Diet
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Patient Education A B C D F G H I K L M N O P S W All Documents Guidelines for a Low Sodium Diet
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Sodium controls fluid balance and maintains blood volume and blood pressure. A diet high in sodium may raise blood pressure and cause fluid retention, resulting in swelling of the legs and feet. Water may also collect around the lungs and lead to shortness of breath. The average American eats five or more teaspoons of salt each day. This is about 20 times as much as the body needs. In fact, your body needs only one quarter of a teaspoon of salt every day. Salt is found naturally in foods, but a lot of it is added during processing and preparation. Many foods that do not taste salty may still be high in sodium, which can be hidden in large amounts in canned, processed and convenience foods as well as in many foods that are served at fast food restaurants. If you doctor recommends that you reduce your sodium intake, here are some general guidelines for cutting down the amount of salt in your diet.
y y y y y
y y y y
Special foods are not required for this diet. Eliminating salty foods from your diet and reducing the amount of salt used in cooking are important steps. Many salt free or reduced salt products are available. You may choose low sodium products to replace foods which are not allowed. Salt substitutes may be used with your doctor's permission. Be creative and season your food with spices, herbs, lemons, oranges, wine and Tabasco sauce. Move the salt shaker off the table. Read ingredient labels to identify foods high in sodium. High sodium food additives include salt, baking powder, brine or other items that say "sodium" such as monosodium glutamate. Eat more home-cooked meals. Foods cooked from scratch are naturally lower in sodium, since you are in control of how much salt is added. Avoid softened water for cooking and drinking since it contains added salt. Avoid medications which contain sodium such as alka seltzer and bromo seltzer. For more information on specific foods, or if you want to actually calculate your daily sodium intake, you might consider reading food labels or use a sodium reference guide.
Low-Sodium Alternatives to Popular Foods Meats, Poultry, Fish, Legumes, Eggs and Nuts High-sodium foods:
y y
Smoked, cured, salted or canned meat, fish or poultry including bacon, cold cuts, ham, frankfurters, sausage, sardines, caviar and anchovies Frozen breaded meats and dinners, such as burritos and pizza
y y
Canned entrees, such as ravioli, spam and chili Salted nuts
Low-Sodium Alternatives:
y y y y y y
Any fresh or frozen beef, lamb, pork, poultry and fish Eggs and egg substitutes Low-sodium peanut butter Dry peas and beans (not canned) Low sodium canned fish Drained, water or oil packed canned fish or poultry
Dairy Products High-sodium foods:
y y y
Buttermilk Regular and processed cheese, cheese spreads and sauces Cottage cheese
Low-Sodium Alternatives:
y y
Milk, yogurt, ice cream and ice milk Low sodium cheeses, cream cheese, ricotta cheese and mozzarella
Breads, Grains and Cereals High-sodium foods:
y y y y
Bread and rolls with salted tops Quick breads, self-rising flour, biscuit, pancake and waffle mixes Pizza, croutons and salted crackers Prepackaged, processed mixes for potatoes, rice, pasta and stuffing
Low-Sodium Alternatives:
y y y y y y
Breads, bagels and rolls without salted tops Muffins and most ready-to-eat cereals All rice and pasta, but do not to add salt when cooking Corn and flour tortillas and noodles Low sodium crackers and breadsticks Unsalted popcorn, chips and pretzels
Vegetables and Fruits High-sodium foods:
y y y y y
Regular canned vegetables and vegetable juices Olives, pickles, sauerkraut and other pickled vegetables Vegetables made with ham, bacon or salted pork Packaged mixes, such as scalloped or au gratin potatoes, frozen hash browns and tater tots Commercially prepared pasta and tomato sauces
Low-Sodium Alternatives:
y y y y y
Fresh and frozen vegetables without sauces Low sodium canned vegetables, sauces and juices Fresh potatoes, frozen French fries and instant mashed potatoes Low salt tomato or V-8 juice. Most fresh, frozen and canned fruit
Soups High-sodium foods:
y
Regular canned and dehydrated soup, broth and bouillon
Low-Sodium Alternatives:
y
Low sodium canned and dehydrated soups, broth and bouillon Homemade soups without added salt
Fats, Desserts and Sweets High-sodium foods:
y y y
Bottled salad dressings, regular salad dressing with bacon bits Salted butter or margarine Instant pudding and cake
Low-Sodium Alternatives:
y y y y y y y y y
Unsalted butter or margarine Vegetable oils and sodium free salad dressings All desserts made without salt
y Chest x-ray a test that uses radiation to take pictures of structures inside the body, in this case the chest y CT scan a type of x-ray that uses a computer to make pictures of structures inside the chest y Blood tests y Bronchoscopy direct examination of airways y Sputum culture testing mucus coughed up from deep in the lungs y Pulse oximetry measures the amount of oxygen in the blood
y
y Arterial blood gas measures oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acid in the bloo
y ormal: Systolic less than 120. Diastolic less than 80 y Pre-hypertension: Systolic 120-139. Diastolic 80-90 y Stage one hypertension: Systolic 140-159. Diastolic 90-99 y y Stage two hypertension: Systolic 160+. Diastolic 100+
Tips to prevent exercise-induced asthma These should be used with any medications:
y y y
Warm up and down - a 10 minute warm up period can be helpful. Useful exercises include 30 seconds of vigorous activity to stimulate the system. Avoid the cold air - it can help to cover the nose and mouth in cold weather with a scarf; this warms and humidifies the air, which may reduce the trigger effect of cold air. Fitness - good aerobic fitness can also help.
What should you do in an asthma attack When someone is having an asthma attack, if any of the following happen: 1. The symptoms (cough, wheeze, tight chest, breathlessness) are getting worse. 2. The reliever (blue) inhaler does not help their symptoms. 3. The person is too breathless to speak. Then you must:
y y y y y y y y y
Get the person with asthma to take their usual reliever inhaler straight away. Keep calm and try to relax the person as much as possible. Sit them down, don't lie them down. Rest their hands on their knees for support. Try to slow their breathing down as this will make them less exhausted. Wait 5-10 minutes. If the symptoms disappear, the person should be able to go back to whatever they were doing. If the reliever has no effect, call a doctor or ambulance. Continue to give the person their reliever inhaler every few minutes until medical help arrives. It is not possible to overdose on reliever.
