High Middle Ages

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Lecture 5: The High Middle Ages (C11-C13) Some general western uro!ean trends in the ele"enth and twel#th centuries Agriculture became more productive; the population grew; lords increased their power over peasants; greater wealth allowed large building projects. The Church was reorganized in the second half of the eleventh century, in a process sometimes called the “ regorian reform! "after #ope regory $%%&. The power of the #ope in 'ome increased. Clergy were re(uired to be celibate. Cathedrals were moved into urban centres. The church)s freedom from secular authorities "for e*ample in the appointment of bishops& was asserted. The involvement of the Church in ordinary people)s lives increased, for e*ample through Church control of marriage. +ew monastic orders were founded, for e*ample the Cistercians. ,ome of these changes were starting to be noticed in the -ritish %sles before ./00; they became much more apparent after. 1nights2heavily armed mounted warriors2were emerging as a class of great military and social importance. The old warrior ethos was being civilized by the new cultural model of chivalry, which established a religious and moral code for the 3nights to aspire to2and later, in the twelfth century, by the literary phenomenon of “courtly love!. “4ran3ish! social and cultural patterns were spreading from a core in northern 4rance and western ermany to peripheral areas of western "or 5atin& Christendom "the Celtic countries, ,candinavia, #oland and the -altic, 6ungary and Transylvania& and, through the Crusades "starting in ./78& to the 6oly 5and. $hat had the %ormans con&uered' 9ngland in ./00 was a united 3ingdom, occupying appro*imately its present: day territory. %ts capital city was ;inchester, the former capital of ;esse*. The old Anglo:,a*on 3ingdoms had become earldoms, each governed by an eorl, appointed by the 3ing. -elow the earls, there was a privileged class of thegns, who held land from the 3ing in e*change for military service, and below them a large and diverse class of ceorls "peasants&. The whole 3ingdom was divided into shires, corresponding closely to the present:day 9nglish counties, in each of which a shire-ree"e "sheriff& was responsible for administrative matters. The administration of justice in shire courts and hundred courts "the hundred was a subdivision of the shire, in which all free men were e*pected to help to 3eep order& was increasingly becoming uniform under the direction of the 3ing)s representatives, but local traditions were still strong. The 9nglish language "<ld 9nglish& was used for official purposes, and was also the medium of a flourishing literature. The Church was organized in bishoprics and parishes; by this time

most villages had a church. %t was coming under the influence of the reform movement emanating from 'ome. (The %orman )o*e+' %t is clear that +orman rule must have been e*perienced by many 9nglish people as a brutal military occupation. ;illiam imposed his authority in the north of 9ngland by a campaign of massacre and destruction in ./07:=/. Throughout the 3ingdom, the native 9nglish aristocracy was almost entirely replaced by ;illiam)s 4rench:spea3ing followers, who established their authority by force, building castles "perhaps around .,/// in total& in the 4rench manner all over the country "sometimes demolishing districts of 9nglish towns in the process&. ,imilarly the native 9nglish holders of senior positions in the Church were replaced by +ormans and other incomers. Lordshi! >nder +orman rule, the land of 9ngland was distributed according to a system of lordship and patronage that is sometimes called “feudal!. A lord granted a fief "land& to a vassal in e*change for service? thus the 3ing granted land to his barons, and the barons to 3nights2the 3nights then received labour from the peasants in e*change for protection. This was perhaps not such a radical change from the pre: ./00 situation as historians used to thin3 it was. 6owever the circumstances of con(uest, in which a new foreign ruling class too3 control of the country within a short period of time probably meant that bonds of lordship and patronage between lord and vassal were particularly tight in +orman 9ngland. ,omesda) -oo* %n ./@8, ;illiam ordered a survey of all his and his tenants) property in 9ngland. The result was the Aomesday -oo3, completed in ./@0 and still preserved in two massive volumes, giving a detailed account of the country, shire by shire, village by village. Bost of the .C,D.@ places named in the survey still e*ist. %orman architecture All the cathedrals and most of the monasteries in 9ngland were rebuild during the half:century after the Con(uest, so that nowadays only a few parish churches from Anglo:,a*on times can still be seen. The new church buildings were on a grander scale than those they replaced, and were in the 'omanes(ue style2an architecture of massive walls and piers "pillars&, small windows, and round arches and vaults. The +orman version of 'omanes(ue tends to be austere, with little ornament, as seen, for e*ample in Aurham Cathedral "begun ./7C&.

