History of Macedonia

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Macedonia
Macedonia, country of the south-central Balkans. It is bordered to the north by Kosovo and Serbia, to the east by Bulgaria, to the south by Greece, and to the west by Albania. The capital is Skopje.

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The Republic of Macedonia is located in the northern part of the area traditionally known as Macedonia, a geographical region bounded to the south by the Aegean Sea and the Aliákmon River; to the west byLakes Prespa and Ohrid, the watershed west of the Crni Drim River, and the Šar Mountains; and to the north by the mountains of the Skopska Crna Gora and the watershed between the Morava and Vardarriver basins. The Pirin Mountains mark its eastern edge. The Republic of Macedonia occupies about two-fifths of the entire geographical region of Macedonia. The rest of the region belongs to Greece andBulgaria. Most people with a Macedonian national identity also refer to the region that constitutes their country as Vardar Macedonia, the Greek part of Macedonia as Aegean Macedonia, and the Bulgarian part of Macedonia as Pirin Macedonia. In this article, unless otherwise indicated, the name Macedonia refers to the present-day state the Republic of Macedonia when discussing geography and history since 1913 and to the larger region as described above when used in earlier historical contexts. The region of Macedonia owes its importance neither to its size nor to its population but rather to its location at a major junction of communication routesŕin particular, the great north-south route from theDanube River to the Aegean formed by the valleys of the Morava and Vardar rivers and the ancient east-west trade routes connecting the Black Sea and Istanbul with the Adriatic Sea. Although the majority of the republic’s inhabitants are of Slavic descent and heirs to the Eastern Orthodox tradition of Christianity, 500 years of incorporation into the Ottoman Empire left substantial numbers of other ethnic groups, including Albanians, Turks, Vlachs (Aromani), and Roma (Gypsies). Consequently, Macedonia forms a complex border zone between the major cultural traditions of Europe and Asia. Ottoman control was brought to an end by the Balkan Wars (1912Ŕ13), after which Macedonia was divided among Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia. Following World War I, the Serbian segment was incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (renamed Yugoslavia in 1929). After World War II the Serbian part of Macedonia became a constituent republic within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The collapse of Yugoslavia led the Republic of Macedonia to declare its independence on December 19, 1991. The two major problems facing the Republic of Macedonia since its independence have been ensuring that its large Albanian minority enjoys the rights of full citizenship and gaining international recognition under its constitutional name and membership in international organizations in the face of strong opposition from Greece, which claims a monopoly on the use of the term Macedonia. (See Researcher’s Note: Macedonia: a contested name.)

The land
Relief
Geologically, Macedonia consists mainly of heavily folded ancient metamorphic rocks, which in the west have been eroded to reveal older granites. In the central region are found sedimentary deposits of more recent age. Traversing the country from north to south is a series of active fault lines, along whichearthquakes frequently occur. The most severe of these in recent history occurred at Debar in 1967.Skopje was largely destroyed by an earthquake in 1963.

Darius III

Pyrrhus

Samuel

The mobility of Earth’s crust has also created two tectonic lakes, Prespa and Ohrid, in the southwest and has resulted in the formation of several mineral springs and hot springs. Macedonia is largely mountainous, with many peaks rising above the tree line at 6,600 feet (2,000 metres) above sea level. The highest elevation is at Mount Korab (9,030 feet, or 2,752 metres) on the Albanian border. Near the Šar Mountains in the northwest, the country is covered with forest. Where this has been cleared (and often in the past overgrazed), the thin skeletal soils have been subjected to dramatic erosionand gullying. There are also several broad and fertile valleys that provide good potential for agriculture.

Drainage
The greater part of Macedonia (about nine-tenths of its area) drains southeastward into the Aegean Seavia the Vardar River and its tributaries. Smaller parts of this basin drain into Lake Doiran (Macedonian: Dojran) and into the Aegean via the Strumica and Struma rivers. The remainder of Macedonian territory drains northward via the Crni Drim River toward the Adriatic Sea. The convoluted and fractured geology of the area imposes upon many of these rivers erratic courses that frequently drive through narrow and sometimes spectacular gorges. Such formations facilitate the damming of rivers for electric power generation.

Climate
Macedonia stands at the junction of two main climatic zones, the Mediterranean and the continental. Periodically, air breaks through mountain barriers to the north and south, bringing dramatically contrasting weather patterns; one example is the cold northerly wind known as the vardarac. Overall, there is a moderate continental climate: temperatures average in the low 30s F (about 0 °C) in January and rise to the high 60s and 70s F (about 20Ŕ25 °C) in July. Annual precipitation is relatively light, between about 20 and 28 inches (about 500 and 700 mm). Rainfalls of less than 1 inch (25.4 mm) in the driest months (JulyŔAugust) rise to nearly 4 inches (about 100 mm) in OctoberŔNovember. Because of differences in local aspect and relief, there may be considerable variation in the climate, with the eastern areas tending to have milder winters and hotter, drier summers and the western (more mountainous) regions having more severe winters.

Plant and animal life
The mountainous northwestern parts of Macedonia support large areas of forest vegetation. On the lower slopes this is principallydeciduous woodland, but conifers grow at elevations as high as 6,600 feet (2,000 metres). Some areas of forest have been cleared to provide rough summer pasture. The forests support a variety of wildlife, including wild pigs, wolves, bears, and lynx. The dry and warm summers result in an abundance of insect life, with species ofgrasshoppers much in evidence, along with numerous small lizards.

The people
Ethnic groups and language
The population of the Republic of Macedonia is diverse. At the beginning of the 21st century, nearly two-thirds of the population identified themselves as Macedonians. Macedonians generally trace their descent to the Slavic tribes that moved into the region between the 6th and 8th centuries CE. Albanians are the largest and most important minority in the Republic of Macedonia. According to the 2002 census they made up about one-fourth of the population. The Albanians, who trace their descent to the ancient Illyrians, are concentrated in the northwestern part of the country, near the borders with Albania andKosovo. Albanians form majorities in some 16 of Macedonia’s 84

municipalities. Other much smaller minorities (constituting less than 5 percent of the population each) include the Turks, Roma (Gypsies), Serbs, Bosniaks, and Vlachs (Aromani). The Turkish minority is mostly scattered across central and western Macedonia, a legacy of the 500-year rule of the Ottoman Empire. The majority of Vlachs, who speak a language closely related to Romanian, live in the old mountain city of Kruševo.

Language
The Macedonian language is very closely related to Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian and is written in theCyrillic script. When Serbian rule replaced that of the Ottoman Turks in 1913, the Serbs officially denied Macedonian linguistic distinctness and treated the Macedonian language as a dialect of Serbo-Croatian. The Macedonian language was not officially recognized until the establishment of Macedonia as a constituent republic of communist Yugoslavia in 1946.

Religion
Religious affiliation is a particularly important subject in Macedonia because it is so closely tied to ethnic and national identity. With the exception of Bosniaks, the majority of Slavic speakers living in the region of Macedonia are Orthodox Christian. Macedonians, Serbs, and Bulgarians, however, have established their own autocephalous Orthodox churches in an effort to assert the legitimacy of their national identities. The majority Greeks in the region of Greek Macedonia, who also identify themselves as Macedonians, are Orthodox as well, but they belong to the Greek Orthodox Church. Turks and the great majority of both Albanians and Roma are Muslims. Altogether, more than onefourth of the population are of the Islamicfaith.

Settlement patterns
Successive waves of migration, as well as economic and political modernization, have left their mark in a diversity of settlement patterns. The inhabitants of the highlands are generally shepherds. In more fertile areas, small-scale subsistence and market-oriented agriculture are practiced. Several small market towns are of great antiquity. In Roman times Bitola was a commercial centre known as Heraclea Lyncestis. Ohridbecame a major administrative and ecclesiastical centre in the early Middle Ages. The coming of the Ottoman Turks in the 14th century promoted the growth of Skopje as a governmental and military centre and created large agrarian estates, which were later socialized by the communists and given over to extensive mechanized cultivation. This latter process was responsible for the growth, beginning in 1945, of Kavardarci and Veles. Industrialization in the second half of the 20th century had a dramatic impact upon population distribution. The population of Skopje grew to nearly one-fourth of the population of the republic, its attractiveness as a pole for migration having been enhanced both by its location at a transcontinental transportation route and by its status as the republic’s capital. Acting as a reasonably effective counterforce to the pull of Skopje is the growth of tourism around Ohrid. At the beginning of the 21st century, about three-fifths of the population of Macedonia was urban.

Demographic trends
Historically, the Balkans have experienced high rates of natural increase in population. The rate declined remarkably in the 20th century in response to industrialization and urbanization. The rate of natural increase in Macedonia at the end of the first decade of the 21st century was about three-fifths less than it had been in the mid-1990s. Birth rates for the same period declined relatively steadily by about one-fifth, to about three-fifthsof the world average. Movement from rural to urban areas in Macedonia in the early 21st century was much more common than the reverse. Emigration to other parts of Europe, as well as toNorth America and Australia, has also had a significant influence on demographic trends in Macedonia.

Economy
Along with the rest of the Balkan Peninsula, Macedonia underwent an impressive economic transformation after 1945ŕin this case within the framework provided by Yugoslavia’s system of Ŗsocialist self-management.ŗ Even so, Macedonia remained the poorest of the Yugoslav republics and was included throughout the communist period in the list of regions that merited economic aid from

wealthier parts of the federation. While this status undoubtedly brought much investment, several projects were placed without adequate attention to the supply of materials or access to markets. A prime example was the choice of Skopje as the site for a steel industry. Although socialized production dominated industrial and commercial life after the communists’ rise to power in 1945, the private sector remained important in agriculture, craft production, and retail trade. About 70 percent of agricultural land was held privately, accounting for some 50 percent of output. However, privately owned enterprises were typically traditionalist in structure and outlook, and, even after the liberalization of the communist system in 1991, they were unable to develop a dynamic economic role. Following the onset of the Yugoslav civil war in 1991, the economic position of Macedonia became very precarious. The republic had previously depended heavily on Yugoslav rather than foreign markets, and its participation in Yugoslavia’s export trade was heavily skewed toward the countries of the former Soviet bloc, which were concurrently undergoing economic crises. United Nations sanctions against the rump Yugoslavia (the federation of Serbia and Montenegro) added to these difficulties by throttling the transport of goods through Macedonia. Also, an acrimonious dispute with Greece over the name of the republic frustrated Macedonia’s quest for international recognition, thereby deterring foreign investment and delaying economic reform. By the mid-1990s, however, Macedonia had begun to find new trading partners, and the economy began to prosper. Though gross domestic product (GDP) dipped at the turn of the 21st century, it rebounded quickly, and the country weathered the worldwide economic downturn that began in 2008 better than many other countries. Nevertheless, unemployment remained high, exceeding 30 percent for much of the first decade of the 21st century.

Agriculture
In the early 21st century the agricultural sector contributed about one-tenth of Macedonia’s GDP and engaged about one-sixth of the country’s workforce. The main crops are tobacco, fruits (including apples and grapes), vegetables, wheat, rice, and corn (maize). Viticulture and dairy farming are also important.

Resources and power
Although there are deposits of zinc, iron, copper, lead, chromium, manganese, antimony, nickel, silver, and gold in Macedonia, the country’s mining industry is focused on the extraction of lignite (brown coal). More than three-fourths of Macedonia’s power is produced from fossil fuels (principally lignite). The remainder comes from hydroelectricity.

Manufacturing
Manufacturing constituted less than one-fifth of GDP in Macedonia in the early 21st century and accounted for between one-tenth and one-fifth of employment. Because of the presence of mineral resources such as nickel, lead, and zinc in Macedonia, ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy have long been linchpins of the country’s manufacturing sector. Among the principal products associated with this industry are ferronickel, flat-rolled sheet steel, and seamed pipes. Automobile parts, electrical equipment, household appliances, and clothing are also produced, and there are wood- and plastic-processing industries

Finance
Macedonia’s national currency is the denar. The National Bank of the Republic of Macedonia is the bank of issue, authorizes bank licensing, and oversees a system composed of banks (some of which are permitted to conduct only domestic business) and Ŗsavings houses.ŗ A large portion of capital in the banking system comes from foreign investors.

Trade
By the first decade of the 21st century, Macedonia’s principal trading partners were Germany, Serbia,Russia, Greece, and Italy. The country’s main exports were iron and steel (especially ferronickel and flat-rolled products), clothing and accessories, and food products. Imports included machinery, petroleum, and iron and steel.

Transportation and communications
The location of the republic along the Morava-Vardar route from Belgrade, Serbia, to Thessaloníki, Greece, has endowed it with reasonably modern road and rail links on a northwest southeast axis. Macedonia’s historic rail link with Greece passes through Bitola. The development of tourism in the Mavrovo-Ohrid area ensured new road building in the west. Airports at Skopje and Ohrid serve international destinations. By 2010 more than half of Macedonians had Internet access, a 35-fold increase in a period of just 10 years.

Government and society
Constitutional framework
Macedonia’s 1991 constitution established a republican assemblyŕcalled the Sobranieŕ consisting of a single chamber of 120 seats. There is an explicit separation of powers between the legislature, thejudiciary, and the executive. The prime minister and cabinet ministers, for example, do not have seats in the assembly. The executive, under the prime minister, is the most powerful branch, with the legislature and judiciary acting principally as checks and balances to the government’s activity. The president, who is elected to a five-year term, serves principally as a symbolic head of state and is the commander in chief of the armed forces; a president may serve no more than two terms. In 2001 the constitution was amended to include a number of provisions aimed at protecting the rights of the Albanian minority.

Local government
The republic is divided into 84 opštine (municipalities), to which are delegated many important social, judicial, and economic functions.

Justice
The Macedonian legal system is grounded in civil law. The judicial branch comprises basic and appellate courts, the Supreme Court, the Republican Judicial Council, and the Constitutional Court. The judges of the Constitutional Court are elected by the Sobranie..

Political process
All citizens age 18 and over are eligible to vote. Members of parliament are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis from party lists in six districts, each of which has 20 seats. During the era of federated Yugoslavia, the only authorized political party in Macedonia was the League of Communists of Macedonia. Since independence, dozens of parties have put forward electoral slates, and the elections of the early 21st century were dominated by a pair of large electoral coalitions. Headed by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary OrganizationŔDemocratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (Vnatrešno-Makedonska Revolucionerna OrganizacijaŔDemokratska Partija za Makedonsko Nacionalno Edinstvo; VMRO-DPMNE), the Coalition for a Better Macedonia, which captured more than half of the seats in the parliamentary election of 2008, grew out of the National Unity coalition that had triumphed in the 2006 election. A number of smaller ethnic parties that joined the Coalition for a Better Macedonia previously had been members of the coalition led by the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (Socijaldemosratski Sojuz na Makedonija; SDSM), the descendant of the League of Communists. That coalition, initially known as Together for Macedonia, evolved into the Sun Coalition for Europe, which captured nearly one-fourth of the seats in parliament in the 2008 election. Other significant political parties include the Democratic Union for Integration and the Democratic Party of Albanians. At the beginning of the 21st century, a concentrated effort was made to increase the involvement of women in Macedonian politics and government, and the number of female representatives in the Sobranie grew from 8 in 2000 to 38 in 2011.

Security
Military service in Macedonia is voluntary. The principal component of the military is the army, augmented by the Air Wing, the Special Operations Regiment, and Logistic Support Command.

Health and welfare
The Ministry of Health oversees a compulsory state-funded health care system that requires employees and employers to pay contributions into the Health Insurance Fund. Private health care and private health insurance is also available. Among the top health priorities in Macedonia identified by the Ministry of Health in the early 21st century were early detection and treatment of breast cancer, obligatoryimmunization, blood donation, prevention of tuberculosis and brucellosis, and HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment.

Education
Primary education is universal and compulsory for eight years from the age of seven. It may be conducted in languages other than Macedonian where there are large local majorities of other ethnic groups. A further four years of secondary education are available on a voluntary basis in specialized schools, which often represent the particular economic strengths or needs of a locality. Higher education is provided bycolleges and pedagogical academies offering two-year courses, as well as by universities that offer two- to six-year courses in a range of disciplines. Macedonia’s universities include the South East European University in Tetovo, University for Information Science and Technology "St. Paul the Apostleŗ in Ohrid, Saints Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, the State University of Tetova, and ŖGoce Delcevŗ University in Stip.

Cultural life
Great effort has been invested in the support of Macedonian language and culture, not only through education but also through the theatre and other arts as well as the media of mass communication.

Daily life and social customs
As a result of the long presence of the Ottoman Turks in the region, the traditional cuisine of Macedonia is not only based on Balkan and Mediterranean fare but also flavoured by Turkish influences. Among the country’s dishes of Turkish origin are kebapcinja (grilled beef kebabs) and the burek, a flaky pastry often stuffed with cheese, meat, or spinach. Macedonians also enjoy other foods that are common throughout the Balkans, including taratur (yogurt with shredded cucumber) and baklava. Macedonian specialties include ajvar (a sauce made from sweet red peppers), tavce gravce (baked beans), shopska salata (a saladcombining sliced cucumbers, onions, and tomatoes with soft white cheese), and selsko meso (pork chops and mushrooms in brown gravy). In addition to Orthodox Christian and Islamic religious holidays, Macedonians celebrate a number of holidays tied to the country’s history, including Independence Day (September 8), marking the day in 1991 when Macedonians voted for independence from federated Yugoslavia.

The arts
Despite the refusal of Macedonia’s Serbian rulers to recognize Macedonian as a language, progress was made toward the foundation of a national language and literature in the early 20th century, especially by Krste P. Misirkov in his Za Makedonskite raboti (1903; ŖIn Favour of Macedonian Literary Worksŗ) and in the literary periodical Vardar (established 1905). These efforts were continued during the interval betweenWorld War I and World War II, most notably by the poet Kosta Racin. After World War II, Macedoniaŕfreed to write and publish in its own languageŕ produced such literary figures as poets Aco Šopov, Slavko Janevski, Blae Koneski, and Gane Todorovski. Janevski also authored the first Macedonian novel, Selo zad sedumte jaseni (1952; ŖThe Village Beyond the Seven Ash Treesŗ), and a cycle of six novels dealing with Macedonian history. After World War II, Macedonian theatre was invigorated by a wave of new dramatists that included Kole Čašule, Tome Arsovski, and Goran Stefanovski. Among the best-known fiction writers of prose are ivko Čingo, Vlada Urošević, and Jovan Pavlovski. (See Macedonian literature). Macedonian popular culture is a fascinating blend of local tradition and imported influence. Folk musicand folk dancing are still popular, and rock and pop music are ubiquitous. Icon painting and wood carving both have long histories in Macedonia. Motion picture making in Macedonia dates to the early 20th-century efforts of brothers Milton and Janaki

Manaki and includes Before the Rain (1994), which was directed by Milcho Manchevski and was nominated for an Academy Award for best foreign-language film.

Cultural institutions
Located in Ohrid, the National Museum features an archaeological collection dating from prehistoric times. Ohrid itself is one of the oldest human settlements in Europe, and the natural and cultural heritage of the Ohrid region was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980. Also of note are the Museum of Contemporary Art in Skopje and the Museum of the City of Skopje. Throughout the country, annual festivals are held, including the Skopje Jazz Festival, the Balkan Festival of Folk Songs and Dances in Ohrid, the Ohrid Summer Festival, and the pre-Lenten Carnival in Strumica. An international poetry festival is held annually in the lakeside resort of Struga.

Sports and recreation
A modern sports culture was slow to develop in Macedonia. In the post-World War II era, football (soccer) emerged as a popular sport, encouraged, along with basketball and volleyball, by the larger industrial firms, which often fielded their own teams. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, tennis began to grow in popularity in the larger urban centres. The 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S., marked the first Games at which Macedonia was represented as an independent state. During the 1970s, winter sports gained considerably in popularity in Macedonia, as the country’s mountainous terrain facilitated the creation of several ski resorts, especially in the Šar Mountains, and near Mavrovo and Krushevo. There are also active mountaineering societies, maintaining huts in the Babuna massif south of Skopje, the Šar Mountains, and on Mount Pelister. Macedonians generally seem to prefer to take their fresh air and exercise in the form of mountaineering and hunting. On the other hand, chess has a wide and enthusiastic following in the country.

Media and publishing
The Macedonian Information Agency (MIA), which provides news and public information, was originally chartered by the parliament in 1992 but did not begin operation until 1998. In 2006 the government transformed the MIA from public enterprise to joint-stock company. Founded in 1992, Makfax was the region’s first private news agency. Although private competitors exist, the major provider of radio and television service is the government-operated Macedonia Radio Television, which began life as Radio Skopje in 1944..

History
As described in this article’s introduction, the name Macedonia is applied both to a region encompassing the present-day Republic of Macedonia and portions of Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece and to the Republic of Macedonia itself, the boundaries of which have been defined since 1913. In the following discussion, the name ŖMacedoniaŗ is used generally to describe the larger region prior to 1913 and the area of the present-day republic thereafter.

The ancient world
The Macedonian region has been the site of human habitation for millennia. There is archaeological evidence that the Old European (Neolithic) civilization flourished there between 7000 and 3500 BCE. Seminomadic peoples speaking languages of the Indo-European family then moved into the Balkan Peninsula. During the 1st millennium BCE the Macedonian region was populated by a mixture of peoplesŕDacians, Thracians, Illyrians, Celts, and Greeks. Although Macedonia is most closely identified historically with the kingdom of Philip II of Macedon in the middle of the 4th century BCE and the subsequent expansion of that empire by his son Alexander III (the Great), none of the states established in that era was very durable. Until the arrival of the Romans, the pattern of politics was a shifting succession of contending city-states and chiefdoms that occasionally integrated into ephemeral empires. Nevertheless, this period is important in understanding the present-day region, as both Greeks and Albanians base their claims to be indigenous inhabitants of it on the achievements of the Macedonian and Illyrian states.

At the end of the 3rd century BCE, the Romans began to expand into the Balkan Peninsula in search of metal ores, slaves, and agricultural produce. The Illyrians were finally subdued in 9 CE (their lands becoming the province of Illyricum), and the north and east of Macedonia were incorporated into the province ofMoesia in 29 CE. A substantial number of sites bear witness today to the power of Rome, especially Heraclea Lyncestis (modern Bitola) and Stobi (south of Veles on the Vardar River). The name Skopje is Roman in origin (Scupi). Many roads still follow courses laid down by the Romans. Beginning in the 3rd century, the defenses of the Roman Empire in the Balkans were probed by Goths,Huns, Bulgars, Avars, and other seminomadic peoples. Although the region was nominally a part of theEastern Empire, control from Constantinople became more and more intermittent. By the mid-6th century Slavic tribes had begun to settle in Macedonia, and from the 7th to the 13th century the entire region was little more than a system of military marches governed uneasily by the Byzantine state through alliances with local princes.

The medieval states
In the medieval period the foundations were laid for modern competing claims for control over Macedonia. During the 9th century the Eastern tradition of Christianity was consolidated in the area. The mission to the Slavs has come to be associated with Saints Cyril and Methodius, whose great achievement was the devising of an alphabet based on Greek letters and adapted to the phonetic peculiarities of the Slavonic tongue. In its later development as the Cyrillic alphabet, this came to be a distinctive cultural feature uniting several of the Slavic peoples. Although the central purpose of the missionaries was to preach the Gospel to the Slavs in the vernacular, their ecclesiastical connection with the Greek culture of Constantinople remained a powerful lever to be worked vigorously during the struggle for Macedonia in the 19th century. About three-fourths of the inhabitants of the present-day Republic of Macedonia have a Macedonian national identity. They are Slavic-speaking descendants of the Slavic tribes who have lived in the area since the 6th century. The long association of the area with the Greek-speaking Byzantine state, and the Greek claim to continuity with the ancient Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great, has led the Greek state to claim that ŖMacedonia was, is, and always will be Greek.ŗ Since the independence of the Republic of Macedonia in 1991, Greece has on these grounds attempted to block the international recognition of the Republic of Macedonia by its constitutional name and to deny the Macedonians of the Republic of Macedonia and Greece the right to identify themselves as Macedonians. What is less clear is the history of the emergence of a Macedonian national identity from a more general identity as Slavic-speaking Orthodox Christians as well as from a Bulgarian national identity, the latter of which developed before a Macedonian identity did. Among the short-lived states jostling for position with Byzantium were two that modern Bulgarians claim give them a special stake in Macedonia. Under the reign of Simeon I (893Ŕ927), Bulgaria emerged briefly as the dominant power in the peninsula, extending its control from the Black Sea to the Adriatic. Following a revolt of the western provinces, this first Bulgarian empire fell apart, but it was partially reintegrated by Samuel (reigned 976Ŕ1014), who set up his own capital in Ohrid (not the traditional Bulgarian capital of Preslav [now known as Veliki Preslav]) and also established a patriarchate there. Although the Byzantine state reasserted its authority after 1018, a second Bulgarian empire raised its head in 1185; this included northern and central Macedonia and lasted until the mid-14th century. During the second half of the 12th century, a more significant rival to Byzantine power in the Balkans emerged in the Serbian Nemanjić dynasty. Stefan Nemanja became veliki župan, or Ŗgrand chieftain,ŗ of Raška in 1169, and his successors created a state that under Stefan Dušan (reigned 1331Ŕ55) incorporated Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia, all of modern Albania and Montenegro, a substantial part of Bosnia, andSerbia as far north as the Danube. Although the cultural heart of the empire was Raška (the area around modern Novi Pazar) and Kosovo, as the large number of medieval Orthodox churches in those regions bear witness, Stefan Dušan was crowned emperor in Skopje in 1346. Within half a century after his death, the Nemanjić state was eclipsed by the expanding Ottoman Empire; nevertheless, it is to this golden age that Serbs today trace their own claims to Macedonia.

The Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire originated in a small emirate established in the second half of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia. By 1354 it had gained a toehold in Europe, and by 1362 Adrianopole (modern Edirne, Turkey) had fallen. From this base the power of this Turkish and Islamic state steadily expanded. From a military point of view, the most significant defeat of the Serbian states took place in the Battle of the Maritsa River at Chernomen in 1371, but it is the defeat in 1389 of a combined army of Serbs, Albanians, and Hungarians under Lazar at the Battle of Kosovo that has been preserved in legend as symbolizing the subordination of the Balkan Slavs to the ŖOttoman yoke.ŗ Constantinople itself did not fall to the Ottoman Turks until 1453, but by the end of the 14th century the Macedonian region had been incorporated into the Ottoman Empire. Thus began what was in many respects the most stable period of Macedonian history, lasting until the Turks were ejected from the region in 1913. Half a millennium of contact with Turkey had a profound impact on language, food, and many other aspects of daily life in Macedonia. Within the empire, administrators, soldiers, merchants, and artisans moved in pursuit of their professions. Where war, famine, or disease left regions underpopulated, settlers were moved in from elsewhere with no regard for any link between ethnicity and territory. By the system known as devşirme (the notorious Ŗblood taxŗ), numbers of Christian children were periodically recruited into the Turkish army and administration, where they were Islamized and assigned to wherever their services were required. For all these reasons, many Balkan towns acquired a cosmopolitan atmosphere. This was particularly the case in Macedonia during the 19th century, when, as the Serbian, Greek, and Bulgarian states began to assert their independence, many who had become associated with Turkish rule moved into lands still held by the Sublime Porte. The economic legacy of Turkish rule is also important. During the expansionist phase of the empire, Turkish feudalism consisted principally of the timar system of Ŗtax farming,ŗ whereby local officeholders raised revenue or supported troops in the sultan’s name but were not landowners. As the distinctively military aspects of the Ottoman order declined after the 18th century, these privileges were gradually transformed in some areas into the çiftlik system, which more closely resembled proprietorship over land. This process involved the severing of the peasantry from their traditional rights on the land and a corresponding creation of large estates farmed on a commercial basis. The çiftlik thus yielded the paradox of a population that was heavily influenced by Ottoman culture yet bound into an increasingly oppressive economic subordination to Turkish landlords.

The independence movement
Conflict and confusion deepened in Macedonia in the closing decades of the 19th century. As the Turkish empire decayed, Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria all looked to benefit territorially from the approaching division of Macedonia that would inevitably follow the end of Ottoman rule. At the same time, these three states each became stalking horses for the aspirations of the European great powers. The weapons employed in this conflict ranged widely; they included opening schools and churches in an attempt to inculcate a particular linguistic and confessional identity, exerting influence over the course of railway lines, diplomatic attempts to secure the ear of the Sublime Porte, and even financing guerrilla bands. Partly in response to the intensity of these campaigns of pressure and even terror, a movement called theInternal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) was founded in 1893, at Resana (Resen) near Ohrid. The aim of IMRO was ŖMacedonia for the Macedonians,ŗ and on July 20 (August 2, New Style), 1903, it raised the banner of revolt against the Turks at Kruševo and declared Macedonian independence. TheIlinden, or St. Elijah’s Day, Uprising was quickly and brutally crushed. One of IMRO’s leaders, Gotsé Delchev, whose nom de guerre was Ahil (Achilles), is regarded by both Macedonians and Bulgarians as a national hero. He seems to have identified himself as a Bulgarian and to have regarded the Slavs of Macedonia as Bulgarians. He died and was buried in what is now northern Greece in 1903. During World War I he was reburied in Bulgaria, and then in 1946 his remains were moved again, this time to Skopje, where his body remained. From this period at the beginning of the 20th century, the Macedonian Question has been a major force in Balkan history and politics.

War and partition
In spite of their conflicting interests, in 1912 Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria concluded a series of secret bilateral treaties that had the explicit intention of ejecting the Ottoman Turks from Europe. They took advantage of an uprising by the Albanianpopulation to intervene in October 1912 and, following their defeat of the sultan’s armies in the first of the Balkan Wars, partitioned the remaining Turkish possessions (including Macedonia) among them. The Treaty of London (May 1913), which concluded this FirstBalkan War, left Bulgaria dissatisfied, but, after that country’s attempt to enforce a new partition in a Second Balkan War, the Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913) confirmed a pattern of boundaries that (with small variations) has remained in force ever since. Although the region was again engulfed in conflict during World War I, and Bulgaria occupied large parts of Macedonia, the partition of 1913 was reconfirmed at the end of war in 1918. During the interwar years, intensive campaigning took place in all areas of Macedonia to impose identities on the population that suited the interests of the controlling states. In a Serbian attempt to secure northern, or ŖVardar,ŗ Macedonia’s status as South Serbia, the area was subjected to an active Serbian colonization program under land-reform legislation. Following the forcible ejection of Greeks from Turkeyduring the 1920s, thousands of Greek settlers were given land in southern, or ŖAegean,ŗ Macedonia. Both Serbia and Greece took advantage of the displacement by war or expulsion of many former Turkish landowners. During that period a link was consolidated between politicized agricultural labourers (especially tobacco workers) on the large Macedonian estates and the nascent Communist Partyŕa link that survived the proscription of the party in Yugoslavia after 1921. Partly because of its communist associations, the movement for Macedonian independence was then sustained largely underground until the outbreak ofWorld War II.

The republic
When war overtook the Balkans again in 1941, the kingdom of Yugoslavia was again divided, this time between the Axis powers and their allies. Yugoslav Macedonia was occupied principally by Bulgaria, the western part being joined to a united Albania under Italian control. The ethnic complexity of the region, together with its history of division and manipulation by outsiders, left the local population demoralized and conflicted. The need to reconcile communist internationalism with the desire for national self-determination posed problems of extreme political sensitivity for resistance groups. In 1945 the area was reincorporated into Yugoslavia, this time under communist control. In an attempt to correct the mistakes of the first Yugoslavia, in which a heavily centralized regime had been dominated by the Serbian dynasty, administration, and armed forces, the second Yugoslavia was organized as a federation, and Macedonia was established as one of its six constituent republics. The consolidation of communist control after the expulsion of the Axis powers was relatively rapid and effective in Yugoslavia. In Greece, however, civil war between communist and royalist forces lasted until 1949, when, under international pressure, Yugoslavia agreed to end its support for the Greek guerrillas. Because of the close ties between Macedonian communists in Yugoslavia and ethnic Macedonians inGreece, thousands of Macedonians fled Greece both during and after the Greek Civil War of 1946Ŕ49.. The autonomy of the republic was perhaps more cosmetic than real, although great efforts were made to support a sense of national identity among Macedonians. A Macedonian language was codified and disseminated through the educational system (including the first Macedonian university), the mass media, and the arts. An important symbol of the existence of a Macedonian nation was the creation of an autocephalous Macedonian Orthodox Church. Since the 1890s a great deal of dissatisfaction had been expressed in Macedonia with the unsympathetic attitude of the Serbian church, with which Orthodox Macedonians had long been affiliated. There is little doubt, however, that their autocephalous status would never have been achieved without the vigorous support of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. The archbishopric of Ohrid was restored in 1958, and autocephaly was declared in 1967. Although national churches are typical in the Orthodox communion, in the case of the Macedonians it became the root of a great deal of hostility on the part of neighbouring Orthodox peoples. The Macedonian Orthodox Church is not recognized by the patriarch or by any other Orthodox church. Macedonia’s economic development lagged behind that of the more-developed republics throughout the communist period, yet Macedonians remained among the most loyal supporters of the Yugoslav federation, which seemed to offer their best guarantee against claims on their territory by

other countries and against secessionist sentiments on the part of internal minorities. This loyalty survived the strain both of the suppression of nationalism by Yugoslav federal authorities and of disputes over republican autonomy between 1968 and 1974. Macedonian politicians persistently sought to broker solutions to the final constitutional crisis and to the breakup of the League of Communists and the Yugoslav federation itself after 1989.

Independence
In contrast to the other Yugoslav republics, whose efforts to secede from Yugoslavia provoked campaigns of nationalist violence and ethnic cleansing in the early 1990s, the Republic of Macedonia was peacefully established as a sovereign and independent state on September 8, 1991, by a vote of the citizens of Macedonia. Since then Macedonia has faced many serious challenges on both the domestic and international fronts. Conflict with the Albanian minority and the dispute with Greece over the name ŖMacedoniaŗ have combined to pose significant threats to much-needed foreign investment andeconomic growth. Moreover, while overseeing the demanding transition to a free-market economy, a succession of Macedonian governments have been bedeviled by corruption and forced to combat organized crime. More importantly, however, the Macedonian government has been faced with the challenge of maintaining peaceful relations between the country’s Orthodox Christian Macedonian majority and a Muslim Albanian minority that constitutes approximately one-fourth of the population. A key issue that has proven difficult to resolve has been balancing Macedonian nationals’ commitment to the preservation of a Macedonian state with Albanians’ demands for the full rights of citizenship. According to the original preamble of the 1991 constitution, the Republic of Macedonia was established as Ŗa national state of the Macedonian people in which full equality as citizens and permanent coexistence with the Macedonian people is provided for Albanians, Turks, Vlachs, Romanies [Roma], and other nationalities.ŗ As a result of long-standing Albanian grievances over their status as second-class citizens in the republic and the Albanian insurgency in the northwest of the country that followed the NATO defeat of Slobodan Milošević’s Serbia in the Kosovo conflict, in 2001 the preamble of the Macedonian constitution was recast to reflect a more pluralist perspective. It now refers to Ŗthe citizens of the Republic of Macedonia, the Macedonian people, as well as citizens living within its borders who are part of the Albanian people, the Turkish people, the Vlach [Aromani] people, the Serbian people, the Romany people, the Bosniak people.ŗ Kiro Gligorov, a well-respected veteran of many years of service in the Yugoslav federal government, deftly guided the republic through its difficult early years as its first president. A member of the moderate Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM), which consisted of former communists and social democrats, he was seriously wounded in an assassination attempt in 1995. After having turned over the reigns of power to an acting president for six weeks, he resumed his duties and served as president until 1999. . That year power shifted to the right, and Boris Trajkovski of the more nationalist Internal Macedonian Revolutionary OrganizationŔDemocratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMRO-DPMNE) came to power. In 2004 the presidency shifted to the SDSM, to Branko Crvenkovski, then in 2009 back to the VMRO-DPMNE in the person of Gjorge Ivanov. Historically, the Albanian minority has voted as a bloc for ethnic Albanian parties, and all governments since independence have been coalitions that included an Albanian party. In 1999, during the Kosovo conflict, more than 350,000 Kosovar Albanian refugees fled to Macedonia with significant consequences for the republic. Living standards in Macedonia plummeted, exports declined, and unemployment, already at more than 30 percent before the conflict, rose dramatically to as high as 40Ŕ50 percent, according to some estimates. Another serious threat to the country’s political stability was posed by the armed insurgency that erupted between an Albanian military group and Macedonian security forces in 2001. This conflict was brought to an end in August 2001 by the signing of the Ohrid Framework Agreement, which contained the government’s promises to make Albanian an official language, to increase autonomy for areas with large Albanian populations, and to raise the number of Albanians serving in the army and police as well as in the government. The Macedonian economy gradually recovered-with slow but steady GDP growth and minimal inflationŕuntil 2009, when it began to struggle in response to the global financial downturn. By far the greatest challenge for the Republic of Macedonia was Greece’s effort to prevent its neighbour from gaining international recognition under its constitutional name, along with blocking Macedonia’s participation in international organizations. Greece’s attempt to monopolize the name ŖMacedoniaŗ successfully prevented the republic from gaining entry into a variety of international

organizations and from enjoying the economic and political stability that membership in such organizations would provide. When the Republic of Macedonia declared its independence in 1991, Greece immediately objected to the name of the new republic, insisting that ŖMacedoniaŗ had been used by Greeks since ancient times and that its Ŗappropriationŗ by the Republic of Macedonia constituted a Ŗfalsification of historyŗ and a revival of territorial claims on Greek Macedonia (Makedonía). The Macedonian republic argued in turn that Slavs had lived in the area for 14 centuries and had used the name Macedonia for hundreds of years. Responding to the Republic of Macedonia’s attempt to gain recognition from the European Community (EC; later the European Union), an EC arbitration commission concluded not only that the newly independent country met all the criteria necessary for recognition but also that its use of the name ŖMacedoniaŗ implied no claims on Greek territoryŕthe contention of the Greek government. Nevertheless, Greece was able to prevent EC recognition of the republic. Only by acceding to a provisional designation as Ŗthe Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedoniaŗ did Macedonia gain admission to the United Nations in 1993. In early 1994, seemingly turning up the pressure on the republic to relinquish its claims to the name Macedonia, Greece instituted an economic blockade that had dire consequences for Macedonia. In September 1995, with more and more countries inveighing for Greece and Macedonia to come to a settlement, the two signed an Interim Accord. The agreement called for Macedonia to remove the 16-ray Sun or Star of Verghinaŕa symbol of the ancient Macedonian royal family that Greece had claimed as a national symbolŕfrom its flag and to renounce all territorial claims on Greek Macedonia in return for Greece’s termination of the embargo. Moreover, it was agreed that the Ŗname issueŗ would be submitted to UN-sponsored mediation. In 2004 the Republic of Macedonia was recognized by the United Statesunder its constitutional name. In 2008, however, Greece violated the Interim Accord by preventing Macedonia from being invited to become a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), again raising objections to the republic’s use of the name ŖMacedonia.ŗ Nonetheless, UN-sponsored bilateral negotiations over the name continued. If the Republic of Macedonia is able to successfully meet its economic challenges, maintain good relationships with its Albanian minority, and resolve the name dispute with Greece, it will demonstrate that it is possible to create a truly multinational state in the Balkans.

MACEDONIA QUICK FACTS
1

Member of the United Nations under the name The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM). Republika Makedonija (Macedonian); Republika e Maqedonisë (Albanian) (Republic of Macedonia) unitary multiparty republic with a unicameral legislature (Sobranie, or Assembly [123]) President: Gjorge Ivanov Prime Minister: Nikola Gruevski Skopje Macedonian; Albanian none denar (MKD) (2012 est.) 2,062,000 9,928 25,713 Urban: (2009) 59.2% Rural: (2009) 40.8% Male: (2007) 71.1 years Female: (2007) 75.9 years Male: (2008) 98.6% Female: (2008) 95.4%

Official name1 Form of government Head of state Head of government Capital Official languages Official religion Monetary unit Population Total area (sq mi) Total area (sq km) Urban-rural population Life expectancy at birth Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Geography
JOSEPH OBREBSKI, Ritual and Social Structure in a Macedonian Village, ed. by BARBARA KEREWSKY HALPERN and JOEL M. HALPERN (1977), is a brief research report of rare quality. The Macedonian Literary Language (1959) is an official account of its development. An official view of ecclesiastical development is DONÉ ILIEVSKI, The Macedonian Orthodox Church: The Road to Independence (1973). The following are of particular importance in understanding the significance of ethnicity in Macedonia: JOVAN TRIFUNOSKI, Albansko Stanovništvo u Socijalističkoj Republici Makedoniji (1988); and VASILIKI NEOFOTISTOS, The Risk of War: Everyday Sociality in the Republic of Macedonia (2012), on Albanians in Macedonia; C.N.O. BARTLETT, The Turkish Minority in Yugoslavia(1980); H.R. WILKINSON, Maps and Politics: A Review of the Ethnographic Cartography of Macedonia (1951); andLORING M. DANFORTH, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World (1995).

History
THE INSTITUTE OF NATIONAL HISTORY, SKOPJE, A History of the Macedonian People (1979; originally published in Macedonian, 1972); ANDREW ROSSOS, Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History (2008); and KEITH BROWN, The Past in Question: Modern Macedonia and the Uncertainties of Nation (2003), are very useful. The competition for the partition of Macedonia is described in ELISABETH BARKER, Macedonia: Its Place in Balkan Power Politics(1950, reprinted 1980). A classic study of the Macedonian independence movement is KRSTE P. MISIRKOV, On Macedonian Matters (1903, reissued 1974; originally published in Serbo-Croatian, 1903). The World War II period is dealt with in STEPHEN E. PALMER, JR., and ROBERT R. KING, Yugoslav Communism and the Macedonian Question (1971). The transition from communist rule to a multiparty independent state is illuminated byJOHN B. ALLCOCK, ŖMacedonia,ŗ in BOGDAN SZAJKOWSKI (ed.), Political Parties of Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Successor States (1994), pp. 279Ŕ291. Loring Danforth

EXTERNAL WEBSITES
How Stuff Works - Geography - Geography of the Republic of Macedonia

Geography of the Republic of Macedonia
Macedonia, Republic of, also, Macedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of, a country on the Balkan Peninsula. Macedonia borders Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia and Montenegro. The country includes most of the northern half of the historic region of Macedonia. The area is 9,928 square miles (25,713 km2 ). Macedonia is generally mountainous, with the highest peaks rising more than 9,000 feet (2,700 m). Macedonia's chief river is the Vardar. Macedonia's economy is based heavily on agriculture. Crops include wheat, corn, sugar beets, and tobacco. Dairy farming is also important. Industry is mainly concentrated in and around Skopje, the capital. Goods produced include textiles, transportation equipment, processed foods, and steel. Coal is the chief mineral produced. About two-thirds of the people are Macedonians, a South Slav people. Albanians make up the largest minority group. With a population of 563,301, Skopje is the largest city. The country's population in 1991 was 2,033,964. Macedonia has a president, who is the head of state, and a prime minister, who is the head of government. Legislative power is vested in the Sobranje, a one-house parliament. In 1918, the region corresponding to the present republic of Macedonia was incorporated into what became Yugoslavia. The region became a separate republic of Yugoslavia in 1946. During 1946Ŕ90, Macedonia, like Yugoslavia as a whole, had a Communist government. In 1990 multiparty elections were held in which the Communist government of Macedonia was replaced by a government made up of a coalition of parties. In 1991 the new government sought greater independence from the federal government, which was still dominated by Communists, and later that year Macedonia declared itself independent. Its independence, however, was not recognized internationally, mainly because Greece opposed the use of the name Macedonia, which Greek leaders thought implied territorial claims to the region in northern Greece known by the same name. In 1993 Macedonia was admitted to the United Nations as Ŗthe Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.ŗ Relations with Greece worsened, however, and Greece imposed a trade embargo on Macedonia in 1994. Tensions subsided somewhat in 1995 and the embargo was lifted. Meanwhile, in 1993 the UN sent peacekeeping troops to Macedonia to help prevent fighting between various South Slav groups from spreading to Macedonia from other former Yugoslav republics. In 1999 the country was flooded with 250,000 refugees driven from the Yugoslav province of Kosovo by a Serbian-led military campaign.

National Geographic - Travel and Cultures - Macedonia

Macedonia

The church of St. John the Theologian–Kaneo perches on the rocks above placid Ohrid Lake.

Macedonia Map

Fact Monster - Macedonia

Geography
Macedonia is a landlocked state in the heart of the Balkans and is slightly smaller than the state of Vermont. It is a mountainous country with small basins of agricultural land. The Vardar is the largest and most important river.

Government
Parliamentary democracy.

History
The Republic of Macedonia occupies the western half of the ancient Kingdom of Macedonia. Historic Macedonia was defeated by Rome and became a Roman province in 148 B.C. After the Roman Empire was divided in A.D. 395, Macedonia was intermittently ruled by the Byzantine Empire until Turkey took possession of the land in 1371. The Ottoman Turks dominated Macedonia for the next five centuries, until 1913. During the 19th and 20th centuries, there was a constant struggle by the Balkan powers to possess Macedonia for its economic wealth and its strategic military corridors. The Treaty of San Stefano in 1878, ending the Russo-Turkish War, gave the largest part of Macedonia to Bulgaria. Bulgaria lost much of its Macedonian territory when it was defeated by the Greeks and Serbs in the Second Balkan War of 1913. Most of Macedonia went to Serbia and the remainder was divided among Greece and Bulgaria.

The Yugoslavian Federation
In 1918, Serbia, which included much of Macedonia, joined in union with Croatia, Slovenia, and Montenegro to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. Bulgaria joined the Axis powers in World War II and occupied parts of Yugoslavia, including Macedonia, in 1941. During the occupation of their country, Macedonian resistance fighters fought a guerrilla war against the invading troops. The Yugoslavian federation was reestablished after the defeat of Germany in 1945, and in 1946, the government removed the Vardar territory of Macedonia from Serbian control and made it an autonomous Yugoslavian republic. Later, when President Tito recognized the Macedonian people as a separate nation, Macedonia's distinct culture and language were able to flourish, no longer suppressed by foreign rule.

Establishing Independence
On Sept. 8, 1991, Macedonia declared its independence from Yugoslavia and asked for recognition from the European Union nations. It became a member of the UN in 1993 under the provisional name of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) because Greece vociferously protested Macedonia's right to the name, which is also the name of a large northern province of Greece. To Greece, the use of the name implies Macedonia's interest in territorial expansion into the Greek province. Greece has imposed two trade embargoes against the country as a result.

Tensions Rise Between Albanians and Macedonians
Long-simmering tensions between ethnic Albanians and Macedonians reached greater heights during the Kosovo crisis, during which more than 140,000 refugees streamed into the country from neighboring Kosovo. Most of the refugees returned to Kosovo in 2000. Violence between Albanians and Macedonians erupted in March 2001, prompting the government to send troops into the heavily Albanian western section of the country. The rebels sought greater autonomy within Macedonia. In Aug. 2001, after six months of fighting, the rebels and the Macedonian government signed a peace agreement that allowed a British-led NATO force to enter the country and disarm the guerrillas. In Nov. 2001, Macedonia's parliament agreed to constitutional amendments giving broader rights to its Albanian minority. Albanian became one of the country's two official languages. In Sept. 2002 elections, a center-left coalition ousted the governing coalition, which had been embroiled in previous years' guerrilla insurgency. Branko Crvenkovski of the Together for Macedonia

coalition became the new prime minister. In Feb. 2004, President Boris Trajkovski was killed in a plane crash. Prime Minister Crvenkovski was then elected president; three prime ministers have served under him. In Aug. 2004, Parliament approved legislation redrawing internal borders and giving ethnic Albanians more local autonomy in regions where Albanians predominate. On June 1, 2008, one person died and nine people were wounded in fighting between two ethnic Albanian groups, the Democratic Union for Integration and the Democratic Party of Albanians, during parliamentary elections. At least 17 polling stations suspended voting due to intimidation, violence, and missing ballot boxes and voting materials. The election interruption further impeded Macedonia's chance of becoming a member of the EU. Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski, of the coalition "For a Better Macedonia" Party, won parliamentary elections on June 1, 2008, with 48% of the vote. The Democratic Union for Integration and the Democratic Party of Albanians took 11% and 10% of the vote, respectively. Gjorgje Ivanov won the presidential election in April 2009, defeating Social Democrat Ljubomir Frckoski. Ivanov was sworn into office in May 2009. Historyofmacedonia.org - History of Macedonia

Short history of Macedonia
Although Macedonia is a young state which became independent in 1991, its roots run deep in the history. The name "Macedonia" is in fact the oldest surviving name of a country in the continent of Europe. Archaeological evidence shows that old European civilization flourished in Macedonia between 7000 and 3500 BC. Macedonia is located in the center of the Southern Balkans, north of ancient Greece, east of Illyria, and west of Thrace. The ancient Macedonians were a distinct nation, ethnically, linguistically, and culturally different from their neighbors. The origins of the Macedonians are in the ancient Brygian substratum which occupied the whole of Macedonian territory and in IndoEuropean superstratum, which settled here at the end of the 2nd millennium.

