containers

CARGO CARE
Introduction
A successful containerised cargo shipment depends on four basic fundamentals.
1. Matching the cargo to the correct type of container that is best suited for the
forthcoming voyage – be it by land or water.
2. Ensuring that the container is in good condition prior to loading the cargo and
that it is carried and handled correctly throughout the voyage.
3. Ensuring that the cargo is loaded correctly into the container and is properly
secured against movement during the voyage.
4. Ensuring that all the relevant cargo information is communicated to all
appropriate parties to ensure that the container and its contents will arrive at
the consignee in the epected condition.
!his "argo "are website contains information and guidance on how all parties can
wor# together to best ensure that cargoes are loaded correctly into or onto containers.
!his page contains general advice on loading into containers$ including some do%s
and don%ts$ whist the associated pages give more specific advice and guidance.
Pack Points
Container Checklists
A full container inspection for structural damage re&uires a competent eye$ however
for cleanliness and general acceptability$ common sense is the watchword. 't is very
much in the interests of any user whether it be (") or )") to carry out a &uic#
internal and eternal inspection prior to stuffing and also after unstuffing the container.
)isted below are some useful hints which can help to minimise cargo damage.
Checklist Before Stuffing
External
Holes: *o obvious holes or tears in the eterior panelling.
Doors: *o bro#en or distorted door hinges$ loc#s$ or door seal gas#ets.
Tilts: +here containers are fitted with removable roof tilts or side curtains$ they should
fit correctly$ be e&uipped with tilt wires and have no tears in the fabric.
Roof Bows: ,pen tops containers should have all the roof bows -supports. in place. 'f
the roof is of the retractable sort then the roof bows should slide smoothly to the ends
of the container.
Labels: Any labels remaining on the outside of the container which refer to the
previous cargo should be removed.
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Internal
Clean: *o left overs -sweepings$ dust$ grease or li&uid. of the previous cargo.
Dry: !he interior should be dry and free of any sweat or frost.
No infestation: !here should be no evidence of pests$ insects or rodents which might
contaminate cargo and lead to delay by /ort 0ealth Authorities.
Taint-free: 'f delicate goods susceptible to damage by bad odours are to be pac#ed$
then the container must be sweet1smelling. !his should be chec#ed immediately on
opening the doors when any lingering smells will be at their strongest.
Watertight: !his is best chec#ed by entering the container and closing both doors. 'f
any spots of light can be seen then water can gain entry. !his also applies to the
container floor because water can splash upwards during road haulage.
Follow instructions: Any recommendations posted inside the container should be
noted.
Checklist After Stuffing
+hen the planned &uantity of goods have been stuffed in a container$ the following
chec#s should be made.
Restraint: !he goods should be arranged and secured to withstand the normal
stresses and strains of the 2ourney. 'n particular ensure doorway cargo cannot move.
Customs insection: 'f more than one type of article is stuffed in the container it may
save time and cost of a search if a sample of each article is positioned near the door.
!ecurity: +hen the doors are shut$ all securing lugs should be properly engaged
forcing the door seals into compression. !he company3s approved seal should be
fitted in the appropriate position on the right hand door and the number noted.
Contents: Any label on the outside of the container advertising the contents will attract
thieves and should be removed.
Labels: 4angerous 5oods )abels$ if appropriate$ should be affied in the
recommended positions. !he labels must be placed in such a way that they do not
obscure the number of the container or other distinguishing mar#s.
Checklist Before Unstuffing
!he following should be chec#ed prior to unstuffing.
!ecurity: 6eal is intact and has not been tampered with. !he number must be
compared with the accompanying documents for possible future reference.
"#ternal of the container: Any damage that may have affected the content should be
duly noted.
Labels: 7efore opening the doors due regard should be ta#en of any labels such as
4angerous 5oods )abels or contents shipped in bul#.
Doors: !he right hand door should be opened cautiously. !his is to guard against the
ris# of improperly secured cargo falling out onto personnel.
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Checklist After Unstuffing
+hen a container is empty of cargo the container should be chec#ed for damage that
might lead to claims. Most tariffs are so worded that it is obligatory for (") customers
to clean out the container after unstuffing. !his includes removal of all pac#aging and
a thorough sweep out.
't is prudent to eamine the container for any signs of wet stains$ holes in the sides or
roof that might have affected the cargo which has 2ust been carried.
Do's and Dont's
• 6ub2ect to boo#ing re&uest select the most suitable container type to
accommodate the cargo.
• /repare a prestow plan before commencing stuffing so that weight8cubic
considerations are covered and point loading limits are observed.
• 4o not load by weight above the payload limits of the container.
• 4o not load by weight above the road regulations applicable on the transit.
• 4istribute the weight of the cargo evenly over the floor of the container. *ever
stow heavy items in one section and light voluminous items in another.
• 4o not stow heavy goods on top of light goods.
• 6tow and secure all cargo tightly.
• ,bserve all the handling instructions on cargo such as 94o *ot 4rop9$ 9!his
6ide :p9
• 6tow goods with sharp corners separate from other softer merchandise. :se
dividers and separating material as appropriate.
• +here possible with mied loads$ place pac#ages containing li&uid cargo on
the bottom tiers with dry on top.
• :se cargo liners for obnoious cargo such as hides and carbon blac#.
• 4o not use clamps or other loading devices unless the goods can withstand
them.
• 4o not loads goods in a container with damaged pac#aging.
• 4o not stow wet and damp goods with dry goods.
• 4o not use dunnage or pac#aging which is incompatible with the cargo.
• 4o not stow goods with tainting odours close to sensitive merchandise.
• ,bserve all rules concerning ha;ardous cargo. :se appropriate labels and
placards to identify containers loaded with dangerous goods.
• 6tow ha;ardous cargo near the door where applicable.
• 'nclude all necessary documentation.
• <ecord the seal number and the container number on all shipping documents.
• *ever smo#e during loading and unloading.
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Container Talk
ISO Codes
!he 'nternational 6tandards ,rganisation -'6,. has recommended a series of internal
and eternal dimensions for containers together with gross maimum weights which
the container may carry. All containers operated within the /=, *edlloyd container
fleet$ whether owned or leased$ are according to the '6, code.
*ot all containers which are used by transport companies are '6, containers and
under no circumstances should they be accepted unless with special agreement
obtained from /=, *edlloyd
Container Parts
!he main components of a container are described below with accompanying
diagram.
Corner $ost: >ertical frame components located at the corners of freight containers
and integral with the corner castings and floor structures.
Corner Castings: (ittings located at the corner of the freight container which provide
means for lifting$ handling$ stac#ing and securing the container.
Hea%er an% !ill: 'n way of door entrance with overhead hori;ontal header frame and
similar floor level threshold sill.
Front-"n% Frame: !he structure at the front end of the container -opposite the door
end. consisting of top and bottom rails attached to the front corner posts and the
corner castings.