Medication It is important that asthma is well-controlled before exercise. Regular inhaled preventer treatment as prescribed by a doctor is the main means of control. Medications allow the control of symptoms. Different medications are chosen for different people.
y
y y y
Inhaled steroids (brown / red / orange inhalers) - used to prevent asthma symptoms. Controlling your asthma symptoms using regular inhaled steroids will reduce the trigger effect of exercise. Short - (blue inhalers) and long-acting beta agonists (green inhalers) - used to relieve asthma symptoms. Sodium cromoglycate or nedocromil sodium - used to prevent asthma symptoms especially before exercise. Leukotriene receptor antagonists - recently developed medications, in tablet form, which appear to be helpful in controlling exercise-induced asthma.
Important note Asthma should be no obstacle to exercise, playing sport and keeping fit. Many Olympic competitors, footballers and other top sportspeople have asthma, including Paula Radcliffe and Paul Scholes.
Teaching Plan for Diabetes Mellitus
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by Louise Diehl, RN, MSN, ND, CCRN, ACNS-BC, NP-C Nurse Practitioner - Owner Doctor of Naturopathy Lehigh Valley Wellness Center
Before you begin your teaching plan be sure to define the characteristics of the clinical site and patient population. The teaching plan should be customized to this population. This is a sample teaching plan that you can use and customize to your needs.
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You may want to design a pre-test and post-test to give your patients would are attending the teaching program.
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Based on statistics from the Centers for Disease Control website, 17.0 million people in the United States, approximately 6.2% of the population, have diabetes. Of this 17 million people, 11.1 million are diagnosed and 5.9 million are undiagnosed. In the different age groups, about 151,000 people less than 20 years of age have diabetes, approximately 0.19% of people in this age group. In the 20 and older age group 16.9 million and 8.6% of people have diabetes. The 65 and older age group has 7.0 million and 20.1% of all people with diabetes (www.cdc.gov/diabetes).
The Identified Learning Need
Patients with Diabetes have very comprehensive learning needs. The learning needs are focused on managing their glucose levels and preventing complications of diabetes. Learning needs for managing diabetes are complex and include: monitoring blood glucose levels, menu/food planning, exercise, medications, skin care, management of co-existing disease processes, knowledge of medications, knowledge of the disease process and how to manage hypo/hyperglycemic episodes. Many patients are diagnosed with diabetes every year and many are unaware that it requires lifestyle changes, especially in the areas of nutrition and physical activity. Making these lifestyle changes is one of the greatest challenges they will encounter in managing their diabetes. The main goal of the teaching plan is to provide the patient with the knowledge to be able to make self-directed behavioral changes to improve their overall health and manage their diabetes.
The Behavioral Objectives for the Teaching Plan
1. The patient will be able to describe the diabetic medications that they are on and how to properly take the medications 2. The patient will be able to demonstrate proper skin and foot care. 3. The patient will be able to perform self-monitoring of blood glucose using a blood glucose meter as evidenced by demonstration of the technique to the nurse or nurse practitioner.
4. The patient will be able to describe the benefits of regular exercise and how regular exercise can improve blood glucose control.
Teaching Plan
The diabetes teaching plan is aimed at helping the patient make educated lifestyle choices and changes that will promote health and promote a stable blood sugar. Each patient needs a comprehensive treatment approach. This includes: (a) an individualized food/meal plan appropriate for his/her lifestyle, (b) education related to diabetes and nutrition therapy, and (c) mutually agreed-upon short term and long term goals for lifestyle changes. The teaching plan should stress the importance of complying with the prescribed treatment program. This teaching plan should be tailored to the patient¶s needs, abilities, and developmental stage. The teaching plan for a patient with diabetes should include: diet, administration, possible adverse effects of medication, exercise, blood glucose monitoring, hygiene, and the prevention and recognition of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia (McGovern, 2002). The teaching plan is an education program designed to help patients with newly diagnosed diabetes or patients who need a review of concepts for managing their diabetes. However, diabetes management requires on-going education and nutritional advice with regular review and modification as the disease process progresses and the needs of the patient changes. This continued education can take place as needed on a one-on-one basis and can be included with the routine office visit or at a separate time that is convenient for the patient and health care practitioner. The teaching plan can be tailored to the needs of the patients who will be attending the classes. It can be tailored to the patient¶s abilities, developmental stage and learning styles. The teaching plan can be a combination of lecture format, handouts, videos, powerpoint presentations, demonstrations and group
discussion. The fee charged for the teaching program has to be determined by the person, group or facility offering the teaching program. Many insurances do not reimburse for this type of education. This has to be taken into consideration with the intended audience.
Teaching Plan for Diabetes
Teaching Plan would include 6 evening or day classes consisting of 2-3 hour sessions of education and group discussion. The topics and discussions would be as follows.
Day 1
o
General overview of Diabetes (2 hours)
Day 2
o
Blood glucose monitoring and goals of blood glucose monitoring (3 hours)
Day 3
o
Medications and Insulin (2 3 hours)
Day 4
o o o
Complications from Diabetes (1 hour) Skin and Foot Care (0.5 hour) Exercise and Diabetes (1.5 hour)
Day 5
o o
Diet and Diabetes (2 hours) Coping with Diabetes (1 hour)
Day 6
o o
Questions and Answers (1 hour) Review of any concepts requested by patients (1 hour)
General Overview of Diabetes
Patients with diabetes need to understand what diabetes is. Patients who understand what diabetes is and the complicated process associated with the disease are more likely to comply with the prescribed regimen. Diabetes Mellitus is a syndrome with disordered metabolism and inappropriate hyperglycemia due to either a deficiency of insulin secretion or to a combination of insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion to compensate (Davis, 2001). Diabetes is a chronic progressive disease that requires lifestyle changes, especially in the areas of nutrition and physical activity. The overall goal of medical and nutritional therapy is to assist persons with diabetes in making self-directed behavioral changes that will improve their overall health (Franz, 2001). Blood glucose monitoring and goals of blood glucose monitoring Testing blood glucose levels pre-meal and post-meal can help the patient with diabetes make better food choices, based on how their bodies are responding to specific foods. Patients should be taught specific directions for obtaining an adequate blood sample and what to do with the numbers that they receive. Research has found that patients who have had education on the use of their meters and how to interpret the data are more likely to perform selfblood glucose monitoring on a regular basis (Franz, 2001). There are many different glucose monitors available for patients. The patient needs to have a device that is easy for them to use and convenient. A patient¶s visual acuity and dexterity skills should be assessed prior to selecting a blood glucose monitoring device. A device is usually selected to meet the patient¶s needs in collaboration with a diabetic educator at a health care facility. The patient needs to be reminded to record the blood glucose values on a log sheet with the date and time and any associated signs and symptoms that he/she is experiencing at the time the specimen was obtained.
