Computer Hardware & Networking

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PROJECT REPORT
ON

COMPUTER HARDWARE
AND

NETWORKING
ACCOMPLISHED AT

MASS INFOTECH (CEDTI) ,
YAMUNA NAGAR (HARIYANA)
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (COMPUTER ENGG. DEPT.) ,
2004

UNDERTAKEN BY:-

SUBMITTED TO:-

PANKAJ ACHARYA
COMPUTER ENGG.

HEAD
TRAINING & PLACEMENT CELL

"POORNIMA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING"
JAIPUR

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
" MASS INFOTECH "
ELECTRONICS
INDIA(CEDTI).

DESIGN

is affillited by

AND

CENTER
TECHNOLOGY

FOR
OF

Govt. of India, Ministry of Information Technology.
This certificate was acquried in 1997 for hardware and networking.Even
though for a very short span, to be able to work in" Mass infotech " has
been a valuable experience in the practical education and has given me a
priceless insight into the functioning of a team of technology in aproven
productive environment. I here by present my sincere thanks to all the
concerned authorities for helping me in completing the training . I am glad
to thank "Mr. Rajiv Lamba" who gave me this golden chance to gain
knowledge at their basestation. I also extend my heartiest thanks to all the
engineers and faculty members for sparing their valuable time in
guiding me through my training. In short I would like to thank all the staff
members of "Mass Infotech" for their co-operation and healthy support.
PANKAJ ACHARYA

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PREFACE
Today is the world of technology. There will be 5 crore computers
and 10 crore mobile phones in the country by the end of the year 2008,
bringing plethora of related job opportunities in manufacturing, services
and maintenance in this arena of technology.
As an engineering graduate, innumerable career options are
available for you in varied fields but you will definitely agree that technical
careers offers not only good remuneration and growth prospects but social
status and job satisfaction too. Therefore apart from the engineering
degree, which is more or less theoretical in nature you are required to
undertake practical training, which can give you an edge over others when
you apply for the vacancies in the organizations.

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CONTENTS
• 1) HARDWARE
a) Introduction of hardware.
• 2) INSIDE THE SYSTEM BOX.
a) Center processing unit.
b) Memory.
c) Mother board/Electronic circuit
board.
d) Secondary storage devices.
e) Different types of connector.
f) Different types of card’s
.
• 3)POWER
a) SMPS.
b) UPS
• 4)NETWORKING
a) Introduction to networking.
b) Types of networking.
c) Topologies.
• 5)NETWORK DEVICES
a) Hub, switch, router.
b) Ccommunication channel.
c) Cbles and connector.
• 6)RULES OF NETWORK
a) Layers architecture.
b) Protocol.
c) Ip addressing.
d) Network model.
•7) CONNECTIVITY
a) Workgroup network using WINDOWS XP
b) Domain networking using WINDOWS 2000 SERVER & WINDOWS XP
•8) FUTURE OF NETWORKING.

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COMPUTER HARDWARE:The Indian hardware industry is expected to reach a size of USD 62 BILLION by
2010, 12 times its existing size, with the domestic market accounting for USD 37 billion
and exports for another USD 25 billion. The factors that would bring such mega growth
are:
1. The government has taken aggressive steps in providing quality infrastructure
with “Hardware Parks” flexible labor policies, availability of skilled workers, congenial
business environment, level playing field, right policies and incentives, concessional
import duty, reduction in excise duty, customs, SAD, CVD and sales tax. All these
factors will make the market respond positively, economics of scale will come into play
and big hardware companies will be attracted to set up local manufacturing units. That
would result in high demand of computer hardware and subsequently prices would
come down and make it affordable for a general customer.
2. Another major segment is “SCHOOLS & COLLEGES”. According to cll, if 20
PCs are installed in each of the country’s 9, 00,000 schools, the immediate demand
would be 18 million, 10 times the current market figure.
3. Increase in the use of IT technologies in the government’s interface with the public
has also stimulated the demand for computer hardware.
Migration from the old manual system to computing is taking place in large
portion of government –public interaction, especially in providing statutory services
such as land records, property transactions, authentication services, dealings of
publicly owned utilities, collections of variety of taxes and transportation (Railways,
Roadways and Airways etc). it will lead to a phenomenal demand for increase in
hardware and would provide a big boost to the sagging national economy.

Central processing unit
There are many vendor of the cpu in the market same of them are
Intel, AMD, VIA/CYRIX, Transumeta / Motorola but the most popular are Intel
and AMD Athelon. The X86 CPU architecture invented by Intel is the most
popular for desktop computers today all the computers run the windows_9X
operating system use X86 CPU

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Intel corporation manufactured various kind of CPU’s but in market the most
selling CPU we are concerning. P-3 , Celeron and P-4
Celeron processor is a substitution of P-3 having same performance so Celeron is
taking place of P-3.
When P-4 came the total architecture is different from P-3.
P-3 has 0.18 micron technology and the P-4 has 0.13 micron technology.
P-4 if focused on multimedia, multitasking, multithreading. This gives batter
performance in gaming, internet computing speed.

