Educational Technology 2
Content
1. What are Educational Technology, Instructional Theory and Learning Theory? EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources."[1] The term educational technology is often associated with, and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory.
Educational Technology 2 is concerned with “Integrating Technology into Teaching and Learning". Specifically this is focused on introducing, reinforcing, supplementing and extending the knowledge and skills to learners so that they can become exemplary users of educational technology. Mainly directed to student teachers, also professional teachers who may wish to update their knowledge of educational technology, it is our goal that this course can help our target learners to weave technology, with software (computer programmed learning materials) becoming a natural extension of their learning tools. Necessarily, Educational Technology 2 will involve a deeper understanding of the computer as well as hands-on application of computer skills. But this is not say that the goal of the course is to promote computer skills. But this is not to say that the goal of the course is to promote computer skills. Rather, the course is primarily directed at enhancing teaching-and-learning through technology integration. In essence, the course aims to infuse technology in the student-teachers training, helping them to adapt and meet rapid and continuing technology changes, particularly in the thriving global information and communication technology (ICT) environment. More specifically, the course objectives are: * To provide education in the use of technology in instruction by providing knowledge and skills on technology integration-in-instruction to learners. * To impart learning experiences in instructional technology-supported instructional planning. * To acquaint students on Information Technology or IT- related learning theories with the computer as a tutor. * To learn to use and evaluate computer-based educational resources. * To engage learners on practical technology integration issues including managing IT classrooms, use of the Internet for learning, cooperative learning through the use of information technology, etc. * To inculcate higher-level thinking and creativity among students while providing them knowledge of IT-related learning theories.
While the course is primarily intended for the use of student-teachers, it can also be of great to use to professional teachers, school administrators, teacher educators, and in fact anyone who is interested on how Information Technology can be used to improve not only instruction but the school management program and curriculum.
Rodolfo E. Laycano Jr.
Page 1
It may be said, too, that the study of this course on integrating Information Technology in instruction should not be considered as a formidable task, but rather as a refreshing and exciting study given the idea that all learning should be fun. INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY
An Instructional theory is "a theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop."[1] Instructional theories focus on how to structure material for promoting the education of human beings, and more recently Edtech has been gaining recognition for helping to develop this area. Terms used for Instructional Theories Andragogy an•dra•go•gy *an-druh-goh-jee, -goj-ee] Originally used by Alexander Kapp (a German educator) in 1833, andragogy was developed into a theory of adult education by the American educator Malcolm Knowles. The word comes from the Greek ἀνδρο (andro-) or “man” *rather than ενιλικ which means "adult”+ and άγω (ago) to "lead"; so it literally means, "to lead the man.” Learning strategies focus on mature learning with a mentor that encourages, enables the mature learner by providing access to appropriate resources, and refrains from obtrusive interference. Diaskagogy di•as•ka•go•gy *dee-es-kuh-goh-jee, -goj-ee] A neologism developed for preschool education that focuses on schema building: Caregiver demonstrates factual knowledge. Caregiver observes, measures, and modifies behavioral change in specified direction. The teacher/child relationship in this scenario is one of entertainment. The word for entertainer in Greek is διαςκεδάηων (the Latin translation is genius). When combined with the Greek άγω (ago) to "lead," the construed meaning is "to lead the entertainer” and the transliteration from the Greek leads to the word Diaskagogy di•as•ka•go•gy *dee-es-kuh-goh-jee, -goj-ee] which could be used to describe Preschool education. Heutagogy heu•ta•go•gy *hyoo-tah-goh-jee, -goj-ee] The term, attributed to Stewart Hase [Southern Cross University] and Chris Kenyon of Australia, is the study of self-determined learning. The word appears to come from an irregular formation of the Greek words ευρετικόσ (heurista) meaning to “discover,” εφευρετικόσ (heuretikos) meaning "inventive," εφρθμα (heuriskein) meaning to "find," and άγω (ago) to "lead"; so it is construed to mean "to lead to invention, discoveries, findings" and consists of learning strategies focused on mature learners where a facilitator enables quested learning to allow for modification of existing knowledge and creation of new knowledge. Pedagogy [ped-ah-goh-jee, -goj-ee+ The word comes from the Greek παιδαγωγζω (pedagogue); in which παιδί (ped) means "child” and άγω (ago) means "lead"; so it literally means "to lead the child" where a teacher develops conceptual knowledge and manages the content of learning activities. Other relevant roots from Greek include μικρό παιδί or toddler; αγόρι or boy child; κοριτςιών or girl child; μικρό παιδί or young child. History of Instructional Theory Instructional theory is heavily influenced by the 1956 work of Benjamin Bloom, a University of Chicago professor, and the results of his Taxonomy of Education Objectives — one of the first modern codifications of the learning process. Schools of thought that influence instructional theory include: behaviorism, cognitivism, humanism, and constructivism.