This log should be shared with his/her primary care practitioner. A discussion of glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) should include the reasons for doing the test, how it is performed and how the health care practitioner will interpret the data. These laboratory tests are ordered on a routine basis along with other laboratory tests that are being monitored for the patient. A simple method to describe the HbA1c is to tell the patient that the test measures the amount of sugar that attaches to the protein in the red blood cell. The test shows the average blood sugar during the last three months. The higher the blood sugar the higher the HbA1c. The high blood sugar over a long period of time causes damage to the large and small blood vessels therefore increasing the risk of complications from diabetes.
Medications and Insulin
The patient with diabetes needs to be reminded that the addition of medications to help manage his/her diabetes is not because they are failing at diet management. Many patients with diabetes become depressed or despondent when they have to begin taking oral hyperglycemic medications and/or insulin. The teaching session should include a review of the different types of oral diabetic agents. A review of the different types of insulins and how to mix insulins should also be discussed. Teach the patient about self-administration of insulin or oral agents as prescribed, and the importance of taking medications exactly as prescribed, in the appropriate dose (Davis, 2001). Patients should be provided with a list of signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia and actions to take in each situation.
Complications from Diabetes
The teaching regarding the complications encountered from diabetes should stress the effect of
blood glucose control on long-term health (McGovern, 2002). The patient should be taught how to manage their diabetes when he/she has a minor illness, such as a cold, flu or gastrointestinal virus. The patient should also be taught how to watch for diabetic effects on the cardiovascular system, such as cerebrovascular incidents/stroke, coronary artery disease, and peripheral vascular disease. Patients should be taught how to be alert for signs of urinary tract, respiratory tract infections and signs of renal disease. Assessment for signs of diabetic neuropathy should also be included in the teaching plan. Diabetes is the leading cause of death by disease in the United States, it also is a contributing factor in about 50% of myocardial infarctions and about 75% of strokes as well as renal failure and peripheral vascular disease. Diabetes is also the leading cause of new blindness (McGovern, 2002). Patients with diabetes should also receive education on the importance of smoking cessation, cholesterol and lipid management, blood pressure monitoring and management and management of other disease processes. Skin and Foot Care Teach the patient to care for his feet by washing them daily, drying them carefully particularly between the toes, and inspecting for corns, calluses, redness, swelling, bruises, blisters, and breaks in the skin. The patient should be encouraged to report any changes to his/her health care provider as soon as possible. Advise the patient to wear non-constricting shoes and to avoid walking barefoot. The patient may use overthe-counter athlete¶s foot remedies to cure foot fungal infections and should be encouraged to call their health care provider if the athlete¶s foot doesn¶t improve (McGovern, 2002). The patient should be reminded that he/she needs to treat all injuries, cuts and blisters particularly on the legs or feet carefully. Patients should be aware that foot problems are a common problem for patients with diabetes. Informing them of what to look for is an important teaching concern. The signs and symptoms of foot problems to emphasize are: feet that are cold, blue or black in color, feet that are warm and red in color,
foot swelling, foot pain when resting or with activity, weak pulses in the feet, not feeling pain although there is a cut or sore on the foot, shiny smooth skin on the feet and lower legs
Exercise and Diabetes
A moderate weight loss of ten to twenty pounds has been known to improve hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, and hypertension. The target goal for body weight for patients with diabetes is based on a reasonable or healthy body weight. ³Reasonable body weight is the weight an individual and health care professional acknowledge as achievable and maintainable, both short-term and long-term (Franz, 2001, p.8).´ More emphasis is now placed on waist circumference, rather than on actual weight. A waist circumference greater than 40 inches in men and greater than 35 inches in women indicates a risk for metabolic disease. This is now part of what is referred to as metabolic syndrome. Reducing abdominal fat improves insulin sensitivity as well as lipid profiles. The benefits from exercise result from regular, long term, and aerobic exercise. Exercise used to increase muscle strength is an important means of preserving and increasing muscular strength and endurance and is useful in helping to prevent falls and increase mobility among the elderly (Franz, 2001). Regular exercise can improve the functioning of the cardiovascular system, improve strength and flexibility, improve lipid levels, improve glycemic control, help decrease weight, and improve quality of life and self-esteem. Exercise increases the cellular glucose uptake by increasing the number of cell receptors. The following points should be considered in educating patients regarding beginning an exercise program. Exercise program must be individualized and built up slowly. Insulin is more rapidly absorbed when injected into a limb that is exercised, therefore can result in hypoglycemia (Ferri, 1999). "Patients need to be informed that exercise of a high intensity can also cause blood glucose levels to be higher after exercise than before, even though blood
glucose levels are in the normal range before beginning exercise. This hyperglycemia can also extend into the post-exercise state and is mediated by the counter-regulatory hormones (Franz, 2001, p. 62)." The exercise program should include a five to ten minute warm-up and cool-down session. The warmup increases core body temperature and prevents muscle injury and the cool-down session prevents blood pooling in the extremities and facilitates removal of metabolic by-products. Research studies show there are similar cardiorespiratory benefits that occur when activity is done in shorter sessions, (approximately 10 minutes) accumulated throughout the day than in activity sessions of prolonged sessions (greater than 30 minutes) (Franz, 2001). This is an important factor to emphasize with patients who don¶t think they have the time and energy for exercise.
