IEEE 802 vs IPv4 addresses
vendor code vendor assigned
IEEE 802
10111101 10111101
10111101 01110101
10111101 10111101
10111101 01110101
10111101 10111101
10111101 01110101
Group/ Individual bit Global/ Localbit
00:0E:35:64:E9:E 7
netid
hostid
IPv4 addr
10111101 11000000
10111101 00100100
10111101 01111101
10111101 00010010
192.36.125.18
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Routing vs bridging
•Bridging - forwarding on layer 2
–A MAC address/ID has a flat structure
• many nodes -> large forwarding tables • broadcast reaches all nodes
–Simple to configure and manage, cheaper –Loops detected by spanning tree protocol
•Routing – forwarding on layer 3
–The netid of the IP addresses can be aggregated
• many nodes -> smaller forwarding tables than bridging • routers partition broadcast domains
–Routing is more difficult to configure –Loops detected by routing protocols and TTL decrementation
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What does a router do?
•
• • •
•
Packet forwarding Not only IPv4: IPv6, MPLS, Bridging/VLAN, Tunneling,... Filter packets Metering/Shaping/Policing Compute routes: build forwarding table In the background: routing In real-time: forwarding
Access lists
•
• • •
Classifier
Lookup
Metering
Shaping
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Router Components
CPU module ”Control Processor” ”Routing Engine” CPU Routing Table Memory Execute routing protocols, compute routing table, configure line cards...
Output buffering, waiting for transmission...
Input buffering, waiting for access to output port... Line cards Examine headers, Memory routing decision... Packet Processing MAC External links
Interconnect QoS scheduling...
Memory Packet Processing MAC
Memory Packet Processing MAC
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Fast path, slow path
Control Processor CPU Routing Table Slow path Memory
Line Card
Line Card
Fast path
Line Card
Line Card
•Fast path –If line cards can determine outgoing port •Slow path –Control processor must determine outgoing port
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Inside a router, 1st Generation
CPU RIB Buffer Memory
Shared bus backplane
Line Card
Line Card
Line Card
•Every packet goes twice over the shared bus •Constrained by Bus and memory bandwidth (per byte cost) •And CPU cycles (per packet cost)
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Inside a hardware-based router
Switched backplane
Line Card Buffer Memory forwarder
Line Card CPU Card Buffer Memory forwarder RIB CPU
Line Card Buffer Memory forwarder
Line Card Buffer Memory forwarder
•Multiple simultaneous transfers over the backplane •Specialized hardware: ASICs (Application Specific IC) •Wirespeed at 100 Gb/s and beyond
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•Space division approach •Switched interconnection between input and output •Centralized controller
–coordinates input-output ports –activates paths between ports
2 . . . N
•Multiple transfers can proceed simultaneously •Crossbar is non-blocking
interface logic output ports 1 2 M
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. . .
Shared Bus Architecture
shared bus
1
2
N
1
2
M
. . .
input ports
output ports
•Relies on time division – internal data path is shared •Address, control, and data lines and a bus protocol •Granularity
–Packet granularity: simple, but may result in delay problems –Block granularity: more overhead, but avoids long delays
. . .
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Routing table lookup
•Longest prefix first •Divide table in 32 ”buckets” - one for each netmask length •Match destination with longest prefixes first •SW algorithms: tree, binary trees, tries (different data structures) •HW support: TCAMs – Content Addressable Memory
Masklen 0 1
Netid Netid
31 32
destination IP address
12
...