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Influence of Learning Theory on Instructional Theory Instructional theory is different than learning theory. A learning theory describes how learning takes place, and an instructional theory prescribes how to better help people learn.[1] Learning theories often inform instructional theory, and three general theoretical stances take part in this influence: behaviorism (learning as response acquisition), cognitivism (learning as knowledge acquisition), and constructivism (learning as knowledge construction).[2] LEARNING THEORY (EDUCATION) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia In psychology and education, learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris, 2004; Ormrod, 1995). It is also thought of as the way in which information is absorbed, processed, and retained. "Learning Theories" are elaborate hypotheses that describe how exactly this procedure occurs. Learning theories have two chief values according to Hill (2002). One is in providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding solutions. There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts. Merriam and Caffarella (1991) highlight four approaches or orientations to learning: Behaviourist, Cognitivist, Humanist, and Social/Situational. These approaches involve contrasting ideas as to the purpose and process of learning and education - and the role that educators may take.[1] Behaviorism Main article: Behaviorism John Watson (1878-1959) coined the term "behaviorism." Critical of Wundt's emphasis on internal states, Watson insisted that psychology must focus on overt measureable behaviors. Watson believed that theorizing thoughts, intentions or other subjective experiences was unscientific [2]. Behaviorism as a theory was primarily developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely encompasses the work of people like Edward Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull. What characterize these investigators are their underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three basic assumptions are held to be true.[original research?] First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning. There are two types of possible conditioning: 1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov's Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs drooled Rodolfo E. Laycano Jr. Page 3
without the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out how these phenomena were linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they responded by drooling. Pavlov's work laid the foundation for many of psychologist John B. Watson's ideas. Watson and Pavlov shared both a disdain for "menatlistic" concepts (such as consciousness) and a belief that the basic laws of learning were the same for all animals whether dogs or humans [3]. 2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and is known as Radical Behaviorism. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punishment is not considered to be applicable if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior. In operant conditioning we learn to assoicate a response (our behavior) and its consequence and thus to repeat acts followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad results. [4]. Since behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, educators arrange the environment to elicit desired responses through such devices as behavioral objectives, competency based education, and skill development and training.[1] Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model.[5] Cognitivism Main article: Cognitivism (psychology) Cognitive theories grew out of Gestalt psychology. Developed in Germany in the early 1900s, it was transplanted to America in the 1920s. Gestalt is roughly translated as "configuration," or "pattern," and emphasizes "the whole" of human experience [6]. Over the years, the Gestalt psychologist provided compelling demonstrations and described principles by which we organize our sensations into perceptions [7]. The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication in 1929 by Bode, a gestalt psychologist.[8] He criticized behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns rather than isolated events. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: (1) that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and (2) that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example, the physiological processes of sorting and encoding information and events into short term memory and long term memory are important to educators working under the cognitive theory.[9] The major difference between gestaltists and behaviorists is the locus of control over the learning activity: the individual learner is more key to gestaltists than the environment that behaviorists emphasize.
