Computer Hardware & Networking

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Computer Hardware & Networking

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PROJECT REPORT
ON

COMPUTER HARDWARE
AND

NETWORKING
ACCOMPLISHED AT

MASS INFOTECH (CEDTI) , YAMUNA NAGAR (HARIYANA)
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (COMPUTER ENGG. DEPT.) , 2004

UNDERTAKEN BY:PANKAJ ACHARYA COMPUTER ENGG.

HEAD TRAINING

SUBMITTED TO:PLACEMENT CELL

!POORNIMA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING! JAIPUR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
" MASS INFOTECH "
ELECTRONICS INDIA(CEDTI). DESIGN CENTER FOR TECHNOLOGY OF

is affillited by

AND

Govt. of India, Minist y of Info !ation Te"#nolo$y. T#is "e tifi"ate %as a"&' ied in ())* fo #a d%a e and net%o +in$.Even t#o'$# fo a ve y s#o t s,an, to be able to %o + in" Mass infote"# " #as been a val'able e-,e ien"e in t#e , a"ti"al ed'"ation and #as $iven !e a , i"eless insi$#t into t#e f'n"tionin$ of a tea! of te"#nolo$y in a, oven , od'"tive envi on!ent. I #e e by , esent !y sin"e e t#an+s to all t#e "on"e ned a't#o ities fo #el,in$ !e in "o!,letin$ t#e t ainin$ . I a! $lad to t#an+ "M . .a/iv La!ba" %#o $ave !e t#is $olden "#an"e to $ain +no%led$e at t#ei basestation. I also e-tend !y #ea tiest t#an+s to all t#e en$inee s and fa"'lty !e!be s fo s,a in$ t#ei val'able ti!e in $'idin$ !e t# o'$# !y t ainin$. In s#o t I %o'ld li+e to t#an+ all t#e staff !e!be s of "Mass Infote"#" fo t#ei "o0o,e ation and #ealt#y s',,o t. ACHARYA PANKAJ

1.E2ACE
Today is t#e %o ld of te"#nolo$y. T#e e %ill be 3 " o e "o!,'te s and (4 " o e !obile ,#ones in t#e "o'nt y by t#e end of t#e yea 5446, b in$in$ ,let#o a of elated /ob o,,o t'nities in !an'fa"t' in$, se vi"es and !aintenan"e in t#is a ena of te"#nolo$y. As an en$inee in$ $ ad'ate, inn'!e able "a ee o,tions a e available fo yo' in va ied fields b't yo' %ill definitely a$ ee t#at te"#ni"al "a ee s offe s not only $ood e!'ne ation and $ o%t# , os,e"ts b't so"ial stat's and /ob satisfa"tion too. T#e efo e a,a t f o! t#e en$inee in$ de$ ee, %#i"# is !o e o less t#eo eti"al in nat' e yo' a e e&'i ed to 'nde ta+e , a"ti"al t ainin$, %#i"# "an $ive yo' an ed$e ove ot#e s %#en yo' a,,ly fo t#e va"an"ies in t#e o $ani7ations.

CONTENT8
• () 9A.DWA.E a) Introduction of hardware. • 5) IN8IDE T9E 8:8TEM ;O<. a) Center processing unit. b) Memory. c) Mother board/Electronic circuit board. d) Secondary storage devices. e) Different types of connector. f) Different types of card s . • =)1OWE. a) SM!S. b) "!S • >)NETWO.KING a) Introduction to networ#ing. b) $ypes of networ#ing. c) $opologies. • 3)NETWO.K DE?ICE8 a) %ub& switch& router. b) Ccommunication channel. c) Cbles and connector. • @).ALE8 O2 NETWO.K a) 'ayers architecture. b) !rotocol. c) Ip addressing. d) (etwor# model. • *) CONNECTI?IT: a) )or#group networ# using )I(D*)S +! b) Domain networ#ing using )I(D*)S ,--- SE./E. 0 )I(D*)S +! • 6) 2ATA.E O2 NETWO.KING.

C*M!"$E. %1.D)1.E23
$he Indian hardware industry is e4pected to reach a si5e of "SD 6, 7I''I*( by ,-8-& 8, times its e4isting si5e& with the domestic mar#et accounting for "SD 9: billion and e4ports for another "SD ,; billion. $he factors that would bring such mega growth are2 8. $he government has ta#en aggressive steps in providing <uality infrastructure with =%ardware !ar#s> fle4ible labor policies& availability of s#illed wor#ers& congenial business environment& level playing field& right policies and incentives& concessional import duty& reduction in e4cise duty& customs& S1D& C/D and sales ta4. 1ll these factors will ma#e the mar#et respond positively& economics of scale will come into play and big hardware companies will be attracted to set up local manufacturing units. $hat would result in high demand of computer hardware and subse<uently prices would come down and ma#e it affordable for a general customer. ,. 1nother ma?or segment is =SC%**'S 0 C*''E@ES>. 1ccording to cll& if ,!Cs are installed in each of the country s A& --&--- schools& the immediate demand would be 8B million& 8- times the current mar#et figure. 9. Increase in the use of I$ technologies in the government s interface with the public has also stimulated the demand for computer hardware. Migration from the old manual system to computing is ta#ing place in large portion of government Cpublic interaction& especially in providing statutory services such as land records& property transactions& authentication services& dealings of publicly owned utilities& collections of variety of ta4es and transportation D.ailways& .oadways and 1irways etc). it will lead to a phenomenal demand for increase in hardware and would provide a big boost to the sagging national economy.

Central processing unit
$here are many vendor of the cpu in the mar#et same of them are Intel& 1MD& /I1/CE.I+& $ransumeta / Motorola but the most popular are Intel and 1MD 1thelon. $he +B6 C!" architecture invented by Intel is the most popular for des#top computers today all the computers run the windowsFA+ operating system use +B6 C!"

Intel corporation manufactured various #ind of C!" s but in mar#et the most selling C!" we are concerning. !39 & Celeron and !3G Celeron processor is a substitution of !39 having same performance so Celeron is ta#ing place of !39. )hen !3G came the total architecture is different from !39. !39 has -.8B micron technology and the !3G has -.89 micron technology. !3G if focused on multimedia& multitas#ing& multithreading. $his gives batter performance in gaming& internet computing speed.