To Rail: )ongitudinal structural members located at the top edge on either side of the
freight container.
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Bottom Rail: )ongitudinal structural members located at the bottom edge on either
side of the freight container.
Cross-members: A series of transverse beams at approimately 12 inch centres
attached to the bottom side rail and an integral part of the floor frame support.
Floor: !he floor may be hard or soft laminated wood$ plan#s or plywood.
Roof: <oof bows are the undermost structure of the roof and are usually placed at 1?
or 24 inch centres. Modern steel 5/ containers -ecept open top containers. are not
fitted with roof bows but will have corrugated or flat steel sheet roofs welded to the
frame members.
Aluminium containers have aluminium sheathing$ bonded with adhesive to the roof
bows and riveted to the top rails and headers. 5</ containers have fibreglass
reinforced plywood panels fastened to the rail and headers. !he roof is the part of the
container most vulnerable to damage.
!i%es & Front: Modern steel 5/ containers will have corrugated steel panels.
Aluminium containers have aluminium sheathing on the sides and front of the
container which are affied to aluminium stringers which are in turn bolted to the top
and bottom rails and also to the front end frame. !he stringers may be on the outside
or inside of the sheathing. 5</ containers do not use stringers for supporting the
fibreglass reinforced plywood panels. !he side and the front of steel containers are
made of corrugated steel sheets eliminating stringers.
Doors: 4oors may be ply1metal -plywood core with steel or aluminium facings.$
corrugated$ or combinations with fibreglass. !he hinged doors have plastic or rubber
lined door gas#ets as seals against water ingress.
!ecurity seal: :sed in con2unction with loc#ing mechanism in order to seal the
containers for security purposes. !hese seals are numbered and often colour coded.
Container T!es
!he /=, *edlloyd container fleet can be loosely described in terms of 5eneral
/urpose -5/. containers or specials.
!he 5/ or general purpose container accounts for the large ma2ority of the fleet and
is used for most general cargo commodities. !he containers are 2@ ft or 4@ ft in length
with a limited stoc# of 4A ft.
!he standard eternal height of 5/ containers is ? ft B inches although high cube
containers at C ft B inches in height are becoming common .
6pecial containers are provided for specific carriage re&uirements and eamples are
listed below.
T!e" Si#es -'n feet.D Characteristics" T!ical uses
O!en To!s" 2@84@D 6oft detachable roof tarpaulin or tiltD Machinery re&uiring top
loading and overheight cargo.
$alf $eights" 2@84@D 6oft detachable roof tarpaulin or tilt$ half heightD 0igh density
cargoes such as ingots$ heavy steelwor#$ drums.
%latracks" 2@8 4@D *o sidewalls or roof -and ends may be collapsible.D (or out of
gauge cargoes and restricted loading situations.
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Platfor&s" 2@84@D (latbed with corner castings. )imited numbers of high rated
e&uipmentD ,ver1length cargoes and special pro2ects.
%antainers" 2@84@D Etractor fan fittedD Agricultural products re&uiring ventilation e.g.
onions$ potatoes. Also used as a normal 5/ container.
$ighl 'entilated" 2@D 6ide vents along top and bottom railsD 0ygroscopic cargoes
such as coffee$ cocoa$ tobacco and seeds.
To! 'entilated" 2@D 6ide vents along top railD 0ygroscopic cargoes such as coffee$
cocoa$ tobacco and seeds.
O!en Sides" 2@D 6ide gates and side curtainsD Agricultural products re&uiring
ventilation$ livestoc# and side loading.
Bulk" 2@D !op loading ports and door discharge shootD 4ry cargoes in bul# e.g. malt $
sugar also used as a normal 5/ container.
Tank Containers" 2@D !an# within an '6, frame of various typesD )i&uid cargoes in
bul#s including foodstuffs and ha;ardous.
Refrigerated ( Integral" <efrigerated – 'ntegralD 2@84@D ?3B9 and C3B9D Electrically
powered self contained refrigeration unitD <efrigerated cargoes throughout the +orld
with connection to terminals and ships electrical power soc#ets.
Refrigerated ( Insulated" 2@ -?% and ?%BE.D !op = bottom end ports and connects to
ships refrigeration systemD <eefer cargoes on specialised ships operating in A*F and
6A( !rades.
Container E)a&inations
Every container must have a "ontainer 6afety "ertificate -"6". issued by the
manufacturer and this must be renewed every 3@ months after inspection by a
competent inspector. An approved continuous eamination programme -A"E/. can
be agreed as substitute for this procedure and the A"E/ number is stamped on the
"6" plate. /=, *edlloyd containers are inspected under an A"E/ scheme.
Container Da&age
"ommon types of container damage are listed below.
Racking* 's the twisting of the structural shell of the container due to static or
dynamic forces and is commonly associated with movements in a seaway. !he
standard '6, container rac#ing limit is nominally 1A tonnes. !o counter these forces$
diagonal lashings may be applied in accordance with the vessel3s lashing system. 'n
high stac#s$ the lower container is sub2ect to the greatest rac#ing forces and the
lashing systems must be designed to ta#e this into account.
To!!ling* "an occur when containers are sub2ected to etreme rolling motions
aboard ship or standing in a stac#$ eposed to high winds. "ounter measures are
twistloc#s and lashings.
Container colla!se -corner1post compression. G <esults from eceeding allowable
loads on the container corner posts and can be avoided by staying within weights
limits of the container. +here lashings are applied aboard ship$ avoid over tensioning
of lashings.
+ocal structural failure* 's the separation of structural components of a container
such as side1wall separation from top and bottom rails and separation of the corner
castings from the side rails.
$oles in containers* are the most common #inds of damage. <oof damage is often
caused by lifting spreaders indenting the roof when locating corner castings and
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twistloc#s and lashing gear being thrown down on top. 0oles in container walls can be
caused by for#1lift truc#s$ collision with other containers or lifting devices. 0oles in
containers can be easily detected by interior inspection with the doors closed and
noting any light entering the container. !his can also reveal faulty door seal gas#ets
and is etremely important chec# to be made.
Interior Conta&ination* "ontainer floors become seriously contaminated by cargoes
such as wet hides which can cause tainting to future cargoes. 'nterior paintwor# can
also be stripped by cargoes such as naphthalene and cloves.
Container Re!airs
/=, *edlloyd see#s to maintain the containers in a safe and acceptable condition
both operationally and visually$ whilst avoiding overspending on structural and
cosmetic repairs such as small dents and scuffing of paintwor#.
Container Cleanliness
/=, *edlloyd also set a cleanliness criteria for cleaning containers. !his includes
appropriate detergents to be used in order that taint to cargoes is not caused by
cleaning agents.
E,ui!&ent Interchange Recei!t -EIR.