SYNTAX FOR CPU RECOGNITION
Name – speed in MHz/cache (KB)/FSB
e.g. --- Intel Pentium 3 –1133/256/100

CACHE MEMORY OF CPU
This is a memory associated with CPU, and often the motherboard. This is a type
of memory that’s used to hold a duplicate of a larger store. This is faster than the
main memory .By placing the most often accessed data in the cache memory,
overall system speed increases.
Type of cache memory.
(1) L1 cache
(2) L2 cache
L1 CACHE MEMORY (LEVEL 1 CACHE)
This is closet to the CPU is the level 1 or L1 since 80486 an L1 cache has been
built in to the CPU itself. This cache run at the CPU’s internal speed and so is
very fast.

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Celeron ---------- L1 cache is 16KB+16KB
Pentium 3 ------- L1 cache is 16KB+16KB
AMD athlon----- L1 cache is 128KB
Since L1 cache is part of the CPU it can’t be expanded or replaced.

L2 CACHE MEMORY (LEVEL 2 CACHES)
A L2 cache is more copious than an L1 cache, but it’s also slower. For CPU after
Pentium Processor this is coated on the CPU package.
CPU
PENTIUM-3
CELERON
AMD ATHLON

L2 CACHE SIZE
256-512KB
0-128KB
512KB

Placing the L2 cache on the CPU module improves performance relative to
putting it on the motherboard largely because the cache can operate at a faster
speed.

FSB (FRONT SIDE BUS)/ CPU BUS
Modern CPU’S run at two separate speeds: the core speed and the bus speed. The
core speed is the no. associate most strongly with the CPU and is the speed at
which most of CPU circuitry runs. The bus speed is the speed of interface
between CPU and the motherboard. Now a days bus speed range from 66 MHz
To theoretical maximum of 400 MHz for slot A.(Main socket).
In order to set the CPU core speed motherboard includes jumpers or BIOS
settings to specify a clock multiplier. The CPU runs its core at the bus speed
multiplied by the clock multiplier.
E.g. 113.3MHz bus speed with a 10X clock gives CPU speed 1133 MHz(core
speed).

CPU VOLTAGE
+Vcc supply to CPU is +5v and V core = 1.7 v.
As the CPU speed increases it becomes desirable to reduce the CPU voltage. In
order to reduce the heat buildup inside the chips. For cooling a heat sink fan is
mounted on the CPU.

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MEMORY.

IDEA BEHIND BIOS
ROM-BIOS It is short form for read only memory -basic input output
system. The ROM-BIOS is a set of Program built into the computer ROM
memory that Provides the most basic, low level and intimate control And
supervision operation for the computer.
=>The task of the bios is to take care of the immediate needs of the
hardware and to isolate all other programs from the details of how the hardware
works.
=>fundamentally the bios is an interface a connection and a Translator
between the computer hardware and the software Programs.

PARTS OF BIOS
There are three main part of the ROM-bios program.

First part:This part is used only when the computer is first turned ON;
these are Test and Initialization program that check to see that the computer is
working. The delay between powering on the computer and The moment when it
start working for you is due to running of these test and initialization program
which sometimes are Called the POWER ON SELF TEST (POST).
Second part:Important parts of the bios are its routimes.These
programs provides the detailed and intimate control of The various part of the
computer, particularly for the input/output Peripherals, such as the disk drives.

Third part:Rom-bios are the boot strap loader program.

Basic content of bios:

¾ Standard CMOS feature.
¾ Advanced bios feature.

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¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾

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Advanced chipset feature.
Integrated peripherals.
Power management setup.
PnP /PCI configuration.
Pc health status.
Frequency/voltage control.
Load optimized default.
Set supervisor password.
Set user password.
Save & exit setup.
Exit without saving.

Booting:The time duration between the appearance of the dos prompt or any
window and the switch on the power supply the whole process is known
as the booting process.

TYPE OF BOOTING
A) COLD BOOTING
B) WARM BOOTING

COLD BOOTING:When we switch off the computer completely and properly after some
time we start Computer again is known as the cold booting.

WARM BOOTING:When we restart the computer from the restart button or using the key by
simply pressing them i.e. ctrl+alt+del key is known as warm Booting.
MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR BOOTING:
For booting we required minimum three files1) ms_dos.sys
2) io.sys
3) Command.com
In these files first two files are hidden files and the third one is normal file.

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MOTHERBOARD
If the CPU is the heart of the system the motherboard is its circulatory
system. The CPU has to be fitted on the socket on the Board. The board has input
output ports, ram, PCI slots, IDE port, chipset, Power connector, AGP slot, other
expansion slots, floppy port.
The key features of the motherboard.
1. Socket
2. memory support
3. expansion slots
4. onboard IDE channels
5. Power supply and Power management
6. chipset
7. BIOS
8. Battery
9. Input/output ports.

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SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICE
HARD DISK DRIVE
Hard disk are thin but rigid metal platters covered with a substances
That allows data to be held in the form of magnetized spots. Hard disk are
Tightly sealed within an enclosed hard disk drive unit to prevent any foreign
Matter from getting inside Data may be recorded on both sides of the disk
Platters. These platters are made of either using glass or aluminum.

A head crash happens when the surface of the read write head or
particles on its surface come into contact within the surface of the hard disk
platter, causing the loss of some or all of the data on the disk.
Both EIDE(enhanced integrated device electronics) and SCSI(small
computer System interface) disks suffer from the limit of 1024 cylinder. The
difficulty is that the old CHS (cylinder/head/sector) addressing mode uses a 10 bit
number can hold a value of between 0 and 1023 , So the number of cylinders
accessible by the BIOS is limited to 1024 hard disk performance measurements
are(1)
(2)
(3)

disk head seek time
data transfer rate
disk’s cache size.