8:NTA< 2O. C1A .ECOGNITION
(ame C speed in M%5/cache DH7)/IS7 e.g. 333 Intel !entium 9 C8899/,;6/8--

CAC9E MEMO.: O2 C1A
$his is a memory associated with C!"& and often the motherboard. $his is a type of memory that s used to hold a duplicate of a larger store. $his is faster than the main memory .7y placing the most often accessed data in the cache memory& overall system speed increases. $ype of cache memory. D8) '8 cache D,) ', cache L( CAC9E MEMO.: BLE?EL ( CAC9E) $his is closet to the C!" is the level 8 or '8 since B-GB6 an '8 cache has been built in to the C!" itself. $his cache run at the C!" s internal speed and so is very fast.

Celeron 3333333333 '8 cache is 86H7J86H7 !entium 9 3333333 '8 cache is 86H7J86H7 1MD athlon33333 '8 cache is 8,BH7 Since '8 cache is part of the C!" it can t be e4panded or replaced.

L5 CAC9E MEMO.: BLE?EL 5 CAC9E8) 1 ', cache is more copious than an '8 cache& but it s also slower. Ior C!" after !entium !rocessor this is coated on the C!" pac#age. C!" !E($I"M39 CE'E.*( 1MD 1$%'*( ', C1C%E SIKE ,;63;8,H7 -38,BH7 ;8,H7

!lacing the ', cache on the C!" module improves performance relative to putting it on the motherboard largely because the cache can operate at a faster speed.

28; B2.ONT 8IDE ;A8)C C1A ;A8
Modern C!" S run at two separate speeds2 the core speed and the bus speed. $he core speed is the no. associate most strongly with the C!" and is the speed at which most of C!" circuitry runs. $he bus speed is the speed of interface between C!" and the motherboard. (ow a days bus speed range from 66 M%5 $o theoretical ma4imum of G-- M%5 for slot 1.DMain soc#et). In order to set the C!" core speed motherboard includes ?umpers or 7I*S settings to specify a cloc# multiplier. $he C!" runs its core at the bus speed multiplied by the cloc# multiplier. E.g. 889.9M%5 bus speed with a 8-+ cloc# gives C!" speed 8899 M%5Dcore speed).

C1A ?OLTAGE
J/cc supply to C!" is J;v and / core L 8.: v. 1s the C!" speed increases it becomes desirable to reduce the C!" voltage. In order to reduce the heat buildup inside the chips. Ior cooling a heat sin# fan is mounted on the C!".

MEMORY.

IDEA ;E9IND ;IO8
.OM0;IO8 It is short form for read only memory 3basic input output system. $he .*M37I*S is a set of !rogram built into the computer .*M memory that !rovides the most basic& low level and intimate control 1nd supervision operation for the computer. LM$he tas# of the bios is to ta#e care of the immediate needs of the hardware and to isolate all other programs from the details of how the hardware wor#s. LMfundamentally the bios is an interface a connection and a $ranslator between the computer hardware and the software !rograms.

1A.T8 O2 ;IO8
T#e e a e t# ee !ain ,a t of t#e .OM0bios , o$ a!.

2i st ,a tD0
$his part is used only when the computer is first turned *(N these are $est and Initiali5ation program that chec# to see that the computer is wor#ing. $he delay between powering on the computer and $he moment when it start wor#ing for you is due to running of these test and initiali5ation program which sometimes are Called the !*)E. *( SE'I $ES$ D!*S$). 8e"ond ,a tD0 Important parts of the bios are its routimes.$hese programs provides the detailed and intimate control of $he various part of the computer& particularly for the input/output !eripherals& such as the dis# drives.

T#i d ,a tD0 .om3bios are the boot strap loader program.

;asi" "ontent of biosD

 Standard CM*S feature.  1dvanced bios feature.

          

1dvanced chipset feature. Integrated peripherals. !ower management setup. !n! /!CI configuration. !c health status. Ire<uency/voltage control. 'oad optimi5ed default. Set supervisor password. Set user password. Save 0 e4it setup. E4it without saving.

Booting:3
$he time duration between the appearance of the dos prompt or any window and the switch on the power supply the whole process is #nown as the booting process.

T:1E O2 ;OOTING
1) C*'D 7**$I(@ 7) )1.M 7**$I(@

COLD ;OOTING23
)hen we switch off the computer completely and properly after some time we start Computer again is #nown as the cold booting.

WA.M ;OOTING23
)hen we restart the computer from the restart button or using the #ey by simply pressing them i.e. ctrlJaltJdel #ey is #nown as warm 7ooting. MINIMAM .EEAI.EMENT 2O. ;OOTING2 Ior booting we re<uired minimum three files3 8) msFdos.sys ,) io.sys 9) Command.com In these files first two files are hidden files and the third one is normal file.

MOTHERBOARD
If the C!" is the heart of the system the motherboard is its circulatory system. $he C!" has to be fitted on the soc#et on the 7oard. $he board has input output ports& ram& !CI slots& IDE port& chipset& !ower connector& 1@! slot& other e4pansion slots& floppy port. $he #ey features of the motherboard. 8. Soc#et ,. memory support 9. e4pansion slots G. onboard IDE channels ;. !ower supply and !ower management 6. chipset :. 7I*S B. 7attery A. Input/output ports.

SECONDARY STORAGE DEV CE
9A.D DI8K D.I?E
%ard dis# are thin but rigid metal platters covered with a substances $hat allows data to be held in the form of magneti5ed spots. %ard dis# are $ightly sealed within an enclosed hard dis# drive unit to prevent any foreign Matter from getting inside Data may be recorded on both sides of the dis# !latters. $hese platters are made of either using glass or aluminum.

1 head crash happens when the surface of the read write head or particles on its surface come into contact within the surface of the hard dis# platter& causing the loss of some or all of the data on the dis#. 7oth EIDEDenhanced integrated device electronics) and SCSIDsmall computer System interface) dis#s suffer from the limit of 8-,G cylinder. $he difficulty is that the old C%S Dcylinder/head/sector) addressing mode uses a 8- bit number can hold a value of between - and 8-,9 & So the number of cylinders accessible by the 7I*S is limited to 8-,G hard dis# performance measurements are3 D8) D,) D9) dis# head see# time data transfer rate dis# s cache si5e.