Also referred to as a !railer 'nterchange <eceipt -!.'.<. and relates to the landside
interchange of containers. +here a contracted truc#er$ barge or rail operator$
echanges e&uipment as part of the inland 2ourney$ an E.'.<. inspection should record
each interchange. !his may include receipt or delivery of containers from terminals or
depots as appropriate and can serve as a valid contract between ourselves the
shipping line -or appointed sub contractor. and the haulier.
'essel Cell /u&0ering
"ontainer slot positions aboard ship are epressed by three co1ordinates indicating G
Ba 11 Ro2 11 Tier
Bas* Are numbered lengthwise from bow to stern with odd numbers for 2@3
containers and even numbers for 4@3 containers. !he even number between two 2@3
containers is used to define 4@3 bays.
Ro2s* Are numbered from centreline to portside with even numbers and from
centreline to starboard with odd numbers. !he container row stowed on the centreline
is mar#ed @@.
Tiers* 'n underdec# stows$ containers are numbered vertically downwards with even
numbers from top to bottom. !he bottom row will be @2$ ecept where as a result of
the hull contour$ the bottom of an ad2acent row is at a higher level. 'n case of two half
heights the bottom ones are to be numbered by an odd number.
,n dec# stowage is indicated by code #ey ? followed by an even number se&uence.
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General Sto2age
$o&ogeneous Cargo
'f the load consists of homogeneous cargo -all the cargo has the same si;es. the
complete volume of the container should be utilised. 4ifferent #inds of pac#aging
methods eist such as cartons$ boes$ bags$ drums and barrels$ rolls$ liners for li&uid
bul# and small wooden crates. !he container may have vacant cubic on completion of
stuffing due to weight restrictions or otherwise and sensible securing is necessary on
grounds of safety and cargo care.
Unifor& Sto2age
+hen uniform cargo is stowed into a container and free space is unavoidable$ the
cargo must be stowed in such a way that there is a gap in the middle of the stow as
per diagram.
!he gap$ which can be fore and aft or athwart$ must be choc#ed with wood or lashed
with rope and if the cargo is fragile$ nets or dunnage bags can be used.
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Cartons 3 Packages
'mportant to follow any instructions printed on the cartons$ e.g. particular side up for
bottles of wine which re&uire cor#s to remain immersed. !o ensure stability in the stow
and spread the weight as evenly as possible the 97onded 7loc# 6tow9 should be
used.
Bagged Cargo
7agged cargo tends to settle during transit causing pressure on side walls. *ormal
practice is to stow bags in interloc#ing stows. 7ag on bag or building air chimneys
within the stow may be necessary where etra ventilation is re&uired. !o avoid the ris#
of bags falling out of the container when the doors are opened$ a brace or net is
placed against the final row. 7ags which are stowed and secured on pallets do not
cause this problem and the cargo can be handled much faster.
Dru&s 3 Barrels
4rums and barrels in containers should always be stowed upright if possible. 'f the
bung or closure is at one end$ then it should be stowed with the bung uppermost.
7arrels of earthenware etc should always be stowed upright.
:nless the drums or barrels are specially designed to 9nest9$ there should be some
form of soft dunnage or ply between each tier of drums. 4unnage should be laid
sufficiently close to provide full support to the tier above
<olling hoops$ when pressed out of the side walls of the drums are particularly
susceptible to rupture through chafe. 'n some instances it may be necessary to lay
dunnage between individual drums to prevent rolling hoops from chafing one another.
A second option is that each alternate row of drums may be lifted a few inches by
carefully laid dunnage$ allowing the rolling hoops to ride clear and reducing the
effective diameter of each drum.
Ensure proper securing in way of the doorway with a fence$ net or lashing.
Rolls
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+hen rolls are stowed upright they should be pac#ed closely together. Any empty
spaces between the rolls should be filled in by sac#s of sawdust$ corrugated
cardboard or similar soft dunnage. 6ecure the rolls by means of timber$ nets or
wedges.
+hen the rolls are stowed hori;ontally$ the rolls which are nearest to the door should
be secured by wedges or other similar devices as per diagram. 6upport the rolls
evenly along their length on a flat surface particularly with cargo such as carpets.
<olls of paper re&uire paper clamps for careful handling.
Bulk +i,uids
+ine$ late$ printing in# and other non1ha;ardous li&uids are often transported in
strong synthetic 9(lei17ags9 in 2@3 5/ containers. !he bags must be braced at the
door end of the container with a strong timber -or other material. bul#head. Also ma#e
sure that the harness straps on the bags are secured tightly to the anchorage rings in
the container. 't is not only necessary to secure the load but also to ma#e sure the
pressure on the walls is not too high -if so the pressure must be distributed with
plan#s or plates..
Bulk Solids
7ul# bags are used for a wide range of granular substances including malt$ cocoa and
coffee.
$anging Gar&ents
6pecialist containers are available for shipping clothing garments. !hey are carried
either on hanger rails or suspended from strings and significant traffic moves from the
(ar East$ 'ndia$ 6ri )an#a and 6outh Africa to Europe. 6eparate procedures issued by
'"M cover all aspects of container preparation which are crucial for a successful out1
turn. (ailure to observe procedures can result in considerable claims for dry cleaning
of garments which have dropped to the container floor.
+ight 'ehicles
"ars and similar light vehicles are commonly shipped in containers. +ebbing or
6panish +indlass lashings are used as cross lashings. 'n the case of non1operating
reefers this is via lashing eyes clipped into the ! section flooring.
6ee A:!,M,7')E6 rules regarding petrol under the 'M45 "ode. 6pecial car rac#s
can also be fitted into containers to allow more cars to be carried.
$a#ardous Cargo
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Must be declared to the appropriate /=, *edlloyd 4angerous "argo 4ept.
All documentation must be completed.
"ontainer must be properly placarded with an 'M, danger label affied to each of the
outside walls of the container -front$ door and the two sides..
'M, stowage segregation M:6! be complied with at all times.
Safet 3 Securing
!his section pic#s up important issues of safety that have been eperienced with
containerised cargo and to the related sub2ect of cargo securing.
O4erloading
!here have been considerable incidents over the years of containers being loaded
above their stipulated payload. 'n many cases the manifests declare cargo within
payload limits when it is over. !his is often eposed by the suspicions of a container
handler or even an accident$ resulting in a weigh1bridge chec#.
,verloading is something which /=, *edlloyd cannot entertain and in accepting
cargo the following should be obtained or chec#ed G
• !he number of pieces$ si;e$ weight and cubic of any commodity must be
obtained.
• !he payload and cubic of the container selected8re&uested must be compared
with the cargo particulars to establish whether a weight or cubic restriction
applies. -A higher rated container may be appropriate..
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• +here a weight restriction applies the point loading of the cargo must also be
chec#ed in order that the tonnes per s&uare metre loading limit is not
breached. "argoes such as metal ingots come into this category and timber is
often re&uired to spread the weight.