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Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model[10] and Baddeley's working memory model[11] were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory. These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design.[12] Aspects of cognitivism can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence, learning, and memory as related to age. Educators employing a cognitivist approach to learning would view learning as internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception) where in order to develop learner capacity and skills to improve learning, the educator structures content of learning activities to focus on building intelligence and cognitive and meta-cognitive development.[1] Constructivism Main article: Constructivism (learning theory) Constructivism is a revolution in educational psychology. Built on the work of Piaget and Bruner, constructivism emphasizes the importance of active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves...Constructivism emphasizes top-down processing: begin with complex problems and teach basic skills while solving these problems [13]. Constructivism explains why students do not learn deeply by listening to a teacher, or reading from a textbook. Learning sciences research is revealing the deeper underlying basis of how knowledge construction works. To design effective environments, one needs a very good understanding of what children know when they come to the classroom. This requires sophisticated research into children's cognitive development, and the learning sciences draws heavily on psychological studies of cognitive development (e.g., Siegler, 1998). The learning theories of John Dewey, Marie Montessori, and David Kolb serve as the foundation of constructivist learning theory.[14] Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. In other words, "learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences." Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.[15] The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning, transformational learning, and experiential learning. Informal and post-modern theories Informal theories of education break down the learning process, learning authentically and with practicality. One theory deals with whether learning should take place as a building of concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in later. In Marzano’s restructuring knowledge the informal curriculum promotes the use of prior knowledge to help students gain big ideas and concept understanding.[16] This theory states that new knowledge cannot be told to students, rather student’s current knowledge must be challenged. By challenging student’s current ideas, students can adjust their ideas to more closely resemble actual theories or concepts.[16] By using this method students gain the big idea taught and later are more willing to learn and keep the specifics of the concept or theory taught. This theory further aligns with the studies of Brown and Ryoo, who support that teaching concepts and the language of a subject should be split into multiple steps.[17]
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Other informal learning concerns regard sources of motivation for learning. Deci argues that intrinsic motivation creates a more self-regulated learner [18] yet schools undermine intrinsic motivation. This is not ideal for learning. Critics argue that average students learning in isolation perform significantly lower than those learning with collaboration and mediation.[19] Students learn through talk, discussion, and argumentation.[20][21] Transformative Learning Theory Transformative learning theory [explains the] process of constructing and appropriating new and revised interpretations of the meaning of an experience in the world.[22] Transformative learning is the cognitive process of effecting change in a frame of reference [23] although it is recognized that important emotional changes are often involved.[24] These frames of reference define our view of the world and we have a tendency as adults to reject or deem unworthy any ideas that do not ascribe to our particular values, associations, concepts, etc.[23] Our frames of reference are composed of two dimensions: habits of mind and points of view.[23] Habits of mind, such as ethnocentrism, are more fixed and influence our point of view and the resulting thoughts or feelings associated with them, whereas points of view may change over time as a result of influences such as reflection, appropriation and feedback.[23] Transformative learners utilize discourse as a means of critically examination and reflection “devoted to assessing reasons presented in support of competing interpretations, by critically examining evidence, arguments, and alternative points of view.”[23] When circumstances permit, transformative learners move toward a frame of reference that is more inclusive, discriminating, selfreflective, and integrative of experience.[23] Transformative learning leads to autonomous and responsible thinking which is essential for full citizenship in democracy and for moral decision making in situations of rapid change.[23]