British Culture and Civilization – 2011-2012

Bost of the early castles were built of timber, and the most that survives of them is the motte and .aile) "mound and enclosure& earthwor3 on which they were built. Among early stone castles, the ;hite Tower, ;illiam)s own castle in 5ondon, is the most famous. Monasteries +ew orders of mon3s became established throughout the -ritish %sles in the twelfth century, notably the Cistercians, who often built their abbeys on marginal land and so e*panded the frontiers of agriculture in areas li3e the north of 9ngland and the south of ,cotland. Their largest abbey was at 'ievaul* in Eor3shire. Language After ./00, 4rench replaced 9nglish as the language of the ruling class in 9ngland, and 5atin and 4rench replaced 9nglish as the main literary languages. 9nglish continued, of course, to be spo3en by the majority of people, and writing in 9nglish never completely stopped, but it did not fully recover its status until the fourteenth century, by which time it had become a very different language2 Biddle 9nglish2, heavily influenced by 4rench. +otice how much modern 9nglish vocabulary is of +orman or later medieval 4rench origin, in areas li3e? : law and administration? crown/ !arliament/ minister/ chancellor/ reign/ ro)al/ cit)/ court/ castle/ gaol/ !rison F : clothing? a!ron/ .onnet/ collar/ 0ac*et/ 0ewel/ ornamentF : family? aunt/ cousin/ ne!hew/ niece/ uncle F : food? .acon/ .ee#/ mutton/ !or*/ sausage/ sugar/ tri!e/ "eal/ dinner/ #east/ lemon/ raisin F "note the different words for live animals and meat& : home? cham.er/ .lan*et/ curtain/ cushion/ chair/ wardro.eF : military? arm)/ .attle/ castle/ guard/ na")/ soldierF : social status and behaviour? no.le, common/ du*e/ gentle/ !easant/ "illain/ courtes)/ chi"alr)F "but note that *ing/ &ueen/ earl/ lord/ lad)/ and *night are of <ld 9nglish origin.& <utside 9ngland, Celtic languages predominated? aelic in %reland and ,cotland "with a common literary language, even if spo3en forms were diverging&, ;elsh in ;ales. -oth ;ales and %reland had rich literatures in this period. +orman e*pansion into ;ales, ,cotland, and later %reland, brought with it both 4rench and 9nglish. <r3ney, ,hetland, the 6ebrides and the %sle of Ban were still +orwegian territory, and largely +orse:spea3ing.

The %ormans .e)ond ngland .. ;ales. +orman lords with lands on the ;elsh border "the “marcher lords!& e*panded into southern parts of ;ales, bringing with them also 9nglish settlers. Beanwhile the north, especially wynedd remained under the control of native ;elsh 3ings "whom the +ormans regarded as “princes!&. G. ,cotland. The Church reforms were introduced to ,cotland under Balcolm %%% Canmore "H “big head!& and his Anglo:6ungarian (ueen, ,aint Bargaret. Auring the reigns of their sons, especially Aavid % "..GD:8C&, who had spent time at the +orman court in 9ngland, +orman families from 9ngland were invited to ta3e grants of land in ,cotland. They brought with them 9nglish followers, who began the spread of the 9nglish language in 5owland ,cotland Henr) 11 and the Ange"in em!ire ;illiam % "the Con(ueror& died in ./@= and was succeeded on the throne by two of his sons, ;illiam %% "./@=:..//& and 6enry % "..//:..C8&. The throne of 9ngland was then contested by 6enry)s daughter, Batilda, and ,tephen of -lois, another grandchild of the Con(ueror, and +orman 9ngland collapsed into civil war. ,tephen finally won, but agreed that the son of Batilda and eoffrey of Anjou, 6enry #lantagenet, would be his successor. 6enry %% "..8D:@7& thus came to the throne on ,tephen)s death. As well as being 1ing of 9ngland, his own inheritance and his marriage to 9leanor of A(uitaine made him lord of a large part of 4rance "as a vassal of the 4rench 3ing&, and he claimed overlordship throughout the -ritish %sles. 6e spent most of his reign in his 4rench territories. %n ..8=:@, the ;elsh “princes! submitted to him, and in ..=D, 1ing ;illiam the 5ion of ,cotland "who had been captured while invading 9ngland& ac3nowledged his feudal superiority. %n ..07, a +orman lord from ;ales, 'ichard de Clare "“,trongbow!& intervened in support of the deposed 3ing of 5einster "in eastern %reland&, Aiarmait Bac Burchadha. +orman 3nights began to seize land in %reland as they had done in ;ales. 6enry %% then came to %reland himself with an army in ..=. to 3eep control of his +orman subjects, and claimed to be “lord of %reland!, thus beginning the long story of 9nglish con(uest in %reland. The Anglo:+ormans seem to have regarded the %rish as primitive barbarians and not good Christians. 6enry %% too3 action to restore law and order in 9ngland after the civil wars. 6e increased royal control of justice, sending judges on tours of the country to administer the same “common law! everywhere. To discourage fighting among the 3nights, he banned tournaments in 9ngland, but after a rebellion by his sons in ..=C he re:established the duty of all free men to bear arms in the 3ing)s service.