Road and Rail +i&its
Apart from not overloading the container$ the gross weight of the container -cargo plus
container tare. must not breach the road or rail limits appropriate on all legs of the
transit 2ourney. !his information can be obtained in 4<6 records or from the
appropriate trade. !he importance of observing these limits cannot be overstressed
particularly where liability occurs in the case of an accident.
Shifting Cargo
!he incidence of cargo moving inside a container during transit is considerable. 't is
usually because the cargo has not been secured properly or the pac#aging is
defective. 'n particular we have recorded several cases where road vehicles have
turned over due to cargo moving when negotiating a bend. !he #ey issue is to secure
cargo effectively to prevent the initial movement$ because once loose the game is
lost.
Securing 3 Reference to the International 5ariti&e Organisation -I5O.
!hough containerised cargo is well protected$ it is still sub2ect to the constant
movement and stress of transport. 'n heavy seas$ the cargo is eposed to
compressive forces due to pitching and rolling. !hese forces may increase the normal
strain on lashings$ struts and other securing devices as much as 1@@H. Effective
securing of the load throughout the entire transport process is of absolute importance.
<eference boo#s of note for detailed information include G
'M, "ode of 6afe /ractice for "argo 6towage and 6ecuring. >essel "argo 6ecuring
Manuals 1 available onboard all merchant vessels and approved by the vessels (lag
6tate Maritime Authority. !homas3 6towage -'67* @ ?A1I4 B2A J.
Securing %unda&entals
"ontained in the 'M, code above is a simple 9<ule of !humb to apply to securing
loads aboard ship. -<efer to the code for more detailed information..
!he total of the M6) values of the securing devices on each side of a unit of cargo
-port as well as starboard. should e&ual the weight of the unit.
M6) or Maimum 6ecuring )oad is to securing devices as safe wor#ing load -6+). is
to lifting tac#le. 't is a term used to define the load capacity for a securing device.
)ashing and securing is a matter of #now1how and eperience and is normally
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performed either by terminal staff or specialised riggers. Essential information
re&uired when considering any piece of si;eable cargo is G
Mass in metric tons /rinciple dimensions -drawing if possible. )ocation of centre of
gravity 7edding area and particular bedding precautions. 6ometimes referred to as
the 9(ootprint9.
)ifting points or slinging positions )ifting gear if any accompanying the cargo$
complete with test certificates 6ecuring arrangements aboard ship )andside transport
arrangements
+hen considering the shipboard stowage location of cargo items$ acceleration forces
should be borne in mindG
)ower accelerations forces occur in the midship sections$ lowest cell position
underdec# and as close to the centreline as possible
0igher accelerations forces occur at ship3s etremities$ high on dec# and in the
outrigger slots by the ship3s side.
+hen the lashing material is not specified -si;e of wire etc.. by the forwarder the
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lashing company will lash the cargo according to their own rules and eperiences.
*ot all cargo necessarily needs to be lashed. !he best way of stowing cargo is often
to stow one piece of cargo tight against the other cargo so they can support each
other.
Securing Gear
A basic securing lashing may comprise the pieces listed below and its strength is that
of the wea#est lin#.
+ire of suitable strength. -M6).. +ire measured in diameter$ parts$ strands. +ire
8bulldog clips to tie the wire. -Must be fitted correctly.. !urnbuc#les8 bottle1screws to
tension the lashing 6hac#les to fasten the ends.
A securing lashing will always brea# at the wea#est point or at the part with the lowest
brea#ing strength so ma#e sure you #now the brea#ing strength of all lashing
materials used. /rotect the lashing material from additional wea#ening factors such
as sharp edges$ bending of bottle screws and shac#les.
+here bottle1screws or turnbuc#les are introduced the rating of this e&uipment must
be e&ual to the maimum weight each lashing is epected to bear.
Securing in Containers
!he cargo in containers needs to be stowed in such a way that the cargo can not
move. !he container itself is designed to permit tight$ secure stowage of cargo.
!hese facilities includeG
• (loor of wood or plywood which permit bloc#s$ stays and wedges to be
anchored with nails or screws.
• 'nternal walls$ for the support of light cargo only.
• "orner posts which are suitable for bracing to with timbers and lashing from via
lugs .
• )ashing lugs are located along top and bottom rails of the container at regular
intervals.
An eample of a typical 2@ ft 5/3s lashing facilities areG
• 6idewalls 1 7ase 1 A lashing points rated at 2@@@#g 6afe +or#ing )oad -6+)..
• 6idewalls 1 !op 1 A lashing points rated at A@@#g 6+).
• (ront end 1 7ase 1 1 lashing point rated at A@@#g 6+).
• <ear end 1 4oor area 1 A lashing points rated at A@@#g 6+).
/ote*
!he walls$ doors and roof of the container are merely a protective shell which can not
withstand concentrated stress. 'f the walls or ceiling are used for lashing purposes$
ma#e sure the stress on the walls or ceiling is evenly distributed.
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Most types of cargo can be secured using the following materials G
• !imber beams$ struts$ choc#s$ plan#s for shoring$ bracing and relieving
pressure.
• Ad2ustable wooden battens$ rods or strap belts for securing the load in
sections$ facilitating mechanical discharge.
• /lywood and dunnage to separate several layers of cargo or to segregate
different types of cargo into separate sections.
• (oam1rubber cushions and air bags to reduce vibration and prevent the load
from shifting.
• 6econd hand tyres or bags with paperwaste or sawdust to fill empty spaces$
soften the impact and prevent shifting.
• *ets to secure fragile goods.
• <ope -hemp$ manila$ sisal etc..$ wire$ steel bands and terylene straps for
lashing.
• *ylon span sets
• 7olt clips into ! section flooring in 'nsulated containers
• 7ul#head bars
Securing Calculations A0oard Shi!
As per the previous diagram forces acting in a seaway are G
<otationalG1 <olling /itching 6heering8Kawing
)inear movementsG1 6waying 6urging 0eaving
"alculations to secure against the above forces follow a prescribed discipline and it is
important to refer to this procedure when performing calculations. !he recognised
calculations are contained in 9'M, "ode of 6afe /ractice for "argo 6towage and
6ecuring9.
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Condensation Issues for Containers
Saturated Air
(or a given atmospheric pressure$ air holds more water vapour at higher than lower
temperatures.
!he maimum amount of water vapour contained in a cubic metre of saturated air
decreases with a decrease in temperature. At 4@deg" it can contain A1 grammes$ at
2@deg" 1I grammes and at @deg" only A grammes.
De2 Point
's the temperature at which a sample of saturated air will condense. +arm air has
more capacity to support water vapour within it than cold air.