Dis+ #ead see+ ti!e
$ime ta#en to see# the data by move the head is referred as the see# time. $he see# $ime measurement that s most often used is the average see# time& which is

the average time move the head from one location to a randomly selected other location. 1nother measurement closely related to see# time involves a second component beyond the head movement latency O'atency is the time it ta#es the desired sector to come up under the read/write head after a see# operation and average out to half the time it ta#es for a rotation of the dis# platter. $he combination of see# time and latency is #nown as access time. See# time& latency & and access lime are all measured in milliseconds. See# time of ;ms3 8-ms and spin at ;G-- and 8---- .pmD lower latencies being associated with higher spin rates.)

DI8K T.AN82E. .ATE
$his simply means how <uic#ly the dis# can transfer data to and from the computer. $he dis# spins at the same rate no matter what cylinder is being read& but modern hard drive design place more sectors along outer cylinder than along inner ones. $his means that data read from the outer cylinder transfer faster than to data read from inner cylinders. %ence the internal data rate is variable.

DI8K 81IN .ATE
$he faster a hard dis# spins& the faster it can transfer data for this reason manufactures speed up spin rate now a days 8---- rpm hard dis# an popular :&,-- rpm %DD 3 7aracuda hard dis# 8-&--- rpm %DD 3 Cheetah hard dis# 1 drive with fewer cylinders but more sectors per cylinder faster than one with more cylinders and fewer sectors per cylinder& all other things being e<ual.

9EAT GENE.ATION AND DI88I1ATION.
1s hard drives have spun faster they are developed increasing problems with heat. $he faster spin rate produce increased heat and from friction and from the increased demands placed on electronic circuits that process the data. $he most common method of providing e4tra cooling to e4tra hot drives cooling fan to your system. $hese device mount in a ;.,; Inch drive bay and allow to mount a 9.; inch drive within adapter rails the front be5el incorporates two or three small fans that blow air onto the hard dis#.

DI8K CAC9E 8IFE
1ll modern hard drives incorporate a dis# cache typically between ;8,#b and ,mb in si5e. $his cache is composed of .1M chips. Most *perating systems including ! N"# maintain their own dis# Cache in computer s .1M this is more faster. In case of ! N"# the dis# cache can grow and shrin# as necessary.

$!O%%Y D S& DR VE
1 floppy dis# drive is a storage device that stores data on removable 9.;inch diameter dis#ettes $hese are encased in hard plastic but the mylar dis# inside fle4ible or floppy Each can store 8.GG million 7ytesDcharacters) or more of data. Iloppy dis# have a O)rite protect notch which allows you to prevent a dis#ette from being written to. *n the dis#ette data is recorded in concentrics circres called trac#s.

O%T CA! D S&S: CDs AND DVDs
1n optical dis# is a removable dis#& usually G.:; inches in diameter and less than one twentieth of an inch thic# on which data is written and read through the use of laser beams.$o read the data& a low power laser light seams the dis# surface2 pitted areas are not reflected and are interpreted as - bits& smooth areas are reflected and are interpreted as 8 bits. B() CD0.OMBCo!,a"t dis" ead only !e!oly) It only reads a CD and cannot after its contents 1 CD3.*M dis# capacity is 6;- mb 3:;-mb the speed of a cd is read in 4 eg. ;,4 & which menas 3M 84L8;- #b/s of transfer rate& so GG4 gives 66-- #b persecond.

B5)CD0.BCo!,a"t dis+ e"o dable) $he dis# can be written once but can be read many times.

B=)CD0.WB"o!,a"t dis+ e% itable) $his is an erasable optical dis# allows user to record and erase data so that the dis# can be used over and over again CD3.) dis#s can not be read by CD3 .*M.

CONNECTORS:

D8)#eyboard connector D,) mouse connector D9) usb connector DG)serial port connector D;)power supply connector D6)1$+ connector D:)1$ and baby 1$ connector DB)fan connector DA)vcore connector D8-)cd audio ?ac# connector

A8; Conne"to
"niversal serial bus is the latest cra5e in e4ternal device connector It is faster than .s3,9, serial Most importantly& all the "S7 devices attached to a computerDup to 8,:) consume a single interruptDI.P). If we have other "S7

devices such as a "S7 digital camera or modem we might able to save an interrupt by rutting mouse on the "S7 port as well .

)hen computer 7oot up I.P is reserved for all the peripherals connected to board but in case of the mouse or some other device is connected to the port than its driver will not be loaded and after starting operating system the connecting of mouse will not wor# but for the "S7 port whether the drive is connected or not the I.P is reserved so that whenever we want to attach "S7 Camera it does not bother.

8e ial ,o t "onne"to
Conventionally serial ports more properly referred to as .S3,9, $hese are mostly used to attach 4B6 computers modern computers use A3pin serial port connectors generally that are used for mouse and connected at C*M port m/b have , com ports C*M 8 and C*M , $hese days mouse port come separately and C*M port are used for other devices to communicate.

,o%e s',,ly "onne"to
@enerally it has G wires for power conduction .these are plugged into the device in only one way .9.; inch floppy use smaller connectors. !ower splitter is used to split the power to connect more devices. *ne or two splitter probably does not constitute problem. $he connector has G wires. Da).ed J;v DC Db)7lac# @(D Dc)7lac# @(D

Dd)Eellow

J8,v DC

AT< Conne"to
1t is the newer version of 1$/7aby 1$. 1$+ motherboard use a single #eyed power connector in contrast to the dual connectors of 1$ and 7aby 1$ boards. $he #eyed 1$+ power connector ma#es it nearly impossible to destroy a motherboard by connecting power supply incorrectly. In addition &1$+ boards run on 9.9v eliminating the need of voltage regulator.

1$+ boards also host a series of power related changes& allowing the computer to power itself off when the o.s. shuts down power itself on in response to specified events& go into low power mode and so on . $hese are of G types3 Da)1$+ Db)Mini31$+ Dc)Micro31$+ Dd)Ile431$+

AT and ;aby AT "onne"to s
$his #ind of connectors are used in small system li#e laptop and small cabinets this was used before 1$+ come for home uses.@enerally they have ;3pin

DI( connector. 1$ and 7aby 1$ motherboards used a pair of power connector& which had to be attached to the case s power supply via cables permanently attached to the power supply in such case M/7 voltage is ;v.