Disk head seek time
Time taken to seek the data by move the head is referred as the seek time. The
seek Time measurement that’s most often used is the average seek time, which is

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the average time move the head from one location to a randomly selected other
location.
Another measurement closely related to seek time involves a second
component beyond the head movement latency ‘Latency’ is the time it takes the
desired sector to come up under the read/write head after a seek operation and
average out to half the time it takes for a rotation of the disk platter. The
combination of seek time and latency is known as access time. Seek time, latency
, and access lime are all measured in milliseconds. Seek time of 5ms-10ms and
spin at 5400 and 10000 Rpm( lower latencies being associated with higher spin
rates.)

DISK TRANSFER RATE
This simply means how quickly the disk can transfer data to and from the
computer. The disk spins at the same rate no matter what cylinder is being read,
but modern hard drive design place more sectors along outer cylinder than along
inner ones. This means that data read from the outer cylinder transfer faster than
to data read from inner cylinders. Hence the internal data rate is variable.

DISK SPIN RATE
The faster a hard disk spins, the faster it can transfer data for this reason
manufactures speed up spin rate now a days 10000 rpm hard disk an popular
7,200 rpm HDD - Baracuda hard disk
10,000 rpm HDD - Cheetah hard disk
A drive with fewer cylinders but more sectors per cylinder faster than one
with more cylinders and fewer sectors per cylinder, all other things being equal.

HEAT GENERATION AND DISSIPATION.
As hard drives have spun faster they are developed increasing problems
with heat. The faster spin rate produce increased heat and from friction and from
the increased demands placed on electronic circuits that process the data. The
most common method of providing extra cooling to extra hot drives cooling fan to
your system. These device mount in a 5.25 Inch drive bay and allow to mount a
3.5 inch drive within adapter rails the front bezel incorporates two or three small
fans that blow air onto the hard disk.

DISK CACHE SIZE
All modern hard drives incorporate a disk cache typically between 512kb
and 2mb in size. This cache is composed of RAM chips. Most Operating systems
including LINUX maintain their own disk Cache in computer’s RAM this is more
faster. In case of LINUX the disk cache can grow and shrink as necessary.

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FLOPPY DISK DRIVE
A floppy disk drive is a storage device that stores data on removable
3.5inch diameter diskettes These are encased in hard plastic but the mylar disk
inside flexible or floppy Each can store 1.44 million Bytes(characters) or more of
data. Floppy disk have a ‘Write protect notch’ which allows you to prevent a
diskette from being written to. On the diskette data is recorded in concentrics
circres called tracks.

OPTICAL DISKS: CDs AND DVDs
An optical disk is a removable disk, usually 4.75 inches in diameter and
less than one twentieth of an inch thick on which data is written and read through
the use of laser beams.To read the data, a low power laser light seams the disk
surface: pitted areas are not reflected and are interpreted as 0 bits, smooth areas
are reflected and are interpreted as 1 bits.
(1) CD-ROM(Compact disc read only memoly)
It only reads a CD and cannot after its contents A CD-ROM disk capacity
is 650 mb -750mb the speed of a cd is read in x eg.’52x’ , which menas ->
1x=150 kb/s of transfer rate, so 44x gives 6600 kb persecond.

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(2)CD-R(Compact disk recordable)
The disk can be written once but can be read many times.

(3)CD-RW(compact disk rewritable)
This is an erasable optical disk allows user to record and erase data so that
the disk can be used over and over again CD-RW disks can not be read by CDROM.

CONNECTORS:

(1)keyboard connector
(2) mouse connector
(3) usb connector
(4)serial port connector
(5)power supply connector
(6)ATX connector
(7)AT and baby AT connector
(8)fan connector
(9)vcore connector
(10)cd audio jack connector

USB Connector
Universal serial bus is the latest craze in external device connector
It is faster than Rs-232 serial Most importantly, all the USB devices attached to a
computer(up to 127) consume a single interrupt(IRQ). If we have other USB

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devices such as a USB digital camera or modem we might able to save an
interrupt by rutting mouse on the USB port as well .

When computer Boot up IRQ is reserved for all the peripherals connected
to board but in case of the mouse or some other device is connected to the port
than its driver will not be loaded and after starting operating system the
connecting of mouse will not work but for the USB port whether the drive is
connected or not the IRQ is reserved so that whenever we want to attach USB
Camera it does not bother.

Serial port connector
Conventionally serial ports more properly referred to as RS-232 These
are mostly used to attach x86 computers modern computers use 9-pin serial port
connectors generally that are used for mouse and connected at COM port m/b
have 2 com ports COM 1 and COM 2 These days mouse port come separately and
COM port are used for other devices to communicate.

power supply connector
Generally it has 4 wires for power conduction .these are plugged into the
device in only one way .3.5 inch floppy use smaller connectors. Power splitter is
used to split the power to connect more devices. One or two splitter probably does
not constitute problem.
The connector has 4 wires.
(a)Red
+5v DC
(b)Black
GND
(c)Black
GND

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(d)Yellow

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+12v DC

ATX Connector
At is the newer version of AT/Baby AT. ATX motherboard use a
single keyed power connector in contrast to the dual connectors of AT and Baby
AT boards. The keyed ATX power connector makes it nearly impossible to
destroy a motherboard by connecting power supply incorrectly. In addition ,ATX
boards run on 3.3v eliminating the need of voltage regulator.