Diet and Diabetes
The American Diabetes Association (ADA) has established nutritional guidelines for patients with diabetes. Their focus is on achieving optimal metabolic outcomes related to glycemia, lipid profiles, and blood pressure levels. Patients with diabetes need to maintain a healthy diet consisting of multiple servings of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, low-fat dairy products, fish, lean meats, and poultry (Franz, 2001). The exchange diet of the ADA includes protein, bread, fruit, milk, and low and intermediate carbohydrate vegetables (Ferri, 1999). The food/meal plan is based on the individual¶s appetite, preferred foods, and usual schedule of food intake and activities, and cultural preferences. Determination of caloric needs varies considerably among individuals, and is based on present weight and current level of energy. Required calories are about 40 kcal/kg or 20 kcal/lb per day for adults with normal activity patterns (Davis, 2001). Emphasis should also be placed on maintaining a consistent dayto-day carbohydrate intake at meals and snacks. It is
the carbohydrates that have the greatest impact on glycemia. ³A number of factors influence glycemic responses to foods, including the amount of carbohydrate, nature of the monosaccharide components, nature of the starch, cooking and food processing, and other food components (Franz, 2001, p.13).´ Maintaining a food diary can help identify areas of weaknesses and how to prepare better menu plans. Recommendations for fiber intake are the same for patients with diabetes as for the general population. It is recommended that they increase the amount of fiber to approximately 50 grams per day in their diet. Insoluble and soluble globular fiber delay glucose absorption and attenuate the postprandial serum glucose peak, they also help to lower the elevated triglyceride levels often present in uncontrolled diabetes (Ferri, 1999). The discussion of diet management should also include a discussion of alcohol intake. Precautions regarding the use of alcohol that apply to the general public also apply to people with diabetes. Abstaining from alcohol should be advised for people with a history of alcohol abuse, during pregnancy, and for people with other medical conditions such as pancreatitis, advanced neuropathy, and elevated triglycerides. The effects of alcohol on blood glucose levels is dependent on the amount of alcohol ingested as well as the relationship to food intake. Because alcohol cannot be used as a source of glucose, hypoglycemia can result when alcohol is ingested without food. The hypoglycemia can persist from eight to twelve hours after the last drink of alcohol. When alcohol is ingested in moderation and with food, blood glucose levels are not affected by the ingestion of moderate amounts of alcohol. If the patient plans to consume alcoholic beverages they are to be included in the meal plan. The patient should be reminded that no food should be omitted because of the possibility of alcohol induced hypoglycemia (Franz, 2001).
Coping with Diabetes
The patient needs to understand that the diagnosis of
diabetes mellitus as with any chronic illness can be unexpected and potentially devastating. Grief is the most common reaction of an individual diagnosed with diabetes. Resolution of the grief is dependent on variables such as education, economics, geography, and religious and cultural factors. The support of family and friends affects the long-term acceptance of the disease progression. Patients need to be aware that depression is common with chronic diseases such as diabetes. The depression should be recognized and treated as soon as possible since depression can affect glycemic control and complicate the management of the diabetes (Buttaro, 1999). The patient needs to understand that diabetes is a lifelong disease process that requires a lifetime commitment and lifestyle changes. The patient should be educated about empowerment ± having the resources and knowing how and when to use them. The skills of empowerment that help the patient reflect on life satisfaction in the following areas: physical, mental, spiritual, family related, social, work related, financial, personal. The patient should be encouraged to establish goals which emphasize at least two of these areas in which he/she has control. In the session of coping with diabetes the patient should be assisted to develop better problem solving skills, which are necessary to manage a life-long disease such as diabetes. Coping with diabetes should also include stress management concepts. Stress management concepts should include: a definition of stress, the body¶s reaction to stress, the effects of stress on diabetes management, identifying stressors, identifying methods of coping, relaxation exercises and identifying support systems to tap into. Management of the disease process should include eliminating or minimizing other cardiovascular risk factors for example blood pressure control, lipid control, and smoking cessation. Patients with diabetes should also be instructed on what to do when they become sick with a cold, flu, gastrointestinal virus, or other minor illness. They need to be aware that these minor illnesses can affect their diabetes and blood glucose levels (McGovern, 2002). Instruction on what to do when they become ill and the importance of
continuing to take their diabetes medications and/or insulin and other general care should be discussed. Some basic guidelines for management during an illness or sick-day include maintain adequate hydration because of the risk of dehydration from decreased fluid intake, polyuria, vomiting, diarrhea, and evaporative losses from fever. Patient should be instructed to drink at least eight ounces of calorie free liquids every hour while they are awake. The beverages should be caffeine-free, since caffeine acts as a diuretic and can actually increase the chances of hypovolemia. If the patient is unable to tolerate fluids by mouth, antiemetic suppositories or intravenous fluids may be required. Vomiting that is persistent and intractable may require emergency room care. The patient should be encouraged to perform blood glucose monitoring more frequently while he/she is ill and to initiate urine ketone monitoring with urine dipsticks, during the illness (Franz, 2001). The patient should be instructed to continue taking his/her insulin and/or oral antidiabetic agents while ill and even when unable to eat. The omission of insulin is a common cause of ketosis and can result in a serious condition called diabetic ketoacidosis. The patient should be given a list of foods that contain fast acting carbohydrates that they can consume when they experience signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia. Patients should be encouraged to seek regular ophthalmologic examinations to detect for diabetic retinopathy. Regular dental examinations should also be encouraged to evaluate to potential areas that can become infected and possible oral lesions.
Summary The teaching program for the patients
with diabetes is designed to be held for six sessions. However, the sessions can be lengthened or shortened to meet the needs of the intended audience. These two to three hour sessions allow the patient to absorb the material that is being taught and to be able to ask questions. The learning needs are focused on managing their glucose levels and preventing complications of diabetes. The patient needs to be educated on the multiple disease processes associated
with diabetes and the factors affecting each of these areas. The patient also needs to have the knowledge of how to manage their diabetes when they are ill and warning signs that they are hypo/hyperglycemic. Diabetic patients should be advised to contact their health care provider any time they are unsure what to do or have questions on how to manage their disease. There are many teaching handouts and pamphlets that are available free of charge from the various agencies. These handouts are available on a wide variety of subjects that can be used with the teaching plan. The evaluation criteria for the teaching plan would include an evaluation tool in which the patients could complete anonymously at the end of the program.
KEY TERMS
Acrocyanosis ²A condition characterized by blueness, coldness, and sweating of the extremities. A slight cyanosis, or blueness, of the hands and feet of the neonate is considered normal. This impaired ability to fully oxygenate the extremities is due to an immature circulatory system which is still in flux. Amniotic fluid ²The liquid in the amniotic sac that cushions the fetus and regulates temperature in the placental environment. Amniotic fluid also contains fetal cells. Apnea ²The temporary absence of breathing. Sleep apnea consists of repeated episodes of temporary suspension of breathing during sleep. Extrauterine ²Occurring outside the uterus. Neonate ²A newborn infant, from birth until 28 days of age. Neonatologist ²A physician (pediatrician) who has special training in the care of newborn infants. Pallor ²Extreme paleness in the color of the skin.