Ancient Macedonia
The history of the ancient Macedonian kingdom begins with Caranus, who was the first known king (808-778 BC). The Macedonian dynasty Argeadae originated from Argos Orestikon, a city in located in south western Macedonia region of Orestis (App.,Syr., 63;Diod. ,VII, 15; G. Sync., I, 373). Alexander I "Philhellene" (498-454 BC) expended the kingdom and by the 5th century BC the Macedonians had forged a unified kingdom. Alexander was a Persian ally in the Greek-Persian wars. As Macedonia appears on the international scene, the first coins with the king's name on them are made. Around the year 460, Herodotus sojourns in Macedonia and gives an interpretatio macedonica of the Greek-Persian wars (Her.5.17-22, 9.44-45). Alexander’s son Perdiccas II (453 - 413 BC) worked on starting a war between the Athens maritime power and Sparta which lead the Peloponnesian League (Thucydides.Pel.I.57) and initiated the creation of an Olynthian league from the Greek colonies neighboring Macedonia on Chalcidice, for a war against Athens (Thucyd.I.58). During the Peloponnesian War, Perdiccas is one moment on the side of Athens and the next on the side of Sparta, depending of Macedonia’s best interests, not wanting either of them to become too powerful, while keeping its country’s sovereignty at the expense of the Greek quarrel. It was Archelaus (413-399 BC) who made Macedonia a significant economic power. Archelaus made straight roads, built fortresses, and reorganized the Macedonian army (Thucyd.II.100). He moved the Macedonian capital Aigae to Pella and founded Macedonian Olympian Games in Dion (the holy city of the Macedonians), among other reasons also because of the fact that the Greek Olympic Games were forbidden to the barbarians, including the Macedonians as well (Her.V.22). In the year 406 the Macedonian poet Adaius wrote an epitaph for the grave stone of Euripides (Anth.Pal.7,5,1; A.

Gellius, Noct. Att, XV, 20, 10) who was staying in the Macedonian palace of Archelaus. Euripides besides the apologetic work "Archelaus" also wrote the well known play "Bachae" inspired by the Macedonian cult for the God Dionysus. The Macedonian council refused to give Euripides' body to his birthplace Athens (Gell.Noct.Att.XV.20). During the years 407/6 Archelaus from Athens received the titles proxenos and euergetes. Amyntas III reigned 393-370/369 BC and led a policy of exhausting and weakening of the Greek city states. His two of his sons, Alexander II and Perdiccas III, reigned later only briefly. Alexander II however, had an expansionist policy and invaded northern Greece. In Thessaly he left Macedonian garrisons in the cities and refused to evacuate them. The Thebans who were at the time the most powerful militarily intervened and force the removal of the garrisons. Alexander II's youngest brother Philip was taken as hostage to Thebes. After the death of Alexander II, his other brother Perdiccas III took the throne. But Perdiccas III was killed with 4,000 of his Macedonian soldiers in a battle with the Illyrians, and Amyntas' third son, Philip II now became the next Macedonian king. Philip II (359-336 BC) the greatest man that Europe had ever given (Theop.F.GR.H. f, 27) liberated and unified Macedonia and turned it into the first European Power in the modern sense of the word - an armed nation with a common national ideal. He subdued all of Macedonia's neighbors (Illyrians, Thracians, and Greeks), and made Macedonia the most powerful kingdom in the Balkans. He was especially brutal towards the Greek cities at the edge of Macedonia. He razed them all to the ground, including the major Greek center of Olynthus, and Stageira, Aristotle's birthplace, and sold the inhabitants to slavery. In 338, the Greeks unified to prevent Philip from penetrating southern Greece, but the Macedonians defeated the Greeks at the battle at Chaeronea. Philip became a hegemon to the Greeks who had no choice but to ratify his peace agreement koine eirene. The Greeks had to swear that they would obey the conditions and that they will not rebel, not only against Philip, but also against his successors as well. The four Macedonian stratigical garrisons at Corinth, the Theban Cadmeia, Chalcis on Euboea and Ambracia, were a guarantee the Macedonian hold of Greece. This mutual peace - koine eirene dictated by the conqueror, was not a league at all (it did not have the word symachia), but a fiction which was to disguise Macedonian dominance in Greece, a temporary institution for including the Greek polis in the monarchy much more easily. But the conqueror of Greece was assassinated before he could lead the Macedonians in the conquest of the Persian Empire during the wedding celebrations of his daughter Cleopatra.

His son Alexander III the Great (356-323 BC), succeeded his father at the age of 20, and immediately put down the rebellions of the Thracians, Illyrians, and Greeks, who revolted upon hearing of Philip's death. In Greece, he razed the major center of Thebes to the ground after a slaughter of 6,000 people and sold its 30,000 inhabitants to slavery, as warning to the Greek what would happen if they were to rebel again. Next, at the head of Macedonian and allied Greek, Illyrian, and Thracian troops, he invaded Persia. The Greek soldiers did not participate in any of the battles because they were hostages for peace and a guarantee for safety of the Macedonian occupation forces in Greece. Not only did they not have an important role in any of the battles but there were no Greek commanders either since the Macedonians commanded their ranks. Alexander's victories at Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela put an end to the Persian Empire, which was then replaced by the Macedonian Empire stretching between Europe, Egypt and India. From this time until the arrival of Rome, the Macedonians will shape the events in this vast space for almost 3 centurie

Alexander's death brought the Macedonian leading generals into a terrible conflict over the rule of the Empire. But first, the rebellions of the Greeks were pkut down with the massacres of the 23,000 Greek mercenaries in Asia (Diodorus, 18.7.3-9), and the bloody end of the Lamian (Hellenic) War in which the united Greeks failed to win freedom yet again (Diodorus, 18.10.1-3, 11, 12, 15, 17.5). By 300 BC, the Macedonian Empire was carved up between the dynasties of Antigonus I "One-Eye" (Macedonia and Greece), Ptolemy I (Egypt), and Seleucus I (Asia). Under Antigonus II Gonatas (276239), the grandson of Antigonus I, Macedonia achieved a stable monarchy and strengthened its occupation of Greece. His grandson Philip V (222-179 BC), clashed with Rome which was now expanding eastwards, and fought the two "Macedonian Wars" against the Romans. After the Roman army defeated Philip in Thessaly, Macedonia lost the whole of Greece and was reduced to its original borders. In the third "Macedonian War", Rome finally defeated the Macedonian army under the last king the Philip's son Perseus (179-168 BC) and at the Battle of Pydna, 20,000 Macedonian soldiers died while defending their land. Perseus died prisoner in Italy, the Macedonian kingdom ceased to exist, and by 146 Macedonia became a Roman province. By 65 BC Rome conquered the Seleucid Macedonian kingdom in Asia under its last king Antiochus VII. Finally, the defeat of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, brought an end to the last of the Macedonian descendants in Egypt, and with it, the last remains of the Macedonian Empire that was once the mightiest in the world disappeared from the face of the earth.

Roman Macedonia
In 51 AD for the first time on European soil, in the Macedonian towns Philippi, Thessalonica and Beroea, the Apostle Paul preached Christianity (Acta apos., XVI, id. XVII). In 52 and 53 he sent epistles to the people of Thessalonica (Epist. Thess); in 57 he came to Macedonia again, and in 63 he sent epistles to the people of Philippi (Epist. Philipp). During the 3rd and 4th centuriesbecause of the Gothic attacks the Macedonian towns built fortresses around them, Macedonia was divided into two provinces, Macedonia Prima and Macedonia Salutarus. Since the east-west split of the Roman Empire in 395 AD, Macedonia was ruled by the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire). It is interesting to note that the Emperor Justinian was born in Skopje, Macedonia. In the 5thcentury Macedonia was divided again into Macedonia Prima and Macedonia Secunda. In the 6th century, an earthquake demolished Scupi (nowadays Skopje) and Slavs overrun both Macedonia and Greece and mixed with the ancient Macedonians and Greeks. Thus the foundations for the modern Macedonian and Greek nations were laid. In the 7th century the Turko-Mongolic Bulgars entered the Balkan Peninsula and populated Thrace. In time they mixed with the Slavs and ancient Thracians who already lived there and laid the foundations of the modern Bulgarian nation. In the 9th century, while the Byzantine Empire was ruled by the Macedonians Emperors of the Macedonian Dynasty, the Macedonian brothers Cyril and Methodius from the largest Macedonian city of Salonica, created the first Slavonic alphabet, founded the Slavic literacy, and promoted Christianity among the Slavic peoples. Their disciples Kliment and Naum of Ohrid established the first Slavonic University, the Ohrid Literary School. 3,500 teachers, clergy, writers, and other literary figures emerged from this Ohrid Literary School. Their activity was crowned with the laying of foundations of a Slavonic cultural, educational and ecclesiastical Organization, where the Slavonic

alphabet was used and the Old Slavonic language was introduced in religious services. The establishment of the first Slavic bishopric, later to become an Ohrid Archbishopric during the reign of Samuel, marked the beginning of the Macedonian Orthodox Church.

Basil II the Macedonian

Tsar Samuel

In the first half of the 10th century, the Bogomil teaching appeared in Macedonia. Bogomilism had grown into a large-scale popular movement and it spread through the Balkans and Europe. The 10th century also marked the beginning of the first Macedonian Slavic State, the Kingdom of Tsar Samuel (976-1014). Towards the end of the 10th century, with the weakening of the Eastern Roman Empire, and with the first Bulgarian Empire apart, Tsar Samuel created a strong Macedonian medieval kingdom with its center at Ohrid. Soon he conquered parts of Greece, Epirus, a large part of Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia, Bosnia, Montenegro and Dalmacia. This was not a Bulgarian state, but an independent Macedonian State with a capital in Ohrid, Macedonia, not in Preslav, Bulgaria where the Bulgarian kings ruled. Samuel was defeated in 1014 by Basil II the Macedonian when the Byzantine army won the battle on Mount Belasica capturing 15,000 of his soldiers. All were blinded, except one in every one hundred, who were left with one eye to lead the rest back to Samuel who escaped death at Belasica. At the site Samuel suffered a stroke and died two days later on October 6, 1014. For four centuries after the fall of the kingdom, rebellions and frequent changes of rule disrupted Macedonia's development. In the 11th century, there were two major uprisings against Byzantine rule, one led by Petar Deljan in 1040, Samuel's grandson, and the other by Gjorgji Vojteh in 1072. The 12th century saw the rise of the Macedonian feudal lords Dobromir Hrs in 1201, and Strez in 1211.

Ottoman Macedonia
Despite the rebellions, and the short-lived Serbian and Bulgarian occupations in the 13th and 14 centuries, Macedonia remained a Byzantine territory until the Ottoman Turks conquered it in 1389. The Turks firmly established themselves not only in Macedonia, but in all of the Southern Balkans. Ottoman rule will last for five centuries. The first significant resistance movements against the Turkish occupation were the Mariovo-Prilep Rebellion (1564 - 1565), and the Karposh Uprising in 1689.In the 18th century, under the pressure of the Greek Patriarch in Istanbul, the Turks abolished the Ohrid Archbishopric, which had been keeping alive the spiritual soul of the Macedonians for centuries since the times of Tsar Samuel.
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In the 19th century, Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria freed themselves from the Turkish rule and actively become conspiring against the Macedonians displaying territorial aspirations on their land. These indigenous states all became in different ways stalking horses for the aspirations of the European Great Powers. The so-called "Macedonian Question" appeared which is nothing else but a competition for a new conquest of Macedonia by their neighbors. The Greeks, Bulgarians, and Serbs employed many weapons in this conflict. They included the opening of schools in an attempt to inculcate a particular linguistic and confessional identity, the control of ecclesiastical office, influence over the course of railway building, diplomatic attempts to secure the ear of the Turkish Sultan. The Greeks and the Bulgarians begun sending guerrilla bands into Macedonia to and use terror to "convince" the population of its "true identity". But the Macedonians strove to develop their own national consciousness and begun organizing themselves for fight against the Turks at the same time, a process that their neighbors tried everything to interrupt. Thus, the nineteenth century is a period of growing national awareness among the Macedonian people and their quest for free and independent Macedonia.

The Independence Movement
Literacy and education flourished and the foundations of modern Macedonian literature were laid. The leading activists were Kiril Pejchinovich, Joakim Krchovski, Partenija Zografski, Georgija Puleski, Jordan Hadzi Konstantinov - Dzinot, Dimitar and Konstantin Miladinov, Grigor Prlicev, and Kuzman Sapkarev. The second half of the nineteenth century was marked by the beginning of the national revolutionary struggle for the liberation of Macedonia. The Razlovtsi and Kresna Uprisings, in 1876 and 1878 respectively, had a strong influence on the growth of Macedonian national awareness. Bishop Theodosius of Skopje started a campaign for an independent Macedonian Orthodox Church and tried to restore the Ohrid Archbishopric, which had been abolished in 1767. The Bulgarians effectively destroyed the idea. In 1893, the Macedonian revolutionary organization known as VMRO (Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization) was founded in the greatest Macedonian city of Salonica, with Gotse Delchev as its leader. Its objectives were national freedom and the establishment of an autonomous Macedonian state with the slogan "Macedonia for the Macedonians". Delchev's famous words were "I understand the world as a field for cultural competition among the nations" and "Those who believe that answer of our national liberation lies in Bulgaria, Serbia or Greece might consider themselves a good Bulgarian, good Serb or a good Greek, but not a good Macedonian." In 1903 a group of Macedonian revolutionaries known as "Gemidzii" carried out a series of attacks on a number of buildings in Salonica in order to draw the attention of the European public towards the situation of the Macedonian people. Later on August 2, 1903, VMRO launched the Ilinden Uprising against the Turks and declared Macedonian independence. The revolutionaries liberated the town of Krushevo, and established the Republic of Krushevo with its own government. The uprising was brutally crushed by the Turks, but the Macedonian Question thereafter aroused intense international concern. The Great Powers made several attempts to impose reform on the Porte, including the sending of their own officers to supervise the gendarmerie - in effect, the first international peacekeeping force. And although the revolt was suppressed, Macedonians remember the brief victory as a key date in the country's history and the event is enshrined in Macedonia's constitution. In the same year, 1903, Krste Misirkov from Pella (Postol), one of the most outstanding names in the history of Macedonian culture, and the founder of the modern Macedonian literary language and orthography, published his "On Macedonian Matters", in which he projected the principles for standardization of the Macedonian literary language.

The Partition of Macedonia and World War I
In 1908 the Young Turk revolution. The Young Turk movement, lead by the Young Turk Committee, had the aim of reforming the Turkish country and making social and political reforms in Macedonia. The Macedonian revolutionary organization, through Jane Sandanski and the newly formed national federal party, actively took part in the Young Turk movement for achieving autonomy for Macedonia. In 1912, Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria joined forces and defeated the Turkish army in Macedonia. 100,000 Macedonians also participated and helped in the Turkish evacuation but the victors did not reward them. The Treaty of London (May 1913), which concluded the First Balkan War, left Bulgaria dissatisfied with the partition of Macedonia among the allies which resulted after the war. Bulgaria's attempt to enforce a new partition in a Second Balkan War failed, and the Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913) confirmed a pattern of boundaries that (with small variations) has remained in force ever since.

Macedonia within Turkey before 1912 and its partition in 1913 among Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Albania Having failed to achieve independence in 1903, the Macedonians, now divided, were left to their new masters. Greece tookthe biggest, southern half of Macedonia (Aegean Macedonia) and renamed it to "Northern Greece"; Bulgaria annexed the Pirin region and abolished the Macedonian name, and Serbia took over the Vardar region and renamed it to "Southern Serbia". N. Pasich of Serbia and E. Venizelos of Greece agreed on the newly formed Greek-Serbian border, so that there

would be "only Serbs to the North and only Greeks to the South", and no "Macedonians" on either side. Thus the politics of assimilation had begun, as Macedonia's geographic, natural and ethnic unity was distroyed by its own neighbors. An intensive campaigning took place in all three parts of Macedonia to impose foreign identities upon the population that suited the interests of the controlling states. In Vardar Macedonia, the Serbs labeled the Macedonians with the name "South Serbs"; in Aegean Macedonia, the Greeks labeled them as "Slavophone Greeks", "MakedoSlavs", and other insulting names; while in Pirin Macedonia, the Macedonians were simply called Bulgarians. In 1914, World War I erupted. Bulgaria sided with the Central powers and by 1915 it occupied the Serbian held part of Macedonia. But the defeat of the Central powers and the end of World War I in 1918 saw the partition of 1913 reconfirmed and Macedonia was left divided. At the Paris Peace conference the demands of the Macedonians for independent and united Macedonia were ignored. Vardar Macedonia was re-incorporated with the rest of Serbia and into the new Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes which was later renamed Yugoslavia.

World War II and Liberation
Since 1913, official Greece has been trying to banish native Macedonian names of villages, towns, cities, rivers, and lakes in Aegean Macedonia. For example, the little stream which issues from Mount Olympus and flows into the Aegean Sea is labeled Mavroneri("black water") on the maps made by Greek cartographers after 1913. However, the same river appears as Crna Reka, a native Macedonian name meaning "black river" on the maps made before 1913. Kutlesh had been dropped for Vergina, and Kukush for Kilkis, together with at least 300 other places all over Aegean Macedonia. The Macedonians were also forced to renounce their native family names and use only new "Greek-sounding" names. In 1995, Human Rights Watch - Helsinki was a witness that even today the Macedonians are forbidden to carry their first and last Macedonian names. During the dictatorship of General Metaxis, the Macedonians were exposed to brutal oppression. The Macedonian language was forbidden, despite the fact under the supervision of the League of Nations Greece had recognized its existence as distinct language when it published the primer "Abecedar" for the needs of the Macedonian children in 1924. In the 1930's the Macedonians in Greece were punished for speaking of their native language by drinking of castor oil and were persecuted for expressing of their national identity. Yet despite the triple persecution the Macedonians never abandoned their nationality. The period between the two world wars was also filled with constant endeavors to change the situation of Macedonia and annul the division of the country and its people. In 1925 VMRO (United) was founded in Vienna under the leadership of Dimitar Vlahov, Pavel Satev, Georgi Zankov, Rizo Rizov, Vladimir Pop Timov and Hristo Jankov. Their main objective was to free Macedonia within its geographical and economical borders and create an independent political unit that will become an equal member of the future Balkan Federation. In 1935, MANAPO (Macedonian National Movement) was founded in the Vardar part of Macedonia. In 1938The first collection of poems "Fire" ("Ogin") from Venko Markovski was published in Macedonian. In 1939 publication of "White Dawns" ("Beli Mugri"), a collection of poems in Macedonian from the first modern Macedonian poet Koco Racin. In 1940, the democratic groups in Macedonia defined the political program for the national and social liberation of the country. With the World War II burning throughout Europe, Yugoslavia was invaded by the German army in April of 1941. Bulgaria, now fascist, again occupied almost all of Macedonia (both Vardar and Aegean) and collaborated with the Nazis for the departure of the Jews of Salonica to their deaths. On October 11, 1941, the Macedonians launched a war for the liberation of Macedonia from the Bulgarian occupation. By 1943, the anti-fascist sentiment lent support for the growing communist movement and soon thereafter, the Communist Party of Macedonia was established. In the same year, the first unit of the Army of Macedonia was founded. Bodies of government, such as national liberation councils, were formed over the whole territory of Macedonia. The Headquarters of the

National Liberation Army (NOV) published the manifesto of the goals of the war of liberation. The first session of the Anti-Fascist Assembly of the National Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM) was held in the monastery of St. Prohor Pchinski on 2 August 1944 on the 41st anniversary of the Ilinden uprising. Representatives from all parts of Macedonia, including the Pirin and the Aegean parts of the country, gathered for the occasion and decided on the constitution of a modern Macedonian state as a member of the new Yugoslav federation under the name of Peoples Republic of Macedonia. The ASNOM presidium was formed with Metodija Andonov Cento was its first President and decision was reached to constitute a modern Macedonian country that will become part of the new Federal Yugoslavia. On April 1945 the first Macedonian government was founded with Lazar Kolisevski as its first President. The Ohrid Archbishopric was restored in 1958, and its autocephaly was declared in 1967. The Macedonians were finally free in one of the three parts of Macedonia.

The Greek Civil War and the Macedonians in Greece (Aegean Macedonia)
In Greece, after the Varkisa agreement (December 1945), the use of the Macedonian name and the Macedonian language were once again prohibited in the Aegean part of Macedonia and the Greek authorities started applying terror against the Macedonians. In the period of 1945-46 alone, according to statistics: 400 murders were registered; 440 women and girls were raped; 13,529 interned on the Greek islands; 8,145 imprisoned in the Greek prisons; 4,209 indicted; 3,215 sentenced to prison; 13 driven mad by the torture in the prisons; 45 villages abandoned; 80 villages pillaged; 1,605 families plundered; and 1,943 families evicted. Therefore, during the Greek Civil War that followed World War II (1946-1949), the Macedonians of Aegean Macedonia fought on the side of the Greek Communist Party (KKE) simply because it promised them their rights after the war. Out of the 35,000 soldiers of DAG, about half were Macedonians. The liberated territory, covering mainly the territory of Aegean Macedonia. 87 Macedonian schools were opened for 100,000 pupils, the newspapers in Macedonian were published ("Nepokoren", "Zora", "Edinstvo", "Borec"), and cultural and artistic associations were created. But after two years of KKE's success in the civil war, the United States decided to side up against them, afraid that Greece would become another communist country. With the military support that came from the United States and Great Britain, the communists lost the war, and the Macedonians once again were stripped of their human rights. The defeat of DAG resulted in terrible consequences for the Macedonians. 28,000 Aegean Macedonian children, known as 'child refugees', were separated from their families and settled in eastern Europe and Soviet Union in an attempt to save them from the terror that followed. Thousands of Macedonians lost their lives for the liberty of their people and a great number of the Macedonian villages were burned to the ground jut like the Greek army burned Kukush and the surrounding villages in the Balkan Wars. In the late 1950's the inhabitants of several villages in the districts of Florina (Lerin), Kastoria (Kostur), and Edessa (Voden) were forced to take oaths in which they swore never again to speak "the local Slavic idiom," but to speak only Greek instead. Yet, the policy on denationalization continued to meet resistance among the Macedonians. The Macedonian language continued to be spoken in everyday communication and folklore as an expression of the Macedonian national affiliation. "The Macedonian Movement for Balkan Prosperity" withits main office in Salonica was founded, and "Rainbow" and some other organizations have been asking the international factors and the Greek government for legalization of the national and political rights of the Macedonians in Greece.

The Macedonians in Bulgaria (Pirin Macedonia)
The political changes after the capitulation of fascist Bulgaria and the coup d'etat of September 9, 1944 positively influenced the historical status of the Macedonians from the Pirin part of Macedonia. The Communist Party of Bulgaria, under the leadership of Geogi Dimitrov on August 9, 1946 officially recognized the Macedonian nation and the right of the Pirin part of Macedonia to be attached to the People’s Republic of Macedonia. The Macedonians in Bulgaria exist as separate nationality on all Bulgarian censuses after the end of World War II. The demography data from 1946 revealed that the majority of the population in the Pirin part of Macedonia declared itself as Macedonian in a free census. A period of cultural autonomy and affirmation of the Macedonian national and cultural values had begun. The Macedonian literary language and the national history have been introduced into the educational process. Almost 32,000 pupils were included into the teaching of Macedonian. In 1947 in Gorna Djumaja (Blagoevgrad nowadays) the first Macedonian bookstore and reading room were opened, as well as the Regional Macedonian National Theater. The newspapers in Macedonian such as "Pirinsko delo", "Nova Makedonija", "Mlad borec" etc. were also published. Literary circles and cultural and artistic associations were founded contributing to the spreading of the Macedonian culture. In the Bulgarian census of 1956, 63,7% of the population in Pirin declared itself as Macedonian. However, since 1956 Bulgaria has altered her attitude, negating again the existence of the Macedonian nation and forbidding the expression of Macedonian nationality and language. The idea for enforced and as result, in the census of 1965, the number of Macedonians dropped to only 8,750 and in the district of Blagoevgrad which previously had the highest percentage of Macedonians, it was less than 1%. But the fact that the Macedonians exist in Bulgaria can not be denied. The Times Atlas of World History acknowledges in its map that Pirin Macedonia is entirely populated by Macedonians. The recent archeological discovery in Aegean Macedonia in Greece confirmed that the Bulgarians had engaged in falsification of the history of Macedonia ever since the 19th century. And finally, the Macedonians in Bulgaria began organizing themselves. In 1989 the United Macedonian Organization - Ilinden (OMO Ilinden) was formed, demanding cultural and national autonomy for the Macedonians in Pirin.

Republic of Macedonia
As federal Yugoslavia was disintegrating at the beginning of 1990's, on September 8, 1991 in a referendum, 95% of eligible voters approved the independence and sovereignty of the Republic of Macedonia. Kiro Gligorov was elected the first president of independent Macedonia. The new constitution determined the Republic of Macedonia a sovereign, independent, civil, and democratic state, and it recognized the complete equality of the Macedonians and the ethnic minorities. It read "…Macedonia is constituted as a national country of the Macedonian people which guarantees complete civil equality and permanent mutual living of the Macedonian people with the Albanians, Turks, Vlachs, Roma and the other nationalities living in the Republic of Macedonia."