ATX boards also host a series of power related changes, allowing
the computer to power itself off when the o.s. shuts down power itself on in
response to specified events, go into low power mode and so on .
These are of 4 types(a)ATX
(b)Mini-ATX
(c)Micro-ATX
(d)Flex-ATX

AT and Baby AT connectors
This kind of connectors are used in small system like laptop and small
cabinets this was used before ATX come for home uses.Generally they have 5-pin

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DIN connector.
AT and Baby AT motherboards used a pair of power connector, which had
to be attached to the case’s power supply via cables permanently attached to the
power supply in such case M/B voltage is 5v.

But today’s motherboard required 3.3v.so such m/B required voltage
regulators which converts 5v to 3.3v these voltage regulators produced heat and
depending upon the amount of current drawn by the CPU could overheat and
cause unreliable operation.

FAN Connector
CPU cooling FAN, system FAN has required power supply to move
fan .these have 3 pin connector inserted at motherboard at particular place.

V-core Connector
In some m/B there is no provision for internally give voltage to CPU like
new boards. They have this connector which is key locked to m/B and give
required voltage to CPU.

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CD audio jack Connector.
This connector has double ended. One inserted into CDROM drive and
other end is connected to CD IN near the sound chip on motherboard. This is used
in case of running audio CD without as interface.

Different types of cards
There are of seven types of cards(1)DISPLAY CARD
(a) CGA->
¾ color graphical adaptor
¾ This is of 9 pin card.
¾ 8088,80286,80386
¾ 8bit isa slot

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(b) VGA->
¾ video graphical adaptor
¾ 15 pin cards.
¾ m/b 80486,PI
¾ 16bit/32bit/64bit.
(c) Dual CGA card->
¾ 9pin+25pin
¾ 9pin->monitor
¾ 25pin->printer
¾ 4 MB in size

(2)IDE CARD [integrated device electronics]
¾ 16 bit cards.
¾ These cards are used for H.D.D and F.D.D control.

(3)SIDE CARD [super integrated device electronics]
¾
¾
¾
¾

F.D.C/H.D.C/MOUSE/PRINTER/GAME CONTROLLER
16bit/32bit
Com1->mouse
Com2->external modem[10 pin]

(4)SOUND CARD
(a) non-pci->
¾ 16bit/32bit
(b) pci->
¾ 64bit
¾ in this card there is a 15 pin game controller and au out
,mic,Line in
¾ 4 MB in size

(5)NETWORK CARD (LAN card)
(a) 32bit LAN card
¾ Speed is 10 MBits/s.
¾ There two types of connectors used.
• BNC->Broadcast network connector
• RJ->Register jack connector(RJ->45)

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Boot rom->it is an IC used to boot all the other pc’s which has no hard
disk but they can be boot with the help of network boot this process is done by the
help of Boot rom.

b) 64 bit LAN card,
¾ Speed is 100Mb.

(6)MODEM.
¾ Convert analog signal into digital signal and vice
versa.
¾ There are two types of modem.
a) External Modem.
¾ Speed
of
the
modem
card
24/28/33/40/50/56.6Kbps
b) Internal Modem.
¾ Having same speed as external card .it is also PCI
Card (64bit).its speed which is now a day used is
56.6Kbps.

(7)TV-TUNNER CARD
¾ It is also a PCI card of 64 bit.
¾ it is two types
(a) Internal
(b)External

POWER SUPPLY
Most of the cases come with power supplies. Each variety of case -ATX,
AT tower. It is possible to overload a power supply but power splitter. Since we
know
WATTS=VOLTS*AMPS
Capacity of power supply measures in wattage. eg. if a 5v device draws 10
amps, it consumes 50 watts. As an example a computer with one 15a card, two PC
cards, a 3.5 inch floppy disk ,two HDD, a cd-rom and two extra cooling fan.
Adding up these values, this computer requires 50.16w from 3.3v, 77.5w
from 5v and 70.5w from 12v for a total of 198.16w. The motherboard consumes a

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few more watts, as well perhaps 25w or so depending on the board and cpu. Not
all devices require their max. amounts of power at the same time. Typically for
instance, harddisk require a great deal of power when they start up to over come
the inertia inherent in stopped disk platters.

WIRES IN POWER SUPPLY

The green wire, it present is a grounding wire. Attach it to any
convenient metal part of the case.

The black and white wires connect to the angled tabs on (toggle)
the power switch.

The brown and blue wires connect to the tabs that are parallel to
one another on the switch. The brown and blue wires always carry current when
the power supply is plugged in. Therefore, we should only try to connect or
disconnect these wires ofter unplugging.

SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY(SMPS)
It is the power supply system used in the system box. The switch mode
power supply(SMPS) is use 220v as the input and at the out it gives DC current
with different values used by different component of the computer as +5v used by
keyboard LED , +12v used by SMPS cooling fan and +12v for processor cooling
fan. The out put power supply so we get form the SMPS while using the different
type of color. They are basically of six color.
Different color wire from SMPS with the voltage they haveyellow ----------->+12v
red
------------>+5v
black ------------>GND
blue ------------>-12v
white ------------>-5v
orange------------->power signal identify
We have two type of the SMPS cabinateATX--->Advance Technology Exchange
AT ---->Advance Technology


ATX cabinate has ATX SMPS have 20 pin with lock system.

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AT cabinate has AT SMPS have 12 pin with center wire black color.

UNINTRRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY
It is an device which is used to store the elecric power when the main
power supply is cut off by any reasion. Then we can use the power of the ups
which is allready store in the UPS. It basically contain the storage battery which

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store the power supply. It take 220v as the input and gave 220v as the output. It
also contain the transformer used to step up the electricity.

NETWORKING

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INTRODUCTION
A computer network is group of computers that are connected together to
share resources, such as hardware, data, and/or Software. It is a data
communication system that interconnects computer Systems at different sites.
Networking is a collection of individual networks, connected by Intermediate
Working devices that function as a single large network. Industries, colleges &
many business organizations use internetworking. For many purpose such as fast
communications internally, sharing a device for many computers and for many
other purposes also.

HISTORY & CHALLENGES of NETWORKING
The first networks were timesharing networks that use mainframes and
attached terminals. LAN evolved around PC evaluation. LAN enabled multiple
users in a limited geographical area. Lack of management and duplication of
resources resulted in evolution of LAN. Challenges were connecting various

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systems together having various Technologies. Making standards was again a big
challenge. Challenges were face in mostly these areas such as connectivity,
reliability, network management & flexibility. The final concern was related to
network expansion & new technologies.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
1.
2.
3.

LAN (local area network)
MAN (metropolitan area network)
WAN (wide area network

LOCAL AREA

NETWORK
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INTRODUCTION TO LOCAL AREA NETWORK(LAN)
A local area network is a group of computers and associated devices that
share a common Communications line or wireless link and typically share the
resources of a single processor or server within a small geographic area. Usually,
the server has applications and data storage that are shared in common by
multiple computer users. A local area network may serve as few as two or three
users or as many as thousands of users.
A non-public data Communications network Confined to a limited
geographic area (usually within a few miles), used to provide communication
between computers and peripherals. The area served may consist of a single
building, a cluster of buildings, or a campus-type arrangement.
In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the file
server. It stores all of the software that controls the network, as well as the
software that can be shared by the computers attached to the network. Computers
Connected to the file server are called work stations. The workstations can be less
powerful than the file server, and they may have additional software on their hard
drives. cables are used to connect the network interface cards in each computer.

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OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION MODEL (OSI)
The International Standards Organization developed a
theoretical model of how networks should behave and how they
are put together. The ISO's model is used through the industry
today to describe various networking issues. This model is called
the Open Standards Interconnect Model.
The Open Systems Interconnection reference model for
describing network protocols was devised by the Internet
Standards Organization. It divides protocols in to seven layers to
standardize and simplify definitions.

SEVEN LAYERS OF OSI MODEL

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Layer
Application
User
Interface

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1.

Application Layer

2.

Presentation Layer

3.

Session Layer

4.

Transport Layer

5.

Network Layer

6.

Data-link Layer

7.

Physical Layer

Protocol N/W
Device

used for applications specifically DNS; FTP; Gateway
TFTP;
written to run over the network
TELNET;

allows access to network services that NCP;
support applications;
Function

directly represents the services that
directly support user applications



handles network access, flow control
and error recovery


Presentation
Translation

Example apps are file transfer-mail.

Translates from application to network format
and vice-versa all different formats from all sources
are made into a common uniform format.
Responsible for protocol conversion, character
conversion, data encryption / decryption, data

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Gateway

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compression.
Session "syncs
establishes, maintains and ends sessions NetBIOS
and sessions" across the network provides synchronization services RPC

Gateway

by planning check points in the data stream => if
session fails, only data after the most recent
checkpoint need be transmitted manages who can
transmit data at a certain time and for how long

divides streams of data into chunks or TCP, ARP, Gateway
Transport
Brouter
packets; flow packets; the transport layer of the receiving computer RARP;
control
& reassembles the message from packets
error-handling

provides flow control & errorchecking to guarantee error-free data delivery, with
on losses or duplications

provides
acknowledgment
of
successful transmissions; requests retransmission if
some packets don’t arrive error-free

Network


translates logical network
address and names to their MAC address IP;
addressing;
responsible for addressing, determining ARP; RARP,
routes for sending , managing network ICMP;
routing
problem
IGMP;

Router
ATM
Switch

If router can’t send data IPX
frame as large as the source computer
sends, the network layer compensates by OSI
breaking the data into smaller units. At the
receiving end, the network layer
reassembles the data



Turns packets into raw bits at Logical Link bridge
Data Link
Control
the receiving end turn bits into packets.
Switch
data
error
frames to

handles data frames between correction and Hub
bits

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the Network and Physical layers

flow control

NIC

the receiving end packages
802.1
raw data from the Physical layer into data OSI Model
frames for delivery to the Network layer
802.2

responsible for error-free Logical
Link
transfer of frames to other computer via the Control
Physical Layer
Media

This layer defines the Access Control
methods used to transmit and receive data
on the network. It consists of the wiring; the
devices use to connect the NIC to the
wiring, the signaling involved transmitting /
receiving data.


Physical

transmits raw bit stream over IEEE 802
IEEE 802.2
physical cable


hardware;

defines cables, cards, and ISO 2110
raw
bit
physical aspects
stream
ISDN

defines NIC attachments to
hardware, how cable is attached to NIC
defines techniques to transfer
bit stream to cable .