Read more: Apgar Testing - baby, Definition, Purpose, Description, Normal results, Risks http://www.healthofchildren.com/A/Apgar-Testing.html#ixzz129wzQ8JP
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Sodium controls fluid balance and maintains blood volume and blood pressure. A diet high in sodium may raise blood pressure and cause fluid retention, resulting in swelling of the legs and feet. Water may also collect around the lungs and lead to shortness of breath. The average American eats five or more teaspoons of salt each day. This is about 20 times as much as the body needs. In fact, your body needs only one quarter of a teaspoon of salt every day. Salt is found naturally in foods, but a lot of it is added during processing and preparation. Many foods that do not taste salty may still be high in sodium, which can be hidden in large amounts in canned, processed and convenience foods as well as in many foods that are served at fast food restaurants. If you doctor recommends that you reduce your sodium intake, here are some general guidelines for cutting down the amount of salt in your diet.
y y y y y
y y y y
Special foods are not required for this diet. Eliminating salty foods from your diet and reducing the amount of salt used in cooking are important steps. Many salt free or reduced salt products are available. You may choose low sodium products to replace foods which are not allowed. Salt substitutes may be used with your doctor's permission. Be creative and season your food with spices, herbs, lemons, oranges, wine and Tabasco sauce. Move the salt shaker off the table. Read ingredient labels to identify foods high in sodium. High sodium food additives include salt, baking powder, brine or other items that say "sodium" such as monosodium glutamate. Eat more home-cooked meals. Foods cooked from scratch are naturally lower in sodium, since you are in control of how much salt is added. Avoid softened water for cooking and drinking since it contains added salt. Avoid medications which contain sodium such as alka seltzer and bromo seltzer. For more information on specific foods, or if you want to actually calculate your daily sodium intake, you might consider reading food labels or use a sodium reference guide.
Low-Sodium Alternatives to Popular Foods Meats, Poultry, Fish, Legumes, Eggs and Nuts High-sodium foods:
y y
Smoked, cured, salted or canned meat, fish or poultry including bacon, cold cuts, ham, frankfurters, sausage, sardines, caviar and anchovies Frozen breaded meats and dinners, such as burritos and pizza
y y
Canned entrees, such as ravioli, spam and chili Salted nuts
Low-Sodium Alternatives:
y y y y y y
Any fresh or frozen beef, lamb, pork, poultry and fish Eggs and egg substitutes Low-sodium peanut butter Dry peas and beans (not canned) Low sodium canned fish Drained, water or oil packed canned fish or poultry
Dairy Products High-sodium foods:
y y y
Buttermilk Regular and processed cheese, cheese spreads and sauces Cottage cheese
Low-Sodium Alternatives:
y y
Milk, yogurt, ice cream and ice milk Low sodium cheeses, cream cheese, ricotta cheese and mozzarella
Breads, Grains and Cereals High-sodium foods:
y y y y
Bread and rolls with salted tops Quick breads, self-rising flour, biscuit, pancake and waffle mixes Pizza, croutons and salted crackers Prepackaged, processed mixes for potatoes, rice, pasta and stuffing
Low-Sodium Alternatives:
y y y y y y
Breads, bagels and rolls without salted tops Muffins and most ready-to-eat cereals All rice and pasta, but do not to add salt when cooking Corn and flour tortillas and noodles Low sodium crackers and breadsticks Unsalted popcorn, chips and pretzels
Vegetables and Fruits High-sodium foods:
y y y y y
Regular canned vegetables and vegetable juices Olives, pickles, sauerkraut and other pickled vegetables Vegetables made with ham, bacon or salted pork Packaged mixes, such as scalloped or au gratin potatoes, frozen hash browns and tater tots Commercially prepared pasta and tomato sauces
Low-Sodium Alternatives:
y y y y y
Fresh and frozen vegetables without sauces Low sodium canned vegetables, sauces and juices Fresh potatoes, frozen French fries and instant mashed potatoes Low salt tomato or V-8 juice. Most fresh, frozen and canned fruit
Soups High-sodium foods:
y
Regular canned and dehydrated soup, broth and bouillon
Low-Sodium Alternatives:
y
Low sodium canned and dehydrated soups, broth and bouillon Homemade soups without added salt
Fats, Desserts and Sweets High-sodium foods:
y y y
Bottled salad dressings, regular salad dressing with bacon bits Salted butter or margarine Instant pudding and cake
Low-Sodium Alternatives:
y y y y y y y y y
Unsalted butter or margarine Vegetable oils and sodium free salad dressings All desserts made without salt
y Chest x-ray a test that uses radiation to take pictures of structures inside the body, in this case the chest y CT scan a type of x-ray that uses a computer to make pictures of structures inside the chest y Blood tests y Bronchoscopy direct examination of airways y Sputum culture testing mucus coughed up from deep in the lungs y Pulse oximetry measures the amount of oxygen in the blood
y
y Arterial blood gas measures oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acid in the bloo
y ormal: Systolic less than 120. Diastolic less than 80 y Pre-hypertension: Systolic 120-139. Diastolic 80-90 y Stage one hypertension: Systolic 140-159. Diastolic 90-99 y y Stage two hypertension: Systolic 160+. Diastolic 100+
Tips to prevent exercise-induced asthma These should be used with any medications:
y y y
Warm up and down - a 10 minute warm up period can be helpful. Useful exercises include 30 seconds of vigorous activity to stimulate the system. Avoid the cold air - it can help to cover the nose and mouth in cold weather with a scarf; this warms and humidifies the air, which may reduce the trigger effect of cold air. Fitness - good aerobic fitness can also help.
What should you do in an asthma attack When someone is having an asthma attack, if any of the following happen: 1. The symptoms (cough, wheeze, tight chest, breathlessness) are getting worse. 2. The reliever (blue) inhaler does not help their symptoms. 3. The person is too breathless to speak. Then you must:
y y y y y y y y y
Get the person with asthma to take their usual reliever inhaler straight away. Keep calm and try to relax the person as much as possible. Sit them down, don't lie them down. Rest their hands on their knees for support. Try to slow their breathing down as this will make them less exhausted. Wait 5-10 minutes. If the symptoms disappear, the person should be able to go back to whatever they were doing. If the reliever has no effect, call a doctor or ambulance. Continue to give the person their reliever inhaler every few minutes until medical help arrives. It is not possible to overdose on reliever.