Educational Neuroscience Educational Neuroscience or Neuroeducation is an emerging new learning theory. Prestigious universities such as Harvard, Johns Hopkins, USC and others are now offering programs dedicated to neuroeducation and are developing majors and degrees in the field. It is founded on connecting what we know about how the brain processes and stores information with classroom instruction and experiences.[25] Neuroeducation analyzed the biological change in the brain as new information is processed and looks at what environmental, emotional, social situations are best in order for the new information to be processed. It further analyzes under what conditions the brain stores information and links it to other neurons versus simply determining that the information is non-essential to store and hence reabsorbs the dendrite and dismisses the information. The 1990s were designated "The Decade of the Brain," and advances took place in neuroscience at an especially rapid pace. The three dominant methods for measuring brain activities are: ERP's, FMRI, MEG [26]. Radin points out that the examination of the art and science of teaching was further accelerated by President G.H. Bush when he declared the 1990s as the Decade of the Brain. The integration and application of what we know about the brain was strengthened in 2000 when the American Federation of Teachers stated: "It is vital that we identify what science tells us about how people learn in order to improve the education curriculum." [27] Rowland discusses that what is exciting about this new field in education is that modern brain imaging techniques now make it possible, in some sense, to watch the brain as it learns. As academic language and learning (ALL) educators often work with students on improving their approaches to learning, the question then arises: can the results of neuro-scientific studies of brains as they are learning usefully inform practice in this area? [28] Although the field of Rodolfo E. Laycano Jr. Page 6
neuroscience is young, it is expected that with new technologies and ways of observing learning, the paradigms of what students need and how students learn best will be further refined with actual scientific evidence. In particular, students who may have learning disabilities will be taught with strategies that engage their brain and makes the connections needed. A brain-based theory of learning The differences of opinion and theory cited above indicate that the learning process is not yet understood. As our understanding of the brain and learning develop we should expect that the educational theory debate will gradually be replaced by a neuroscience-based theory of learning. We are in a similar position to the one found in medicine in the mid-19th century where a range of opinions and theories vied for position. These were gradually replaced by the current bio-medical model and became the foundation of the professionalism and progress of medicine since then. We should expect to see the same process developing in education with the newexperts replacing those who hold ideas about Behaviourism or Cognitivism. These current theories are, by comparison to neuroscience, 'intelligent guesswork'. The outline of the theory is already clear: the brain is seen, not as having a central processor where ‘'intelligence'’ lies, but in having perhaps 70 functional areas. Any mental activity requires several areas to work together. What appear as different types of intelligenceresult from different combinations of well-developed functional areas. Neuroplasticity means that all functions can be improved. Learning is the process by which neurons join by developing the synapses between them. Knowledge is arranged hierarchically, with new knowledge being linked to existing neural networks. Although the neuroscience is in its early stages, many of its findings have, effectively, been tested in ordinary classroom experiments. Evidence-based teaching already relates the findings of classroom experiments with brain-based explanations providing a firm foundation for a neurosciencebased theory of learning.
2. What are the five (5) Basic Phases of Instructions? 5 BASIC PHASES OF INSTRUCTION Analysis The analysis phase consists of determining who is to be taught, how much the student or trainee needs to be taught, and when and where the training will take place. This analysis determines the student or trainee's current level of subject knowledge and comparison made to the desired level of knowledge. Design This phase determines five elements of the instructional system: the prerequisite knowledge of the student (entry behaviors), ways to obtain the required skills (learning steps), the required skills (learning objectives), a means of evaluating the effectiveness of the system (performance tests), and the best sequence of steps to obtain the desired result (sequence and structure). Development The development phase builds a course of study based on those things learned in the analysis and design phases. It includes the selection of the course syllabus or outline and the course media such Rodolfo E. Laycano Jr. Page 7
as books, videos, software, etc. When the development phase is completed, a complete educational platform should be in place. Implementation After design and development of the educational platform, the implementation phase delivers the instruction to the student. The delivery phase is another term for the implementation phase. The quality of the instructor's delivery of the material should augment the quality of the instructional system's design. Evaluation The evaluation phase is the comparison of the results achieved to a pre-stated set of desired results. This phase is not exclusive to the end of the process. Each of the previous phases has its own evaluation assessment to determine if that phase achieved the desired outcome. One of the most telling ways to determine the effectiveness of a learning system is to test how well the student has learned the desired knowledge or skills. Equally important is determining the effect that the newly trained student has on the goals of the organization originating the training.