7ut today s motherboard re<uired 9.9v.so such m/7 re<uired voltage regulators which converts ;v to 9.9v these voltage regulators produced heat and depending upon the amount of current drawn by the C!" could overheat and cause unreliable operation.

2AN Conne"to
C!" cooling I1(& system I1( has re<uired power supply to move fan .these have 9 pin connector inserted at motherboard at particular place.

?0"o e Conne"to
In some m/7 there is no provision for internally give voltage to C!" li#e new boards. $hey have this connector which is #ey loc#ed to m/7 and give re<uired voltage to C!".

CD a'dio /a"+ Conne"to .
$his connector has double ended. *ne inserted into CD.*M drive and other end is connected to CD I( near the sound chip on motherboard. $his is used in case of running audio CD without as interface.

Di''erent t(pes o' car)s
$here are of seven types of cards3 D8)DI81LA: CA.D Ba) CGA3M  color graphical adaptor  $his is of A pin card.  B-BB&B-,B6&B-9B6

 Bbit isa slot

Bb) ?GA3M  video graphical adaptor  8; pin cards.  m/b B-GB6&!I  86bit/9,bit/6Gbit. B") D'al CGA "a d3M  ApinJ,;pin  Apin3Mmonitor  ,;pin3Mprinter  G M7 in si5e

B5)IDE CA.D Ginte$ ated devi"e ele"t oni"sH
 86 bit cards.  $hese cards are used for %.D.D and I.D.D control.

B=)8IDE CA.D Gs',e inte$ ated devi"e ele"t oni"sH
    I.D.C/%.D.C/M*"SE/!.I($E./@1ME C*($.*''E. 86bit/9,bit Com83Mmouse Com,3Me4ternal modemQ8- pinR

B>)8OAND CA.D
Ba) non0,"i3M  86bit/9,bit Bb) ,"i3M  6Gbit  in this card there is a 8; pin game controller and au out &mic&'ine in  G M7 in si5e

B3)NETWO.K CA.D BLAN "a d)
Ba) =5bit LAN "a d  Speed is 8- M7its/s.  $here two types of connectors used. • 7(C3M7roadcast networ# connector • .S3M.egister ?ac# connectorD.S3MG;)

7oot rom3Mit is an IC used to boot all the other pc s which has no hard dis# but they can be boot with the help of networ# boot this process is done by the help of 7oot rom.

b) @> bit LAN "a d&  Speed is 8--Mb.

D6)M*DEM.
 Convert analog signal into digital signal and vice versa.  $here are two types of modem. a) E-te nal Mode!.  Speed of the modem card ,G/,B/99/G-/;-/;6.6Hbps b) Inte nal Mode!.  %aving same speed as e4ternal card .it is also !CI Card D6Gbit).its speed which is now a day used is ;6.6Hbps.

B*)T?0TANNE. CA.D
 It is also a !CI card of 6G bit.  it is two types Da) Internal Db)E4ternal

%O*ER S"%%!Y
Most of the cases come with power supplies. Each variety of case 31$+& 1$ tower. It is possible to overload a power supply but power splitter. Since we #now )1$$SL/*'$ST1M!S Capacity of power supply measures in wattage. eg. if a ;v device draws 8amps& it consumes ;- watts. 1s an e4ample a computer with one 8;a card& two !C cards& a 9.; inch floppy dis# &two %DD& a cd3rom and two e4tra cooling fan. 1dding up these values& this computer re<uires ;-.86w from 9.9v& ::.;w

from ;v and :-.;w from 8,v for a total of 8AB.86w. $he motherboard consumes a few more watts& as well perhaps ,;w or so depending on the board and cpu. (ot all devices re<uire their ma4. amounts of power at the same time. $ypically for instance& harddis# re<uire a great deal of power when they start up to over come the inertia inherent in stopped dis# platters.

WI.E8 IN 1OWE. 8A11L:
• $he green wire& it present is a grounding wire. 1ttach it to any convenient metal part of the case. • $he blac# and white wires connect to the angled tabs on Dtoggle) the power switch. • $he brown and blue wires connect to the tabs that are parallel to one another on the switch. $he brown and blue wires always carry current when the power supply is plugged in. $herefore& we should only try to connect or disconnect these wires ofter unplugging.

8WITC9 MODE 1OWE. 8A11L:B8M18)
It is the power supply system used in the system bo4. $he switch mode power supplyDSM!S) is use ,,-v as the input and at the out it gives DC current with different values used by different component of the computer as J;v used by #eyboard 'ED & J8,v used by SM!S cooling fan and J8,v for processor cooling fan. $he out put power supply so we get form the SM!S while using the different type of color. $hey are basically of si4 color. Different color wire from SM!S with the voltage they have3 yellow 33333333333MJ8,v red 333333333333MJ;v blac# 333333333333M@(D blue 333333333333M38,v white 333333333333M3;v orange3333333333333Mpower signal identify )e have two type of the SM!S cabinate3 1$+333M1dvance $echnology E4change 1$ 3333M1dvance $echnology • 1$+ cabinate has 1$+ SM!S have ,- pin with loc# system.



1$ cabinate has 1$ SM!S have 8, pin with center wire blac# color.

ANINT..A1TI;LE 1OWE. 8A11L:
It is an device which is used to store the elecric power when the main power supply is cut off by any reasion. $hen we can use the power of the ups

which is allready store in the "!S. It basically contain the storage battery which store the power supply. It ta#e ,,-v as the input and gave ,,-v as the output. It also contain the transformer used to step up the electricity.

NETWORKING

INTRODUCTION
1 computer networ# is group of computers that are connected together to share resources& such as hardware& data& and/or Software. It is a data communication system that interconnects computer Systems at different sites. (etwor#ing is a collection of individual networ#s& connected by Intermediate )or#ing devices that function as a single large networ#. Industries& colleges 0 many business organi5ations use internetwor#ing. Ior many purpose such as fast communications internally& sharing a device for many computers and for many other purposes also.