Flag of the Republic of Macedonia 1991

Although the European Community acknowledged that Macedonia had fulfilled the requirements for official recognition, due to the opposition of Greece, which was already a member of the community, the EC decided to postpone the recognition. Greece, afraid that Macedonia might put forward a historical, cultural, and linguistic, claim over Aegean Macedonia, insisted that the new nation has no right to use of the name "Macedonia" and use the emblem of ancient Macedonia on its flag. In July of 1992 there were demonstrations by 100,000 Macedonians in the capital Skopje over the failure to receive recognition. But despite Greek objections, Macedonia was admitted to the United Nations under the temporary reference (not an official name) "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" in 1993. Full diplomatic relations with a number of EC nations followed, while Russia, China, Turkey, Bulgaria and most nations, ignored Greece's objections and recognized Macedonia under its constitutional name "Republic of Macedonia". Greece slapped a trade embargo on Macedonia on February 1994 because of the refusal of the Macedonian President Gligorov to rename the country, nation, and language, and change the Constitution because Article 47 specifies that "the Republic of Macedonia cares for the statue and rights of those persons belonging to the Macedonian people in neighboring countries, as well as Macedonian ex-parties, assists their cultural development and promotes links with them." Ironically, Greece also has a similar article in her Constitution, as any other country in the world, to care for her minorities in the neighboring countries. But the embargo had devastating impact on Macedonia's economy as the country was cut-off from the port of Salonica and became landlocked because of the UN embargo on Yugoslavia to the north, and the Greek embargo to the south. Greece would remove the embargo only if Macedonia satisfies her demands and despite international criticism it did not lift the embargo. At the same time, Greece withdrew from the Greek - Macedonian talks, monitored by the UN as a mediator, and blocked any acceptance of Macedonia in the international institutions by using its power to veto new members. Faced with economic collapse, and left without any support from the international community, Macedonia was practically forced to change its flag and constitution, upon which Greece lifted the embargo. Ironically, in 1995 the Human Rights Watch Helsinki, condemned Greece for the oppression of its ethnic Macedonian minority, which Greece denies it exists. Both Amnesty International and the European Parliament had also urged Greece to recognize the existence of the Macedonian language and stop the oppression of the ethnic Macedonians.

Tensions in North-Western Macedonia
In 1994, Kiro Gligorov was re-elected president but he was seriously injured in 1995 in a car bombing. He was able to resume his duties in 1996. Tensions with the Albanian minority continued as some Albanian politicians begun criticizing the Macedonian government on international scene. The Albanians were very small minority in Macedonia after World War II. Since then, they emigrated in greater numbers from Albania into Macedonia looking for a better life and Macedonia opened its doors to them. By 1953, they composed 12.5% of Macedonia's population, and by encouraging large families they became faster growing element then the Macedonians and any of the other smaller minorities. Today, the Albanians claim that their human rights are not fulfilled in Macedonia, that their statistical numbers are much higher then the recorded 23% in the censuses of the 1990's, and they demand a "cultural autonomy" in north-western Macedonia where they live in greater numbers among the Macedonians. This, despite the fact thatMacedonia had always provided its Albanian minority with a freedom of having TV, radio, newspapers, elementary and high schools in their own language, and even ministers in the government, and despite the fact that international observers monitored the censuses of 1991 and 1994 and verified the results as accurate. Clearly a sharp contrasts and complete opposite to the plight of ethnic Macedonians in Greece, Bulgaria, and Albania, whose minimal human rights are not respected at all. One final observation regarding the Albanians has to be made. The Albanians claim that they are descendants of the ancient Illyrians (the western neighbors of the ancient Macedonians) and some Albanians have gone as far as claiming part of Macedonia (as well as parts of Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece) as "Greater Albania". It should be stressed that the Albanians are not direct descendants of the ancient Illyrians. In fact, their original home has never been modern Albania, since in ancient times Albania was located in Asia on the Caucasus. The ancient Greek and Roman historians clearly mention the Albanians fighting on the side of the Persians against the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great and Plutarch wrote that they fought the Roman army under Ptolemy in Asia as well. The ancient geographers Ptolemy of Alexandria (2nd century A.D.) and Strabo made

clear maps of Albania in Asia (as well as of Macedonia separate from Greece, Illyria, and Thrace). The Albanians came to Europe and settled present day Albania many centuries later, becoming the latest arrivals on the Balkans, as there are being mentioned for first time in Europe many centuries after the arrival of the Slavs and Bulgars. By the time of their arrival, the modern Macedonian, Greek, and Bulgarian nations were already in the process of formation from the roots of the ancient Macedonian, Greek, and Thracian peoples, but the ancient Illyrians were far more assimilated and their name disappears from history. If the Albanians are therefore recognized as descendants of the Illyrians (although their link to any ancient Balkan nation is the weakest out of all modern nations due to the enormous time span), then it must be recognized that today's Macedonians are more then justified descendants of the ancient Macedonians (with Slav admixture from the 6th century). Similarly the modern Greeks are descendants of the ancient Greeks (with Slav and Turkish admixture), and the modern Bulgarians are descendants of the ancient Thracians (with Bulgar and Slav admixture), a fact that these three nations are quite aware of in their own historiographies. In addition, the fact that the Albanians have retained their original Albanian name and not the Illyrian, unlike the Macedonians and the Greeks who still carry their ancient names, furthermore supports the fact that they are direct descendants of the Asian Albanians and not of the ancient European Illyrians.

Bibliography
1. Ancient Greek and Roman historians: Arrian, Plutarch, Diodorus, Justin, Herodotus, Polybius, Curtius, Thracymachus, Livius, Demosthenes, Isocrates, Thucydides, PseudoHerod, Medeios of Larisa, Pseudo-Calisthanes, Pausanius, Ephoros, Pseudo-Skylax, Dionysius son of Kaliphon, Dionisyus Periegetes, Ptolemy of Alexandria (Geography) and Strabo. 2. In the Shadow of Olympus (1990) and Makedonika (1995) - Eugene N. Borza 3. Macedonia and Greece in Late Classical and Early Hellenistic Times -Ernst Badian, 1980 4. Alexander of Macedon 356-323 B.C.: A Historical Biography by Peter Green, 1991 5. Philip and Alexander of Macedon - David G. Hogarth, 1897 6. Krste Misirkov - About Macedonian Matters 1903 7. St. Petersburg periodical (Macedonian Voice) 1913-1914 8. Fields of Wheat, Hills of Blood: Passages to Nationhood in Greek Macedonia, 1870-1990 Anastasia N. Karakasidou, 1997 9. The Macedonian Conflict - Loring M. Danforth, 1995 10. Denying Ethnic Identity: The Macedonians of Greece by Human Rights Watch Helsinki, 1995 11. Encyclopaedia Britannica Coutrywatch 12. The censuses of the Republic of Macedonia 13. Macedonia and Greece: the Struggle to Define a new Balkan Nation - John Shea, 1997


Jewish Virtual Library - Macedonia, Greece



Maps of World - Macedonia, Europe

The Republic of Macedonia is a relatively young state, once part of the former Yugoslavia, it only became independent in 1991. However, its history dates back much further, with early civilizations arising around 7000 to 3500 BC. Several cultures inhabited Macedonia in antiquity, including Paeonian, Molossian and Illyrian tribes.

Ancient Macedonia's history extends back to the Kingdom of Macedon, with Caranus as its first king around 808 BC. Under the rule of Philip II, the kingdom expanded to include many neighboring territories in 356 BC. He was succeeded on the throne by his son, Alexander the Great, who made Macedonia an important regional power, extending the territory further still. The kingdom was conquered by the Roman Empire, becoming the Roman province of Macedonia in 146 BC. The Slavs invaded Macedonia around 580, which was then part of the Byzantine Empire, and over the 7th century, the Bulgars gained control of the Macedonian region, with the Tsar Boris I in power. Basil II of the Byzantine Empire regained control of the region in 1014, and remained in power with a brief occupation by the Normans, followed by the return of the Bulgarian Empire in the 13th century. The Serbian Empire ruled in the 14th century, until the entire Balkan region was conquered and absorbed by the Ottoman Empire, lasting for 500 years. Movements toward autonomy in the region began in the 19th century, and resulted in the uprising of the Krusevo Republic in the early 20th century, though the movement was soon quashed. The Ottoman Empire ended in the early 20th century, and the region of Macedonia became southern Serbia. It was united with surrounding regions to become Yugoslavia in 1929. Yugoslavia became a socialist country for a period during the 20th century. Macedonia achieved independence from Yugoslavia in 1991. Neighboring Countries : Macedonia shares borders with Kosovo, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Albania.
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Major Cities Skopje (capital) Bitola Kumanovo

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Prilep Tetovo

Geography : Macedonia is a landlocked country located in the Balkan Peninsula. The terrain is largely forested and mountainous, with 16 mountains that have an elevation greater than 2,000 meters (6,562 feet). The two major mountain ranges are the Sar Mountains and the Osogovo-Belasica (Rhodope) range. The highest point is on Mount Korab, which stands at an elevation of 2,764 meters (9,396 feet). The longest river in Macedonia is the Vardar River, which flows 388 kilometers (241 miles) across the country, and is considered the lowest point in the country. Other rivers are the Black Drim and the Binacka Morava. The major lakes in Macedonia are Lake Dojran, Lake Prespa, and Lake Ohrid. The latter is one of the oldest lakes in the world. Points of Interest : Macedonia has many beautiful scenic sites that draw visitors from around the world. Lake Ohrid is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, as well as one of the oldest settlement locations in Europe. The 3 million year old lake is surrounded by beautiful beaches and a historic city, which has architectural marvels including several ornate churches, a fortress, and theater. Macedonia also has a few national parks, including Galicica National Park, Mavrovo National Park, and Pelister National Park. Macedonia’s capital, Skopje, is also its largest city, and features historic sites, including Porta Macedonia a triumphal arch for the country’s independence, and the Stone Bridge, which dates back to the 6th century and the Byzantine Empire. Skopje also features the Kale Fortress, and the city’s most famous monument, the statue of a Warrior on a Horse. Transportation : The major international airports in Macedonia are the Alexander the Great Airport in Skopje and St. Paul the Apostle Airport in Ohrid. Visitors can travel to Macedonia by train or bus as well, with service to Greece, Serbia, Kosovo, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Croatia, and Turkey between the two options. Other buses travel as far as Germany, stopping in Austria, Switzerland, Italy, and Slovenia. Trains and buses are also available for transport within Macedonia. Car rentals are available, and there are many roads, but many are toll roads and not all are well maintained. To get around towns, taxis are the most common method of transportation. My Macedonia - Macedonia Lonely Planet - Macedonia, Europe Republic of Macedonia

Anthem
DENES NAD MAKEDONIJA – na Makedonski Jazik
Denes nad Makedonija se ragja novo sonce na slobodata Makedoncite se borat za svoite pravdini! Makedoncite se borat za svoite pravdini! Odnovo sega znameto se vee na Krushevskata Republika Goce Delchev, Pitu Guli Dame Gruev, Sandanski! Goce Delchev, Pitu Guli Dame Gruev, Sandanski! Gorite Makedonski shumno peat novi pesni, novi vesnici Makedonija slobodna slobodna zhivee! Makedonija slobodna slobodna zhivee!

TODAY ON MACEDONIA - English language
Today on Macedonia, is born the new sun of liberty The Macedonians fight for their own rights! The Macedonians fight for their own rights! For now on, the flag flies (that) of the Krushevo Republic Goce Delchev, Pitu Guli Dame Gruev, Sandanski! Goce Delchev, Pitu Guli Dame Gruev, Sandanski! The burning Macedonian forests sing (of) new songs, new news Macedonia is liberated Liberty lives! Macedonia is liberated Liberty lives!

Foreign and Commonwealth Office - Macedonia CIA - The World Factbook - Macedonia Background: Macedonia gained its independence peacefully from Yugoslavia in 1991. Greece's objection to the new state's use of what it considered a Hellenic name and symbols delayed international recognition, which occurred under the provisional designation of "the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." In 1995, Greece lifted a 20 -month trade embargo and the two countries agreed to normalize relations, but the issue of the name remained unresolved and negotiations for a solution are ongoing. Since 2004, the United States and over 130 other nations have recognized Macedonia by its constitutional name, Republic of Macedonia. Some ethnic Albanians, angered by perceived political and economic inequities, launched an insurgency in 2001 that eventually won the support of the majority of Macedonia's ethnic Albanian population and led to the internationally brokered Ohrid Framework Agreement, which ended the fighting and established guidelines for the creation of new laws that enhanced the rights of minorities. Fully implementing the Framework Agreement, maintaining momentum on democratic reforms, and stimulating economic growth and development continue to be challenges for Macedonia, although progress has been made over the past several years. Location: Southeastern Europe, north of Greece Geographic coordinates: 41 50 N, 22 00 E Map references: Area: total: 25,713 sq km country comparison to the world: 150 land: 25,433 sq km water: 280 sq km Area - comparative: slightly larger than Vermont Land boundaries: total: 766 km border countries: Albania 151 km, Bulgaria 148 km, Greece 246 km, Kosovo 159 km, Serbia 62 km Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) Maritime claims: none (landlocked)

Climate: warm, dry summers and autumns; relatively cold winters with heavy snowfall Terrain: mountainous territory covered with deep basins and valleys; three large lakes, each divided by a frontier line; country bisected by the Vardar River Elevation extremes: lowest point: Vardar River 50 m highest point: Golem Korab (Maja e Korabit) 2,764 m Natural resources: low-grade iron ore, copper, lead, zinc, chromite, manganese, nickel, tungsten, gold, silver, asbestos, gypsum, tim ber, arable land Land use: arable land: 16.1% permanent crops: 1.36% other: 82.54% (2011) Irrigated land: 1,278 sq km (2004) Total renewable water resources: 6.4 cu km (2011) Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): total: 1.03 cu km/yr (21%/67%/12%) per capita: 502 cu m/yr (2007) Natural hazards: high seismic risks Environment - current issues: air pollution from metallurgical plants Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, W etlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements Geography - note: landlocked; major transportation corridor from Western and Central Europe to Aegean Sea and Southern Europe to Western Europe Nationality: noun: Macedonian(s) adjective: Macedonian Ethnic groups: Macedonian 64.2%, Albanian 25.2%, Turkish 3.9%, Roma (Gypsy) 2.7%, Serb 1.8%, other 2.2% (2002 census) Languages: Macedonian (official) 66.5%, Albanian (official) 25.1%, Turkish 3.5%, Roma 1.9%, Serbian 1.2%, other 1.8% (2002 census) Religions: Macedonian Orthodox 64.7%, Muslim 33.3%, other Christian 0.37%, other and unspecified 1.63% (2002 census) Population: 2,087,171 (July 2013 est.) country comparison to the world: 146 Age structure:

0-14 years: 17.9% (male 193,507/female 180,157) 15-24 years: 14.3% (male 154,084/female 144,908) 25-54 years: 43.8% (male 463,282/female 450,261) 55-64 years: 11.9% (male 121,097/female 127,742) 65 years and over: 12.1% (male 108,324/female 143,809) (2013 est.) population pyramid: Dependency ratios: total dependency ratio: 40.9 % youth dependency ratio: 23.5 % elderly dependency ratio: 17.4 % potential support ratio: 5.7 (2013) Median age: total: 36.5 years male: 35.4 years female: 37.6 years (2013 est.) Population growth rate: 0.22% (2013 est.) country comparison to the world: 175 Birth rate: 11.72 births/1,000 population (2013 est.) country comparison to the world: 167 Death rate: 9 deaths/1,000 population (2013 est.) country comparison to the world: 67 Net migration rate: -0.48 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2013 est.) country comparison to the world: 135 Urbanization: urban population: 59% of total population (2010) rate of urbanization: 0.3% annual rate of change (2010-15 est.) Major urban areas - population: SKOPJE (capital) 480,000 (2009) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.08 male(s)/female 0-14 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 15-24 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 25-54 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 55-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.75 male(s)/female total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2013 est.) Mother's mean age at first birth: 26 (2010 est.) Maternal mortality rate: 10 deaths/100,000 live births (2010) country comparison to the world: 154 Infant mortality rate: total: 8.11 deaths/1,000 live births country comparison to the world: 156 male: 8.35 deaths/1,000 live births female: 7.85 deaths/1,000 live births (2013 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 75.58 years country comparison to the world: 91 male: 73.03 years

female: 78.33 years (2013 est.) Total fertility rate: 1.59 children born/woman (2013 est.) country comparison to the world: 179 Health expenditures: 6.6% of GDP (2011) country comparison to the world: 94 Physicians density: 2.624 physicians/1,000 population (2009) Hospital bed density: 4.6 beds/1,000 population (2010) Drinking water source: improved: urban: 100% of population rural: 99% of population total: 100% of population unimproved: urban: 0% of population rural: 1% of population total: 0% of population (2010 est.) Sanitation facility access: improved: urban: 92% of population rural: 82% of population total: 88% of population unimproved: urban: 8% of population rural: 18% of population total: 12% of population (2010 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2007 est.) country comparison to the world: 146 HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: fewer than 200 (2007 est.) country comparison to the world: 158 HIV/AIDS - deaths: fewer than 100 (2003 est.) country comparison to the world: 134 Obesity - adult prevalence rate: 21.1% (2008) country comparison to the world: 92 Children under the age of 5 years underweight: 1.8% (2005) country comparison to the world: 120 Education expenditures: NA Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 97.4% male: 98.7% female: 96% (2011 est.) School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education): total: 13 years

male: 13 years female: 14 years (2010) Child labor - children ages 5-14: total number: 16,782 percentage: 6 % (2005 est.) Unemployment, youth ages 15-24: total: 55.3% country comparison to the world: 4 male: 55.7% female: 54.8% (2011) Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Macedonia conventional short form: Macedonia local long form: Republika Makedonija local short form: Makedonija note: the provisional designation used by the UN, EU, and NATO is the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" (FYROM) former: People's Republic of Macedonia, Socialist Republic of Macedonia Government type: parliamentary democracy Capital: name: Skopje geographic coordinates: 42 00 N, 21 26 E time difference: UTC+1 (6 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time) daylight saving time: +1hr, begins last Sunday in March; ends last Sunday in October Administrative divisions: 71 municipalities (opstini, singular - opstina); Aracinovo, Berovo, Bitola, Bogdanci, Bogovinje, Bosilovo, Brvenica, Caska, Centar Zupa, Cesinovo-Oblesevo, Cucer Sandevo, Debar, Debarca, Delcevo, Demir Hisar, Demir Kapija, Dojran, Dolneni, Gevgelija, Gostivar, Grad Skopje, Gradsko, Ilinden, Jegunovce, Karbinci, Kavadarci, Kicevo, Kocani, Konce, Kratovo, Kriva Palanka, Krivogastani, Krusevo, Kumanovo, Lipkovo, Lozovo, Makedonska Kamenica, Makedonski Brod, Mavrovo i Rostusa, Mogila, Negotino, Novaci, Novo Selo, Ohrid, Pehcevo, Petrovec, Plasnica, Prilep, Probistip, Radovis, Rankovce, Resen, Rosoman, Sopiste, Staro Nagoricane, Stip, Struga, Strumica, Studenicani, Sveti Nikole, Tearce, Tetovo, Valandovo, Vasilevo, Veles, Vevcani, Vinica, Vrapciste, Zelenikovo, Zelino, Zrnovci Independence: 8 September 1991 (referendum by registered voters endorsed independence from Yugoslavia) National holiday: Independence Day, 8 September (1991); also known as National Day Constitution: adopted 17 November 1991, effective 20 November 1991; amended November 2001, 2005, and in 2009 note: amended November 2001 by a series of new constitutional amendments strengthening minority rights, in

2005 with amendments related to the judiciary, and in 2009 with amendments related to the threshold required to elect the president Legal system: civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts International law organization participation: has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; accepts ICCt jurisdiction Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal Executive branch: chief of state: President Gjorge IVANOV (since 12 May 2009) head of government: Prime Minister Nikola GRUEVSKI (since 26 August 2006) cabinet: Council of Ministers elected by the majority vote of all the deputies in the Assembly; note - current cabinet formed by the government coalition parties VMRO -DPMNE, BDI, and several small parties (For more information visit the World Leaders website ) elections: president elected by popular vote for a five -year term (eligible for a second term); two-round election: first round held on 22 March 2009, second round held on 5 April 2009 (next to be held in March 2014); prim e minister elected by the Assembly following legislative elections; the leader of the majority party or majority coalition usually elected prime minister election results: Gjorge IVANOV elected president on second-round ballot; percent of vote - Gjorge IVANOV 63.1%, Ljubomir FRCKOSKI 36.9% Legislative branch: unicameral Assembly or Sobranie (123 sea ts; all members elected by popular vote from party lists based on the percentage of the overall vote the parties gain in each of six electoral and three diaspora districts; members serve four-year terms) elections: last held on 5 June 2011 (next to be held by June 2015) election results: percent of vote by party - VMRO-DPMNEled block 39%, SDSM-led block 32.8%, BDI 10.2%, PDSh 5.9%, other 12.1%; seats by party - VMRO-DPMNE-led block 56, SDSM-led block 42, BDI 15, PDSh 8, RDK 2 Judicial branch: highest court(s): Supreme Court (consist of NA judges); Constitutional Court (consists of 9 judges) judge selection and term of office: Supreme Court judges nominated by the Judicial Council, a 7-member body of legal professionals, and appointed by the Assembly; judge tenure NA; Constitutional Court judges appointed by the legislature for nonrenewable, 9-year terms subordinate courts: Courts of Appeal; Basic Courts Political parties and leaders: Albanian Democratic Union or BDSh [Bardhyl MAHMUTI] Democratic League of Bosniaks in Macedonia [Rafet MUMINOVIC] Democratic Party of Serbs in Macedonia or DPSM [Ivan

STOILJKOVIC] Democratic Party of the Albanians or PDSh [Menduh THACI] Democratic Party of Turks of Macedonia or DPTM [Kenan HASIPI] Democratic Renewal of Macedonia or DOM [Liljana POPOVSKA] Democratic Union or DS [Pavle TRAJANOV] Democratic Union for Integration or BDI [Ali AHMETI] Dosoinstvo (Diginity) [Stojance ANGELOV] Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity or VMRO DPMNE [Nikola GRUEVSKI] Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization - People's Party or VMRO-NP [Ljubco GEORGIEVSKI] Liberal Democratic Party or LDP [Andrej ZENOVSKI] Liberal Party of Macedonia or LP [Ivon VELICKOVSKI] Movement for Turkish National Union [Erdogan SARAC] National Democratic Revival or RDK [Rufi OSMANI] New Democracy or ND [Imer SELMANI] New Social-Democratic Party or NSDP [Tito PETKOVSKI] Party for Democratic Action of Macedonia or SDA [Avdija PEPIC] Party for the Total Emancipation of Roma or PCER [Samka IBRAIMOVSKI] Party of United Democrats of Macedonia or PODEM [Zivko JANKULOVSKI] Party on European Future or PEI [Fijat CANOSKI] Serbian Progressive Party in Macedonia or SPSM [Dragisha MILETIC] Social Democratic Union of Macedonia or SDSM [Branko CRVENKOVSKI] Socialist Party of Macedonia or SP [Ljubisav IVNAOV DZINGO] Union of Roma of Macedonia or SR [Amdi BAJRAM] United for Macedonia or OM [Ljube BOSKOSKI] Political pressure groups and leaders: Federation of Free Trade Unions [Mirjana ANDREVSKA] Federation of Trade Unions [Zivko MITREVSKI] Trade Union of Education, Science and Culture [Jakim NEDELKOV] International organization participation: BIS, CD, CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, EU (candidate country), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (NGOs), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM ( observer), IPU, ISO, ITU, ITUC (NGOs), MIGA, OAS (observer), OIF, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, SELEC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, W MO, WTO Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Zoran JOLEVSKI (since 22 March 2007) chancery: 2129 W yoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 667-0501 FAX: [1] (202) 667-2131 consulate(s) general: Chicago, New York, Southfield (MI) Diplomatic representation from the US:

chief of mission: Ambassador Paul D. WOHLERS (since 11 August 2011) embassy: Str. Samolilova, Nr. 21, 1000 Skopje mailing address: American Embassy Skopje, US Department of State, 7120 Skopje Place, Washington, DC 20521 -7120 (pouch) telephone: [389] (2) 310-2000 FAX: [389] (2) 310-2499 Flag description: a yellow sun (the Sun of Liberty) with eight broadening rays extending to the edges of the red field; the red and yellow colors have long been associated with Macedonia National symbol(s): eight-rayed sun National anthem: name: "Denes Nad Makedonija" (Today Over Macedonia) lyrics/music: Vlado MALESKI/Todor SKALOVSKI note: adopted 1991; the song, written in 1943, previously served as the anthem of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia while part of Yugoslavia Economy - overview: Macedonia is vulnerable to economic developments in Europe-due to strong trade tiesand dependent on regional integration and progress toward EU membership for continued economic growth. At independence in September 1991, Macedonia was the least developed of the Yugoslav republic s, producing a mere 5% of the total federal output of goods and services. The collapse of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ended transfer payments from the central government and eliminated advantages from inclusion in a de facto free trade are a. An absence of infrastructure, UN sanctions on the downsized Yugoslavia, and a Greek economic embargo over a dispute about the country's constitutional name and flag hindered economic growth until 1996. Since then, Macedonia has maintained macroeconomic stability with low inflation, but it has so far lagged the region in attracting foreign investment and creating jobs, despite making extensive fiscal and business sector reforms. Official unemployment has remained consistently high at more than 31% since 2 008, but may be overstated based on the existence of an extensive gray market, estimated to be between 20% and 45% of GDP, that is not captured by official statistics. In the wake of the global economic downturn, Macedonia has experienced decreased foreign direct investment and a large trade deficit. However, as a result of conservative fiscal policies and a sound financial system, in 2010 the country credit rating improved slightly to BB+ and was kept at that level in 2011-12. However, macroeconomic stabil ity has been maintained by a prudent monetary policy, which keeps the domestic currency pegged against the euro. As a result, GDP growth was modest, but positive at about 3% both in 2010 and 2011, and inflation was under control. The government loosened fi scal policy in 2012 and the budget deficit expanded to 3.5% of GDP. GDP (purchasing power parity): $22.22 billion (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 126 $22.28 billion (2011 est.) $21.66 billion (2010 est.) note: data are in 2012 US dollars; Macedonia has a large informal sector that may not be reflected in these data GDP (official exchange rate): $9.676 billion (2012 est.) GDP - real growth rate: -0.3% (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 188