Relati4e $u&idit
Epressed in percentage terms is the ratio of water vapour present in a given sample
against the saturated level. 'f the <elative 0umidity -<0. is said to be 1@@H then the
air sample is saturated
Condensation
,ccurs when moisture laden air releases its water vapour on to the surrounding
surfaces in the form of water droplets. (or condensation to occur the following
conditions need to be presentG
• !emperature gradient -7etween air inside and outside the container.
• A source of water vapour -moisture..
• /athway for it to move.
Container S2eat
,ccurs when the s#in of the container is cooled to a temperature below that of the
dew point of the air enclosed within the container.
18
!his results in water droplets forming on the interior roof and side panels$ then
dripping down on the cargo causing mould and water damage. "argoes that
spontaneously heat from within can increase the problem.
An eample isG1
A cargo loaded in the tropical belt in warm conditions with high <elative 0umidity$ is
transported to cold winter conditions in Europe. !he temperature outside the
container gradually cools down in transit until it eperiences cold conditions in
Europe. !he steel container allows the chill to conduct from the outside of the panel
through to the inside. !he situation inside the container is now one of cool side panels
and warm moist air in the header space above the cargo and within the stow. !he
temperature of the side panels is therefore below the dew point of the air inside the
container and condensation occurs. "ondensation will continue until the dew point of
the interior air falls to that of the outside air. 4ifferent solutions are discussed further
in this procedure however the simple solution is to ventilate the container by passing
air through it and replacing the warm moist air with similar air to outside the container.
Cargo S2eat
,ccurs when the surface of the cargo is cooler than the dew point of the air enclosed
within the container. 4roplets of water then form on the surface of the cargo. An
eample isG1 A cargo of canned goods is loaded in cold winter conditions in Europe
and transported to the tropical belt. !he container will gradually heat up during transit
to the warmer moist climate however the cargo temperature will lag behind$ slowly
heating up and replacing the cold from loading.
'f ventilation was allowed to ta#e place the warm moist air from outside the container
would condense on the cold cargo. 'n this case it is better to avoid ventilation during
transit and allow the cargo temperature to gradually increase thereby restoring
e&uilibrium between the cargo temperature and the outside air.
Radiation of $eat at Ter&inals and On Board Shi!
+here possible cargoes sensitive to condensation must be protected from the
etremes of radiant heat and etreme cold as underG
• +hilst container is in the terminal stac#G shaded stow re&uired.
• Aboard shipG underdec# stow or protected dec# stow re&uired.
• )ong road8rail transit.
An eample isG1
A non insulated container sitting on the terminal in Assab with a load of bagged coffee
is sub2ected to the radiant heat of the sun. !he air inside the container will become
heated and absorb moisture from the coffee thus establishing high humidity
conditions. *ight cooling can cause the temperature of the container s#in to fall below
the dew point of the humid conditions within the container thus causing condensation.
!he need to avoid radiant heat is emphasised in this eample and late pac#ing of
coffee prior to eport would also help. 'n addition long periods eposed at
19
transhipment terminals such as 42ibouti$ in the summer$ should be avoided.
At the other end of the 2ourney it is important that early delivery is carried out for
sensitive8hygroscopic cargoes arriving at terminals with near ;ero temperatures. 'n
such cases the cargo can eperience what we call the 9cold shoc#9 of first night
ashore. +hen acceptable to the shipper it is often prudent to crac# a door open to
ventilate the container.
$grosco!ic Co&&odities
Are those which are permeable to water and which retain moisture under certain
conditions.
!imber$ coffee$ cocoa and most materials of organic origin are hygroscopic. "offee for
eample can have a moisture content of 12H and container sweat is therefore an
issue.
Packaging
1. !he importance of good pac#aging cannot be over1stressed in achieving good
out1turns. 't is also a #ey cost issue for our customers and therefore achieving
an optimum pac#aging policy commensurate with good product delivery is an
important element of cost control.
2. Each commodity must be individually assessed to determine the most suitable
pac#aging. 6everal eamples of pac#aging are listed below.
3. 7A55E4 "A<5, G !he physical composition of the cargo in terms of moisture
content and sensitivity to contamination will determine the bags used which
includeG
o /aper -single or multi1ply. which may be sewn or glued.
o /lastic -which may be airtight..
o +oven polypropylene -May also have an inner sealed bag made of
polythene..
o Lute$ hessian -!raditional materials. and the type most li#ely to be re1
used.
o !he danger of taint from residual cargo must be considered.
o ,pen mesh sac# of plastic fibre for maimum ventilation.
4. 7A)E6 = 7:*4)E6 G ,uter cladding usually of hessian or similar material with
an inner plastic pac#aging. 6ome baled cargo such as straw or hay are not
covered.
A. "A6E6$ "<A!E6$ "A<!,*6 G "ases and crates are usually made of timber
which may be plywood or heavier timber. /allets or timber s#ids may also be
part of pac#aging to facilitate lifting and ventilation. Ecess moisture in the
timber can cause damage to cargoM e.g. "anned cargo becoming rusty.
"artons of flimsy cardboard material and high moisture content are liable to
suffer crushing and conse&uent damage to the cargoM !he importance of good
&uality multi1wall fibreboard is stressed which may be wa impregnated to
resist moisture. 'n stowing cartons the use of the recognised 9bonded bloc#
stow9 techni&ue is necessary to ensure proper weight transmission within the
stow of carton.
20
De1$u&idifiers
<usty cans with peeling labels are the nightmare scenario for supermar#etsM 4e1
humidifiers are used in warehouses to create controlled conditions for goods and
pac#aging prior to eport. 'n very special cases de1humidifiers have been used in
containers prior to loading to ensure a dry container is presented for loading.
!he moisture content in the floors of containers is an important aspect of
condensation control and maimum permissible amounts may be specified by
customers$ e.g. 1A11? H moisture.
Desiccants 3 A0sor0ent 5aterials
A basic desiccant is one which will absorb 2IH -of its dry weight. of moisture when
placed in an atmosphere of A@H <elative 0umidity at 2A degrees ".
4esiccants can be very effective when used with certain cargoes -6teel reels$ cars$
cartonware.. 'n the case of hygroscopic cargoes they may only be part of the solution
because of the high moisture content present within the cargo -e.g. "offee 12H.. At
the other end of the spectrum$ in certain situations desiccants can etract too much
moisture from the cargo and where the cargo is sold by weight this results in claims.
6ilica1gel is probably the most familiar to us and others include activated alumina and
activated clay. 7rand names using desiccants include 4ry 7ag$ Absormatic$ Moisture1
5rip and 5rafo !herm.
Dry Bag: A 4anish desiccant made up of roasted moler clay mied with calcium
chloride. 7ags of #g are normally used in containers and the numbers utilised will be
determined by the commodity.
4ry17ag is successfully used with cars$ machinery$ mil# powder and many other
cargoes.