HISTORY & CHALLENGES of NETWORKING
$he first networ#s were timesharing networ#s that use mainframes and attached terminals. '1( evolved around !C evaluation. '1( enabled multiple users in a limited geographical area. 'ac# of management and duplication of resources resulted in evolution of '1(. Challenges were connecting various

systems together having various $echnologies. Ma#ing standards was again a big challenge. Challenges were face in mostly these areas such as connectivity& reliability& networ# management 0 fle4ibility. $he final concern was related to networ# e4pansion 0 new technologies.

T:1E8 O2 NETWO.K8
8. ,. 9. '1( Dlocal area networ#) M1( Dmetropolitan area networ#) )1( Dwide area networ#

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

NTROD"CT ON TO !OCA! AREA NET*OR&+!AN,
1 local area networ# is a group of computers and associated devices that share a common Communications line or wireless lin# and typically share the resources of a single processor or server within a small geographic area. "sually& the server has applications and data storage that are shared in common by multiple computer users. 1 local area networ# may serve as few as two or three users or as many as thousands of users. 1 non3public data Communications networ# Confined to a limited geographic area Dusually within a few miles)& used to provide communication between computers and peripherals. $he area served may consist of a single building& a cluster of buildings& or a campus3type arrangement. In a typical '1( configuration& one computer is designated as the file server. It stores all of the software that controls the networ#& as well as the software that can be shared by the computers attached to the networ#. Computers Connected to the file server are called wor# stations. $he wor#stations can be less powerful than the file server& and they may have additional software on their hard drives. cables are used to connect the networ# interface cards in each computer.

O%EN SYSTEM NTERCONNECT ON MODE! +OS ,
The International Standards Organization developed a theoretical model of how networks should behave and how they are put together. The ISO's model is used through the industry today to describe various networking issues. This model is called the Open Standards Interconnect Model. The Open Systems Interconnection reference model for describing network protocols was devised by the Internet Standards Organization. It divides protocols in to seven layers to standardize and simplify definitions.

8E?EN LA:E.8 O2 O8I MODEL

(. 5. =. >. 3. @. *.

A,,li"ation Laye 1 esentation Laye 8ession Laye T ans,o t Laye Net%o + Laye Data0lin+ Laye 1#ysi"al Laye

Laye A,,li"ation Ase Inte fa"e

1 oto"ol NCW Devi"e • used for applications specificallyD(SN I$!N@ateway $I$!N written to run over the networ# $E'(E$N • allows access to networ# services that(C!N support applicationsN 2'n"tion directly represents the services that directly support user applications
• • •

handles networ# access& flow control and error recovery E4ample apps are file transfer3mail. @ateway

1 esent0 ation T anslation

$ranslates from application to networ# format and vice3versa all different formats from all sources are made into a common uniform format. .esponsible for protocol conversion& character conversion& data

encryption / decryption& data compression. 8ession "syn"s establishes& maintains and ends sessions(et7I*S and sessions" across the networ# provides synchroni5ation services.!C by planning chec# points in the data stream LM if session fails& only data after the most recent chec#point need be transmitted manages who can transmit data at a certain time and for how long @ateway

T ans,o t • divides streams of data into chun#s or$C!& 1.!&@ateway ,a"+etsI flo%pac#etsN the transport layer of the receiving computer .1.!N 7router "ont ol J e o 0reassembles the message from pac#ets #andlin$ • provides flow control 0 error3 chec#ing to guarantee error3free data delivery& with on losses or duplications provides ac#nowledgment of successful transmissionsN re<uests retransmission if some pac#ets don t arrive error3free


Net%o +

• translates logical networ#I1N address and names to their M1C address 1.!N .1.!& add essin$I responsible for addressing& determiningICM!N o'tin$ routes for sending & managing networ# I@M!N problem

.outer 1$M Switch

If router can t send dataI1< frame as large as the source computer sends& *SI the networ# layer compensates by brea#ing the data into smaller units. 1t the receiving end& the networ# layer reassembles the data


Lin+b id$e Data Lin+ • $urns pac#ets into raw bits atLo$i"al Cont ol data f a!esthe receiving end turn bits into pac#ets. Switch error

to bits

handles data frames betweencorrection and%ub flow control the (etwor# and !hysical layers (IC B-,.8 • the receiving end pac#ages raw data from the !hysical layer into data*SI Model frames for delivery to the (etwor# layer B-,., 'in# • responsible for error3free'ogical transfer of frames to other computer via theControl !hysical 'ayer Media A""ess Cont ol • $his layer defines the methods used to transmit and receive data on the networ#. It consists of the wiringN the devices use to connect the (IC to the wiring& the signaling involved transmitting / receiving data.


1#ysi"al

#a d%a eI a% bit • defines cables& cards& andIS* ,88st ea! physical aspects ISD( • defines (IC attachments to hardware& how cable is attached to (IC defines techni<ues to transfer bit stream to cable .


transmits raw bit stream overIEEE B-, IEEE B-,., physical cable


.epeater Multiple-e 9'bs

WO.KING O2 O8I MODEL

C*MM"(IC1$I*( SYSTEM -1 SYSTEM -2

Co-ponents o' !AN

Ba) Net%o + Cablin$ Bb) Net%o + Devi"es B") Net%o + To,olo$y Bd) 1 oto"ols

W#at is Net%o + Cablin$K
Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one networ# device to another. $here are several types of cable which are commonly used with '1(s. In some cases& a networ# will utili5e only one type of cable& other networ#s will use a variety of cable types. $he type of cable chosen for a networ# is related to the networ#Us topology& protocol& and si5e. "nderstanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects of a networ# is necessary for the development of a successful networ#.

$he following sections discuss the types of cables used in networ#s and other related topics. • • • • "nshielded $wisted !air D"$!) Cable Shielded $wisted !air DS$!) Cable Coa4ial Cable Iiber *ptic Cable

Ans#ielded T%isted 1ai BAT1) Cable
$wisted pair cabling comes in two varieties2 shielded and unshielded. "nshielded twisted pair D"$!) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networ#s. $he <uality of "$! may vary from telephone3grade wire to e4tremely high3speed cable. $he cable has four pairs of wires inside the ?ac#et. Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from ad?acent pairs and other electrical devices. $he tighter is the twisting& the higher is supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. $he EI1/$I1 DElectronic Industry 1ssociation/$elecommunication Industry 1ssociation) has established standards of "$! and rated five categories of wire.