2.9% (2011 est.) 2.9% (2010 est.) GDP - per capita (PPP): $10,800 (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 112 $10,800 (2011 est.) $10,500 (2010 est.) note: data are in 2012 US dollars Gross national saving: 24.2% of GDP (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 47 24.5% of GDP (2011 est.) 23.4% of GDP (2010 est.) GDP - composition, by end use: household consumption: 75.3% government consumption: 18.2% investment in fixed capital: 21.8% investment in inventories: 7% exports of goods and services: 52.9% imports of goods and services: -75.1% (2012 est.) GDP - composition, by sector of origin: agriculture: 11.4% industry: 25.8% services: 62.8% (2012 est.) Agriculture - products: grapes, tobacco, vegetables, fruits; milk, eggs Industries: food processing, beverages, textiles, chemicals, iron, steel, cement, energy, pharmaceuticals Industrial production growth rate: -2.5% (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 157 Labor force: 936,000 (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 144 Labor force - by occupation: agriculture: 16.7% industry: 26% services: 57.3% (September 2012) Unemployment rate: 31.3% (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 183 31.4% (2011 est.) Population below poverty line: 30.4% (2011) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.2% highest 10%: 34.5% (2009 est.) Distribution of family income - Gini index: 43.2 (2009) country comparison to the world: 48 39 (2003) Budget:

revenues: $2.883 billion expenditures: $3.254 billion (2012 est.) Taxes and other revenues: 29.8% of GDP (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 91 Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-): -3.8% of GDP (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 136 Public debt: 33.8% of GDP (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 108 27.8% of GDP (2011 est.) note: official data from Ministry of Finance; data cover central government debt; this data excludes debt instruments issued (or owned) by government entities other than the treasury; includes treasury debt held by foreign entitites; excludes debt issued by sub national entities, as well as intra-governmental debt; there are no debt instruments sold for social funds Fiscal year: calendar year Inflation rate (consumer prices): 3.1% (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 96 3.9% (2011 est.) Central bank discount rate: 3.75% (31 December 2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 96 4% (31 December 2011 est.) note: series discontinued in January 2010; the discount rate has been replaced by a referent rate for calculating the penalty rate Commercial bank prime lending rate: 8.48% (31 December 2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 105 8.87% (31 December 2011 est.) Stock of narrow money: $1.413 billion (31 December 2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 136 $1.29 billion (31 December 2011 est.) Stock of broad money: $5.709 billion (31 December 2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 124 $5.34 billion (31 December 2011 est.) Stock of domestic credit: $4.821 billion (31 December 2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 118 $4.418 billion (31 December 2011 est.) Market value of publicly traded shares: $2.423 billion (31 December 2012) country comparison to the world: 94 $2.495 billion (31 December 2011) $2.647 billion (31 December 2010) Current account balance: -$323 million (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 84 -$273.5 million (2011 est.) Exports:

$4.064 billion (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 121 $4.429 billion (2011 est.) Exports - commodities: food, beverages, tobacco; textiles, miscellaneous manufactures, iron, steel; automotive parts Exports - partners: Germany 25.5%, Italy 6.1%, Bulgaria 5.2%, Greece 4.5% (2012) Imports: $6.229 billion (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 118 $6.759 billion (2011 est.) Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, automobiles, chemicals, fuels, food products Imports - partners: Greece 17.7%, Germany 11.5%, UK 9.3%, Bulgaria 8.7%, Italy 5%, Turkey 4.8% (2012) Reserves of foreign exchange and gold: $2.891 billion (31 December 2012 est. ) country comparison to the world: 111 $2.677 billion (31 December 2011 est.) Debt - external: $6.807 billion (31 December 2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 111 $6.271 billion (31 December 2011 est.) Stock of direct foreign investment - at home: $4.284 billion (31 December 2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 88 $4.229 billion (31 December 2011 est.) Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad: $564 million (31 December 2009 est.) Exchange rates: Macedonian denars (MKD) per US dollar 47.89 (2012 est.) 44.231 (2011 est.) 46.485 (2010 est.) 44.1 (2009) 41.414 (2008) Electricity - production: 5.81 billion kWh (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 111 Electricity - consumption: 7.25 billion kWh (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 98 Electricity - exports: 12.82 million kWh (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 83 Electricity - imports: 2.692 billion kWh (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 46 Electricity - installed generating capacity: 1.94 million kW (2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 102 Electricity - from fossil fuels:

65.7% of total installed capacity (2009 est.) country comparison to the world: 123 Electricity - from nuclear fuels: 0% of total installed capacity (2009 est.) country comparison to the world: 136 Electricity - from hydroelectric plants: 34.3% of total installed capacity (2009 est.) country comparison to the world: 63 Electricity - from other renewable sources: 0% of total installed capacity (2009 est.) country comparison to the world: 157 Crude oil - production: 0 bbl/day (2012) country comparison to the world: 164 Crude oil - exports: 0 bbl/day (2012) country comparison to the world: 150 Crude oil - imports: 18,800 bbl/day (2012) country comparison to the world: 70 Crude oil - proved reserves: 0 bbl (1 January 2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 163 Refined petroleum products - production: 21,280 bbl/day (2008 est.) country comparison to the world: 95 Refined petroleum products - consumption: 17,490 bbl/day (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 136 Refined petroleum products - exports: 8,594 bbl/day (2010 est.) country comparison to the world: 88 Refined petroleum products - imports: 21,530 bbl/day (2010 est.) country comparison to the world: 103 Natural gas - production: 0 cu m (2012) country comparison to the world: 164 Natural gas - consumption: 136.6 million cu m (2011) country comparison to the world: 102 Natural gas - exports: 0 cu m (2012) country comparison to the world: 143 Natural gas - imports: 136.6 million cu m (2012) country comparison to the world: 70 Natural gas - proved reserves: 0 cu m (1 January 2012 est.) country comparison to the world: 168 Carbon dioxide emissions from consumption of energy: 8.231 million Mt (2010 est.) country comparison to the world: 107

Telephones - main lines in use: 407,900 (2012) country comparison to the world: 103 Telephones - mobile cellular: 2.235 million (2012) country comparison to the world: 142 Telephone system: general assessment: competition from the mobile-cellular segment of the telecommunications market has led to a drop in fixed-line telephone subscriptions domestic: combined fixed-line and mobile-cellular telephone subscribership about 130 per 100 persons international: country code - 389 (2012) Broadcast media: public TV broadcaster operates 3 national channels and a satellite network; 5 privately owned TV channels broadcast nationally usi ng terrestrial transmitters and about 15 broadcast on national level via satellite; roughly 75 local commercial TV stations; large number of cable operators offering domestic and international programming; public radio broadcaster operates over multiple stations; 3 privately owned radio stations broadcast nationally; about 70 local commercial radio stations (2012) Internet country code: .mk Internet hosts: 62,826 (2012) country comparison to the world: 92 Internet users: 1.057 million (2009) country comparison to the world: 97 Airports: 10 (2013) country comparison to the world: 155 Airports - with paved runways: total: 8 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 under 914 m: 6 (2013) Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (2013) Pipelines: gas 268 km; oil 120 km (2013) Railways: total: 699 km country comparison to the world: 100 standard gauge: 699 km 1.435-m gauge (234 km electrified) (2012) Roadways: total: 14,038 km (includes 259 km of expressways) country comparison to the world: 124 paved: 9,489 km unpaved: 4,549 km (2012) Military branches: Army of the Republic of Macedonia (ARM; includes General Staff and subordinate Joint

Operational Command, Training and Doctrine Command, Special Operations Regiment) (2012) Military service age and obligation: 18 years of age for voluntary military service; conscription abolished in 2008 (2013) Manpower available for military service: males age 16-49: 532,196 females age 16-49: 511,964 (2010 est.) Manpower fit for military service: males age 16-49: 443,843 females age 16-49: 426,251 (2010 est.) Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually: male: 16,144 female: 14,920 (2010 est.) Military expenditures: 6% of GDP (2005 est.) country comparison to the world: 11 Disputes - international: Kosovo and Macedonia completed demarcation of their boundary in September 2008; Greece continues to reject the use of the name Macedonia or Republic of Macedonia Refugees and internally displaced persons: stateless persons: 905 (2012) Illicit drugs: major transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and hashish; minor transit point for South American cocaine destined for Europe; although not a financial center and most criminal activity is thought to be domestic, money laundering is a problem due to a mostly cash-based economy and weak enforcement

Government of the Republic of Macedonia

U.S. Department of State: Macedonia U.S.-MACEDONIA RELATIONS Macedonia and the United States enjoy a cooperative relationship across a broad range of political, economic, cultural, military, and social issues. The two have had good bilateral relations since Macedonia gained its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991. The United States formally recognized Macedonia in 1994, and the countries established full diplomatic relations in 1995. The United States strongly supports Macedonia's aspirations for full integration into Euro-Atlantic institutions and is committed to helping Macedonia strengthen rule of law; improve education; promote media freedom; and build greater democratic foundations in a full, inclusive multi-ethnic society. The United States and its European allies acted swiftly to mediate an end to the 2001 civil conflict in Macedonia, which grew from ethnic tensions, and closely supported the government and major parties' successful efforts to forge a peaceful, political solution to the crisis through the Ohrid Framework Agreement. In partnership with the European Union and other international organizations active in Macedonia, the United States continues to facilitate the Macedonian Government's implementation of the Framework Agreement and fostering long-term peace and stability in the country. For the text of the 2008 bilateral Declaration of Strategic Partnership and Cooperation, please see http://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eur/rls/or/104441.htm. U.S. Assistance to Macedonia U.S. Government assistance to Macedonia focuses on facilitating Macedonia’s continued development on the path toward full integration into the Euro-Atlantic community and assisting the

Macedonian Government’s efforts to sustain economic and democratic reforms to build stability and prosperity. A fact sheet on U.S. assistance to Macedonia can be found here. Bilateral Economic Relations The United States supports Macedonia's transition to a market-oriented economy. Macedonia is a member of the World Trade Organization seeks to join the European Union (EU); a starting date for accession negotiations has been deferred by the EU. In 2010, total trade between Macedonia and the United States was $116.6 million, and in the first 8 months of 2011 it was $65 million. U.S. electrical machinery and equipment have been particularly attractive to Macedonian importers. Principal Macedonian exports to the United States are tobacco, apparel, iron, and steel. Macedonia's Membership in International Organizations Macedonia and the United States belong to a number of the same international organizations, including the United Nations, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Adriatic Charter, International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organization. Macedonia seeks to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and is a candidate country for the European Union. In 2008, NATO Allies determined that Macedonia met NATO membership criteria and undertook to invite Macedonia to join NATO as soon as a solution is reached to the naming dispute with NATO member Greece. This decision has been reiterated at subsequent NATO Summits. Macedonia continues to make an important contribution to regional stability by supporting the logistical supply of NATO (including U.S.) peacekeepers in Kosovo. Macedonia participated in OIF and currently participates in ISAF, the EU Althea Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the UN’s observer mission in Lebanon. Bilateral Representation The U.S. Ambassador to Macedonia is Paul Wohlers; other principal embassy officials are listed in the Department'sKey Officers List. Macedonia maintains an embassy in the United States at 2129 Wyoming Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel: (202) 667-0501).

Declaration of Strategic Partnership and Cooperation Between the United States of America and the Republic of Macedonia
Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs Washington, DC May 7, 2008 The United States of America and the Republic of Macedonia are determined to expand and deepen the close partnership between the two countries based upon common goals, interests, and values. The two countries wish to enhance their strategic relationship through intensified consultation and cooperation in the areas of security, people-to-people ties, and commerce. The United States and Macedonia reaffirm their support for the principles of sovereignty and territorial integrity of states, the purposes and principles of the UN charter, and a unitary, multiethnic Macedonia within its existing borders. Macedonia and the United States note that a democratic, secure and prosperous Macedonia, with friendly and constructive relations with its neighbors and as an active participant in regional and international economic, political and security fora, is vital to peace and stability in Southeast Europe. In this regard, the United States continues to support Macedonia’s security, stability and economic development. In the interest of an intensified partnership, the United States intends to immediately provide additional assistance to Macedonia to help build prosperity, strengthen security, and foster deeper ties between our two countries. Macedonia expresses deep appreciation to the U.S. for its assistance to date in helping the Macedonian people as they work to institutionalize and make permanent a democratic process that realizes our shared values of peace, freedom, the rule of law, and a free market economy. Macedonia also recognizes and reaffirms the support from the U.S. in reforming and strengthening its armed forces. Building on our existing strong partnership in the fight against global terrorism and promoting international stability, demonstrated by our troops serving together in Iraq and Afghanistan, our civilian and military officials plan to intensify their bilateral high-level contacts and seek increased joint

training and exercise opportunities to enhance the inter-operability of our forces, and strengthen our partnership in promoting international security and non-proliferation. Sharing a desire to expand trade and investment, the United States and Macedonia will seek to enhance their economic ties and undertake additional measures to strengthen the competitiveness of Macedonia’s economy and expand opportunities for United States and Macedonian businesses. The United States supports Macedonia’s ongoing efforts to build a business-friendly environment attractive to United States and other foreign investment. Macedonia expresses its appreciation for the opportunity to utilize GSP to strengthen bilateral trade. Both countries encourage the further expansion of their trade relations. Macedonia expresses satisfaction with the successful implementation of the USAID technical assistance programs in the areas of democracy, economic growth and education and reaffirms its desire for cooperation in these areas to continue. The two countries also seek to build closer and more robust bonds between their citizens and will undertake practical measures to promote educational and cultural exchange. The NATO Summit Declaration in Bucharest made clear that the Republic of Macedonia has met NATO’s democratic, economic, and defense standards through its rigorous participation in the Membership Action Plan. The United States continues to work with our NATO Allies to maintain Macedonia’s robust cooperation with NATO under existing mechanisms, while it awaits a membership invitation. Both countries look forward to Macedonia joining NATO as soon as possible. Our intensified cooperation at this time will further strengthen Macedonia’s readiness to take on Alliance obligations and responsibilities in the near future. Signed at Washington May 7, 2008. For the United States of America For the Republic of Macedonia

More information about Macedonia is available from the Department of State and other sources, some of which are listed here: Department of State Macedonia Page Department of State Key Officers List CIA World Factbook Macedonia Page U.S. Embassy: Macedonia USAID Macedonia Page History of U.S. Relations With Macedonia Human Rights Reports International Religious Freedom Reports Trafficking in Persons Reports Narcotics Control Reports U.S. Census Bureau Foreign Trade Statistics Export.gov International Offices Page Library of Congress Country Studies (see Yugoslavia (Former)) Travel and Business Information



CRW Flags - Flag of Macedonia, Greece

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Flag of Macedonia - Image by Željko Heimer, 26 June 2005 Flag adopted 5 October 1995, coat of arms adopted 31 December 1946. Proportion: 1:2. Description: Red field with a golden sun in the middle, with eight rays thickening towards the end. Designer: Pr. Miroslav Grcev. Use: on land, as the civil, state and war flag. Colour approximate specifications (Album des Pavillons [pay00]): Red: Pantone 485c / CMYK (%) 0-100-90-0 Yellow: Pantone 108c / CMYK (%) 0-0-100-0

History of the flag of Macedonia
Since its creation as a state in 1945, the Republic of Macedonia has used three flags. The first flag dates back to 1945 and the People's Republic of Macedonia, part of the People's Federative Republic of Yugoslavia; it is red with a red five-pointed star outlined in yellow in the canton. The "Sun of Vergina" flag, dated 1992, is red with a yellow 16-pointed sun, that Greece claimed is the "Sun of Vergina", found on the sarcophagus believed to belong to Philip, King of Macedonia. After the controversy with Greece, the flag was replaced in 1995 by the present one, called the "Macedonian Sun", again yellow on red. The (then) biggest opposition party VMRO-DPMNE did not accept this change and continued to use the old flag, which was flown in every municipality with a VMRO-DPMNE majority in its councils, till the local election in 1998. Jovan Jonovski (President of the Macedonian Heraldry Society), 24 June 2004 These days, top themes in Macedonian medias are expecting NATO membership and a possible veto from Greece. In that context, unofficially, was mentioned that one of the measures that Macedonian government would take as a response will be the return of the previous flag (1992-1995) as the national flag. Valentin Poposki, 11 February 2008

The process of adoption of the current flag of Macedonia
In his book Znaci i ornamenti (Muzej na sovremena umetnost, Skopje 2005), Pr. Grcev (b. 1955, Professor of Urban Planning at the Faculty of Architecture of Skoplje) provides his original flag proposal and the construction sheet. The flag was designed to be in proportions 5:8 (being a nice approximation of the Golden section Φ, according to Grcev, with the mesh of 10 x 16 squares (let's call this length A) providing for the design elements - the central disk was to be circumscribing the central four such squares (i.e. having diameter of A*sqrt(2) ) while the eight yellow rays were to be triangles - the vertical rays with apexes in the centre of the flag and bases 2 Along, the horizontal rays with apexes one A away from the centre in opposite direction and bases also 2 A long. The diagonal rays had apexes in opposite corners of a rectangle 2 A wide and 1.25 A high (i.e. having diagonals matching the diagonals of the flag!) while having base 3 A long along the top and bottom edges and touching the host and fly edges - so that the flag diagonals from the division lines between red and yellow there.

Apparently the Parliament (or probably some of its committees) decided to amend the overall proportions and added the red ring around the sun disk. Željko Heimer, 12 February 2009 On 20 September 1995, Nova Makedonija writes that the Republic of Macedonia will have a new national flag as soon as 5 October, when the Parliament session on the issue is to take place. The paper states two options for the flag, both having red color as a background and a golden-yellow symbol as a central figure. The first solution for the symbol would be a rising or setting half-sun, while the second will be a sun with rays going horizontally, vertically or diagonally across the flag. The paper also says that parties included in Parliament are already discussing the possible look of the new flag. Sources close to the Macedonian Parliament presidency say that next Thursday or Friday, a procedure is to begin at Parliament to adopt a new flag. Along with the flag, the Parlament will discuss about the already forgotten law on a national coat of arms. The dynamics of activities at the session has not yet been precisely determined, but the procedure will be designed so that it is completed before the 30-day deadline, defined in last week's agreement Macedonia signed with Greece in New York. As days are numbered, the 16-sun-rays flag that represented Macedonia since August 1992 will be replaced in a short procedure. Meaning, the proposal to pass a new law on the flag, as a first stage, will be presented at the same time with the definite version of the suggested law, which is a third stage. In this way, the Parliament will skip over the usual practice to debate over a draft law. Thus shortened, the procedure will enable the Parliament to get the entire matter completed in a single day. Under the current procedural regulations, however, a Parliament session cannot be scheduled before 15 days after the procedure has been started. As far as the procedure goes, there are announcements that the Government will not be the one to come up with a suggested solution, but the proposal is to come from a group of parliamentarians. The intention is to have a group of members of Parliament including elements from all the parliamentary groups. The suggestion will first of all be discussed by the Constitutional Commission and will then be proceeded to the Parliament. Another option is to have the Parliament signatories proposing a solution determined by the Constitutional Commission. The basis for deciding on the new flag, sources inform, will be the suggestions that were chosen during the open competition three years ago, when independent national symbols were designed for the first time. The following six ideas were then bought out: MAKO by Dimko Krstevski, Phoenix 92 by Kostadin Tancev, 5222 by Branko Kostovski, A-OPULSI 68 by Ilija Spasovski, Makedonija 992 by Aco Mitrevski and 08002 by Milivoj Gruevski. Over 100 ideas entered the competition in 1992, with the red and golden-yellow colors as predominating features. The most frequently suggested symbol was the sun, drawn in all kinds of stylized shapes. Upon a proposal of the jury, the Constitutional Commission members voted by a majority of votes in favor of the suggested red flag with a many-rayed sun in the middle. It is these two elements that have led many spectators to believe the new flag will also have red color as a basic one and again a golden sun as a center symbol, only this time in quite a different shape than the current one. Some even point out to three suggestions as the most serious candidates. The opening of the procedure for replacement of the national flag will also be used to decide on a national coat of arms. The previous Parliament failed to provide the required 80 votes in favor to adopt this symbol. The matter then stopped at an argument between the Constitutional Commission and the VMRO-DPMNE parliamentarian group. The Commission's suggestion was to have a golden many-rayed sun in the middle (an application of it's suggestion for the flag), whereas the VMRODPMNE deputies insisted on a lion as a central figure. Neither suggestion was given the necessary two-thirds majority of votes and the issue was dropped and left for better times in the future. It should be pointed out here, however, that the SDSM member of Parliament Nikola Popovski did initiate a procedure on the coat of arms as early as last spring. His idea was to keep the old coat of arms but without the five-pointed star. Some say that his suggestion will be in the race along with the most successful ideas of the 1992 open competition. Unofficial sources even say that the new flag symbol will also appear on the national coat of arms. As A1 TV informs, calling on its sources, the new symbol on the Macedonian flag most probably will be a sun with eight sunrays on a red base. Meantime, there are two possible variants for the flag, the difference being the length of the sunrays. Proposers of the new symbol are a group of

delegates of the election coalition Alliance for Macedonia and their number may be over 80 parliamentarians. Source: MIC reports, 20 September 1995 (searchable database), retrieved by Andrej Brodnik, 21 September 1995

The national symbols of Macedonia in the Constitution
According to Constitutions: What they tell us about national flags and coats of arms [vap00], the national flag, arms and anthem of Macedonia are prescribed in the Constitution as follows: Article 5. The state symbols of the Republic of Macedonia are the coat of arms, the flag and the national anthem. The coat of arms, the flag and the national anthem of the Republic of Macedonia are adopted by law by a two-thirds majority vote of the total number of Assembly Representatives. Ivan Sache, 5 March 2002

The law on the flag
Act on the Flag of the Republic of Macedonia adopted by the Assembly of the Republic of Macedonia on its session held on 5 October 1995, proclaimed the same day by Decree No 08-3359/1 Article 1. This Act establishes the flag of the Republic of Macedonia. Article 2. The flag of the Republic of Macedonia is red with a golden-yellow sun. The sun has eight rays, emerging from the sun disk, thickening towards the end. The sun rays are crossing diagonally, horizontally and vertically. The diameter of the sun-disk is equal to one-seventh of the length of the flag. The centre of the sun coincides with the intersection of the diagonals of the flag. The ratio between the width and the length of the flag is one to two. Article 3. The design illustration of the flag of the Republic of Macedonia is a constitutent part of this Act. Article 4. On the day this Act comes into effect the Act on the Flag of the Republic of Macedonia (Official Gazette of the Republic of Macedonia No 50/92) ceases to exist. Article 5. This Act comes into effect on the day of its publication in the Official Gazette of the Republic of Macedonia. Unoffical translation of Decree 08-3359/1, as published in Služben vesnik na Republika Makedonija (Official Gazette of the Republic of Macedonia), 6 October 1995.