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Repeater
Multiplexer
Hubs

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WORKING OF OSI MODEL

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COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM -1

SYSTEM -2

Components of LAN

(a) Network Cabling
(b) Network Devices
(c) Network Topology

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(d) Protocols

What is Network Cabling?
Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one
network device to another. There are several types of cable which are commonly
used with LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable,
other networks will use a variety of cable types. The type of cable chosen for a
network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size. Understanding
the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects
of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network.

The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and
other related topics.

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable


Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable



Coaxial Cable



Fiber Optic Cable

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded.
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option
for school networks. The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to
extremely high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket.
Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate
interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter is the
twisting, the higher is supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per
foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry
Association) has established standards of UTP and rated five categories of wire.

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector
The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45
connector. This is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style
connector . A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for
Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed from

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the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire goes with each pin
inside the connector

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical
frequency interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments
with electrical interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables
quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring
topology.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer
provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield .The
metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights,
motors, and other computers

Fiberoptics
Fiber optics is a system which transmits signals from one location to
another through a thin strand of glass which carries light pulses to carry data. This
transmission system works on the same principle that copper wires do, but is done
in a different way. Data is encoded from electrical signals into optical light pulses,
sent through a glass medium and converted back and decoded at the other end.
Both copper and optics use electricity at the end of their lines, but optics uses light
in between to carry the data.

NETWORK DEVICES

INTRODUCTION
Network Devices is a machine or component that is attached to a
computer. Examples of devices include disk drives, printers, mice, and DSL

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modems. These particular devices fall into the category of peripheral devices
because they are separate from the main computer.
Most devices, whether peripheral or not, require a program called a device
driver that acts as a translator, converting general commands from an application
into specific commands that the device understands.

Types of Network Devices: ─
1.

Hub

2.

Switch

3.

Router

4.

Repeater

5.

Network card

6.

Bridge

7.

Gateways

HUB
As its name implies, a hub is a center of activity. In more specific network
terms, a hub, or concentrator, is a common wiring point for networks that are
based around a star topology. Arcnet, 10base-T, and 10base-F, as well as many
other proprietary network topologies, all rely on the use of hubs to connect
different cable runs and to distribute data across the various segments of a

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network. Hubs basically act as a signal splitter. They take all of the signals they
receive in through one port and redistribute it out through all ports.
¾ Hub works on Physical Layer of OSI model.

SWITCH
A Switch is a devicethat provides a central connection point for cables
from workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire
is run from each workstation to a central switch/hub. Most switches are active,
that is they electrically amplify the signal as it moves from one device to another.
Switches no longer broadcast network packets as hubs did in the past, they
memorize addressing of computers and send the information to the correct
location directly. Switches are:
¾

Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports

¾

Switch works on Data-Link Layer of OSI model.

¾

Often used in a star or star-wired ring topology

¾

Sold with specialized software for port management

¾

Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may store
net DSL modems, bridges, or routers

Switches subdivide larger networks and prevent the unnecessary flow of
network traffic from one segment to another, or in the case of cross-segment
traffic, switches direct the frames only across the segments containing the source
and destination hosts.
This ensures the integrity of our data; it does nothing to increase overall
network speed. Switches help to ensure additional network access opportunities
for attached devices (increasing speed and reducing traffic) by restricting data
flows to local segments unless frames are destined for a host located on another
segment. The switch examine the destination address and forward the requisite
frames only across the destination segment, leaving all additional segments
attached to that switch free from that particular broadcast and (theoretically) able
to facilitate local-segment traffic. Rather than being a passive connection between
multiple segments, the switch works to ensure that network traffic burdens the
fewest number of segments POSSIBLE.

Difference between a hub and a switch
Hubs and switches are different types of network equipment that connect
devices. They differ in the way that they pass on the network traffic that they

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receive. Switches differ in some ways. They can be of the store-and-forward type,
storing each incoming packet in an internal buffer before forwarding it, or cutthrough, beginning to forward packets already after their header is in and before
the rest of the packet has been received. Hubs repeat everything they receive and
can be used to extend the network. However, this can result in a lot of
unnecessary traffic being sent to all devices on the network. Hubs pass on traffic
to the network regardless of the intended destination.
In a small network (less than 30 users), a hub (or collection of hubs) can
easily cope with the network traffic generated and is the ideal piece of equipment
to use for connecting the users.
When the network gets larger (about 50 users), you may need to use a
switch to divide the groups of hubs, to cut down the amount of unnecessary traffic
being generated.

Network Interface Cards
The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection
between the network and the computer workstation. Most NICs are internal, with
the card fitting into an expansion slot inside the computer. Some computers, such
as Mac Classics, use external boxes which are attached to a serial port or a SCSI
port. Laptop computers can now be purchased with a network interface card builtin or with network cards that slip into a PCMCIA slot.
Network interface cards are a major factor in determining the speed and
performance of a network. It is a good idea to use the fastest network card
available for the type of workstation you are using.
The three most common network interface connections are Ethernet cards,
Local Talk connectors, and Token Ring cards. According to a International Data
Corporation study, Ethernet is the most popular, followed by Token Ring and
Local Talk.

TOPOLOGY
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables,
computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with
logical topology which is the method used to pass information between
workstations.

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Main Types of Topologies:─
The following sections discuss the topologies used in networks .
¾

Linear Bus

¾

Star

¾

Star-Wired Ring

¾

Tree

Linear Bus
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at
each end. All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to
the linear cable. Ethernet and Local Talk networks use a linear bus topology

Star
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub on a star network passes
through the hub before continuing to its destination. The hub manages and
controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow.
This configuration is common with twisted pair cable & also used with coaxial
cable or fiber optic cable.