'bsormatic: :ses water retaining poles in con2unction with a desiccant and are placed
into the corrugation of the container side panels in order not to waste cubic space for
cargo. Effective but vulnerable to for#lift damage which can release moisture into the
container.
(oisture-)ri: A product developed in Lapan and is an absorbent polymer sheet
taped to the container ceiling of the container. 6ometimes used with cargoes of
tobacco.
)rafo Therm: A porus paint application applied to the container ceiling which absorbs
moisture within the container. !his product has been championed as the solution to
condensation in coffee shipments. +here ma2or temperature gradients are present$
as with coffee entering a cold winter climate$ this may not have the capacity to absorb
all the condensation. <e&uires maintenance and may absorb dirt and contamination.
Insulation
'nsulation blan#ets are normally used to clad the inside of a 5/ container with
21
temporary insulation. !hey are used mainly to combat cold being conducted through
steel 5/ containers to cargoes such as red wine and li&ueurs.
!hey are listed in this section to ma#e the point that insulation can reduce etreme
temperature gradients between inside and outside the container.
'entilation
'n cases of etreme 9"ontainer 6weat9 the need to bring e&uilibrium between air
inside and outside a steel container is paramount. 5ood ventilation serves this
purpose by evacuating the warm moist air from the container and replacing it with
ambient air from outside.
>ent1"ontainers having vent ducts along the side panels at top and bottom rails
achieve this by convection effect. +arm moist air is epelled via the upper ducts and
replaced with colder ambient air via the lower ducts. /lywood insulation on the interior
of side panels is fitted only on part of the owned fleet and is preferable. 0igh leasing
costs are an issue with this e&uipment.
(antainers are used successfully to carry onions and potatoes throughout the world.
An etraction fan draws ambient air through the cargo to maintain e&uilibrium with the
temperature outside the container. "ontrol of ancillary e&uipment such as control
boards and leads reduces the appeal of this method. !he use of (antainers for use
with other cargoes is currently being evaluated.
)$ Containers: A large number of owned containers have four small passive vents in
way of top corner castings with each providing air paths with at least A s& cm total
cross sectional area..
!he above provides a small amount of ventilation and it is important for sufficient free
space to be left in the header space for it to be effective. !he ma2ority of dry cargoes
can be successfully carried in 5/ containers.
!aping off the passive vents in 5/ containers is also necessary when carrying
hygroscopic cargoes as under and also for cargoes liable to spontaneous combustion
G
!he use of desiccants combined with lining the container with #raft paper or
fibreboard are additional options according to the ris#. -4etails are available under
coffee stowage.. !his amounts to parcelling the cargo effectively to avoid contact with
the steel container and placing desiccant bags on top of the stow to absorb moisture
in the header space.
22
Infestation 3 %u&igation
Causes of Infestation
"argoes can become infested and damaged by the following common forms of pest
or vermin.
Rats consume approimately their own weight in food per wee#. !he damage that
rats can do to a cargo of foodstuffs is compounded by the fact that the presence of
rats will almost certainly mean that the cargo has to be condemned. !his is due to the
fact that rats are carriers of virulent diseases. "ontrol of rats aboard ship is done by
fumigation and a periodic renewal of a 94e <at9 "ertificate. 'n the case of
containerised cargo$ care should be ta#en to inspect the cargo during pac#ing for
signs of rats having penetrated the cargo.
Beetles6 &oths and &ites are #nown to cause damage to a wide range of
commodities. Each insect grows from an egg produced by an adult female. !he egg
of the beetle and moth hatches into a caterpillar which actively feeds on cargo. !his is
the greatest cause of damage from infestation. "aterpillars moult several times during
their life cycle before entering a pupal stage which releases the moth to restart the
cycle. Mites are hatched from eggs producing an insect which goes through a series
of development stages before reaching adulthood.
+ice are often found in bales of rags. A reliable sanitary certificate normally
accompanies the cargo.
7hite Ants are found in certain tropical woods and often in flat dunnage.
Cockroaches are found in various cargoes including hollow bamboo and old cord
wood.
Sire) 7ood17as! is found in timber dunnage and is particularly outlawed in
Australia.
5aggots are found in animal hoofs$ horns$ bones and s#ins.
Tro!ical 7arehouse 5oth is found in cocoa beans and coffee.
7ee4ils are common in bran rice.
Co!ra Beetle is found in coconuts and cereals.
Black 5ould Parasite is found with onions.
Sito!hilus 8ea&ais is common in mai;e.
Tri0oliu& Castaneu& is found in wheat flour
Da&age Arising
'nfestation is obvious when insects are visible on bags or bul#$ but it may be that
insects are feeding inside the foodstuff itself. !his can happen for eample with wheat
grains and coffee beans. !ropical countries are associated with the origins of
23
particular insects$ however cross contamination with other infested cargoes is a
common cause.
!here are four types of damage resulting from insect or mite infestationG1
• 7oring and nibbling mied with webbing and ecreta.
• )oss in weight and heating. 't is important to note that heating can be caused
in dry materials solely by the activity of insects.
• +ater damage. Essentially a surface phenomenon confined to the top few
inches of the cargo resulting from 9hot spots9 and insect activity.
• 4epreciation of value. A good eample of this is !ribolium beetles within
desiccated coconuts which cannot be removed by a commercially practicable
process.
Pre4ention
(umigation is the recognised means of combating infestation by the application of
fumes to disinfect or purify. !here are several substances used for this purpose which
are listed below. (urther sections are provided on the disciplined procedure
necessary for applying fumigants as well as the relationship to the 'M45 code for
ha;ardous cargo.
T!es of %u&igants
1. (ethyl Bromi%e *Bromomethane+:
Methyl 7romide$ at normal temperature$ is a colourless gas 3.2I times heavier
than air. !he pure gas has a faintly sweet smell but it normally has a mar#er
added for warning which causes watering of the eyes.
!here is widespread international concern over Methyl 7romide because of its
properties as a category one o;one depletant under the Montreal /rotocol of
1CC2. *ot withstanding its abilities as a fumigant there is a mounting
consensus that a more suitable substance must be found by the end of the
century. Methyl 7romide is highly toic to mammals and is the most widely
used fumigant for timber$ agricultural products$ empty containers$ foodstuffs$
seeds and plants. 'n particular Australian &uarantine clearance by AN'6
re&uires this method which includes fumigation against G
o +eeds and organisms within soil and compost$
o 'nsects and mites$
o 'nfestation in fresh fruit$
o +ithin nursery stoc#s of plants.
24
Effect on foodstuffsG After fumigation the bul# of methyl bromide is removed by
aeration although there may be small residues. !here can on occasion be a
chemical reaction with certain food products if some absorption ta#es place.
Methyl 7romide is absorbed by oils$ fats and finely ground materials. 't can
also react with materials containing sulphur to cause discoloration or odour.