Jos Poels, 21 November 1995

Construction sheet of the flag of Macedonia - Reconstruction after the law by Željko Heimer,
26 June 2005 Using a flag sheet of 140 x 280 units, so not to have fractions in dimension numbers, the overall dimensions and the sun disk diameter being 1/7 of the length (i.e. 40 units) are the only explicitly prescribed by the Law, the others have to be assumed from the drawing, so all others are reconstructions. Unfortunately, the law does not say anything about the width of the fimbriation around the disk, nor on the points where the sunrays end nor where they come to the flag edge. Apparently, the lines forming the edges of the sun rays that touch the hoist and fly edges do go through the sun disk center, while the remaining four lines crossing the top and four at bottom do not pass through the center, but rather touching concentric circles smaller then the sun disk. The width of the vertical rays at the edges, as well as the ose of the horizontal ray at their edges is 1/10 of the legth, i.e. 28 units. While the horizontal rays imaginary prolonged end in the center of the flag, the vertical rays end touching an imaginary circle with diameter half that of the sun dimaeter, i.e. 20 units. The diagonal sun rays have one edge matching the flag diagonals, while the other imaginary prolonged ends touching an other imaginary circle with diameter 1/8 of the sun disk diameter, i.e. five units. The width of the diagonal sun rays along the top and the bottom edges of the flag is 1.5 times the width of the vertical edges, i.e. 42 units. Finally, the diameter of the imaginary circle forming the outer edge of the red fimbriation around the sun disk is 50 units. Željko Heimer, 26 June 2005 The protocol manual for the London 2012 Olympics (Flags and Anthems Manual London 2012 [loc12]) provides recommendations for national flag designs. Each NOC was sent an image of the flag, including the PMS shades, for their approval by LOCOG. Once this was obtained, LOCOG produced a 60 x 90 cm version of the flag for further approval. So, while these specs may not be the official, government, version of each flag, they are certainly what the NOC believed the flag to be. For Macedonia (FYROM), PMS 485 red, 108 yellow. The vertical flag is simply the horizontal version

turned 90 degrees clockwise. Ian Sumner, 10 October 2012

Macedonia flag day
The Macedonia flag day was celebrated for the first time on 15 May 2010. Valentin Poposki, 10 August 2010

The biggest Macedonian flag
The biggest Macedonian flag ever has been made for the football match between Macedonia and England, played in Skopje on 6 September 2006. The flag is 28 m x 50 m long and weights about 200 kg. It is a cloth flag, which could be flown if there were a big enough pole. It was ordered by Skopska Pivara (Skopje Brewery) as a gift for the fans. There were photos of it in the daily newspapers, as it was lying across the southern part of the stadium in Skopje. Valentin Poposki, 7 September 2006

Images and brief descriptions of current and historical flagsof this southern Balkan state.

BRITANNICA WEB SITES

Articles from Britannica encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. Macedonia - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11) Macedonia is a small country in southeastern Europe. It is part of a region called the Balkans. Its capital is Skopje. Macedonia - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) A landlocked country in the Balkan region of southeastern Europe, the Republic of Macedonia incorporates a complex blend of cultural traditions from both Europe and Asia. Macedonia was one of Yugoslavia’s six constituent republics until it declared its independence in December 1991. The country of Macedonia accounts for less than half the territory of the historical and geographical region also known as Macedonia, which is divided among several states. The country is bounded by Serbia to the north, Bulgaria to the east, and Greece and Albania to the south. The capital of Macedonia is Skopje. Area 9,928 square miles (25,713 square kilometers). Population (2012 est.) 2,062,000.

List of Prime Ministers of the Republic of Macedonia

# 1

Name (BornŔDied) Emanuel Čučkov (1901Ŕ1967) Lazar Koliševski (1914Ŕ2001) Lazar Koliševski (1914Ŕ2001) Ljupčo Arsov (1910Ŕ1986) Aleksandar Grličkov (1923Ŕ1990) Nikola Minčev (1915Ŕ1997) Ksente Bogoev (1913Ŕ2008) Blagoj Popov (1920Ŕ1992) Dragoljub Stavrev (1932Ŕ2003) Gligorije Gogovski (1943Ŕ ) Nikola Kljusev (1927Ŕ2008) Branko Crvenkovski (1962Ŕ ) Ljubčo Georgievski (1966Ŕ ) Branko Crvenkovski (1962Ŕ ) Radmila Šekerinska (acting) (1972Ŕ ) Hari Kostov (1959Ŕ ) Radmila Šekerinska (acting) (1972Ŕ ) Vlado Bučkovski (1962Ŕ ) Nikola Gruevski (1970Ŕ )

Term of office Minister for Macedonia 7 March 1945-1945 Prime Minister 16 April 1945-1953 Chairmen of the Executive Council 1953-December 1953 Chairmen of the Executive Council December 1953-1961 Chairmen of the Executive Council 1961-1965 Chairmen of the Executive Council 1965-1968 Chairmen of the Executive Council 1968-March 1974 Chairmen of the Executive Council March 1974-29 April 1982 Chairmen of the Executive Council 29 April 1982-June 1986 Chairmen of the Executive Council June 1986-27 January 1991 Prime Ministers 27 January 1991-17 August 1992 Prime Ministers 17 August 1992-30 November 1998 Prime Ministers 30 November 1998-1 November 2002 Prime Ministers 1 November 2002-12 May 2004 Prime Ministers
12 May 2004-2 June 2004

Political Party Communist Party of Macedonia Communist Party of Macedonia (until 1952) League of Communists of Macedonia (from 1952 League of Communists of Macedonia League of Communists of Macedonia League of Communists of Macedonia League of Communists of Macedonia League of Communists of Macedonia League of Communists of Macedonia League of Communists of Macedonia League of Communists of Macedonia

2

3 4

Non-partisan Social Democratic Union of Macedonia Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization Ŕ Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity Social Democratic Union of Macedonia Social Democratic Union of Macedonia Non-partisan Social Democratic Union of Macedonia Social Democratic Union of Macedonia Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization Ŕ Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity

Prime Ministers 2 June 2004-18 November 2004 Prime Ministers 18 November 2004-17 December
2004

Prime Ministers 17 December 2004-27 August 2006 Prime Ministers 27 August 2006-Incumbent

YEAR IN REVIEW LINKS

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 2012)
Area: Population Capital: Head of state: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (2012 est.): 2,062,000 Skopje President Gjorge Ivanov

Head of government: Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski In 2012 interethnic relations in Macedonia reached their lowest point in a decade. The shooting in Gostivar of two ethnic Albanians by an ethnic-Macedonian policeman on February 28 led to the worst outbreak of ethnic violence in 10 years; it lasted two weeks, left dozens injured, and resulted in numerous arrests. In another incident five ethnic-Macedonian men were shot dead near Skopje on April 12. Police arrested 20 suspected Islamists, of whom five were charged with terrorism. These events triggered protests by both ethnic Macedonians and ethnic Albanians, which were again overshadowed by violence and arrests. Meanwhile, the ruling coalition faced an internal crisis when the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary OrganizationŕDemocratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMRO-DPMNE), the political party of Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski, proposed a law that would provide special rights for members of the armed forces and security services who fought in the 2001 interethnic conflict. The ethnic-AlbanianDemocratic Union for Integration (BDI) threatened to leave the coalition if members of the ethnic-Albanian National Liberation Army were not covered by the bill. In July, while the government was in crisis, Branko Crvenkovski, the leader of the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM), and Menduh Thaci, the leader of the Democratic Party of Albanians (PDSh), signed an agreement calling for their parties to cooperate in the 2013 municipal elections and in possible early parliamentary elections. The agreement unraveled in late October, however, when the SDSM chose not to support the PDSh mayoral candidate in Struga. On October 2 the SDSM tabled a no-confidence motion against the government, which was defeated on October 6, with 68 members of parliament having voted against it and 42 having voted for it. The media situation in Macedonia continued to be problematic. On March 14 Velija Ramkovski, who had lost ownership of several newspapers and A1 television, among other media outlets, was sentenced to 13 years in prison on charges that included tax evasion. Several codefendants received lesser sentences. Moreover, on June 13 the Broadcasting Council revoked the license of Ramkovski’s A2 television (the last of his major media holdings), an action that was decried by media professionals. The country’s dispute with Greece over Macedonia’s name remained unresolved. As a consequence and despite intense diplomatic efforts by the government, Macedonia’s bid to join NATO was left off the agenda of the alliance’s summit in Chicago in May. EU membership negotiations were equally hampered. A visit to Skopje by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon failed to help matters, and Gruevski’s insistence on holding a referendum on any proposed name change further contributed to the deadlock. On October 4 Greek Foreign Minister Dimitrios Avramopoulos proposed a memorandum of understanding between Athens and Skopje that would outline the framework for finding a solution to the dispute. Macedonia’s economy was expected to improve somewhat in 2012, with estimated GDP growth of 2%.Inflation was expected to drop to 2%; the government deficit was projected to be about 2.5%; andunemployment was predicted to remain very high at 31.2%. Kiro Gligorov, the first president of independent Macedonia, died on January 1, at age 94. On August 15 former PDSh chairman Arben Xhaferi, one of the most prominent ethnic-Albanian politicians, died at age 64.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 2011)

Area: Population Capital: Head of state:

25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (2011 est.): 2,060,000 Skopje President Gjorge Ivanov

Head of government: Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski Macedonia entered 2011 in a state of political crisis after raids on the privately owned television station A1 and three newspapers, along with the subsequent arrest of their owner, Velija Ramkovski, on criminal charges, including tax evasion. Opposition parties, media representatives, and nongovernmental organizations claimed that the move had been motivated by the antigovernment stance these media outlets had taken. In late January, after the outlets’ accounts were frozen, the opposition boycotted the parliament and demanded new parliamentary elections. The government forced the newspapers to suspend publication in early July and revoked the broadcasting license of A1. On July 31 the Broadcasting Council, dominated by the ruling parties, sacked the entire managing board of public Macedonian Radio-Television. Dunja Mijatovic of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe’s (OSCE’s) Freedom of the Media body stated that she was Ŗalarmed by the sharp decline of media freedom.ŗ The government initially rejected the opposition’s demand for elections, but on February 20 Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski of the ruling Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organizationŕ Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMROŔDPMNE) reversed that decision, and on April 14 the parliament was dissolved after having paved the way for new elections, which were called for June 5. The VMROŔDPMNE-led coalition won the elections with 39% of the vote but, having captured 56 seats, fell short of an outright majority. The opposition coalition led by the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM) increased its representation considerably to 42 seats, having garnered 32.8% of the vote. Three ethnic-Albanian parties also made their mark: the Democratic Union for Integration (BDI), with 10.2% of the vote and 15 seats; the Democratic Party of Albanians (PDSh), with 5.9% and 8 seats; and the newly formed National Democratic Revival (RDK), with 2.7% and 2 seats. For the first time, three MPs were elected by the diaspora. The OSCE and the Council of Europe concluded that the elections were Ŗcompetitive, transparent, and welladministered throughout the country, although certain aspects require attention.ŗ Gruevski renewed the coalition with the BDI, and the new government was approved by the parliament on July 28. The biggest change was the replacement of Foreign Minister Antonio Milososki (who left the government citing private and family reasons) by Nikola Popovski. Interethnic relations remained largely calm, despite a violent incident on February 13 in Skopje’s Kale fortress, where ethnic Macedonians and Albanians clashed over plans to build a museum in the shape of a church. In mid-October, however, the national census, which was already under way, was canceled after ethnicity-related disagreements over procedures resulted in the resignation of the census commission. Macedonia’s economy was expected to continue its slight upward trend, with GDP growth estimated at 3%. Inflation, however, was projected to increase to 5%. Unemployment was expected to remain extremely high at 32.2%. In foreign policy, the dispute over the country’s name with Greece was no closer to resolution, despite continued UN-brokered talks and a meeting between Gruevski and then Greek prime minister George Papandreou, at which both affirmed their political will to solve the problem. This issue continued to hold up negotiations over Macedonia’s membership in NATO and the EU.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 2010)

Area: Population Capital: Head of state:

25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (2010 est.): 2,051,000 Skopje President Gjorge Ivanov

Head of government: Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski On Jan. 27, 2010, the European Parliament’s Foreign Affairs Committee approved Macedonia’s progress report, clearing the way for the country to receive an accession date to the EU. Further progress was delayed, however, by domestic political problems in Belgium, which held the EU presidency in the second half of the year. There was no breakthrough in the long-standing dispute with Greece over Macedonia’s name despite assurances by Athens and Skopje that they were seeking a resolution and notwithstanding a number of bilateral talks and consultations with UN mediator Matthew Nimetz. The issue was further complicated by pledges from Macedonian Pres. Gjorge Ivanov and Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski that any compromise would be put to a referendum. Opinion polls suggested that a large majority of ethnic Macedonians would reject a change to the country’s nameŕeven if doing so prevented EuroAtlantic integrationŕwhereas a majority of ethnic Albanians would approve it. In early February, 12 opposition parties signed a cooperation agreement aimed at ousting from power Gruevski and his Internal Macedonian Revolutionary OrganizationŕDemocratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMROŔDPMNE). The group, known as the Front and led by the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM), was not joined by several other key opposition parties, including the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) and the Democratic Party of Albanians (PDSh). After a five-month absence, in early September opposition parties returned to the body that coordinated the parliament’s work. In April, the opposition had walked out after its demand to set up a special parliamentary body to control government spending was rejected. The PDSh, however, continued to boycott the parliament’s work altogether, because of a dispute over the interpretation of amnesty law. On May 12, four men were killed in a shoot-out with police near the Macedonia-Kosovo border. Weapons and explosives were found inside their van. The incident raised concerns about possible renewed interethnic violence between ethnic Macedonians and ethnic Albanians, especially in light of a statement in early February by PDSh leader Menduh Thaci that Ŗthere will be warŗ in Macedonia if the government continues to discriminate against ethnic Albanians. Macedonia’s economy continued to struggle, despite slight improvements over 2009. The National Bank projected GDP growth of 0.6%, an inflation rate of at least 1.5%, and a budget deficit of 2.2%.Unemployment was expected to reach 33.6% for the general population and to top 50% among young people. In the spring of 2010, the government and the Skopje city administration pushed ahead with implementing the controversial Skopje 2014 project, which called for construction or renovation of buildings and bridges in downtown Skopje, as well as for erecting statues of historical figures in the city centre. The project was widely criticized by the opposition, nongovernmental organizations, and intellectuals for its cost, aesthetic reasons, and possible effects on relations with Greece, as well as by ethnic Albanians for having ignored their history.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 2009)
Area: Population Capital: Chief of state: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (2009 est.): 2,052,000 Skopje Presidents Branko Crvenkovski and, from May 12, Gjorge Ivanov

Head of government: Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski Unlike the 2008 parliamentary elections in Macedonia, the 2009 presidential and municipal elections were largely free of violent incidents. The country held elections on March 22 and runoffs on April 5. Of a total of seven presidential candidates, Gjorge Ivanov of the ruling Internal Macedonian Revolutionary OrganizationŔDemocratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMRODPMNE) and Ljubomir Frckovski of the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM) contested the runoff, which Ivanov won with 63% of the vote. Incumbent Pres. Branko Crvenkovski chose not to run for a second term in office. Instead he returned to lead the SDSM after the end of his mandate. In the municipal elections VMRO-DPMNE won 55 of the 85 mayoral positions, including that of the capital, Skopje. The Democratic Union for Integration (DUI/BDI), an ethnic-Albanian party, won 14 mayoral races, and the SDSM won 9. On July 10 Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski reshuffled his government following the resignations of Deputy Prime Minister for European Integration Ivica Bocevski, Education Minister Pero Stojanovski, and Agriculture Minister Aleksandar Spasenovski and the dismissal of Finance Minister Trajko Slaveski. Bocevski was succeeded by Vasko Naumovski; Nikola Todorov became education minister; Ljupco Dimovski took over as agriculture minister; and Deputy Prime Minister Zoran Stavrevski also became finance minister. The UN-mediated talks between Macedonia and Greece over the former country’s name continued in 2009. Several proposals by UN mediator Matthew Nimetz failed to secure the approval of both sides. The impact of the name dispute on Macedonia’s Euro-Atlantic integration led to dissatisfaction among ethnic-Albanian politicians. Senior DUI/BDI members threatened that the party might leave the government if the dispute was not settled. A major incentive for Macedonia to resolve the name issue came on October 14 when the European Commission recommended that the country begin negotiations in 2010 to join the EU. On November 30 the EU announced that, beginning on December 19, citizens of three Balkan countriesŕMacedonia, Serbia, and Montenegroŕwould be allowed to travel without a visa within the EU’s Schengen zone. Interethnic relations were strained following the publication in September of the Macedonian Encyclopediaby the Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts (MANU); ethnic Albanians considered its portrayal of their community to be provocative and insulting. Gruevski called for a dialogue about the controversial text, while the MANU withdrew the publication from sale in order to amend it. Owing to the global economic crisis, Macedonia’s GDP was expected to shrink by up to 1% in 2009. Significant drops were probable in industrial output and foreign trade. On April 6 former deputy prime minister Vasil Tupurkovski was sentenced to three years’ imprisonment. He had been convicted for having misappropriated nearly $3 million of a Taiwanese grant in 1999. On September 5 a tour boat sank on Lake Ohrid, resulting in the deaths of 22 people, including 15 Bulgarian tourists. Transport and Communications Minister Mile Janakievski’s resignation later that day on Ŗmoral groundsŗ was rejected by Gruevski on September 9. On S eptember 30 large parts of Sveti Jovan Bigorski, one of the most important Eastern Orthodox monasteries in Macedonia, were destroyed by fire.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 2008)
Area: Population Capital: Chief of state: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (2008 est.): 2,039,000 Skopje President Branko Crvenkovski

Head of government: Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski Macedonia’s bid to join NATO was vetoed on April 2, 2008, by Greece during the alliance’s summit in Bucharest, Rom. Prior to the summit, a round of intense UN-mediated talks between Skopje and Athens over Macedonia’s name had failed to produce any results. Though talks cont inued later in 2008, both sides stuck to their previous positions. In March the Democratic Party of Albanians (DPA/PDSh) left the government to protest the refusal of the main ruling party, the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary OrganizationŔDemocratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMROŔDPMNE), to recognize Kosovo’s independence and to demonstrate disagreement on interethnic issues; this left the government without a parliamentary majority. On April 12 the parliament voted to dissolve itself and called new elections. In the June 1 elections, the VMROŔDPMNE of Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski allied with 18 small parties and emerged as the winner, with 47% of the vote and 63 of the 120 seats in the new parliament. The Sun Coalition for Europe, led by the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM), received 23% and 27 seats. Among the ethnic-Albanian parties, the Democratic Union for Integration (DUI/BDI) won 12% and 18 seats, and the DPA/PDSh captured 8% and 11 seats. One seat went to the Party for a European Future (PEI). Election day was overshadowed by violence in ethnic-Albanian areas, which left one person dead. As a result of the violence and other irregularities, the polls were partially invalidated, and repeat elections were held on June 15 in 187 precincts. Another round of balloting was held on June 29 in 15 precincts where the June 1 and June 15 rounds were invalidated. On October 20, nine ethnic Albanians were sentenced to terms of between five and six and a half years in prison for their role in the violent incidents. On July 4, Gruevski and DUI/BDI leader Ali Ahmeti reached an agreement to form a coalition government that would also include the PEI. On July 11, Gruevski presented his new government to the parliament, which approved it without debate, owing to a temporary boycott by the SDSM and the PDSh. On July 17, Pres. Branko Crvenkovski (of the SDSM) announced that he would not seek another term in 2009, citing disagreement with the government on many policy issues. In September the SDSM held its eighth party congress, at which Radmila Sekerinska was replaced as party leader. Strumica Mayor Zoran Zaev was elected acting party chairperson until May 2009, when Crvenkovski’s presidential term ended. Although Zaev was arrested in the summer of 2008 on charges of having misappropriated €8 million (about $10.1 million) in public funds, Crvenkovski pardoned him. On July 10 the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia acquitted former interior ministerLjube Boskovski of having taken part in war crimes during the 2001 interethnic conflict. His co-defendant, former police officer Johan Tarculovski, was found guilty and sentenced to 12 years’ imprisonment. Macedonia’s GDP was expected to grow about 5% in 2008. Inflation, however, was expected to rise to 7%, and unemployment was anticipated to remain high. In November the European Commission noted progress in some areas in Macedonia, but did not give the green light for the start of EU accession talks. On December 9, former prime minister Vlado Buckovski and former chief of staff Metodi Stamboliski were sentenced to 3 years in prison for abuse of power and corruption. Nikola Kljusev, Macedonia’s first postindependence prime minister (Jan. 27, 1991ŔAug. 17, 1992), died on January 16 at the age of 80.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 2007)
Area: Population Capital: Chief of state: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (2007 est.): 2,044,000 Skopje President Branko Crvenkovski

Head of government: Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski Continued friction between ethnic Albanian and ethnic Macedonian parties as well as within the ethnic Albanian political spectrum characterized Macedonian politics for much of 2007. On January 27 theDemocratic Union for Integration (BDI) and its partner, the Party for Democratic Prosperity (PPD), announced a boycott of the parliament, which it claimed was undermining the 2001 Ohrid Agreement. The PPD returned to the parliament after agreeing on May 20 to join the government; the party was assigned the Ministry of Local Self-Government in June. The BDI ended its boycott on May 29, after winning concessions from the government, including a commitment that certain laws could be passed only if supported by a majority of ethnic Albanian MPs. The Democratic Party of Albanians (PDSH) threatened to leave the government for not having been consulted on the talks but ultimately stayed on. On June 25 ailing PDSH leader Arben Xhaferi stepped down; he was replaced by his deputy Menduh Thaçi. On August 30 the government unveiled a plan to add 13 seats to the parliament to represent smaller national minorities and the diaspora. The plan was rejected by the BDI. A fistfight over the issue on September 25 between two MPs from the BDI and the PPD led to a blockade of the parliament by armed militants; a special police force unit was called in to break it up. Some 1,500 ethnic Albanians gathered in Skopje on September 28 to protest alleged Ŗstate terrorŗ against the Albanian community. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia on April 16 opened the trial of former interior minister Ljube Boskovski and a senior police officer. The two defendants were charged with themurder of seven ethnic Albanians in the village of Ljuboten in August 2001. On August 20 the parliament stripped former prime minister Vlado Buckovski of his immunity for his alleged involvement in 2001 in an arms deal, which allegedly cost the state €3 million (about $2.6 million). On July 31 retired chief of staff Gen. Metodi Stamboliski was arrested in connection with the case. The European Union on January 30 declined to set a date for the start of accession talks with Macedonia, and EU Enlargement Commissioner Olli Rehn said on February 8 that the EU was disappointed at the slow pace of reform in the country. Pres. Branko Crvenkovksi, for his part, said on March 24 that he expected talks to start in 2008. Macedonia was one of five Balkan countries that signed an agreement on September 18 with the EU on easing visa restrictions. The disagreement with Greece over Macedonia’s name remained unresolved for yet another year, although diplomats of both countries agreed on May 16 to start a fresh round of talks. On November 1 UN mediator Matthew Nimetz submitted new proposals to both sides. Macedonia’s economy showed some signs of further improvement, with 4.7% year -on-year GDP growth in the second quarter of 2007. The government projected 2Ŕ3% inflation and a budget deficit of less than 1%. Unemployment, however, continued to be one of the main problems plaguing Macedonia. On January 1 a flat-rate income tax of 12% was introduced, and corporate tax rates were also reduced to 12%. On October 16 Macedonia’s most popular pop star, Tose Proeski, died in a car crash in Croatia. His death, at the age of 26, precipitated a day of national mourning.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 2006)
Area: Population Capital: Chief of state: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (2006 est.): 2,041,000 Skopje President Branko Crvenkovski