Medication It is important that asthma is well-controlled before exercise. Regular inhaled preventer treatment as prescribed by a doctor is the main means of control. Medications allow the control of symptoms. Different medications are chosen for different people.
y
y y y
Inhaled steroids (brown / red / orange inhalers) - used to prevent asthma symptoms. Controlling your asthma symptoms using regular inhaled steroids will reduce the trigger effect of exercise. Short - (blue inhalers) and long-acting beta agonists (green inhalers) - used to relieve asthma symptoms. Sodium cromoglycate or nedocromil sodium - used to prevent asthma symptoms especially before exercise. Leukotriene receptor antagonists - recently developed medications, in tablet form, which appear to be helpful in controlling exercise-induced asthma.
Important note Asthma should be no obstacle to exercise, playing sport and keeping fit. Many Olympic competitors, footballers and other top sportspeople have asthma, including Paula Radcliffe and Paul Scholes.
Teaching Plan for Diabetes Mellitus
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by Louise Diehl, RN, MSN, ND, CCRN, ACNS-BC, NP-C Nurse Practitioner - Owner Doctor of Naturopathy Lehigh Valley Wellness Center
Before you begin your teaching plan be sure to define the characteristics of the clinical site and patient population. The teaching plan should be customized to this population. This is a sample teaching plan that you can use and customize to your needs.
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You may want to design a pre-test and post-test to give your patients would are attending the teaching program.
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Based on statistics from the Centers for Disease Control website, 17.0 million people in the United States, approximately 6.2% of the population, have diabetes. Of this 17 million people, 11.1 million are diagnosed and 5.9 million are undiagnosed. In the different age groups, about 151,000 people less than 20 years of age have diabetes, approximately 0.19% of people in this age group. In the 20 and older age group 16.9 million and 8.6% of people have diabetes. The 65 and older age group has 7.0 million and 20.1% of all people with diabetes (www.cdc.gov/diabetes).
The Identified Learning Need
Patients with Diabetes have very comprehensive learning needs. The learning needs are focused on managing their glucose levels and preventing complications of diabetes. Learning needs for managing diabetes are complex and include: monitoring blood glucose levels, menu/food planning, exercise, medications, skin care, management of co-existing disease processes, knowledge of medications, knowledge of the disease process and how to manage hypo/hyperglycemic episodes. Many patients are diagnosed with diabetes every year and many are unaware that it requires lifestyle changes, especially in the areas of nutrition and physical activity. Making these lifestyle changes is one of the greatest challenges they will encounter in managing their diabetes. The main goal of the teaching plan is to provide the patient with the knowledge to be able to make self-directed behavioral changes to improve their overall health and manage their diabetes.
The Behavioral Objectives for the Teaching Plan
1. The patient will be able to describe the diabetic medications that they are on and how to properly take the medications 2. The patient will be able to demonstrate proper skin and foot care. 3. The patient will be able to perform self-monitoring of blood glucose using a blood glucose meter as evidenced by demonstration of the technique to the nurse or nurse practitioner.
4. The patient will be able to describe the benefits of regular exercise and how regular exercise can improve blood glucose control.
Teaching Plan
The diabetes teaching plan is aimed at helping the patient make educated lifestyle choices and changes that will promote health and promote a stable blood sugar. Each patient needs a comprehensive treatment approach. This includes: (a) an individualized food/meal plan appropriate for his/her lifestyle, (b) education related to diabetes and nutrition therapy, and (c) mutually agreed-upon short term and long term goals for lifestyle changes. The teaching plan should stress the importance of complying with the prescribed treatment program. This teaching plan should be tailored to the patient¶s needs, abilities, and developmental stage. The teaching plan for a patient with diabetes should include: diet, administration, possible adverse effects of medication, exercise, blood glucose monitoring, hygiene, and the prevention and recognition of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia (McGovern, 2002). The teaching plan is an education program designed to help patients with newly diagnosed diabetes or patients who need a review of concepts for managing their diabetes. However, diabetes management requires on-going education and nutritional advice with regular review and modification as the disease process progresses and the needs of the patient changes. This continued education can take place as needed on a one-on-one basis and can be included with the routine office visit or at a separate time that is convenient for the patient and health care practitioner. The teaching plan can be tailored to the needs of the patients who will be attending the classes. It can be tailored to the patient¶s abilities, developmental stage and learning styles. The teaching plan can be a combination of lecture format, handouts, videos, powerpoint presentations, demonstrations and group
discussion. The fee charged for the teaching program has to be determined by the person, group or facility offering the teaching program. Many insurances do not reimburse for this type of education. This has to be taken into consideration with the intended audience.
Teaching Plan for Diabetes
Teaching Plan would include 6 evening or day classes consisting of 2-3 hour sessions of education and group discussion. The topics and discussions would be as follows.
Day 1
o
General overview of Diabetes (2 hours)
Day 2
o
Blood glucose monitoring and goals of blood glucose monitoring (3 hours)
Day 3
o
Medications and Insulin (2 3 hours)
Day 4
o o o
Complications from Diabetes (1 hour) Skin and Foot Care (0.5 hour) Exercise and Diabetes (1.5 hour)
Day 5
o o
Diet and Diabetes (2 hours) Coping with Diabetes (1 hour)
Day 6
o o
Questions and Answers (1 hour) Review of any concepts requested by patients (1 hour)
General Overview of Diabetes
Patients with diabetes need to understand what diabetes is. Patients who understand what diabetes is and the complicated process associated with the disease are more likely to comply with the prescribed regimen. Diabetes Mellitus is a syndrome with disordered metabolism and inappropriate hyperglycemia due to either a deficiency of insulin secretion or to a combination of insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion to compensate (Davis, 2001). Diabetes is a chronic progressive disease that requires lifestyle changes, especially in the areas of nutrition and physical activity. The overall goal of medical and nutritional therapy is to assist persons with diabetes in making self-directed behavioral changes that will improve their overall health (Franz, 2001). Blood glucose monitoring and goals of blood glucose monitoring Testing blood glucose levels pre-meal and post-meal can help the patient with diabetes make better food choices, based on how their bodies are responding to specific foods. Patients should be taught specific directions for obtaining an adequate blood sample and what to do with the numbers that they receive. Research has found that patients who have had education on the use of their meters and how to interpret the data are more likely to perform selfblood glucose monitoring on a regular basis (Franz, 2001). There are many different glucose monitors available for patients. The patient needs to have a device that is easy for them to use and convenient. A patient¶s visual acuity and dexterity skills should be assessed prior to selecting a blood glucose monitoring device. A device is usually selected to meet the patient¶s needs in collaboration with a diabetic educator at a health care facility. The patient needs to be reminded to record the blood glucose values on a log sheet with the date and time and any associated signs and symptoms that he/she is experiencing at the time the specimen was obtained.