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Educational Technology 2 is concerned with “Integrating Technology into Teaching and Learning". Specifically this is focused on introducing, reinforcing, supplementing and extending the knowledge and skills to learners so that they can become exemplary users of educational technology. Mainly directed to student teachers, also professional teachers who may wish to update their knowledge of educational technology, it is our goal that this course can help our target learners to weave technology, with software (computer programmed learning materials) becoming a natural extension of their learning tools. Necessarily, Educational Technology 2 will involve a deeper understanding of the computer as well as hands-on application of computer skills. But this is not say that the goal of the course is to promote computer skills. But this is not to say that the goal of the course is to promote computer skills. Rather, the course is primarily directed at enhancing teaching-and-learning through technology integration. In essence, the course aims to infuse technology in the student-teachers training, helping them to adapt and meet rapid and continuing technology changes, particularly in the thriving global information and communication technology (ICT) environment. More specifically, the course objectives are: * To provide education in the use of technology in instruction by providing knowledge and skills on technology integration-in-instruction to learners. * To impart learning experiences in instructional technology-supported instructional planning. * To acquaint students on Information Technology or IT- related learning theories with the computer as a tutor. * To learn to use and evaluate computer-based educational resources. * To engage learners on practical technology integration issues including managing IT classrooms, use of the Internet for learning, cooperative learning through the use of information technology, etc. * To inculcate higher-level thinking and creativity among students while providing them knowledge of IT-related learning theories.
While the course is primarily intended for the use of student-teachers, it can also be of great to use to professional teachers, school administrators, teacher educators, and in fact anyone who is interested on how Information Technology can be used to improve not only instruction but the school management program and curriculum.
Rodolfo E. Laycano Jr.
Page 1
It may be said, too, that the study of this course on integrating Information Technology in instruction should not be considered as a formidable task, but rather as a refreshing and exciting study given the idea that all learning should be fun. INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY
An Instructional theory is "a theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop."[1] Instructional theories focus on how to structure material for promoting the education of human beings, and more recently Edtech has been gaining recognition for helping to develop this area. Terms used for Instructional Theories Andragogy an•dra•go•gy *an-druh-goh-jee, -goj-ee] Originally used by Alexander Kapp (a German educator) in 1833, andragogy was developed into a theory of adult education by the American educator Malcolm Knowles. The word comes from the Greek ἀνδρο (andro-) or “man” *rather than ενιλικ which means "adult”+ and άγω (ago) to "lead"; so it literally means, "to lead the man.” Learning strategies focus on mature learning with a mentor that encourages, enables the mature learner by providing access to appropriate resources, and refrains from obtrusive interference. Diaskagogy di•as•ka•go•gy *dee-es-kuh-goh-jee, -goj-ee] A neologism developed for preschool education that focuses on schema building: Caregiver demonstrates factual knowledge. Caregiver observes, measures, and modifies behavioral change in specified direction. The teacher/child relationship in this scenario is one of entertainment. The word for entertainer in Greek is διαςκεδάηων (the Latin translation is genius). When combined with the Greek άγω (ago) to "lead," the construed meaning is "to lead the entertainer” and the transliteration from the Greek leads to the word Diaskagogy di•as•ka•go•gy *dee-es-kuh-goh-jee, -goj-ee] which could be used to describe Preschool education. Heutagogy heu•ta•go•gy *hyoo-tah-goh-jee, -goj-ee] The term, attributed to Stewart Hase [Southern Cross University] and Chris Kenyon of Australia, is the study of self-determined learning. The word appears to come from an irregular formation of the Greek words ευρετικόσ (heurista) meaning to “discover,” εφευρετικόσ (heuretikos) meaning "inventive," εφρθμα (heuriskein) meaning to "find," and άγω (ago) to "lead"; so it is construed to mean "to lead to invention, discoveries, findings" and consists of learning strategies focused on mature learners where a facilitator enables quested learning to allow for modification of existing knowledge and creation of new knowledge. Pedagogy [ped-ah-goh-jee, -goj-ee+ The word comes from the Greek παιδαγωγζω (pedagogue); in which παιδί (ped) means "child” and άγω (ago) means "lead"; so it literally means "to lead the child" where a teacher develops conceptual knowledge and manages the content of learning activities. Other relevant roots from Greek include μικρό παιδί or toddler; αγόρι or boy child; κοριτςιών or girl child; μικρό παιδί or young child. History of Instructional Theory Instructional theory is heavily influenced by the 1956 work of Benjamin Bloom, a University of Chicago professor, and the results of his Taxonomy of Education Objectives — one of the first modern codifications of the learning process. Schools of thought that influence instructional theory include: behaviorism, cognitivism, humanism, and constructivism.