!he following materials are among those which should *,! normally be
fumigated by Methyl 7romide.
o 7utter$ lard$ fats$ avocado$ soybean flour$ flours and ba#ing powders$
o 7one meal$ charcoal and cinder bloc#s$
o (urs$ felts$ horsehair$ pillows$ rugs and papers$
o 'odised salt$
o )eather goods and photographic chemicals -ecluding film..
o /hotographic prints$
o <ubber goods$
o +oollen goods
0ealth +arning G Eposure to Methyl 7romide has in the past resulted in a
number of deaths. A particular danger is that signs of poisoning may be
delayed for several hours following eposure to the gas. !here is no significant
antidote and the human body can absorb it by inhalation and via the s#in.
0eadache$ di;;iness$ eye irritation$ coughing$ nausea$ abdominal pains and
numbness of the feet are early indications of poisoning.
Methyl 7romide is usually administered from approved cylinders or cans. 't is
important to stress the use of the correct protective clothing during fumigation.
5uideline &uantities G (or A*F destinations 1 A.@ lbs per 1@@@ cft or ?@
gms8cbm (or :6A destinations 1 4.A lbs per 1@@@ cft or I2 gms8cbm (or other
destinations1 3.@ lbs per 1@@@ cft or 4? gms8cbm
2. $hoshine: /hosphine used for fumigation purposes is usually produced by the
reaction of atmospheric moisture with slow release formulations containing
aluminium or magnesium phosphide.
/hosphine is highly toic although it re&uires a relatively high temperature and
long eposure period to be effective. :nder normal conditions /hosphine is a
gas and is colourless and odourless. A fishy or garlic1li#e smell may be evident
due to impurities.
A significant fire8eplosion ris# associated with phosphine is reduced by using
metal phosphides specially prepared for fumigation purposes. "are must be
ta#en during use to isolate any electrical connection -switches can be covered
in paraffin wa. and any sources of ignition must be removed.
25
/hosphine is used for fumigating a wide band of insects and pests. 't has a low
degree of absorption by foodstuffs and penetrates well into the stored product.
Australian AN'6 recognise its advantages over Methyl 7romide on milled and
oily commodities such as flour$ soybean flour$ fishmeal$ nuts and oilseeds. 't is
however not favoured for use on timber due to concerns over its ability to
penetrate the material.
0ealth +arning G >ery poisonous and very similar symptoms to those of Methyl
7romide if eposed to it. A notable effect is chest tightness and difficulty in
breathing.
/hosphine preparations for fumigation are dispensed as G
o /owder sachets
o 4egesch plates impregnated with metal phosphide formulations and
sealed prior to use
o 7ag blan#ets or belts
o Mied in cylinders with ",2 with 3H phosphine.
o !ablets or pellets$
5uidelines on tablets G 3 tablets per "7M. !he advised temperature for
/hosphine *,! to be used below 1@ deg ".
3. !ulhuryl Fluori%e:
6ulphuryl (luoride ->i#ane. is used etensively in the :6A to control insect
pests in timber. 't should not be used on living plants and foodstuffs. 't does
have an advantage over Methyl 7romide in that it does not have any harmful
effects on photographic supplies$ metals$ electronic components$ paper$
leather$ rubbers$ plastics and wallpapers.
4. "thylene ,#i%e:
Approval for use in foodstuffs was withdrawn by Australian authorities -AN'6.
in 1C?? due to concern over toicity of residues formed in some foods. !he
properties of Ethylene ,ide as an insecticide and effectiveness in devitalising
seeds ma#e it specific to special needs such as fumigating rice straw matting.
A ma2or drawbac# is the eplosive &ualities of Ethylene ,ide re&uiring it to be
normally applied under vacuum.
"thylene Dibromi%e *"DB+:
:sed for years as a treatment for fruit fly in fresh fruit and vegetables and
agricultural needs this form of fumigation has gradually been replaced.
Reference to the I5DG Code
26
<eference is made to the 'M,8'), guidelines for pac#ing cargo in freight containers
or vehicles and recommendations on the safe use of pesticides in ships.
,nly a cargo transport unit that can be closed in such a way that the escape of gas is
reduced to a minimum$ should be used for the carriage of fumigated cargo.
A closed cargo transport unit under fumigation should not be allowed on board until
sufficient time has elapsed to allow the attainment of a reasonably uniform gas
concentration throughout the cargo. 7ecause of variations due to types and amounts
of fumigants and commodities and temperature levels$ the period which should elapse
between fumigant application and loading should be determined by the competent
authority. !wenty four hours is normally ade&uate for this purpose.
!he master should be informed prior to loading of a cargo transport unit under
fumigation. !hese should be identified with a warning sign affied to the access doors
incorporating the identity of the fumigant and the date and time of fumigation. !he
transport documents for a closed cargo transport unit should show the date of
fumigation and the type and amount of fumigant used.
E&uipment for detecting the fumigant gas or gases should be carried on the ship$ with
the instructions for its use. (umigants should not be applied to the contents of a cargo
transport unit once it has been loaded aboard a ship.
!he provisions of this code should *,! apply to a closed cargo transport unit which
has been ventilated after fumigation to ensure that no harmful concentrations of gas
remain. 6uch a unit should also have the warning signs removed.
$ealth 3 Safet
4ue to the very serious ha;ards$ both health and fire$ associated with fumigation$ only
competent specialist people should be employed to underta#e this operation. +hen
opening a container which has undergone fumigation$ care must be ta#en to guard
against residual levels of the fumigant. !his will depend on the time since fumigation
and the amounts applied. !he container must be properly ventilated and suitable
e&uipment used -4raeger 6ets. to measure for residual gas prior to unstuffing.
$o2 to A!!l %u&igants
As a general rule there must be a minimum of two person conducting any fumigation.
!ecure fumigation sit: (umigation should be conducted at an approved and isolated
area specially designated for this purpose. *otification of planned fumigation should
always be provided to relevant parties so that the danger to staff is flagged in
advance.
$rotecti-e ".uiment: 6pecial protective suits are re&uired which have respiratory
protective e&uipment -</E.. !his e&uipment must be maintained properly and tested
at regular intervals.
'nspect container prior to stuffing to ensure that there are no holes in the container3s
27
side panels$ roof$ floor or doors.
6eal any ventilation ducts on the ,:!6'4E of the container using grip tape or suitable
e&uivalent.
Many /=, *edlloyd 5/ containers have small semi vents fitted in way of the top
corner castings on each side panel. !hey should be sealed on the outside of the
container.
Alternative methods of sealing cargo for fumigation include sealing the container or
cargo under gas1proof sheets -*ot commonly used..
>entilated containers must be sealed along their top and lower side vents on the
outside.
(antainers can be sealed on the underside inta#e vent either with tape or by placing
the container on a cushion blan#et.