British Culture and Civilization – 2011-2012

%n ..=/ a long dispute over authority in the Church2particularly the jurisdiction of royal and Church courts2between 6enry %% and the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas -ec3et, ended in the murder of -ec3et in his Cathedral by four 3nights acting on behalf of the 3ing. -ec3et was canonized as a saint in ..=C and 6enry did public penance at his tomb. Henr) 112s sons 'ichard % "..@7:77& went on Crusade in ..7/:7G and was then captive in Austria for two years. 6e died trying to recover territory lost in 4rance. Iohn "..@77:.G.0& lost +ormandy to the 3ing of 4rance in .G/D and almost all his other 4rench territories soon afterwards. %n .G.8 he faced a revolt of the barons in 9ngland, and was forced to sign Magna Carta, a document imposing restraints on the 3ing)s power and obliging him to respect the law. 3ing Arthur4a -ritish hero .ecomes an Anglo-%orman m)th %n the ..C/s, eoffrey of Bonmouth wrote a 5atin Histor) o# the 3ings o# -ritain, in which he told a fictional history of -ritain from its foundation by -rutus the Trojan. An important part of the boo3 dealt with stories of 1ing Arthur and the magician Berlin, partly derived from ;elsh traditions but probably mostly invented by eoffrey. This part of the Histor) was e*panded in versions in 4rench "by ;ace& and 9nglish "by 5ayamon&. Through these and the 4rench Arthurian romances of ChrJtien de Troyes, stories of Arthur and his 3nights became popular among the social elite all over ;estern 9urope, offering a literary way of e*ploring the behaviour codes and values of chivalry. 4or the Anglo:+ormans, such stories also provided a glorious -ritish "but not Anglo: ,a*on& past that they could identify with. <n the other hand, stories of Arthur)s future return were less attractive to the Anglo:+ormans when they became an inspiration for ;elsh resistance to 9ngland. This may be the mon3s of lastonbury Abbey loo3ed for Arthur)s grave in ..7. "and said they had found it, thus proving that he was dead&. ;elsh and -reton traditions also reached a wider audience in the twelfth century through the La)s of Barie de 4rance "who wrote in Anglo:+orman 4rench&, and the various versions of the story of Tristan and %seult. Towns As in other parts of ;estern 9urope, towns grew in size and importance in the thirteenth century. -oroughs "or burghs in ,cotland& were given control over their own affairs by charters issued by the 3ing or by local lords. They were administered by mayors or baillifs in 9ngland, provosts in ,cotland, elected by the free burgesses and sometimes assisted by elected councillors.