Rodolfo E. Laycano Jr.
Page 2
Influence of Learning Theory on Instructional Theory Instructional theory is different than learning theory. A learning theory describes how learning takes place, and an instructional theory prescribes how to better help people learn.[1] Learning theories often inform instructional theory, and three general theoretical stances take part in this influence: behaviorism (learning as response acquisition), cognitivism (learning as knowledge acquisition), and constructivism (learning as knowledge construction).[2] LEARNING THEORY (EDUCATION) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia In psychology and education, learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris, 2004; Ormrod, 1995). It is also thought of as the way in which information is absorbed, processed, and retained. "Learning Theories" are elaborate hypotheses that describe how exactly this procedure occurs. Learning theories have two chief values according to Hill (2002). One is in providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding solutions. There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts. Merriam and Caffarella (1991) highlight four approaches or orientations to learning: Behaviourist, Cognitivist, Humanist, and Social/Situational. These approaches involve contrasting ideas as to the purpose and process of learning and education - and the role that educators may take.[1] Behaviorism Main article: Behaviorism John Watson (1878-1959) coined the term "behaviorism." Critical of Wundt's emphasis on internal states, Watson insisted that psychology must focus on overt measureable behaviors. Watson believed that theorizing thoughts, intentions or other subjective experiences was unscientific [2]. Behaviorism as a theory was primarily developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely encompasses the work of people like Edward Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull. What characterize these investigators are their underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three basic assumptions are held to be true.[original research?] First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning. There are two types of possible conditioning: 1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov's Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs drooled Rodolfo E. Laycano Jr. Page 3
without the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out how these phenomena were linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they responded by drooling. Pavlov's work laid the foundation for many of psychologist John B. Watson's ideas. Watson and Pavlov shared both a disdain for "menatlistic" concepts (such as consciousness) and a belief that the basic laws of learning were the same for all animals whether dogs or humans [3]. 2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and is known as Radical Behaviorism. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punishment is not considered to be applicable if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior. In operant conditioning we learn to assoicate a response (our behavior) and its consequence and thus to repeat acts followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad results. [4]. Since behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, educators arrange the environment to elicit desired responses through such devices as behavioral objectives, competency based education, and skill development and training.[1] Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model.[5] Cognitivism Main article: Cognitivism (psychology) Cognitive theories grew out of Gestalt psychology. Developed in Germany in the early 1900s, it was transplanted to America in the 1920s. Gestalt is roughly translated as "configuration," or "pattern," and emphasizes "the whole" of human experience [6]. Over the years, the Gestalt psychologist provided compelling demonstrations and described principles by which we organize our sensations into perceptions [7]. The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication in 1929 by Bode, a gestalt psychologist.[8] He criticized behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns rather than isolated events. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: (1) that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and (2) that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example, the physiological processes of sorting and encoding information and events into short term memory and long term memory are important to educators working under the cognitive theory.[9] The major difference between gestaltists and behaviorists is the locus of control over the learning activity: the individual learner is more key to gestaltists than the environment that behaviorists emphasize.