,n completion of stuffing and observing the relevant safety procedures referred to
previously$ the fumigant is applied inside the container$ with a door crac#ed open$ and
doors then &uic#ly closed.
!he amount and type of fumigant will be determined by the temperature$ commodity$
cargo cubic and country of destination. -6ee guidelines under Methyl 7romide and
/hosphine..
A competent contractor will have a chart to readily determine the amount re&uired. 'f it
is the intention to ship the cargo under fumigation then the cargo must be treated as
'M, 0a; "lass C and boo#ed through the eisting company procedures for
ha;ardous cargo. !he relevant pac#ing declaration must accompany the cargo and
the container appropriately labelled.
At least 24 hours must elapse after fumigation prior to the container being shipped.
!he reason for this is to allow the fumigant to properly permeate the cargo. 'n cases
where the cargo re&uires ventilation during the voyage e.g. "offee$ the vents must be
unsealed prior to shipment. 'n this case the container should be rendered non
ha;ardous by opening the doors to fully vent the container prior to shipment.
A gas free certificate should be issued by the company conducting fumigation
operations which then eempts the cargo from ha;ardous regulations. 'f shipping gas
free then time scales must be carefully considered up to the arrival of the ship
designated to lift the cargo. 6ufficient time must be given to allowing the fumigant to
act as well as ma#ing the container gas free afterwards. (umigation can also be
carried out on arrival at the destination port and will be sub2ect to the port health
re&uirements of that country.
28
Out of Gauge 3 $ea4 +ifts
Out of Gauge -OOG.
,ut of gauge cargo$ that is cargo which is slightly higher or wider than will fit standard
containers$ can still be carried in open top$ openside or flatrac# containers. !he latter
type has higher payload ratings which is often important. +hen such cargo is shipped
on a flatrac# it is essential that accurate positioning is achieved and particularly for
cargo destined for underdec# stowage. :nderdec# cargo must clear the cell
protrusions and cargo in ad2acent cells.
>essel ,perations re&uire this cargo to be boo#ed for shipment under an ,,5
re&uest and will allocate the number of slots re&uired to accommodate.
,,5 :nderdec# within the cell guidesG
"argo which is too large to be containerised$ either by weight or measurement$ can
be shipped as uncontainerised cargo. !his is performed either on a bed of flatrac#s or
by preparing a timber bed which is normally stowed on dec#.
$ea4 +ifts A0o4e Container Paloads
!he following is essential information for considering heavy lift piecesG
• Mass in metric tons.
29
• /rinciple dimensions -drawing re&uired..
• )ocation of centre of gravity both athwartships and fore and aft.
• 7edding area and particular bedding precautions. 6ometimes referred to as the
9(ootprint9.
• )ifting points or slinging positions.
• )ifting gear if any accompanying the cargo$ complete with test certificates.
• 6ecuring arrangements aboard ship.
• )andside transport arrangements.
• )andside lifting arrangements e.g. gantry crane$ floating crane$ ship3s gear.
The hall&ark of good hea4 lift 2ork is careful !lanning and good
co&&unications 0et2een co&&ercial and o!erational tea&s9 %urther issues to
consider include *
• 4elivery and receiving arrangements.
• /olice escorts if applicable.
• +eight spreading measures on the loading beds8containers.
• <iggers and lashing e&uipment.
• !imetable8 critical path how this will fit in with normal operations.
• 6hip stability and stress.
$ea4 +ifts 2ithin Container Paloads
Large cases and crates:
)arge and heavy units which ta#e up only a part of the container space$ should be
place in the middle of the container. !his is to ensure even weight distribution. !he
container space on either side of the cargo can be used for securing the cargo. 6truts
or choc#s should never be used directly against the walls of the container as they are
not strong enough to withstand pin point pressure -6tiletto effect. and plan#s should
be used to distribute the weight evenly.
+hen shipping heavy goods particular care must be ta#en to distribute the weight of
the load evenly over the floor of the container. ,b2ects with a small base should be
placed on bearers or s#ids to help spread the weight sufficiently over the length.
!he centre of gravity of the load in a container must be #ept as low as possible.
:nevenly loaded containers often do not fit in the cell guides of a vessel and must be
carried on dec#.
'f the weight of an individual pac#age is more than three tons the weight should be
printed in a prominent position on the pac#age itself. !he centre of gravity of large or
heavy loads should be indicated$ and lifting points well mar#ed so to prevent damage
during loading or unloading with lifting devices.
As a general rule$ the heavier the cargo$ the more carefully it has to be secured.
Additional bracing structures are fre&uently needed to reinforce the walls of the
30
container. 't is also often necessary to use friction devices that absorb stress by
allowing limited movement.
Heavy Unit Loads:
!hese goods should be stowed tightly in strong$ well1built crates to prevent them from
shifting. 4ue to the weight of the goods and the payload of the container$ it may be
possible to load only a single row of units. !he units should be placed in the middle of
the container. (or securing these #inds of cargo the sidewalls must be reinforced with
si;eable timber and the unit must be braced against these plan#s and bars with
diagonal struts.
Lengthy Goods:
0eavy pipes$ beams or girders should be stowed on transverse struts$ placed across
the floor of the container or flat rac#. !hese #inds of goods have the tendency to slide
lengthwise causing etreme stress on the container1endwalls. !o prevent this pac#ing
should be used between each layer of the cargo. !he types of pac#ing which should
be used are rubber strips$ timber batons$ soft boards$ hessian$ pieces of rope$ etc.
/ressure on the sidewalls should also be relieved by strapping the load together at
several places with strong steel bands or similar devices. !he steel bands must be
placed on the floor before the commencement of loading. (lats used to transport
lengthy cargo should be e&uipped with side support bars to prevent lateral rolling. !ie
the bars together above the loads to #eep them from splaying. +here no side
supports are available$ secure the load from rolling by fiing end wedges on the
transverse spacers. 'n both cases$ strap securely with steel bands wire or span sets.
Heavy Rolls/Reels:
/articular care must be ta#en to prevent movement when transporting in open top
containers$ strap the rolls together in pairs and secure each pair with large timber
bloc#s nailed to the floor. <einforce the container ends with crossbars positioned at
height of the centre of the rolls. (ill in empty spaces with timber. >ery large and heavy
rolls should be placed hori;ontally on a sledge that can either be anchored to s#ids
from sliding or allowed to slide by means of friction devices. )ash the roll to the sledge
with steel bands or strong wire and turnbuc#les. <olls shipped on flat rac#s should be
31
stowed in heavy duty timber cradles and strapped together in pairs. 6ecure each roll
individually to the flat by lashing through its centre hole.
Heavy & Large Vehicles:
!ruc#s$ farm machinery$ bulldo;ers and other heavy or large vehicles can be shipped
on flatrac#s or as brea# bul# straight onto a hatch lid or dec#. 'f loading by the latter
method the point loading of the dec# should be chec#ed.
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