Using a Trie for lookup
•Binary tree
–Nodes are prefixes –Left branch represents ´0´in the string –Right branch represents ´1´
* a a * b 10* c 01* d 110* e 0010 f 0110 0* 1* g 0111
00*
01*
c
10*
b
11*
000*
011*
110*
d
0010
e
0110
f
g
0111
13
Elimination of Internal Prefixes
•No overlapping prefixes •Prefix expansion with ”leaf pushing” •Simplifies lookup at expense of larger memory
a * b 10* c 01* d 110* * e 0010 f 0110 g 0111
00*
01*
10*
11*
a
a
e
a
c
c
f
g
b
b
b
b
d
d
a
a
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Linear Search on Values—TCAM
•Ternary Content-Addressable Memory
–Fully associative memory
•Compare input with all words in parallel
–First match gives the result
•Three values for each bit—’0’, ’1’, and ’x’ (don’t care) input
= = = = = = = TCAM
•Up to 100 million searches per second
0010 0110 0111 110x 01xx 10xx xxxx
g f e d c b a
a * b 10* c 01* d 110* e 0010 f 0110 g 0111
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TCAM layout
•Route lookup in one memory access •Prefixes ordered by length •First match first •Contents need to be sorted
24-bit prefixes 32-bit prefixes 31-bit prefixes
8-bit prefixes
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Packet classification
•Map a packet to a class •Class defined by filters, usually a 5-tuple:
–<source IP, destination IP, source port, destination port, protocol>
•For example, all packets:
–From subnet N –To TCP port 80 on web-server S –From subnet N to port 666 on subnet M
Cisco CRS-1
CISCO's current flagship: Carrier- Routing System 3-stage multi-stage switching plane >50% of cost Trie prefix lookup 7.5kW Each slot has 40Gbps 32Tbps raw bandwidth Distributed RP Several Logical Routers Optical_Electric transitions: O-E-O-E-O-E-O
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Juniper Routers
•M-series –Shipping started 1998 –M5, M10, M20, M40e, M160, M320 –8xOC-192 or 32xOC-48 ports in a M160 •T-series –Shipping started 2002 –T320, T640 –32xOC-192 or 128xOC-48 ports in a T640
2.5ft Juniper M160
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Capacity: 80Gb/s Power: 2.6kW 19”
3ft
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Juniper J-series
•J-series –Routers used in labs –Emulates M/T series –Full routing software
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Open source routing
•Linux, BSD platforms •Most routing protocols exist as open source projects (eg Quagga) •But PC hw has traditionally been a limiting factor •But now up to 2x12 core CPUs, inter-processor buses (HT, QPI), non-uniform memory (numa),multiple buses (PCI-E), 10Gbps NICs enables 10s of gigabit forwarding speeds. •Example: the Bifrost open source router (UU/KTH)
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Example: PC routing architecture
DDR3 DDR3 DDR3 10Gb/s 10Gb/s 10Gb/s 10Gb/s 10Gb/s 10Gb/s 10Gb/s 10Gb/s CPU CPU CPU CPU 0 1 2 3 QPI PCI-E x16 x4 x16 CPU CPU CPU CPU 4 5 6 7 DDR3 DDR3 DDR3 10Gb/s 10Gb/s 10Gb/s 10Gb/s 10Gb/s 10Gb/s 10Gb/s 10Gb/s
Homework 4
•4a) Write a report on how forwarding works •4b) Make a programming assignment in C
Part 1: Print out IPv4 destination address Part 2: Make an IPv4 forwarding lookup
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Homework 4a) Report
•The assignment is a report about forwarding for students with little programming experience. •The report should in a terse (not wordy) format, describe the forwarding performed by a router in the form of an algorithm description. That is, a specification for an implementation. •The report should list the necessary steps a router performs to forward a packet from an input Ethernet interface card to an output Ethernet interface card. •The following steps should be covered: MAC address lookup IPv4 and IPv6 forwarding Header sanity checks Header modifications Limited ICMP handling (at least one error case) L2 header decapsulation and encapsulation ARP lookup Statistics: Interface packet and error counters. Local delivery. •The following steps need not be covered: Full ICMP handling Other protocols IP options Transport protocols/Socket handling
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Homework 4b: Part 1
You should read an Ethernet frame, identify it as an IPv4 packet, and print the IPv4 destination address. Input: Ethernet packet. Example:
0200 0000 00110200 000c 0001 0800 4500 0026 17d4 0000 ff01 8ffc 0a01 0002 0a02 0002 0000 e802 c04b 0004 3e89 339a 0786 d0ff 0009
Output: IPv4 address. Example: 10.2.0.2 Errors:
Error: packet too short: length of frame in bytes Error: Not ipv4 payload: payload type
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Homework 4b: Part 2
•The program should read a forwarding table and an Ethernet packet and extract the destination IP address, make a lookup in the forwarding table, and write the outgoing interface name. •The assignment is a step towards a full forwarding but lacks several sanity checks, MAC address lookups and ARP. It is intended to illustrate how to inspect packet header, the use of pointers, buffers, and IP longest prefix match. •The program should do the following: Read a routing table from stdin. The routing table consists of a list of prefix, nexthop interface triples. Read a single Ethernet (RFC894) packet from stdin. Verify that the packet is long enough to contain an EThernet and IPv4 header Verify that the Ethernet payload type is 0x0800 (IPv4) Verify that the IP version field is 4 Extract the destination address from the IPv4 header and make a longest prefix match lookup and return the outgoing interface name. •Example: Input •Example Output: fib 10.1.0.0/24 e1 e2 fib 10.2.0.0/24 e2 fib 10.3.0.0/24 e3 fib 0.0.0.0/0 e1 input 0200 0000 0001 0200 0000 0011 0800 4500 0026 17d4 0000 ff01 8ffc 0a01 0002 0a02 0002 0000 e802 c04b 0004 3e89 339a 0786 d0ff 0009
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Homework 4b: Kattis
•If you have registered, you should get a Kattis account •Use the link on the homework page and login •Submit by selecting
language: C Select problem: forwarding (part 1), forwarding2 (part2) upload the file Submit
•You can see the status on the web-page
Compile-error Runtime error Wrong output OK
•You will also get a mail • Submit solution electronically, or on paper lab assistants or course leader before the deadline. • Append a receipt that you passed both forwarding and forwarding2 test of Kattis.