Tree
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies.
It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable.

PROTOCOLS
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between
computers on a network. These rules include guidelines that regulate the
following characteristics of a network: access method, allowed topologies, types
of cabling, and speed of data transfer.
The most common protocols are:

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♦Ethernet
♦Token ring
♦FDDI
♦ATM
♦IP protocol
♦TCP protocol

Ethernet
The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses an
access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision
Detection). This is a system where each computer listens to the cable before
sending anything through the network. If the network is clear, the computer will
transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the cable, the computer
will wait and try again when the line is clear.
Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant. When
this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off and waits a random
amount of time before attempting to retransmit. With this access method, it is
normal to have collisions. However, the delay caused by collisions and
retransmitting is very small and does not normally effect the speed of
transmission on the network.
The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data
can be transmitted over twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 10
Mbps up to 1000 Mbps.

Fast Ethernet
To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet protocol has
developed a new standard that supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly called Fast
Ethernet. Fast Ethernet requires the use of different, more expensive network hubs
and network interface cards.

Token Ring
The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The
access method used involves token-passing. In Token Ring, the computers are
connected so that the signal travels around the network from one computer to
another in a logical ring. A single electronic token moves around the ring from
one computer to the next. If a computer does not have information to transmit, it
simply passes the token on to the next workstation. If a computer wishes to
transmit and receives an empty token, it attaches data to the token. The token then

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proceeds around the ring until it comes to the computer for which the data is
meant. At this point, the data is captured by the receiving computer.

The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair or
fiber optic cable. It can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps.
Due to the increasing popularity of Ethernet, the use of Token Ring in school
environments has decreased.

IP Addressing
The IP addressing scheme is integral to the process of routing IP data
gram through an internet work. Each IP address has specific components and
follows a basic format. These can be sub divided and used to create addresses for
sub networks. Each host on a TCP/IP network is assigned a unique 32-bit logical
address that is divided into two main parts: the network number and the host
number. The network number identifies a network and must be assigned by the
Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) if the network is to be part of the
Internet

IP Address Format
The 32-bit IP address is grouped eight bits at a time, separated by dots,
and represented in decimal format (known as dotted decimal notation). Each bit in
the octet has a binary weight (128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1). The minimum value for
an octet is 0, and the maximum value for an octet is 255.

IP Subnet Addressing
IP networks can be divided into smaller networks called subnetworks (or
subnets). Subnetting provides the network administrator with several benefits,
including extra flexibility, more efficient use of network addresses, and the
capability to contain broadcast traffic (a broadcast will not cross a router).

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Subnets are under local administration. A given network address can be
broken up into many subnetworks. For example, 172.16.1.0, 172.16.2.0,
172.16.3.0, and 172.16.4.0 are all subnets within network 171.16.0.0. (All 0s in
the host portion of an address specifies the entire network.)

IP Subnet Mask
A subnet address is created by "borrowing" bits from the host field and
designating them as the subnet field. The number of borrowed bits varies and is
specified by the subnet mask

Subnet masks use the same format and representation technique as IP
addresses. The subnet mask, however, has binary 1s in all bits specifying the
network and subnetwork fields, and binary 0s in all bits specifying the host field.
Subnet mask bits should come from the high-order (left-most) bits of the host
field.
Various types of subnet masks for Class B and C subnets

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The default subnet mask for a Class B address that has no subnetting is
255.255.0.0, while the subnet mask for a Class B address 171.16.0.0 that specifies
eight bits of subnetting is 255.255.255.0. The reason for this is that eight bits of
subnetting or 28 - 2 (1 for the network address and 1 for the broadcast address) =
254 subnets possible, with 28 - 2 = 254 hosts per subnet.
The subnet mask for a Class C address 192.168.2.0 that specifies five bits
of subnetting is 255.255.255.248.With five bits available for subnetting
25 - 2 = 30 subnets possible, with 23 - 2 = 6 hosts per subnet. The reference
charts shown in table 30-2 and table 30-3 can be used when planning Class B and
C networks to determine the required number of subnets and hosts, and the
appropriate subnet mask.
How Subnet Masks are Used to Determine the Network Number
The router performs a set process to determine the network (or more
specifically, the subnetwork) address. First, the router extracts the IP destination
address from the incoming packet and retrieves the internal subnet mask.
It then performs a logical AND operation to obtain the network number.
This causes the host portion of the IP destination address to be removed, while the
destination network number remains.
The router then looks up the destination network number and matches it
with an outgoing interface. Finally, it forwards the frame to the destination IP
address. Specifics regarding the logical AND operation are discussed in the
following section

CASE STUDY
Our aim was to establish a LAB of e-learning for the students of MASS
INFOTECH through wire networking.

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We were given :
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾

Ten computer
Ten 3com LAN card
Twenty two RJ 45 connectors
UTP cable
One 12 port switch
One multimeter
Screwdriver
Windows 98cd
Crimping tool

What we have done :
Φ Analyzing the Location
we saw the location of the lab where we have to connect the
system in network. As the networking here was in structured form so we have to
keep in view that every thing done should be in structured way. Initially we
consider following points for the location
¾
¾
¾
¾
Φ

Location for Switch
Location of wall mounting
Location of power point
Location and sequence of computer
Checking connection of power supply and wall mounting

¾ We check the voltage between earth and neutral with the help of
multimeter which must be less than two Volts .
¾ We check the voltage between phase and neutral with the help of
multimeter which should be 220 Volts.
¾ As we use only four wires for communication in patch chords thus
we connect
One ,Two, Three, Six
Cables in wall mounting accordingly
Φ making of patch chords
We cut the UTP cable as required. We made the patch chords as per
the lucent standards followed by MASS TNFOTACH.