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Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model[10] and Baddeley's working memory model[11] were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory. These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design.[12] Aspects of cognitivism can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence, learning, and memory as related to age. Educators employing a cognitivist approach to learning would view learning as internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception) where in order to develop learner capacity and skills to improve learning, the educator structures content of learning activities to focus on building intelligence and cognitive and meta-cognitive development.[1] Constructivism Main article: Constructivism (learning theory) Constructivism is a revolution in educational psychology. Built on the work of Piaget and Bruner, constructivism emphasizes the importance of active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves...Constructivism emphasizes top-down processing: begin with complex problems and teach basic skills while solving these problems [13]. Constructivism explains why students do not learn deeply by listening to a teacher, or reading from a textbook. Learning sciences research is revealing the deeper underlying basis of how knowledge construction works. To design effective environments, one needs a very good understanding of what children know when they come to the classroom. This requires sophisticated research into children's cognitive development, and the learning sciences draws heavily on psychological studies of cognitive development (e.g., Siegler, 1998). The learning theories of John Dewey, Marie Montessori, and David Kolb serve as the foundation of constructivist learning theory.[14] Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. In other words, "learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences." Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.[15] The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning, transformational learning, and experiential learning. Informal and post-modern theories Informal theories of education break down the learning process, learning authentically and with practicality. One theory deals with whether learning should take place as a building of concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in later. In Marzano’s restructuring knowledge the informal curriculum promotes the use of prior knowledge to help students gain big ideas and concept understanding.[16] This theory states that new knowledge cannot be told to students, rather student’s current knowledge must be challenged. By challenging student’s current ideas, students can adjust their ideas to more closely resemble actual theories or concepts.[16] By using this method students gain the big idea taught and later are more willing to learn and keep the specifics of the concept or theory taught. This theory further aligns with the studies of Brown and Ryoo, who support that teaching concepts and the language of a subject should be split into multiple steps.[17]
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Other informal learning concerns regard sources of motivation for learning. Deci argues that intrinsic motivation creates a more self-regulated learner [18] yet schools undermine intrinsic motivation. This is not ideal for learning. Critics argue that average students learning in isolation perform significantly lower than those learning with collaboration and mediation.[19] Students learn through talk, discussion, and argumentation.[20][21] Transformative Learning Theory Transformative learning theory [explains the] process of constructing and appropriating new and revised interpretations of the meaning of an experience in the world.[22] Transformative learning is the cognitive process of effecting change in a frame of reference [23] although it is recognized that important emotional changes are often involved.[24] These frames of reference define our view of the world and we have a tendency as adults to reject or deem unworthy any ideas that do not ascribe to our particular values, associations, concepts, etc.[23] Our frames of reference are composed of two dimensions: habits of mind and points of view.[23] Habits of mind, such as ethnocentrism, are more fixed and influence our point of view and the resulting thoughts or feelings associated with them, whereas points of view may change over time as a result of influences such as reflection, appropriation and feedback.[23] Transformative learners utilize discourse as a means of critically examination and reflection “devoted to assessing reasons presented in support of competing interpretations, by critically examining evidence, arguments, and alternative points of view.”[23] When circumstances permit, transformative learners move toward a frame of reference that is more inclusive, discriminating, selfreflective, and integrative of experience.[23] Transformative learning leads to autonomous and responsible thinking which is essential for full citizenship in democracy and for moral decision making in situations of rapid change.[23]