The early thirteenth century saw the appearance of new orders of mon3s, 3nown as “friars!, especially the 4ranciscans and Aominicans. %n contrast to the rural monasteries of the earlier orders, the friars established their houses in towns. 5ni"ersities The school of <*ford had emerged as a university, teaching theology and law as well as the liberal arts, by the ..7/s, and the >niversity of Cambridge began when some scholars moved there in .G/7 after problems with the townspeople in <*ford. 6othic art and architecture %n the mid:twelfth century, a new style emerged in the region of #aris. othic architecture was characterized by the use of pointed arches and ribbed vaults. The style was introduced to 9ngland when part of Canterbury Cathedral was rebuilt after a fire in the ..=/s. <ther important buildings in the arl) nglish othic style are the cathedrals of 5incoln and ,alisbury. %n the mid:thirteenth century windows became larger "and were divided by stone tracery, forming decorative patterns& and flying buttresses were used to bear the weight of the roof without the need for massive walls. The resulting lighter and more ornamented style can be seen at ;estminster Abbey ".GD/s:.G=/s&, and Eor3 Binster ".G7/s&. %n painting and sculpture, the othic style is characterized by greater naturalism compared with 'omanes(ue "e.g. the carved leaves at ,outhwell Binster&, and often treats the sacred figures in a more human and intimate way. ngland: 3ing/ .arons and 7arliament Iohn)s son, 6enry %%% ".G.0:=G& promoted a high image of 3ingship. 6e loo3ed bac3 to 9dward the Confessor as a model of a wise, peaceful 3ing, and rebuilt 9dward)s abbey at ;estminster as a magnificent royal church in othic style. 6e established ;estminster, to the west of 5ondon, as his capital. Auring his reign, #arliament came into being? an assembly, including representative 3nights from each shire, together with bishops and barons, which the 3ing summon in order to get their agreement to ta*es. 6enry faced rebellion by barons, led by ,imon de Bontfort, demanding restrictions on his powers. Civil war bro3e out in .G0D; 6enry was captured, but escaped and defeated the rebels. Beanwhile, Ae Bontfort summoned burgesses as well as 3nights to the #arliament of .G08. %n the final settlement, the 3ing accepted many of the barons) demands concerning the administration of justice. 6enry)s son, 9dward % ".G=G:.C/=&, re:established royal authority in 9ngland, but also regularly summoned #arliament, including representatives of the commons "3nights and burgesses&, in order to issue laws and hear petitions, as well as to raise ta*es.

British Culture and Civilization – 2011-2012

Scotland and %orwa) Ale*ander %%% ".GD7:@0& of ,cotland gained the %sle of Ban and the 6ebrides from +orway in .G00. Angus Bor Bac Aonald "founder of the Bacdonald clan& accepted Ale*ander as his overlord, but his family 3ept much of their independence for the ne*t two centuries as “5ords of the %sles!. The sudden death of Ale*ander in .G@0, followed by his only direct heir, his young granddaughter #rincess Bargaret of +orway in .G7/, left ,cotland without a clear succession to the throne. nglish con&uests in $ales and Scotland Auring the troubles of 6enry %%%)s reign in 9ngland, 5lewellyn of wynnedd had increased his power and had been recognized as “#rince of ;ales!. 9dward % invaded ;ales twice; the second time, in .G@G, he defeated and 3illed 5lewellyn. -y the ,tatute of ;ales, 9dward brought ;ales completely under 9nglish rule, and imposed 9nglish law and the 9nglish system of administration. +ew towns were founded, with 9nglish settlers, and a series of massive castles, including 6arlech, Caernarfon and -eaumaris, were built in order to establish 9nglish rule. The most sacred relic in ;ales, a fragment of the True Cross, was ta3en to ;estminster Abbey. %n ,cotland, 9dward became involved as an arbitrator in the succession dispute, and continued to interfere in ,cottish affairs even once a new 3ing "Iohn -alliol& had been chosen. ;hen 9dward demanded that the ,cottish nobility should support his campaigns in 4rance, they made an alliance with 4rance against him in .G70 and attac3ed 9ngland. 6e invaded ,cotland, defeated the ,cots, too3 the ,tone of Aestiny "on which ,cottish 3ings were inaugurated& to ;estminster Abbey, and established an 9nglish government in ,cotland. 9dward justified his con(uests by invo3ing eoffrey of Bonmouth)s story of -rutus, the legendary founder of -ritain, who had given 9ngland to his eldest son 5ocrine, and given him overlordship over the younger sons Camber "in ;ales& and Albanact "in ,cotland&. The ,cots responded with an alternative story, tracing their origin to the ree3 athelus and the 9gyptian princess ,cota. The 8ews The presence of Iews in 9ngland is first documented after ./00. They tended to specialize in lending money for interest, an activity that was forbidden to Christians. Till the late twelfth century, they seem to have had relative good relations with the non:Iewish population, but a number of massacres of Iews too3 place in ..@7:7/. %n the thirteenth century, they suffered a series of persecuting measures, including having to wear a badge and being e*pelled from certain boroughs. 4inally in .G7/, 9dward % e*pelled them from 9ngland altogether.
British Culture and Civilization – 2011-2012

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