Ans#ielded T%isted 1ai Conne"to
$he standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an .S3G; connector. $his is a plastic connector that loo#s li#e a large telephone3style connector . 1 slot allows the .S3G; to be inserted only one way. .S stands for .egistered Sac#& implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed from

the telephone industry. $his standard designates which wire goes with each pin inside the connector

8#ielded T%isted 1ai B8T1) Cable
1 disadvantage of "$! is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical fre<uency interference. Shielded twisted pair DS$!) is suitable for environments with electrical interferenceN however& the e4tra shielding can ma#e the cables <uite bul#y. Shielded twisted pair is often used on networ#s using $o#en .ing topology.

Coa-ial Cable
Coa4ial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. 1 plastic layer provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield .$he metal shield helps to bloc# any outside interference from fluorescent lights& motors& and other computers

2ibe o,ti"s
Iiber optics is a system which transmits signals from one location to another through a thin strand of glass which carries light pulses to carry data. $his transmission system wor#s on the same principle that copper wires do& but is done in a different way. Data is encoded from electrical signals into optical light pulses& sent through a glass medium and converted bac# and decoded at the other end. 7oth copper and optics use electricity at the end of their lines& but optics uses light in between to carry the data.

NET*OR& DEV CES

INT.ODACTION
(etwor# Devices is a machine or component that is attached to a computer. E4amples of devices include dis# drives& printers& mice& and DS'

modems. $hese particular devices fall into the category of peripheral devices because they are separate from the main computer. Most devices& whether peripheral or not& re<uire a program called a )e.ice )ri.er that acts as a translator& converting general commands from an application into specific commands that the device understands.

T(pes o' Net/or0 De.ices: 1
8. ,. 9. G. ;. 6. :. %ub Switch .outer .epeater (etwor# card 7ridge @ateways

%"7
1s its name implies& a 2u3 is a center of activity. In more specific networ# terms& a hub& or concentrator& is a common wiring point for networ#s that are based around a star topology. 1rcnet& 8-base3$& and 8-base3I& as well as many other proprietary networ# topologies& all rely on the use of hubs to connect different cable runs and to distribute data across the various segments of a

networ#. %ubs basically act as a signal splitter. $hey ta#e all of the signals they receive in through one port and redistribute it out through all ports.  %ub wor#s on Ph !i"#$ L# %& of *SI model.

S)I$C%
1 Switch is a devicethat provides a central connection point for cables from wor#stations& servers& and peripherals. In a star topology& twisted3pair wire is run from each wor#station to a central switch/hub. Most switches are active& that is they electrically amplify the signal as it moves from one device to another. Switches no longer broadcast networ# pac#ets as hubs did in the past& they memori5e addressing of computers and send the information to the correct location directly. Switches are2
    

"sually configured with B& 8,& or ,G .S3G; ports Switch wor#s on D#t#'Lin( 'ayer of *SI model. *ften used in a star or star3wired ring topology Sold with speciali5ed software for port management "sually installed in a standardi5ed metal rac# that also may store net DS' modems& bridges& or routers

Switches subdivide larger networ#s and prevent the unnecessary flow of networ# traffic from one segment to another& or in the case of cross3segment traffic& switches direct the frames only across the segments containing the source and destination hosts. $his ensures the integrity of our dataN it does nothing to increase overall networ# speed. Switches help to ensure additional networ# access opportunities for attached devices Dincreasing speed and reducing traffic) by restricting data flows to local segments unless frames are destined for a host located on another segment. $he switch e4amine the destination address and forward the re<uisite frames only across the destination segment& leaving all additional segments attached to that switch free from that particular broadcast and Dtheoretically) able to facilitate local3segment traffic. .ather than being a passive connection between multiple segments& the switch wor#s to ensure that networ# traffic burdens the fewest number of segments !*SSI7'E.

Diffe en"e bet%een a #'b and a s%it"#
%ubs and switches are different types of networ# e<uipment that connect devices. $hey differ in the way that they pass on the networ# traffic that they receive. Switches differ in some ways. $hey can be of the store3and3forward type& storing each incoming pac#et in an internal buffer before forwarding it& or cut3 through& beginning to forward pac#ets already after their header is in and before the rest of the pac#et has been received. %ubs repeat everything they receive and can be used to e4tend the networ#. %owever& this can result in a lot of unnecessary traffic being sent to all devices on the networ#. %ubs pass on traffic to the networ# regardless of the intended destination. In a small networ# Dless than 9- users)& a hub Dor collection of hubs) can easily cope with the networ# traffic generated and is the ideal piece of e<uipment to use for connecting the users. )hen the networ# gets larger Dabout ;- users)& you may need to use a switch to divide the groups of hubs& to cut down the amount of unnecessary traffic being generated.

Net/or0 nter'ace Car)s
$he networ# interface card D(IC) provides the physical connection between the networ# and the computer wor#station. Most (ICs are internal& with the card fitting into an e4pansion slot inside the computer. Some computers& such as Mac Classics& use e4ternal bo4es which are attached to a serial port or a SCSI port. 'aptop computers can now be purchased with a networ# interface card built3 in or with networ# cards that slip into a !CMCI1 slot. (etwor# interface cards are a ma?or factor in determining the speed and performance of a networ#. It is a good idea to use the fastest networ# card available for the type of wor#station you are using. $he three most common networ# interface connections are Ethernet cards& 'ocal $al# connectors& and $o#en .ing cards. 1ccording to a International Data Corporation study& Ethernet is the most popular& followed by $o#en .ing and 'ocal $al#.

TO%O!OGY

$he physical topology of a networ# refers to the configuration of cables& computers& and other peripherals. !hysical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass information between wor#stations.

Main Ty,es of To,olo$iesDL
$he following sections discuss the topologies used in networ#s .
   

