..• 151 (2)
-l·ilis . . . . .. 157
59, 118,. 204 (4)
... . .. 139, 173
-tio 59, 118, 154, 158
-tis 59, 118
-t'itius ... 162
-tito 141 (1)
-t-iu1'n 151 (2)
-tius 151 (7)
-tivos ·-tivus . . . . .. 153
-to (1st conj.) 141 (1)
-to (3rd conj.) ... 92
-tor 77, 121, 159, 211
-toria ... 151 (6)
151 (6)
-torius ..• ... 151 (6)
-tra .. 121
-trina . .. 158
-trix 151 (6)
-trum . .. 121, 159
-tu (sup.) 119, 158
-tudo ... . .. 154
-tui (sup.) 119, 158
-tulo . . . 150 n.
-tu1n (sup.) 119, 158
-tumus ... 139, 173
-tura . . . . .. 121, 159
-turio ... ... 141 (4)
-turnus. . . . . . . .. 158
-turus ... . .. 159 '
-tus (-ti) ... 117, 158
-tus (-tus) . .. 119, 158
-tus (-tutis) ... . .. 174
-tus (adv.) ... 187 (5)
-udo ... . .. 163
-ugo . .. 154
-ui (perf.) 105, 148
-ulentus . . . . .. 165
-ullus . .. 157
-ulus ... . .. 157
34, 109, 187 fr.
. . . .. . . .. 156
-unculus .. 157
-undo (subst.) 163
-undus . .. 163, 171
-uo 141 (2)
-uos . .. 112
-ur 52, 124, 127, 212,
215
-urnus . .. 158
-us (-eris) 34, 212
-us (-i) 34, 102, 187 if.
-us (-oris) . .. 208, 212
-us (-udis) . ..
-us (-us) 111, 214
-us (-utis) . .. 174
-ustus. . . •.• 158, 208
-utio •.• •.. 141 (5)
-utus . .• 158
-uus . .. 112
-vi (perf.) 105, 148
-vom. . . . 34, 112
-vos, 34,40,112,153
-vurn ... ... 34,112
-vus 34,40,112,153