This log should be shared with his/her primary care practitioner. A discussion of glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) should include the reasons for doing the test, how it is performed and how the health care practitioner will interpret the data. These laboratory tests are ordered on a routine basis along with other laboratory tests that are being monitored for the patient. A simple method to describe the HbA1c is to tell the patient that the test measures the amount of sugar that attaches to the protein in the red blood cell. The test shows the average blood sugar during the last three months. The higher the blood sugar the higher the HbA1c. The high blood sugar over a long period of time causes damage to the large and small blood vessels therefore increasing the risk of complications from diabetes.
Medications and Insulin
The patient with diabetes needs to be reminded that the addition of medications to help manage his/her diabetes is not because they are failing at diet management. Many patients with diabetes become depressed or despondent when they have to begin taking oral hyperglycemic medications and/or insulin. The teaching session should include a review of the different types of oral diabetic agents. A review of the different types of insulins and how to mix insulins should also be discussed. Teach the patient about self-administration of insulin or oral agents as prescribed, and the importance of taking medications exactly as prescribed, in the appropriate dose (Davis, 2001). Patients should be provided with a list of signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia and actions to take in each situation.
Complications from Diabetes
The teaching regarding the complications encountered from diabetes should stress the effect of
blood glucose control on long-term health (McGovern, 2002). The patient should be taught how to manage their diabetes when he/she has a minor illness, such as a cold, flu or gastrointestinal virus. The patient should also be taught how to watch for diabetic effects on the cardiovascular system, such as cerebrovascular incidents/stroke, coronary artery disease, and peripheral vascular disease. Patients should be taught how to be alert for signs of urinary tract, respiratory tract infections and signs of renal disease. Assessment for signs of diabetic neuropathy should also be included in the teaching plan. Diabetes is the leading cause of death by disease in the United States, it also is a contributing factor in about 50% of myocardial infarctions and about 75% of strokes as well as renal failure and peripheral vascular disease. Diabetes is also the leading cause of new blindness (McGovern, 2002). Patients with diabetes should also receive education on the importance of smoking cessation, cholesterol and lipid management, blood pressure monitoring and management and management of other disease processes. Skin and Foot Care Teach the patient to care for his feet by washing them daily, drying them carefully particularly between the toes, and inspecting for corns, calluses, redness, swelling, bruises, blisters, and breaks in the skin. The patient should be encouraged to report any changes to his/her health care provider as soon as possible. Advise the patient to wear non-constricting shoes and to avoid walking barefoot. The patient may use overthe-counter athlete¶s foot remedies to cure foot fungal infections and should be encouraged to call their health care provider if the athlete¶s foot doesn¶t improve (McGovern, 2002). The patient should be reminded that he/she needs to treat all injuries, cuts and blisters particularly on the legs or feet carefully. Patients should be aware that foot problems are a common problem for patients with diabetes. Informing them of what to look for is an important teaching concern. The signs and symptoms of foot problems to emphasize are: feet that are cold, blue or black in color, feet that are warm and red in color,
foot swelling, foot pain when resting or with activity, weak pulses in the feet, not feeling pain although there is a cut or sore on the foot, shiny smooth skin on the feet and lower legs
Exercise and Diabetes
A moderate weight loss of ten to twenty pounds has been known to improve hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, and hypertension. The target goal for body weight for patients with diabetes is based on a reasonable or healthy body weight. ³Reasonable body weight is the weight an individual and health care professional acknowledge as achievable and maintainable, both short-term and long-term (Franz, 2001, p.8).´ More emphasis is now placed on waist circumference, rather than on actual weight. A waist circumference greater than 40 inches in men and greater than 35 inches in women indicates a risk for metabolic disease. This is now part of what is referred to as metabolic syndrome. Reducing abdominal fat improves insulin sensitivity as well as lipid profiles. The benefits from exercise result from regular, long term, and aerobic exercise. Exercise used to increase muscle strength is an important means of preserving and increasing muscular strength and endurance and is useful in helping to prevent falls and increase mobility among the elderly (Franz, 2001). Regular exercise can improve the functioning of the cardiovascular system, improve strength and flexibility, improve lipid levels, improve glycemic control, help decrease weight, and improve quality of life and self-esteem. Exercise increases the cellular glucose uptake by increasing the number of cell receptors. The following points should be considered in educating patients regarding beginning an exercise program. Exercise program must be individualized and built up slowly. Insulin is more rapidly absorbed when injected into a limb that is exercised, therefore can result in hypoglycemia (Ferri, 1999). "Patients need to be informed that exercise of a high intensity can also cause blood glucose levels to be higher after exercise than before, even though blood
glucose levels are in the normal range before beginning exercise. This hyperglycemia can also extend into the post-exercise state and is mediated by the counter-regulatory hormones (Franz, 2001, p. 62)." The exercise program should include a five to ten minute warm-up and cool-down session. The warmup increases core body temperature and prevents muscle injury and the cool-down session prevents blood pooling in the extremities and facilitates removal of metabolic by-products. Research studies show there are similar cardiorespiratory benefits that occur when activity is done in shorter sessions, (approximately 10 minutes) accumulated throughout the day than in activity sessions of prolonged sessions (greater than 30 minutes) (Franz, 2001). This is an important factor to emphasize with patients who don¶t think they have the time and energy for exercise.