'inear 7us Star Star3)ired .ing $ree

Linea ;'s
1 linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end. 1ll nodes Dfile server& wor#stations& and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable. Ethernet and 'ocal $al# networ#s use a linear bus topology

8ta
1 star topology is designed with each node Dfile server& wor#stations& and peripherals) connected directly to a central networ# #'b on a star networ# passes through the hub before continuing to its destination. $he hub manages and controls all functions of the networ#. It also acts as a e,eate for the data flow. $his configuration is common with t%isted ,ai "able 0 also used with "oa-ial "able or fibe o,ti" "able.

T ee
1 tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star3configured wor#stations connected to a linear bus bac#bone cable.

%ROTOCO!S

1 protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a networ#. $hese rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a networ#2 access method& allowed topologies& types of cabling& and speed of data transfer. $he most common protocols are2 ♦Ethernet V$o#en ring VIDDI V1$M VI! protocol V$C! protocol

Et#e net
$he Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses an access method called CSM1/CD DCarrier Sense Multiple 1ccess / Collision Detection). $his is a system where each computer listens to the cable before sending anything through the networ#. If the networ# is clear& the computer will transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the cable& the computer will wait and try again when the line is clear. Sometimes& two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant. )hen this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then bac#s off and waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit. )ith this access method& it is normal to have collisions. %owever& the delay caused by collisions and retransmitting is very small and does not normally effect the speed of transmission on the networ#. $he Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus& star& or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted over twisted pair& coa4ial& or fiber optic cable at a speed of 8Mbps up to 8--- Mbps.

2ast Et#e net
$o allow for an increased speed of transmission& the Ethernet protocol has developed a new standard that supports 8-- Mbps. $his is commonly called Iast Ethernet. Iast Ethernet re<uires the use of different& more e4pensive networ# hubs and networ# interface cards.

To+en .in$
$he $o#en .ing protocol was developed by I7M in the mid38AB-s. $he access method used involves to#en3passing. In $o#en .ing& the computers are connected so that the signal travels around the networ# from one computer to another in a logical ring. 1 single electronic to#en moves around the ring from one computer to the ne4t. If a computer does not have information to transmit& it simply passes the to#en on to the ne4t wor#station. If a computer wishes to transmit and receives an empty to#en& it attaches data to the to#en. $he to#en then proceeds around the ring until it comes to the computer for which the data is meant. 1t this point& the data is captured by the receiving computer.

$he $o#en .ing protocol re<uires a star3wired ring using twisted pair or fiber optic cable. It can operate at transmission speeds of G Mbps or 86 Mbps. Due to the increasing popularity of Ethernet& the use of $o#en .ing in school environments has decreased.

I1 Add essin$
$he I! addressing scheme is integral to the process of routing I! data gram through an internet wor#. Each I! address has specific components and follows a basic format. $hese can be sub divided and used to create addresses for sub networ#s. Each host on a $C!/I! networ# is assigned a uni<ue 9,3bit logical address that is divided into two main parts2 the networ# number and the host number. $he networ# number identifies a networ# and must be assigned by the Internet (etwor# Information Center DInter(IC) if the networ# is to be part of the Internet

I1 Add ess 2o !at
$he 9,3bit I! address is grouped eight bits at a time& separated by dots& and represented in decimal format D#nown as dotted de"i!al notation). Each bit in the octet has a binary weight D8,B& 6G& 9,& 86& B& G& ,& 8). $he minimum value for an octet is -& and the ma4imum value for an octet is ,;;.

I1 8'bnet Add essin$
I! networ#s can be divided into smaller networ#s called subnetwor#s Dor subnets). Subnetting provides the networ# administrator with several benefits& including e4tra fle4ibility& more efficient use of networ# addresses& and the capability to contain broadcast traffic Da broadcast will not cross a router). Subnets are under local administration. 1 given networ# address can be bro#en up into many subnetwor#s. Ior e4ample& 8:,.86.8.-& 8:,.86.,.-& 8:,.86.9.-& and 8:,.86.G.- are all subnets within networ# 8:8.86.-.-. D1ll -s in the host portion of an address specifies the entire networ#.)

I1 8'bnet Mas+
1 subnet address is created by WborrowingW bits from the host field and designating them as the subnet field. $he number of borrowed bits varies and is specified by the subnet mas#

Subnet mas#s use the same format and representation techni<ue as I! addresses. $he subnet mas#& however& has binary 8s in all bits specifying the

networ# and subnetwor# fields& and binary -s in all bits specifying the host field. Subnet mas# bits should come from the high3order Dleft3most) bits of the host field. ?a io's ty,es of s'bnet !as+s fo Class ; and C s'bnets

$he default subnet mas# for a Class 7 address that has no subnetting is ,;;.,;;.-.-& while the subnet mas# for a Class 7 address 8:8.86.-.- that specifies eight bits of subnetting is ,;;.,;;.,;;.-. $he reason for this is that eight bits of subnetting or ,B 3 , D8 for the networ# address and 8 for the broadcast address) L ,;G subnets possible& with ,B 3 , L ,;G hosts per subnet. $he subnet mas# for a Class C address 8A,.86B.,.- that specifies five bits of subnetting is ,;;.,;;.,;;.,GB.)ith five bits available for subnetting ,; 3 , L 9- subnets possible& with , 9 3 , L 6 hosts per subnet. $he reference charts shown in table 9-3, and table 9-39 can be used when planning Class 7 and C networ#s to determine the re<uired number of subnets and hosts& and the appropriate subnet mas#. 9o% 8'bnet Mas+s a e Ased to Dete !ine t#e Net%o + N'!be $he router performs a set process to determine the networ# Dor more specifically& the subnetwor#) address. Iirst& the router e4tracts the I! destination address from the incoming pac#et and retrieves the internal subnet mas#. It then performs a logical 1(D operation to obtain the networ# number. $his causes the host portion of the I! destination address to be removed& while the destination networ# number remains. $he router then loo#s up the destination networ# number and matches it with an outgoing interface. Iinally& it forwards the frame to the destination I! address. Specifics regarding the logical 1(D operation are discussed in the following section

CASE ST"DY
*ur aim was to establish a '17 of e3learning for the students of M1SS I(I*$EC% through wire networ#ing.