Head of government: Prime Ministers Vlado Buckovski and, from August 27, Nikola Gruevski Parliamentary elections were held in Macedonia on July 5, 2006. The coalition led by the Macedonian Internal Revolutionary OrganizationŔDemocratic Party of Macedonian National Unity (VMRO-DPMNE) emerged as the strongest bloc, winning 45 of the 120 mandates. The coalition ŖTogether for Macedonia,ŗ headed by the ruling Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM), finished second, with 32 mandates. Two parties that had broken away from the VMRO-DPMNE and the SDSM, the VMRO-People’s Party of former prime minister Ljubco Georgievski and the New Social Democratic Party (NSDP) of former speaker of the parliament Tito Petkovski, won 6 and 7 seats, respectively. Among the ethnic Albanian parties, the Democratic Union for Integration (BDI) in coalition with the Party for Democratic Prosperity won 17 seats, and the Democratic Party of Albanians (PDSH) took 11. The Democratic Reconstruction of Macedonia and the Party for European Future won one seat each. Representatives of the international community had previously named free and fair elections as a key condition for Macedonia’s accession to NATO and the European Union. While the campaign saw severalviolent incidents, mostly in Albanian-inhabited areas, and election day was marred by isolated serious irregularities, the elections were widely assessed as democratic. Following protracted coalition negotiations, VMRO-DPMNE leader Nikola Gruevski managed to put together a government that included the VMRO-DPMNE, the PDSH, the NSDP, the Liberals, and the Socialists (the last two of which had run as part of the VMRO-DPMNE coalition). The BDI condemned Gruevski’s decision to exclude it from the government, set up roadblocks and staged street protests, and said that it would refuse to recognize the new government as legitimate. The new slate won a vote of confidence 68Ŕ22 on August 26, and Gruevski formally took office as prime minister the following day. The new government announced as its top priorities Euro-Atlantic integration, the fight against corruption and organized crime, further economic reforms, and attraction of more foreign direct investment. Macedonia’s economy continued to make only slow progress in 2006, however. GDP growth was expected to be 4%, and inflation was forecast to be a low 1.5%. The main problem remained an extremely highunemployment rate of 37Ŕ38%. EU foreign ministers on July 17 pledged to continue supporting Macedonia’s EU membership aspirations but also repeated their calls for accelerated reforms. The new government, for its part, called on the EU to set a date soon for the start of membership talks. The government tried unsuccessfully to resolve a dispute over Macedonia’s border with the Serbian province of Kosovo, which refused to recognize a 2001 agreement between the former Yugoslavia and Macedonia and laid claims to parts of Macedonia’s territory. The disagreement with Greece over Macedonia’s name also remained unresolved, as no new proposals to find a compromise were launched in 2006. The standoff between the Macedonian andSerbian Orthodox churches continued. Bishop Jovan, the highest-level Macedonian cleric to join the Serbian church, remained in prison, serving out a sentence for embezzlement and incitement of religious and ethnic hatred.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 2005)
Area: Population Capital: Chief of state: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (2005 est.): 2,034,000 Skopje President Branko Crvenkovski

Head of government: Prime Minister Vlado Buckovski Local elections held in Macedonia on March 13 and 27, 2005, were marred by serious, albeit isolated, irregularities. The coalition ŖTogether for Macedonia,ŗ led by the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia, the main governing party, emerged as the strongest single bloc; its coalition partner, the ethnic Albanian Democratic Union for Integration, and the main opposition party, the Macedonian Internal Revolutionary OrganizationŕDemocratic Party of Macedonian National Unity (VMRODPMNE), also scored well. Trifun Kostovski, a businessman running as an independent with the backing of VMRO-DPMNE, replaced the Liberal Democratic Party chairman, Risto Penov, as mayor of Skopje. The dispute between the Macedonian and Serbian Orthodox churches continued as the Serbian Orthodox Church decided to recognize only the breakaway Archbishopric of Ohrid as canonical. On June 23 an appeals court in Bitola confirmed a lower-court verdict sentencing Bishop Jovan, the highest-level cleric to join the Serbian church, to 18 months in prison for embezzlement and for inciting religious and ethnic hatred. The Supreme Court on September 16 turned down the bishop’s appeal against his sentence. The case put a strain on relations between Skopje and Belgrade. On February 25 Croatian prosecutors charged former interior minister Ljube Boskovski with murder in connection with the killing of seven immigrants in 2002. After Boskovski was also charged with war crimes by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) on March 14, the Croatian authorities handed him over to the ICTY. Three former senior police officers and a fourth man charged in connection with the killing of the immigrants were acquitted in April for insufficient evidence. On June 27 three former ethnic Albanian rebel commanders were sentenced to seven years in prison each for bomb attacks during ethnic tensions in 2003. On July 15 the parliament passed a law allowing national minorities to fly their flags on official occasions alongside the Macedonian flag in communes where they constituted the majority of the population. On February 14 the Macedonian government presented to the European Commission its official answers to the EU’s questionnaire on Macedonia’s preparedness to start membership talks. While the government voiced its optimism about the prospects for membership, European officials struck a more cautious tone, saying talks depended on progress achieved by the candidate country. Following the European Commission’s recommendation in November, EU leaders granted Macedonia the status of candidate country at a December summit, although no timetable was given for the talks. The dispute with Greece over Macedonia’s name remained unresolved. A compromise proposal by UN mediator Matthew Nimetz to use the name Republika MakedonijaŔSkopje without translation in international relations was rejected by the Macedonian side. A new proposal that Nimetz proposed in October was rejected by the Greek side. The issue of the demarcation of Macedonia’s borders with Kosovo also remained unsettled despite repeated talks between the Macedonian government, officials of Serbia and Montenegro, Kosovar politicians, and representatives of the United Nations mission UNMIK. In May EU officials announced that the EU had no plans to extend further its Proxima police mission in Macedonia after its mandate expired in December 2005. On May 20 Prime Minister Vlado Buckovski announced a large-scale government program to revive the country’s economy, which continued to be in a precarious state despite an expected growth in GDP of 3.8% and a slight drop in unemployment.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 2004)
Area: Population Capital: Chief of state: Head of government: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (2004 est.): 2,035,000 Skopje Presidents Boris Trajkovski, Ljubco Jordanovski (acting) from February 26, and, from May 12, Branko Crvenkovski Prime Ministers Branko Crvenkovski, Radmila Sekerinska (acting) from May 12, Hari Kostov from June 2, Sekerinska (acting) from November 18, and, from December 17, Vlado Buckovski

Macedonia was thrown into a state of shock on Feb. 26, 2004, when Pres. Boris Trajkovski was killed in a plane crash near Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina. (See OBITUARIES.) According to the official Bosnian investigation report, the plane in which Trajkovski, six of his staff, and two crew members had been traveling went down in bad weather owing to pilot error. On March 6, one day after Trajkovski’s state funeral, the Constitutional Court declared the end of his term in office, paving the way for early presidential elections. The first round of the presidential elections was held on April 14. Prime Minister Branko Crvenkovski of the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia and Sasko Kedev of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary OrganizationŔDemocratic Party of Macedonian National Unity (VMRODPMNE) advanced to the second round, leaving behind two ethnic Albanian candidates. Former interior minister Ljube Boskovki (VMRO-DPMNE) was barred from running as an independent because he had not fulfilled a constitutional residency requirement, while the chairman of the Democratic Party of Albanians, Arben Xhaferi, withdrew. Crvenkovski won the runoff on April 28 with 62.7% of the vote and was sworn in as president on May 12. Interior Minister Hari Kostov succeeded him as prime minister; Kostov’s government was sworn in on June 2 after the parliament voted confidence in it. On November 15 Kostov resigned, citing corruption and nepotism within one of the coalition partners as the reason. He was replaced by Defense Minister Vlado Buckovski, who also took over as SDSM chairman. Buckovski’s government was approved by a parliamtentary vote of confidence on December 17. The main domestic issue was the government’s local-government reform plan, which included the reduction of the number of municipalities. Because the necessary redistricting would have changed the ethnic balance of many municipalities, the plan met with resistance from local communities and opposition parties. Amid protestsŕsome violentŕthe government parties agreed on a redistricting plan, and the parliament approved the new Law on Territorial Organization on August 11. A coalition of ethnic Macedonian parties and nongovernmental organizations demanded and got a referendum, which was called for November 7. The referendum failed owing to insufficient turnout. On January 21 the parliament passed a law legalizing the Albanian-language university in Tetovo and transforming it into a state university. The dispute between the Macedonian Orthodox Church (MPC) and its Serbian counterpart remained unresolved, and some monasteries and clerics left the MPC to join the revived Serbian archbishopric of Ohrid. Bishop Jovan, the highest-ranking cleric to join the Serbian Orthodox Church, was sentenced on August 19 to 18 months in jail for inciting religious and ethnic hatred. On March 22 the Macedonian government submitted its application for European Union membership. The Stabilization and Association Agreement between Macedonia and the EU took effect on April 1. On November 4 the United States recognized Macedonia under its constitutional name. Macedonia’s economy remained in a precarious situation, with negative GDP growth (−3.6% in the first quarter of 2004), an unemployment rate above 35%, a drop in industrial production of more than 20%, and a trade deficit of about $600 million in the first half of the year. Throughout the year civil servants, schoolteachers, and railway workers, among others, staged strikes and protests against the government’s economic policy.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 2003)
Area: Population Capital: Chief of state: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (2003 est.): 2,056,000 Skopje President Boris Trajkovski

Head of government: Prime Minister Branko Crvenkovski In 2003, two years after Macedonia almost descended into civil war, relations between ethnic Macedonians and the sizable ethnic Albanian minority were again put to the test. A series of bomb explosionsŕin Struga in February, in Skopje and Kumanovo in June, and again in Skopje in Augustŕ a shoot-out in Skopje on July 9 that left five people dead, and the abduction of two policemen near Kumanovo the same month were the main incidents. The shadowy separatist Albanian National Army claimed responsibility for many of these acts. In addition, there were violent clashes between ethnic Albanian and ethnic Macedonian youths in Tetovo and elsewhere. These incidents strained relations between the ruling parties. There were also positive developments in the field of interethnic relations as well, however, including the legalization of the Albanian-language Tetovo University, further moves to increase the official use of Albanian, and attempts to boost the percentage of ethnic Albanian army officers. On May 28 the parliament passed a law granting amnesties to those who handed over guns within the framework of a 45-day nationwide weapons-collection program that started on November 1. Pres. Boris Trajkovski on April 7 pardoned former interior minister Dosta Dimovska and a former highranking Interior Ministry official, both of whom had been implicated in a 2001 wiretapping scandal. While Trajkovski defended his controversial pardons, Dimovska resigned as head of the Macedonian Intelligence Agency in an attempt to defuse tensions between Trajkovski and the government. In early November Prime Minister Branko Crvenkovski replaced the ministers of finance, economy, justice, and transport and communications. On March 31 the European Union launched Operation Concordia, which replaced NATO’s Allied Harmony peacekeeping mission. In July the six-month mandate of the 400-strong mission was extended to December 15, and then on September 29 EU foreign ministers agreed to replace Concordia with a 200-strong police mission. Relations between Macedonia and its neighbours remained stable, although pending issues such as the dispute between Skopje and Athens over Macedonia’s name remained unresolved. Macedonia strengthened cooperation with Albania and Croatia, particularly in the fields of security, defense, and infrastructure projects. After the government supported the United States in the war against Iraq and granted U.S. troops use of Macedonian military facilities, the parliament on April 22 approved the deployment of a small military contingent to Iraq, which embarked in early June. On June 30 Macedonia and the U.S. signed a bilateral agreement prohibiting the handover of each other’s citizens to the International Criminal Court; the agreement was ratified by the Macedonian parliament on October 16. On April 4 Macedonia became the 146th member of the World Trade Organization. Macedonia’s economy was expected to grow by about 3% in 2003, with low inflation and a target budget deficit of 2.5% of GDP. Unemployment of around 30% and social problems led to a series of strikes throughout the year, however. In late July the German WAZ media group announced that it had purchased majority stakes in three major Macedonian-language daily newspapers, giving it a near monopoly, especially as the state-owned publishing house Nova Makedonija went into liquidation in October.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 2002)
Area: Population Capital: Chief of state: Head of government: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (2002 est.): 2,036,000 Skopje President Boris Trajkovski Prime Ministers Ljubco Georgievski and, from November 1, Branko Crvenkovski

In 2002 Macedonia tried to overcome the consequences of the previous year’s armed conflict between the ethnic-Albanian National Liberation Army (UCK) and state security forces. Implementing the August 2001 Ohrid agreement, the parliament passed several key pieces of legislation aimed at improving relations between Macedonia’s two largest ethnic communities. These included a new law in January on local self-government that transferred some powers from the central government to the municipal level, an amnesty law in March, and a package of language laws in June that established Albanian as the second official language. Throughout the first half of 2002, ethnically mixed police units accompanied by international monitors returned to villages previously held by the UCK. The last nighttime curfew was lifted on July 11. Although violent incidents continued throughout the year, ethnic Albanian politicians and NATO rejected allegations by government officials that a new Albanian guerrilla organization was responsible. In June the parliament adopted a new election law based on proportional representation. In the September 15 parliamentary elections, the coalition For Macedonia Together, which united the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM), the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), and several parties representing smaller national minorities, won half of the 120 seats. The coalition of the ruling Internal Macedonian Revolutionary OrganizationŔDemocratic Party for Macedonian National Unity received 33 seats and the Socialist Party of Macedonia one. Of the Albanian parties, the newly formed Democratic Union for Integration (BDI), led by former UCK political commander Ali Ahmeti, won 16 seats, the governing Democratic Party of Albanians 7, and other Albanian parties 3. Previous attempts to form an electoral alliance of the ethnic-Albanian parties had failed. In its first session on October 3, the new parliament elected Nikola Popovski (SDSM) as its speaker. A new government led by SDSM Chairman Branko Crvenkovski and made up of the SDSM, LDP, and BDI was approved by Parliament on November 1. NATO’s Amber Fox peacekeeping mission was extended until December 15; attempts to replace it with a mission led by the European Union had failed. While Skopje and Athens failed to resolve their dispute over Macedonia’s name, they extended the interim agreement regulating bilateral relations on September 12. On May 23 both sides signed a military cooperation agreement. In late July Greece pledged $73.6 million in financial aid. On March 12 an international donors’ conference had pledged $515 million in aid. Macedonia failed to reach agreement with the IMF on a new standby agreement, however. In October Macedonia joined the World Trade Organization. Macedonia’s Orthodox Church faced a crisis. A proposed agreement with the Serbian Orthodox Church that would have subordinated the Macedonian to the Serbian church caused a split in the Holy Synod. Bishop Jovan of Veles-Povardarie, dismissed by the Macedonian church in July after placing himself under the authority of the Serbian church, was named exarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church for Macedonia on September 24.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 2001)
Area: Population Capital: Chief of state: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (2001 est.): 2,046,000 Skopje President Boris Trajkovski

Head of government: Prime Minister Ljubco Georgievski In 2001 Macedonia’s fragile interethnic balance collapsed. Fighting between government security forces and the self-styled ethnic Albanian National Liberation Army (UCK) brought the country to the verge of all-out civil war and cast doubts over its very future. A bomb attack on a police station in the village of Tearce on January 22 was followed by armed clashes between government forces and UCK fighters near Tanusevci in February. Fighting soon erupted in and around Tetovo, the country’s second largest city, with a largely ethnic Albanian population. Throughout the spring and summer, government forces and rebels were fighting around Tetovo, Skopje, and Kumanovo. More than 100 persons lost their lives, often indiscriminately, in the early months of the year, and large numbers of persons were displaced within the country as a result of the fights. Many Albanians also fled across the border to Kosovo. Anti-Albanian riots occurred in several towns. Government threats throughout the spring to launch counteroffensives led only to short-lived cease-fires. Meanwhile, UCK demands for negotiations on the future status of Macedonia were rejected by the government. The international community, which initially condemned the UCK attacks, later called on the government to address the problems of Macedonia’s ethnic Albanian community. On May 13 a government of national unity was formed that included all relevant parties from both ethnic groups. Negotiations between ethnic Macedonian and ethnic Albanian parties brought little result, nor was Western shuttle diplomacy between the government and the UCK eminently successful. July and August saw renewed fighting and killings of soldiers and civilians. Ethnic Macedonians stormed the parliament building on June 25, and one month later rioters attacked Western embassies, accusing the West of pro-Albanian bias. Finally, European Union (EU) and U.S. mediators assembled the leaders of the main political parties in Ohrid for peace talks. The Ohrid Agreement, signed on August 13, provided for constitutional amendments raising the status of the ethnic Albanian community, increased local self-government, the disarmament of ethnic Albanian rebels to be followed by an amnesty, and increased participation of ethnic Albanians in state structures, including the police. On November 16 the parliament approved 15 constitutional amendments pertaining to the Ohrid Agreement. In August the North Atlantic Council decided to deploy 3,500 troops to collect UCK weapons, and a month later NATO began ŖAmber Fox,ŗ the 1,000-troop-strong follow-up mission designed to protect Western monitors in Macedonia. While UCK weapons were being successfully collected, parliamentary debates on constitutional amendments were delayed repeatedly by legislators from both ethnic groups and were not concluded on schedule. Complaining that the Macedonian government and parliament had failed to meet their part of the peace plan, the EU twice cancelled a planned donors’ conference. Finally, Parliament also decided to postpone holding early elections. On November 23, the Social Democrats and two smaller parties left the government, but Prime Minister Ljubco Georgievski managed to form a new cabinet. The interethnic conflict severely hurt Macedonia’s economy and resulted in a sharp drop of industrial output, agricultural production, and imports and exports; widening trade and budget deficits; and increasing unemployment.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 2000)
Area: Population Capital: Chief of state: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (2000 est.): 2,041,000 Skopje President Boris Trajkovski

Head of government: Prime Minister Ljubco Georgievski For Macedonia the year 2000 brought relative political consolidation, but the country’s economy remained a source of concern. On July 27 the cabinet was reduced from 27 to 17 members. In the new group Prime Minister Ljubco Georgievski and seven ministers belonged to the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary OrganizationŔDemocratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMRODPMNE), while the Democratic Alternative (DA) and the Democratic Party of Albanians (DPA) had five and four members, respectively, including one deputy prime minister each. On August 25 eight parliamentary deputies of VMRO-DPMNE defected to the newly formed VMROŔTrue Macedonian Reform Option (VMRO), although two later reversed their decision. The deputies’ move was followed by mob scenes outside their houses, demonstrations that many believed were orchestrated. Claims by the VMRO-VMRO that more deputies would join failed to materialize after the party’s poor showing in the local elections. Local elections were held on September 10 and 24. The opposition tried to turn them into a referendum on the government and to force general elections, but the results were inconclusive. The opposition won more votes than the VMRO-DPMNE/DA coalition, but the ruling parties won most of the runoffs, especially in rural areas, and secured a majority of the mayoralties. The elections were marred by a high number of irregularities and by violent incidents in which at least one person was killed. On November 23 the DA left the government. Prime Minister Georgievski managed to put together a new coalition by including the Liberal Party and a number of independent members of the parliament. Interethnic relations remained tense. On January 11 three policemen were killed in the ethnic Albanian village of Aracinovo, allegedly the centre of a smuggling network. On March 31 four Macedonian soldiers were abducted on the border with Kosovo (Yugos.); they were freed only after Macedonian authorities released on bail an ethnic Albanian wanted for murder. Throughout the year a number of serious incidents took place on the Kosovo border. No breakthrough was reached with Greece on the issue of Macedonia’s name. Relations with Bulgaria remained good but were overshadowed by a decision of Bulgaria’s Constitutional Court to ban an ethnic Macedonian party. On May 27 Georgievski and Kosovar leader Hashim Thaqi held talks on future cooperation and the possible opening in the respective capitals, Skopje and Pristina, of offices for representation. This was received badly by Yugoslavia, as were allegations that Belgrade’s ambassador to Macedonia was meddling in the country’s internal affairs. On November 24, on the sidelines of the Zagreb summit meeting, Macedonia and the European Union signed the Stabilization and Association Agreement. In September the Macedonian government started returning to its former owners property that had been nationalized by the communist regime. In April the majority of Stopanska Banka, the country’s largest bank, was opened to international investors. On the whole, however, the economic situation remained precarious as the government found no solutions for high unemployment or measures to deal with the biggest loss-making enterprises.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 1999) Area: Population Capital: Chief of state: Head of government: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) (1999 est.): 2,023,000 Skopje Presidents Kiro Gligorov and, from November 19 (acting) Savo Klimovski Prime Minister Ljubco Georgievski

For the first half of 1999, political life in Macedonia was mostly determined by the Kosovo crisis. As early as late March, when NATO launched its attacks on Yugoslavia, an estimated 20,000 ethnic Albanians from Kosovo had fled to Macedonia. This was the maximum number the government had previously said it could accept. As the Kosovar Albanians started fleeing their homes in everlarger numbers and were systematically driven out of Kosovo, however, Macedonia was forced to accept more and more. In total, during the military conflict about 335,000 refugees crossed into Macedonia. About 88,000 were transferred to third countries, but when the conflict ended, almost 260,000 refugees remained. Most returned to Kosovo as soon as the crisis was over, and most of the refugees still in Macedonia in the autumn were Serbs and Roma (Gypsies) from Kosovo, the latter mostly new arrivals. The Kosovo crisis also took an economic toll on Macedonia, especially since trade collapsed with Yugoslavia, its largest trade partner. International institutions and foreign governments pledged considerable amounts of money to help Macedonia overcome the crisis, but only part of it arrived. Relations with the NATO-led Kosovo Force (KFOR), which continued to maintain a sizable presence in Macedonia, soured after a KFOR vehicle caused an accident on August 28 in which Macedonian Minister Without Portfolio Radovan Stojkovski was killed. Presidential elections took place on October 31 and November 14. In the first round, which was contested by six candidates, Tito Petkovski of the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM) came out on top with 32.7% of the vote. Boris Trajkovski of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization-Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMRO-DPMNE) was second with 20.9%. In the runoff, Trajkovski won 52.9% and Petkovski 45.9%. There were widespread irregularities, however, mostly in areas inhabited by ethnic Albanians, and the elections were annulled in 230 polling stations. A repeat vote on December 5, also marred by irregularities, yielded almost the same results. Nonetheless, the SDSM withdrew its complaints and focused instead on pressing for the resignation of the government and early parliamentary elections. Relations between the Macedonian majority and the sizable ethnic Albanian minority remained stable throughout the year, despite the refugee crisis. On July 6 Archbishop Mihail, the head of the Macedonian Orthodox church, died. (See OBITUARIES.) He was succeeded on October 9 by Archbishop Stefan of Bregalnica. In January the Macedonian government decided to recognize Taiwan; China promptly broke off relations and vetoed the extension of the mandate of the UN peacekeeping force stationed in Macedonia, which ceased operations on March 1. In late February Macedonia and Bulgaria signed a declaration normalizing relations and a number of other bilateral agreements. Bulgaria also donated 150 tanks and 150 pieces of artillery to Macedonia. Relations with Greece and Albania remained good, but no breakthrough was reached on the issue of Macedonia’s name, which continued to prevent a complete normalization of relations with Greece. As a result of the Kosovo conflict, Macedonia’s economy saw no improvement. Gross domestic product growth was estimated to have remained level, although inflation remained very low. Unemployment was alarmingly high, and industrial production fell as imports of raw material from Yugoslavia ceased.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 1998)
Area: Population (1998 est.): Capital: Chief of state: Head of government: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) 2,023,000 Skopje President Kiro Gligorov Prime Ministers Branko Crvenkovski and, from November 30, Ljubco Georgievski

Parliamentary elections were held in Macedonia on October 18 and November 1. Under a new election system, 35 deputies were elected on proportional lists and the remaining 85 under a singlemandate-constituency system. The nationalist Internal Macedonian Revolutionary OrganizationDemocratic Party for Macedonian National Unity won 49 seats, and its coalition partner, the newly formed Democratic Alternative, 13. The ruling Social Democratic Union of Macedonia garnered 27; their coalition partners, the Socialist Party, took one; and the Liberal Democratic Party got 4. The two major Albanian parties had formed an electoral alliance; the Party for Democratic Prosperity (a government party for six years) won 14 seats and the Democratic Party of Albanians 11. One seat went to the Union of Roma. IMRO-DPMNU and two other parties formed a coalition under Prime Minister Ljubco Georgievski on November 30. Among his priorities Georgievski named economic reform, reduction of unemployment, the fight against corruption and organized crime, and integration into European and transatlantic structures. Although relations between the Macedonian majority and the sizable ethnic Albanian minority remained problematic, there were no major incidents. The crisis in Kosovo bore on Macedonian Albanians, however, as they supported their brethren in the adjacent Serbian province. The government claimed that units of the Kosovo Liberation Front were also active in Macedonia. Mindful of the Kosovo crisis, Pres. Kiro Gligorov and then-Prime Minister Branko Crvenkovski called for U.S. or NATO troops to be stationed in Macedonia after the mandate of the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force (UNPREDEP) expired. On July 21 UNPREDEP’s mandate was extended to Feb. 28, 1999, and its strength was increased from 750 to more than 1,000 members. NATO’s Partnership for Peace held large-scale maneuvers in September. Macedonia’s small army was upgraded, with Germany supplying 60 armoured personnel carriers in October. The economy experienced significant gross domestic product growth for the first time since independence. Inflation remained low, but unemployment and the very low rate of direct foreign investment were problems. In June seven people were sentenced for the collapse of a pyramid scheme in 1996 in which 23,000 people lost a total of about $65 million.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 1997)

Area: Population (1997 est.): Capital: Chief of state: Head of government:

25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) 1,984,000 Skopje President Kiro Gligorov Prime Minister Branko Crvenkovski

Ethnic tensions were on the rise in Macedonia in 1997. Early in the year ethnic Albanian and ethnic Macedonian students demonstrated over the pros and cons of Albanian-language teaching at Skopje University’s pedagogical faculty; in early May the Constitutional Court ruled in favour of Albanian-language instruction. That same month the government indicted officials of the predominantly Albanian towns of Gostivar and Tetovo for flying the Albanian national flag from public buildings illegally. The Assembly passed a law on July 8 enabling ethnic minorities to use their national symbols under certain circumstances but barring them from flying their flags from public buildings. On the following day three ethnic Albanians were killed and dozens more were wounded in clashes with the police in Gostivar. Mayor Rufi Osmani was sentenced to 13 years 8 months in jail on September 17, convicted of "fanning national, racial, and ethnic intolerance, inciting rebellion, and disregarding the Constitutional Court" for allowing Albanian and Turkish flags to fly from the Gostivar town hall. Even while acknowledging the problems faced by the Albanian minority, in late September, Elisabeth Rehn, special envoy to the UN Commission on Human Rights, recommended that Macedonia be excluded from her mandate because of its improved human rights record. Amid growing public dissatisfaction with the government, a major reshuffle took place on May 27. Among those replaced were Deputy Prime Minister Jane Miljovski and Foreign Minister Ljubomir Frckovski, both prominent reformers. Frckovski was replaced by Defense Minister Blagoj Hand-ziski, who was succeeded by Lazar Kitanovski. Only minor economic changes were registered in 1997. The economy continued to grow, and inflation and the budget deficit remained acceptably low. Other indexes, such as Macedonia’s trade deficit and un-employment, remained uncomfortably high, however. In early March the national bank suspended operations of Macedonia’s largest savings house, and as a result, about 30,000 clients lost an estimated total of $28 million-$80 million. The government promised compensation of $12 million, and trials of top financial officials began in October. In June the national bank depreciated the denar 16% against the German mark. Tensions over the status of Macedonia’s Albanian minority continued to prejudice relations with Albania. Macedonia’s relationship with Greece was stable, and, even though the disputed issue of Macedonia’s name remained unresolved, the year saw the first exchange of ministerial visits between the Balkan neighbours. In December the UN Security Council voted to extend the mandate for its peacekeeping force, UNPREDEP, to August 1998.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 1996)

A landlocked republic of the central Balkans, Macedonia borders Yugoslavia to the north, Bulgaria to the east, Greece to the south, and Albania to the west. Area: Pop. (1996 est.): Cap.: Monetary unit: President in 1996, prime minister, 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi). 1,968,000. Skopje. denar, with (Oct. 11, 1996) a free rate of 40.60 denars to U.S. $1 (63.96 denars = £1 sterling). Kiro Gligorov; Branko Crvenkovski.