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Extracting correct info
•The ethernet header is 14 bytes
payload type is in bytes 13-14 IPv4 is 0x0800
•The IP header is 20 bytes (without options)
The destination IP address is in bytes 17-20
struct ethhdr{ char }; struct iphdr{ unsigned int ip_v:4,ip_hl:4; uint8_t ip_tos; uint16_t ip_len; uint16_t ip_id; uint16_t ip_off; uint8_t uint8_t ip_ttl; ip_p; /* version, header length /* type of service */ /* total length */ /* identification */ /* fragment offset field */ /* time to live */ /* protocol */ /* checksum */ /* source and dest address */ da[6], sa[6]; uint16_t pt;
uint16_t ip_sum; uint32_t ip_src, ip_dst; };
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Forwarding: Details
Ethernet decoding •Check Ethernet header length •Check ethernet destination address •Dispatch on payload type for IPv4. IP header sanity checks •IP header length checks (check buffer length vs hdr-len field vs total length field). •IP packets containing IP options should be relayed without action. •Check IP header version •Check checksum Forwarding •FIB lookup for outgoing interface and nexthop/ directed connected host •TTL check, decrementation and checksum recalculation
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Forwarding: Details (cont)
Encoding of Ethernet header •Get the correct ethernet destination address •Get the correct ethernet source address Transmission on outgoing interface Statistics •A limited set of statistics can be gathered, as follows (these are a subset of the IP SNMP MIB): –ipInReceives - total number of IP packets received. –ipInHdrErrors - Packets with errors in IP header (length, checksum, version, etc). –ipForwDatagrams - Number of successfully forwarded datagrams.
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Byte ordering / Endianness
CPU:s represent numbers they load/store from memory differently
–Most significant byte in first byte: Big-endian (Big end first) –Most significant byte in last byte: Little-endian –There is also middle-endian and bi-endian
Register 0A0B0C0D 0D 0C 0B 0A LittleEndian
Memory
n n+1 n+2 n+3
Register 0A0B0C0D
0A 0B 0C 0D BigEndian
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Network byte order
•The way the CPU stores/loads numbers from memory is called host byte order •But in communication system, we sometimes have to transfer numbers in binary format (character arrays is never a problem) •We have to agree on a format to encode numbers •This is called network-byte order
–In IP network-byte order is big-endian
•Therefore, in portable code, if you transfer binary numbers between nodes, always translate between host-byte order and network-byte order. •BSD has the following help functions:
–htonl, ntohl (4-byte numbers) –htons, ntohs (2-byte numbers)
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Alignment
•Data structures must be aligned in memory when accessed as several bytes. •In particular 2byte, 4byte, 8byte numbers must be aligned on word boundaries
–Otherwise a bus error occurs (in serious cases, eg SPARC) –Or a performance degradation (as in x86)
•Typically, –2byte numbers must be 2byte aligned –4byte numbers must be 4byte aligned –Etc •In Eth+IP, the Eth header is 14 bytes which makes the IP header misaligned (actually, the fields of the IP header)