We %e e $iven D
         $en computer $en 9com '1( card $wenty two .M >3 connectors "$! cable *ne 8, port switch *ne multimeter Screwdriver )indows ABcd Crimping tool

W#at %e #ave done D
N Analy7in$ t#e Lo"ation we saw the location of the lab where we have to connect the system in networ#. 1s the networ#ing here was in structured form so we have to #eep in view that every thing done should be in structured way. Initially we consider following points for the location     'ocation for Switch 'ocation of wall mounting 'ocation of power point 'ocation and se<uence of computer

N C#e"+in$ "onne"tion of ,o%e s',,ly and %all !o'ntin$  )e chec# the voltage between earth and neutral with the help of multimeter which must be less than two /olts .  )e chec# the voltage between phase and neutral with the help of multimeter which should be ,,- /olts.  1s we use only four wires for communication in patch chords thus we connect

One ,T%o, T# ee, 8iCables in wall mounting accordingly N !a+in$ of ,at"# "#o ds )e cut the "$! cable as re<uired. )e made the patch chords as per the lucent standards followed by M1SS $(I*$1C%. $he $)"%nt !t#n*#&*! is as follows 2 *range white *range @reen white 7lue 7lue white @reen 7rown white 7rown after that we crimp the chords with connectors . N asse!blin$ of syste!  )e chec# the .1M& CM*S battery and confirm that each and every system is ready to be assembled. NInstallation of net%o + "a d  )e plug the networ# card in !CI bus and connect the system  Start the system& computer will deduct the new hardware device )hich is 9comm networ# cardX  )e load the driver of 9C*M (IC card and Microsoft client  )e loaded $C!/I! protocol

 )e install $C!/I! protocol 0 give the I! address to each computer as per given .

 )e give the I! address to each system as per given  Subnet mas# of each of them were of class 1 i.e. ,;;.,;;.-. $hen we give the address of D(S server

 $hen we restart the system and chec# whether each of the system is in networ# or not Dby !I(@ command )  c2/Mping 8,:.-.-.8 Din D*S prompt)  we ping the with server

.ES"'$2
Each of the system are in networ# and 1INGING with our networ# with no loss

C1.EE. !.*S!EC$S I( C*M!"$E. %1.D)1.E
8. $he wor# of computer hardware engineering s is to research& design 0 develop& supervise manufacture and installation of computers related e<uipment and implementing solutions. ,. 1nother ma?or responsibility of computer hardware engineers is to integrate advanced microprocessors& chipsets& digital/analog components and firmware into motherboards& networ#ing adapters and systems that meet the re<uirements of leading original E<uipment Manufactures D*EM s) in the industry. 9. Consulting opportunities for computer hardware engineers would grow as business need help managing& upgrading and customi5ing increasingly comple4 systems. @rowth in embedded systems& a technology that uses computers to control other devices such as applications or cell phones& also will increase the demand for computer hardware engineers. G. In India& apart from being a !C support specialist& with networ#ing #nowledge a hardware engineer can become internet Engineer and be responsible for managing and maintaining the networ#ing architecture for an organi5ation s website and )ide 1rea (etwor# Dwan) connectivity. ;. 1nother option is that of a networ# security analyst& responsible for design& implementation and maintenance of networ# and computer security policies.

Computer %ardware Engineers are e4pected to have favorable ?ob opportunities as this field will open the largest number of doors to fulfilling and high3paying careers. $hus the hardware industry can be a solution to the unemployment in the country as it has the potential of generating a million ?obs every year. 1ll this ma#es hardware industry an attractive career option.

CA.EE. 1.O81ECT8 IN NETWO.KING
Several types of positions e4ist in networ#ingN each with different average salaries and long3term potential& and one should possess a clear understanding of these. "nfortunately& ?ob titles in networ#ing and in information technology DI$) generally& often lead to confusion among beginners and e4perienced fol#s ali#e. 7land& /ague or overly bombastic titles often fail to describe the actual wor# assignments of a person in this field. $he basic ?ob titles one sees for computer networ#ing and networ#ing3 related positions include. (etwor# administrator (etwor# administrator is responsible for analysis& installation and configuration of company networ#s. Daily activities include monitoring networ# performance& troubleshooting problems and maintaining networ# security. (etwor#Dsystem) Engineer (etwor# engineers focus primarily on system upgrade& evaluating vendor products& security testing& and so on. (etwor#Dservice) $echnician (etwor# technician tends to focus more on the setup& troubleshooting and repair of specific hardware and software products. Service technicians in particular often travel to remote customer sites to perform =field> upgrades and support. (etwor# !rogrammer/1nalyst $hey generally write scripts that aid in networ# analysis& such as diagnostics or monitoring utilities. $hey also speciali5e in evaluating third party products and integrating new software/hardware technologies into an e4isting networ# environment or to build a new environment. • (etwor#/Information Systems Manager • • • •

$hey supervise the wor# of administrators& engineers& technicals and programmers. (etwor#/information systems managers also focus own longer3 range planning and stragracy considerations. (etwor# Security 1nalyst $he wor# of the security analyst is basically confined to the security solutions in large networ#s. $hey basically chec# the unauthori5ed of the networ# by any e4ternal user. •

*CC"!1$I*(S I( $%E I(D"S$.E
• • • • repairer • line installers • • Computer Support Specialist Electrical 0 Electronics Engineers Electrical and Electronic Engineering $echnicians Iirst3line supervisors/managers of mechanics& installers and $elecommunications e<uipment installers and repairers& e4cept Electrical power3line installers and repairers $elecommunications line installers and repairers

1bout 8, percent of the industry s employees are professional wor#ers. Many of these are specific and technical personnel such as engineers and computer specialist. Engineers plan cable routes& central office and !7+ e<uipment installations& and the e4pansions of e4isting structures& and solve other engineering problems. Some engineers also engage in research and development of new e<uipment. Speciali5ing in telecommunications design voice and data communications systems& and integrate communications e<uipment with computer networ#s. $hey have closely with clients& who may not understand sophisticated communications systems& and design systems that meet their customers needs. (etwor# systems and data communications analyst design& develop& test and debug software products. $hese include computer3assisted engineering programs for schematic cabling pro?ectsN modeling programs for cellular and schematic cabling pro?ectN modeling programs for cellular and satellite systemsN and programs for telephone options& such as voice mail& electronic mail& and call waiting. $elevommunicatons specialist coordinate the installations of these systems and may provide follow3up maintains and training

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