Educational Neuroscience Educational Neuroscience or Neuroeducation is an emerging new learning theory. Prestigious universities such as Harvard, Johns Hopkins, USC and others are now offering programs dedicated to neuroeducation and are developing majors and degrees in the field. It is founded on connecting what we know about how the brain processes and stores information with classroom instruction and experiences.[25] Neuroeducation analyzed the biological change in the brain as new information is processed and looks at what environmental, emotional, social situations are best in order for the new information to be processed. It further analyzes under what conditions the brain stores information and links it to other neurons versus simply determining that the information is non-essential to store and hence reabsorbs the dendrite and dismisses the information. The 1990s were designated "The Decade of the Brain," and advances took place in neuroscience at an especially rapid pace. The three dominant methods for measuring brain activities are: ERP's, FMRI, MEG [26]. Radin points out that the examination of the art and science of teaching was further accelerated by President G.H. Bush when he declared the 1990s as the Decade of the Brain. The integration and application of what we know about the brain was strengthened in 2000 when the American Federation of Teachers stated: "It is vital that we identify what science tells us about how people learn in order to improve the education curriculum." [27] Rowland discusses that what is exciting about this new field in education is that modern brain imaging techniques now make it possible, in some sense, to watch the brain as it learns. As academic language and learning (ALL) educators often work with students on improving their approaches to learning, the question then arises: can the results of neuro-scientific studies of brains as they are learning usefully inform practice in this area? [28] Although the field of Rodolfo E. Laycano Jr. Page 6
neuroscience is young, it is expected that with new technologies and ways of observing learning, the paradigms of what students need and how students learn best will be further refined with actual scientific evidence. In particular, students who may have learning disabilities will be taught with strategies that engage their brain and makes the connections needed. A brain-based theory of learning The differences of opinion and theory cited above indicate that the learning process is not yet understood. As our understanding of the brain and learning develop we should expect that the educational theory debate will gradually be replaced by a neuroscience-based theory of learning. We are in a similar position to the one found in medicine in the mid-19th century where a range of opinions and theories vied for position. These were gradually replaced by the current bio-medical model and became the foundation of the professionalism and progress of medicine since then. We should expect to see the same process developing in education with the newexperts replacing those who hold ideas about Behaviourism or Cognitivism. These current theories are, by comparison to neuroscience, 'intelligent guesswork'. The outline of the theory is already clear: the brain is seen, not as having a central processor where ‘'intelligence'’ lies, but in having perhaps 70 functional areas. Any mental activity requires several areas to work together. What appear as different types of intelligenceresult from different combinations of well-developed functional areas. Neuroplasticity means that all functions can be improved. Learning is the process by which neurons join by developing the synapses between them. Knowledge is arranged hierarchically, with new knowledge being linked to existing neural networks. Although the neuroscience is in its early stages, many of its findings have, effectively, been tested in ordinary classroom experiments. Evidence-based teaching already relates the findings of classroom experiments with brain-based explanations providing a firm foundation for a neurosciencebased theory of learning.
2. What are the five (5) Basic Phases of Instructions? 5 BASIC PHASES OF INSTRUCTION Analysis The analysis phase consists of determining who is to be taught, how much the student or trainee needs to be taught, and when and where the training will take place. This analysis determines the student or trainee's current level of subject knowledge and comparison made to the desired level of knowledge. Design This phase determines five elements of the instructional system: the prerequisite knowledge of the student (entry behaviors), ways to obtain the required skills (learning steps), the required skills (learning objectives), a means of evaluating the effectiveness of the system (performance tests), and the best sequence of steps to obtain the desired result (sequence and structure). Development The development phase builds a course of study based on those things learned in the analysis and design phases. It includes the selection of the course syllabus or outline and the course media such Rodolfo E. Laycano Jr. Page 7
as books, videos, software, etc. When the development phase is completed, a complete educational platform should be in place. Implementation After design and development of the educational platform, the implementation phase delivers the instruction to the student. The delivery phase is another term for the implementation phase. The quality of the instructor's delivery of the material should augment the quality of the instructional system's design. Evaluation The evaluation phase is the comparison of the results achieved to a pre-stated set of desired results. This phase is not exclusive to the end of the process. Each of the previous phases has its own evaluation assessment to determine if that phase achieved the desired outcome. One of the most telling ways to determine the effectiveness of a learning system is to test how well the student has learned the desired knowledge or skills. Equally important is determining the effect that the newly trained student has on the goals of the organization originating the training.
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