Diet and Diabetes
The American Diabetes Association (ADA) has established nutritional guidelines for patients with diabetes. Their focus is on achieving optimal metabolic outcomes related to glycemia, lipid profiles, and blood pressure levels. Patients with diabetes need to maintain a healthy diet consisting of multiple servings of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, low-fat dairy products, fish, lean meats, and poultry (Franz, 2001). The exchange diet of the ADA includes protein, bread, fruit, milk, and low and intermediate carbohydrate vegetables (Ferri, 1999). The food/meal plan is based on the individual¶s appetite, preferred foods, and usual schedule of food intake and activities, and cultural preferences. Determination of caloric needs varies considerably among individuals, and is based on present weight and current level of energy. Required calories are about 40 kcal/kg or 20 kcal/lb per day for adults with normal activity patterns (Davis, 2001). Emphasis should also be placed on maintaining a consistent dayto-day carbohydrate intake at meals and snacks. It is
the carbohydrates that have the greatest impact on glycemia. ³A number of factors influence glycemic responses to foods, including the amount of carbohydrate, nature of the monosaccharide components, nature of the starch, cooking and food processing, and other food components (Franz, 2001, p.13).´ Maintaining a food diary can help identify areas of weaknesses and how to prepare better menu plans. Recommendations for fiber intake are the same for patients with diabetes as for the general population. It is recommended that they increase the amount of fiber to approximately 50 grams per day in their diet. Insoluble and soluble globular fiber delay glucose absorption and attenuate the postprandial serum glucose peak, they also help to lower the elevated triglyceride levels often present in uncontrolled diabetes (Ferri, 1999). The discussion of diet management should also include a discussion of alcohol intake. Precautions regarding the use of alcohol that apply to the general public also apply to people with diabetes. Abstaining from alcohol should be advised for people with a history of alcohol abuse, during pregnancy, and for people with other medical conditions such as pancreatitis, advanced neuropathy, and elevated triglycerides. The effects of alcohol on blood glucose levels is dependent on the amount of alcohol ingested as well as the relationship to food intake. Because alcohol cannot be used as a source of glucose, hypoglycemia can result when alcohol is ingested without food. The hypoglycemia can persist from eight to twelve hours after the last drink of alcohol. When alcohol is ingested in moderation and with food, blood glucose levels are not affected by the ingestion of moderate amounts of alcohol. If the patient plans to consume alcoholic beverages they are to be included in the meal plan. The patient should be reminded that no food should be omitted because of the possibility of alcohol induced hypoglycemia (Franz, 2001).
Coping with Diabetes
The patient needs to understand that the diagnosis of
diabetes mellitus as with any chronic illness can be unexpected and potentially devastating. Grief is the most common reaction of an individual diagnosed with diabetes. Resolution of the grief is dependent on variables such as education, economics, geography, and religious and cultural factors. The support of family and friends affects the long-term acceptance of the disease progression. Patients need to be aware that depression is common with chronic diseases such as diabetes. The depression should be recognized and treated as soon as possible since depression can affect glycemic control and complicate the management of the diabetes (Buttaro, 1999). The patient needs to understand that diabetes is a lifelong disease process that requires a lifetime commitment and lifestyle changes. The patient should be educated about empowerment ± having the resources and knowing how and when to use them. The skills of empowerment that help the patient reflect on life satisfaction in the following areas: physical, mental, spiritual, family related, social, work related, financial, personal. The patient should be encouraged to establish goals which emphasize at least two of these areas in which he/she has control. In the session of coping with diabetes the patient should be assisted to develop better problem solving skills, which are necessary to manage a life-long disease such as diabetes. Coping with diabetes should also include stress management concepts. Stress management concepts should include: a definition of stress, the body¶s reaction to stress, the effects of stress on diabetes management, identifying stressors, identifying methods of coping, relaxation exercises and identifying support systems to tap into. Management of the disease process should include eliminating or minimizing other cardiovascular risk factors for example blood pressure control, lipid control, and smoking cessation. Patients with diabetes should also be instructed on what to do when they become sick with a cold, flu, gastrointestinal virus, or other minor illness. They need to be aware that these minor illnesses can affect their diabetes and blood glucose levels (McGovern, 2002). Instruction on what to do when they become ill and the importance of
continuing to take their diabetes medications and/or insulin and other general care should be discussed. Some basic guidelines for management during an illness or sick-day include maintain adequate hydration because of the risk of dehydration from decreased fluid intake, polyuria, vomiting, diarrhea, and evaporative losses from fever. Patient should be instructed to drink at least eight ounces of calorie free liquids every hour while they are awake. The beverages should be caffeine-free, since caffeine acts as a diuretic and can actually increase the chances of hypovolemia. If the patient is unable to tolerate fluids by mouth, antiemetic suppositories or intravenous fluids may be required. Vomiting that is persistent and intractable may require emergency room care. The patient should be encouraged to perform blood glucose monitoring more frequently while he/she is ill and to initiate urine ketone monitoring with urine dipsticks, during the illness (Franz, 2001). The patient should be instructed to continue taking his/her insulin and/or oral antidiabetic agents while ill and even when unable to eat. The omission of insulin is a common cause of ketosis and can result in a serious condition called diabetic ketoacidosis. The patient should be given a list of foods that contain fast acting carbohydrates that they can consume when they experience signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia. Patients should be encouraged to seek regular ophthalmologic examinations to detect for diabetic retinopathy. Regular dental examinations should also be encouraged to evaluate to potential areas that can become infected and possible oral lesions.
Summary The teaching program for the patients
with diabetes is designed to be held for six sessions. However, the sessions can be lengthened or shortened to meet the needs of the intended audience. These two to three hour sessions allow the patient to absorb the material that is being taught and to be able to ask questions. The learning needs are focused on managing their glucose levels and preventing complications of diabetes. The patient needs to be educated on the multiple disease processes associated
with diabetes and the factors affecting each of these areas. The patient also needs to have the knowledge of how to manage their diabetes when they are ill and warning signs that they are hypo/hyperglycemic. Diabetic patients should be advised to contact their health care provider any time they are unsure what to do or have questions on how to manage their disease. There are many teaching handouts and pamphlets that are available free of charge from the various agencies. These handouts are available on a wide variety of subjects that can be used with the teaching plan. The evaluation criteria for the teaching plan would include an evaluation tool in which the patients could complete anonymously at the end of the program.
KEY TERMS
Acrocyanosis ²A condition characterized by blueness, coldness, and sweating of the extremities. A slight cyanosis, or blueness, of the hands and feet of the neonate is considered normal. This impaired ability to fully oxygenate the extremities is due to an immature circulatory system which is still in flux. Amniotic fluid ²The liquid in the amniotic sac that cushions the fetus and regulates temperature in the placental environment. Amniotic fluid also contains fetal cells. Apnea ²The temporary absence of breathing. Sleep apnea consists of repeated episodes of temporary suspension of breathing during sleep. Extrauterine ²Occurring outside the uterus. Neonate ²A newborn infant, from birth until 28 days of age. Neonatologist ²A physician (pediatrician) who has special training in the care of newborn infants. Pallor ²Extreme paleness in the color of the skin.
Read more: Apgar Testing - baby, Definition, Purpose, Description, Normal results, Risks http://www.healthofchildren.com/A/Apgar-Testing.html#ixzz129wzQ8JP