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The lucent standards is as follows :
Orange white
Orange
Green white
Blue
Blue white
Green
Brown white
Brown
after that we crimp the chords with connectors .
Φ assembling of system
¾ We check the RAM, CMOS battery and confirm that each and
every system is ready to be assembled.
ΦInstallation of network card
¾ We plug the network card in PCI bus and connect the system
¾ Start the system, computer will deduct the new hardware device
Which is 3comm network card?
¾ We load the driver of 3COM NIC card and Microsoft client
¾ We loaded TCP/IP protocol

¾ We install TCP/IP protocol & give the IP address to each computer
as per given .

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¾ We give the IP address to each system as per given
¾ Subnet mask of each of them were of class A i.e. 255.255.0.0
¾ Then we give the address of DNS server

¾ Then we restart the system and check whether each of the system
is in network or not (by PING command )
¾ c:/>ping 127.0.0.1 (in DOS prompt)
¾ we ping the with server

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RESULT:
Each of the system are in network and PINGING with our
network with no loss

CAREER PROSPECTS IN COMPUTER HARDWARE
1.
The work of computer hardware engineering’s is to research,
design & develop, supervise manufacture and installation of computers related
equipment and implementing solutions.
2.
Another major responsibility of computer hardware engineers is to
integrate advanced microprocessors, chipsets, digital/analog components and
firmware into motherboards, networking adapters and systems that meet the
requirements of leading original Equipment Manufactures (OEM’s) in the
industry.
3.
Consulting opportunities for computer hardware engineers would
grow as business need help managing, upgrading and customizing increasingly
complex systems. Growth in embedded systems, a technology that uses computers
to control other devices such as applications or cell phones, also will increase the
demand for computer hardware engineers.
4.
In India, apart from being a PC support specialist, with networking
knowledge a hardware engineer can become internet Engineer and be responsible
for managing and maintaining the networking architecture for an organization’s
website and Wide Area Network (wan) connectivity.
5.
Another option is that of a network security analyst, responsible
for design, implementation and maintenance of network and computer security
policies.
Computer Hardware Engineers are expected to have favorable job
opportunities as this field will open the largest number of doors to fulfilling and
high-paying careers.
Thus the hardware industry can be a solution to the unemployment in the
country as it has the potential of generating a million jobs every year. All this
makes hardware industry an attractive career option.

CAREER PROSPECTS IN NETWORKING

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Several types of positions exist in networking; each with different
average salaries and long-term potential, and one should possess a clear
understanding of these.
Unfortunately, job titles in networking and in information technology (IT)
generally, often lead to confusion among beginners and experienced folks alike.
Bland, Vague or overly bombastic titles often fail to describe the actual work
assignments of a person in this field.
The basic job titles one sees for computer networking and networkingrelated positions include.


Network administrator
Network administrator is responsible for analysis, installation and
configuration of company networks. Daily activities include monitoring network
performance, troubleshooting problems and maintaining network security.


Network(system) Engineer
Network engineers focus primarily on system upgrade, evaluating
vendor products, security testing, and so on.


Network(service) Technician
Network technician tends to focus more on the setup,
troubleshooting and repair of specific hardware and software products. Service
technicians in particular often travel to remote customer sites to perform “field”
upgrades and support.


Network Programmer/Analyst
They generally write scripts that aid in network analysis, such as
diagnostics or monitoring utilities. They also specialize in evaluating third party
products and integrating new software/hardware technologies into an existing
network environment or to build a new environment.


Network/Information Systems Manager
They supervise the work of administrators, engineers, technicals
and programmers. Network/information systems managers also focus own longerrange planning and stragracy considerations.


Network Security Analyst
The work of the security analyst is basically confined to the security
solutions in large networks. They basically check the unauthorized of the network
by any external user.

OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRY



Computer Support Specialist
Electrical & Electronics Engineers

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repairer

line installers



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Electrical and Electronic Engineering Technicians
First-line supervisors/managers of mechanics, installers and
Telecommunications equipment installers and repairers, except
Electrical power-line installers and repairers
Telecommunications line installers and repairers

About 12 percent of the industry’s employees are professional
workers. Many of these are specific and technical personnel such as engineers and
computer specialist. Engineers plan cable routes, central office and PBX
equipment installations, and the expansions of existing structures, and solve other
engineering problems. Some engineers also engage in research and development
of new equipment. Specializing in telecommunications design voice and data
communications systems, and integrate communications equipment with
computer networks. They have closely with clients, who may not understand
sophisticated communications systems, and design systems that meet their
customers’ needs. Network systems and data communications analyst design,
develop, test and debug software products. These include computer-assisted
engineering programs for schematic cabling projects; modeling programs for
cellular and schematic cabling project; modeling programs for cellular and
satellite systems; and programs for telephone options, such as voice mail,
electronic mail, and call waiting. Televommunicatons specialist coordinate the
installations of these systems and may provide follow-up maintains and training

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