In early February 1996 a crisis involving the two biggest parties in the ruling coalition, the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia and the Liberal Party, resulted in the coalition’s breakup despite Pres. Kiro Gligorov’s appeals for unity. Differences between the coalition partners centred on privatization, with the Liberals being accused of profiting from the sale of Macedonia’s most attractive and lucrative enterprises. On February 10 Prime Minister Branko Crvenkovski dismissed the four Liberal ministers and extensively reshuffled his Cabinet. The Social Democrats emerged as the strongest party from the first postindependence local elections on November 17 and December 1, but the nationalist opposition made gains, winning, among others, the Skopje mayoralty. Ethnic Albanian parties also fared well. Friction continued over the independent Albanian-language university in Tetovo, which the government regarded as illegal. In July demonstrations against the jailing of the university’s dean, Fadil Sulejmani, and other Albanian activists resulted in clashes with the police. In the economy high unemployment remained a problem, and foreign trade declined. An epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease forced the authorities to order the slaughter of several thousand animals. Macedonia’s international position improved significantly with the signing with Yugoslavia on April 8 of an agreement establishing diplomatic relations. On October 7 the two countries abolished custom fees of up to 7.5%. Despite several rounds of talks, there was no breakthrough with Greece on the question of Macedonia’s name, but liaison offices were opened in January, and visa fees were cut significantly in February. Relations with Albania worsened, however, mostly over the Tetovo University crisis. In September, German Pres. Roman Herzog became the first head of state of a European Union member country to visit Macedonia.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 1995)

A landlocked republic of the central Balkans, Macedonia borders Yugoslavia to the north, Bulgaria to the east, Greece to the south, and Albania to the west. Area: Pop. (1995 est.): Cap.: Monetary unit: President in 1995, prime minister, 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi). 2,104,000. Skopje. denar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 39.30 denars to U.S. $1 (62.13 denars=£1 sterling). Kiro Gligorov; Branko Crvenkovski.

The most dramatic event in Macedonia in 1995 was the October 3 attempted assassination by car bomb of Pres. Kiro Gligorov, who had just returned to Skopje from a visit to Belgrade, Yugos. Although severely injured, Gligorov survived and was recovering well at year’s end, but the running of the country was temporarily taken over by Stojan Andov, speaker of the Sobranje (parliament). Ljubomir Frckovski, the interior minister, resigned his post on October 26, assuming responsibility for security lapses. He claimed that international criminal interests were behind the attempt, but no arrests had been made by the end of the year. If the assassination attempt was intended to destabilize the country, it was largely unsuccessful. Macedonia’s domestic situation remained volatile, with the Albanian minority continuing to demand a greater role for itself in the country’s educational system. An independent ethnic Albanian university was established on February 15 at Mala Recica, a village near the town of Tetovo. The government had called the project "illegal." On April 22 the Party for Democratic Prosperity, which had members in the Cabinet, changed its name to the Party for Democratic Prosperity of Albanians in Macedonia. Macedonia’s external position strengthened significantly in 1995. On September 13 Stevo Crvenkovski, the foreign minister, initialed an agreement in New York with Karolos Papoulias, his Greek counterpart, under which Greece would lift its trade embargo against Macedonia, which it had instituted in February 1994, in return for Macedonia’s renouncing the use of the star of Vergina as its national symbol. The issue of the republic’s name was left to be settled later. On October 15 Greece lifted its trade blockade. In the same month, Macedonia was admitted into the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. A month earlier, on September 27, it had been received into the Council of Europe under the name of The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. On April 13 an agreement was signed with Turkey on cooperation in the technical and military spheres. In 1995 Macedonia’s industrial output stagnated, with unemployment at an average of 28%. The annual inflation rate was around 18%, and average per capita income stood at $700.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 1994)

A landlocked republic of the central Balkans, Macedonia borders Yugoslavia to the north, Bulgaria to the east, Greece to the south, and Albania to the west. Area: Pop. (1994 est.): Cap.: Monetary unit: President in 1994, prime minister, 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi). 2,089,000. Skopje. denar, with (Aug. 1, 1994) a free rate of 41.95 denars to U.S. $1 (66.72 denars = £1 sterling). Kiro Gligorov; Branko Crvenkovski.

In the presidential and parliamentary elections held on October 16, Kiro Giligorov was reelected president with a 52.4% share of the vote. Following the second round of parliamentary elections on October 30, the ruling Social Democratic Alliance of Macedonia (SDSM) led by Prime Minister Branko Crvenkovski formed a coalition government with the Liberals, the small Socialist Party, and the Party of Democratic Prosperity, the main ethnic Albanian party. The coalition was called the Alliance of Macedonia (SM). On November 13 a further election was held to decide who would occupy 10 unfilled seats. On November 28 the president ordered Crvenkovski to form still another government. Its members were expected to come from parties constituting the SM. The results of the internationally monitored census announced on November 15 provoked claims of unfair manipulation from the Albanian and Serb minorities. Political tensions rose in December as a result of the Macedonian Albanians’ decision to press for the foundation of an Albanian-language university in Tetovo. Continuing its campaign against Macedonia, Greece on February 16 instituted a full economic blockade, barring its port of Thessaloniki and the entire northern border to traffic to and from Macedonia. Some 80% of Macedonia’s trade and all of its oil went through Thessaloniki. On April 6 the European Commission took Greece to the European Court of Justice over the action, but Greece continued the blockade anyway. In November Macedonian engineers completed the first section of an oil pipeline that would link the country to Serbia and thence to Russia. Also in November Macedonia concluded an agreement on military cooperation with the United States, which continued to maintain a small UN detachment on Macedonian territory.

Macedonia (in Macedonia: Year In Review 1993)

A landlocked republic of the central Balkans, Macedonia borders Yugoslavia to the north, Bulgaria to the east, Greece to the south, and Albania to the west. Area: Pop. (1993 est.): Cap.: Monetary unit: President in 1993, prime minister, 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi). 2,063,000. Skopje. denar (sole legal tender from May 7, 1993), with (Oct. 4, 1993) an official rate of 27 denars to U.S. $1 (41.04 denars = £ 1 sterling). Kiro Gligorov; Branko Crvenkovski.

In 1993 Macedonia managed to achieve what had eluded it in 1992: in April it was granted membership in the United Nations, albeit under the compromise name of The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. By the end of the year, all members of the European Union except Greece had taken steps to establish diplomatic relations with Macedonia. Relations with Serbia remained tense, however. Serbia strongly criticized the election of a new patriarch of the Macedonian Orthodox Church, said in Belgrade to be an anti-Serb Macedonian nationalist. Relations with Albania deteriorated after a number of border incidents. In November, Pres. Kiro Gligorov and the government narrowly averted being toppled in the parliament by the ultranationalist Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (VMRO), which was pressing for the exclusion of ethnic Albanians from the country’s coalition government. Then the Interior Ministry announced that arms manufactured in Albania had been seized in Skopje and two other cities. The deputy minister of health, an ethnic Albanian, who had allegedly kept ammunition in his office, disappeared, but six other suspects were arrested. Macedonia’s economy, despite UN sanctions imposed on its main trading partner, Yugoslavia, maintained a degree of stability. Still, inflation reached a monthly rate of 70-80% by the end of the year; industrial production for the year was 33% lower than in 1992; and severe drought reduced agricultural output by about one-third.

Darius IIIThe last king (reigned 336Ŕ330 bc) of the Achaemenid dynasty. Darius belonged to a collateral branch of the royal family and was placed on the throne by the eunuch Bagoas, who had poisoned the two previous...

Darius III, also called Codommanus (died 330 BC), the last king (reigned 336Ŕ330 BC) of the Achaemenid dynasty. Darius belonged to a collateral branch of the royal family and was placed on the throne by the eunuchBagoas, who had poisoned the two previous kings, Artaxerxes III and Arses. When Darius asserted his independence, Bagoas also attempted his murder but was forced by the king to drink the poison himself. In 337 Philip II of Macedon had formed the League of Corinth for the purpose of liberating the Greek cities under Achaemenid rule and, early in 336, had sent an advance force into Asia Minor. In July, however, he was assassinated, perhaps at the instigation of Darius. In the spring of 334 Philip’s son Alexander the Greatcrossed the Hellespont. Because Darius had made no serious preparations to resist the invasion, Alexander defeated an Achaemenid army at the Granicus and, by the following year, had won most of Asia Minor and reached Cilicia. Darius finally advanced against him but was defeated at Issus in the autumn of 333. Darius fled from the field, abandoning his mother, wife, and children. Darius twice sent Alexander a letter of friendship, the second time offering a large ransom for his family, cession of all the Achaemenid Empire west of the Euphrates River, and the hand of his daughter in return for an alliance. Alexander rejected both letters and marched into Mesopotamia. Darius made no attempt to resist his crossing of the Euphrates and Tigris but offered battle at Gaugamela, east of modern Mosul. On Oct. 1, 331, he was decisively defeated, and, as at Issus, he turned his chariot and fled, although his subordinates fought on. He escaped to Ecbatana, and then, on the approach of Alexander, he retired toward Bactria but was deposed and killed by the Bactrian satrap Bessus.

PyrrhusKing of Hellenistic Epirus whose costly military successes against Macedonia and Rome gave rise to the phrase ŖPyrrhic victory.ŗ His Memoirs and books on the art of war were quoted and praised by many... Pyrrhus, (born 319 BCEŕdied 272), king of Hellenistic Epirus whose costly military successes againstMacedonia and Rome gave rise to the phrase ŖPyrrhic victory.ŗ His Memoirs and books on the art of warwere quoted and praised by many ancient authors, including Cicero. Upon becoming ruler at the age of 12, Pyrrhus allied himself with Demetrius, son of Antigonus I Monophthalmus of Macedonia. Dethroned by an uprising in 302 BCE, Pyrrhus fought beside Demetrius in Asia and was sent to Alexandria as a hostage under the treaty between Ptolemy I Soter and Demetrius. Ptolemy befriended Pyrrhus and in 297 restored him to his kingdom. At first Pyrrhus reigned with a kinsman, Neoptolemus, but soon he had his colleague assassinated. In 294 he exploited a dynastic quarrel in Macedonia to obtain the frontier areas of Parauaea and Tymphaea, along with Acarnania, Ampholochia, and Ambracia. Corcyra and Leucas were given to him in a marriage dowry. Next, he went to war against his former ally, now Demetrius I Poliorcetes of Macedonia. Pyrrhus took Thessaly and the western half of Macedonia and relieved Athens from Demetrius’s siege, but was driven back into Epirus by Lysimachus (who had supplanted Demetrius) in 284. In 281 Tarentum (in southern Italy) asked for Pyrrhus’s assistance against Rome. He crossed to Italy with about 25,000 men, and in 280 won a complete, if costly, victory over a Roman army at Heraclea. In 279 Pyrrhus, again suffering heavy casualties, defeated the Romans at Ausculum (Ascoli Satriano) in Apulia. He then crossed to Sicily (278) and, as Ŗking of Sicily,ŗ conquered most of the Punic province except Lilybaeum (Marsala). However, his despotic methods provoked a revolt of the Greek Sicilians, and in 276 (or early 275) he returned to Italy. In 275 he suffered heavy losses in a battle against Rome at Beneventum (Benevento).

The next year he defeated the new Macedonian ruler, Antigonus II Gonatas, whose troops hailed Pyrrhus as king. Suddenly abandoning Macedonia, however, he launched an unsuccessful attack on Sparta to restore Cleonymus (272). Pyrrhus was killed in a night skirmish in the streets of Argos.

SamuelTsar (997Ŕ1014) of the first Bulgarian empire. Samuel began his effective rule in the 980s in what is now western Bulgaria and Macedonia. (See Researcher’s Note: Macedonia: a contested name.) He then conquered... Samuel, (died October 6, 1014), tsar (997Ŕ1014) of the first Bulgarian empire. Samuel began his effective rule in the 980s in what is now western Bulgaria and Macedonia. (SeeResearcher’s Note: Macedonia: a contested name.) He then conquered Serbia and further extended his power into northern Bulgaria, Albania, and northern Greece. He established his capital in Ohrid and revived the Bulgarian patriarchate. In the 980s he defeated the Byzantine emperor Basil II (the ŖBulgar Slayerŗ) near Sofia, but from 997ŕthe date of Samuel’s coronation as Bulgarian tsarŕ the intermittent struggle with the Byzantines went against him. On July 29, 1014, Basil overwhelmed Samuel in the Battle of Belasitsa (Battle of Kleidion). At Basil’s order, the Bulgarian prisoners (said to number 15,000) were blinded and returned to Samuel, who is said to have fainted from shock and died. He was succeeded by his son Gavril (murdered in 1015) and a nephew Ivan (killed in battle in 1018), after which Bulgaria became a Byzantine province.

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Cultural life Great effort has been invested in the support of Macedonian language and culture, not only through education but also through the theatre and other arts as well as the media of mass communication. The republic has its own radio and television service. The small population and the poverty of the republic make it difficult to sustain diversity in the field of culture, and the majority of cultural institutions (with the exception of those intended for ethnic minorities) are located in Skopje. Macedonia has made its mark on the international cultural scene with some conspicuous successes, especially the Struga poetry festival and the plays of Goran Stefanovski. Daily life and social customs As a result of the long presence of the Ottoman Turks in the region, the traditional cuisine of Macedonia is not only based on Balkan and Mediterranean fare but also flavoured by Turkish influences. Among the country’s dishes of Turkish origin are kebapcinja (grilled beef kebabs) and the burek, a flaky pastry often stuffed with cheese, meat, or spinach. Macedonians also enjoy other foods that are common throughout the Balkans, including taratur (yogurt with shredded cucumber) and baklava. Macedonian specialties include ajvar (a sauce made from sweet red peppers), tavce gravce (baked beans), shopska salata (a salad combining sliced cucumbers, onions, and tomatoes with soft white cheese), and selsko meso (pork chops and mushrooms in brown gravy). In addition to Orthodox Christian and Islamic religious holidays, Macedonians celebrate a number of holidays tied to the country’s history, including Independence Day (September 8), marking the day in 1991 when Macedonians voted for independence from federated Yugoslavia. The arts Despite the refusal of Macedonia’s Serbian rulers to recognize Macedonian as a language, progress was made toward the foundation of a national language and literature in the early 20th century, especially by Krste P. Misirkov in hisZa Makedonskite raboti (1903; “In Favour of Macedonian Literary Works”) a nd in the literary periodical Vardar (established 1905). These efforts were continued during the interval between World War I and World War II, most notably by the poet Kosta Racin. After World War II, Macedoniaâ€ŗfreed to write and publish in its own languageâ€ŗproduced such literary figures as poets Aco Å opov, Slavko Janevski, Blae Koneski, and Gane Todorovski. Janevski also authored the first Macedonian novel, Selo zad sedumte jaseni (1952; “The Village Beyond the Seven Ash Trees”), and a cycle of s ix novels dealing with Macedonian history. After World War II, Macedonian theatre was invigorated by a wave of new dramatists that included Kole ÄŒaÅ¡ule, Tome Arsovski, and Goran Stefanovski. Among the best-known fiction writers of prose are ivko ÄŒingo, Vlada UroÅ¡ević, and Jovan Pavlovski. (SeeMacedonian literature). Macedonian popular culture is a fascinating blend of local tradition and imported influence. Folk music and folk dancing are still popular, and rock and pop music are ubiquitous. Icon painting and wood carving both have long histories in Macedonia. Motion picture making in Macedonia dates to the early 20th-century efforts of brothers Milton and Janaki Manaki and includes Before the Rain (1994), which was directed by Milcho Manchevski and was nominated for an Academy Award for best foreign-language film. Cultural institutions Located in Ohrid, the National Museum features an archaeological collection dating from prehistoric times. Ohrid itself is one of the oldest human settlements in Europe, and the natural and cultural heritage of the Ohrid region was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980. Also of note are the Museum of Contemporary Art in Skopje and the Museum of the City of Skopje. Throughout the country, annual festivals are held, including the Skopje Jazz Festival, the Balkan Festival of Folk Songs and Dances in Ohrid, the Ohrid Summer Festival, and the pre-Lenten Carnival in Strumica. An international poetry festival is held annually in the lakeside resort of Struga. Sports and recreation A modern sports culture was slow to develop in Macedonia. In the post-World War II era, football (soccer) emerged as a popular sport, encouraged, along with basketball and volleyball, by the larger industrial firms, which often fielded their own teams. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, tennis began to grow in popularity in the larger urban centres. The 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S., marked the first Games at which Macedonia was represented as an independent state.

During the 1970s, winter sports gained considerably in popularity in Macedonia, as the country’s mountainous terrain facilitated the creation of several ski resorts, especially in the Šar Mountains, and near Mavrovo and Krushevo. There are also active mountaineering societies, maintaining huts in the Babuna massif south of Skopje, the Šar Mountains, and on Mount Pelister. Macedonians generally seem to prefer to take their fresh air and exercise in the form of mountaineering and hunting. On the other hand, chess has a wide and enthusiastic following in the country. Media and publishing The Macedonian Information Agency (MIA), which provides news and public information, was originally chartered by the parliament in 1992 but did not begin operation until 1998. In 2006 the government transformed the MIA from public enterprise to joint-stock company. Founded in 1992, Makfax was the region’s first private news agency. Although private competitors exist, the major provider of radio and television service is the government-operated Macedonia Radio Television, which began life as Radio Skopje in 1944..

Updated Demographic trends section and updated and expanded Ethnic groups and language section. The people Ethnicity Ethnic groups and language Macedonia has inherited a complex ethnic structure. The largest group, calling themselves Macedonians (about The population of the Republic of Macedonia is diverse. At the beginning of the 21st century, nearly two-thirds of the population ), are descendants of identified themselves as Macedonians. Macedonians generally trace their descent to the Slavic tribes that moved into the region between the 6th and 8th centuries ad. Their language is very closely related to Bulgarian and is written in the Cyrillic script. Among the Macedonians, however, are significant minorities of much older settlers. The most numerous of these (more than one-fifth of the population) are the Albanians, who claim to be descendants of the ancient Illyrians. They are concentrated in the northwest, along ce. Albanians are the largest and most important minority in the Republic of Macedonia. According to the 2002 census they made up about one-fourth of the population. The Albanians, who trace their descent to the ancient Illyrians, are concentrated in the northwestern part of the country, near the borders with Albania and Kosovo. Albanians form majorities in at least 3 some 16 of Macedonia’s 32 84 municipalities (especially Tetovo and Gostivar) and very significant minorities in 7 others. Another vestige of old settlement is the . Other much smaller minorities (constituting less than 5 percent of the population each) include the Turks, Roma (Gypsies), Serbs, Bosniaks, and Vlachs (Aromani). The Turkish minority is mostly scattered across central and western Macedonia, a legacy of the 500-year rule of the Ottoman Empire. The majority of Vlachs, who speak a language closely related to Romanian. The majority of the Vlachs in the republic , live in the old mountain city of Kruševo. The Turkish minority are mostly scattered across central and western Macedonia; they are a legacy of the 500-year rule of the Ottoman Empire. Also associated with this period are Roma (Gypsies) and people who report their ethnicity as Muslim. In language, religion, and history, a case could be made for identifying Macedonian Slavs with Bulgarians and to a lesser extent with Serbs. Both have had their periods of influence in the region (especially Serbia after 1918); consequently, there are still communities of Serbs (especially in Kumanovo and Skopje) and Bulgarians. ReligionThe issue of ethnicity is made particularly sensitive by its tendency to coincide with religious allegiance. The various Slavic groups are usually Orthodox Christians, whereas Language The Macedonian language is very closely related to Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian and is written in the Cyrillic script. When Serbian rule replaced that of the Ottoman Turks in 1913, the Serbs officially denied Macedonian linguistic distinctness and treated the Macedonian language as a dialect of Serbo-Croatian. The Macedonian language was not officially recognized until the establishment of Macedonia as a constituent republic of communist Yugoslavia in 1946. Religion Religious affiliation is a particularly important subject in Macedonia because it is so closely tied to ethnic and national identity. With the exception of Bosniaks, the majority of Slavic speakers living in the region of Macedonia are Orthodox Christian. Macedonians, Serbs, and Bulgarians,

however, have established their own autocephalous Orthodox churches in an effort to assert the legitimacy of their national identities. The majority Greeks in the region of Greek Macedonia, who also identify themselves as Macedonians, are Orthodox as well, but they belong to the Greek Orthodox Church. Turks and the great majority of both Albanians and Roma are Muslims. Altogether, more than one-quarterfourth of the population are of the Islĝmic faith.Islamic faith. Settlement patterns Successive waves of migration, as well as economic and political modernization, have left their mark in a diversity of settlement patterns. The inhabitants of the highlands are generally shepherds. In more fertile areas, small-scale subsistence and market-oriented agriculture are practiced. Several small market towns are of great antiquity. In Roman times Bitola was a commercial centre known as Heraclea Lyncestis. Ohrid became a major administrative and ecclesiastical centre in the early Middle Ages. The coming of the Ottoman Turks in the 14th century promoted the growth of Skopje as a governmental and military centre and created large agrarian estates, which were later socialized by the communists and given over to extensive mechanized cultivation. This latter process was responsible for the growth, beginning in 1945, of Kavardarci and Veles. Industrialization in the second half of the 20th century had a dramatic impact upon population distribution. The population of Skopje grew to nearly one-fourth of the population of the republic, its attractiveness as a pole for migration having been enhanced both by its location at a transcontinental transportation route and by its status as the republic’s capital. Acting as a reasonably effective counterforce to the pull of Skopje is the growth of tourism around Ohrid. At the beginning of the 21st century, about three-fifths of the population of Macedonia was urban. Demographic trends Historically, the Balkans have experienced high rates of natural increase that in population. The rate declined remarkably in the 20th century in response to industrialization and urbanization. In Macedonia these processes have involved the Slavic Christian population to a much greater extent than the Muslims. Among rural Muslims rates of increase have remained very high: in the case of Turks and Muslim Slavs they are 2.5 times those of the Macedonian majority, and among Albanians and Roma they are 3 times as high. These differentials have been a source of political tension, although to a lesser extent than they have been in, for example, Kosovo. Nevertheless, the collapse of the Yugoslav federation in 1991 brought severe economic and political strains that made ethnicity and religion subjects of growing anxiety The rate of natural increase in Macedonia at the end of the first decade of the 21st century was about three-fifths less than it had been in the mid-1990s. Birth rates for the same period declined relatively steadily by about one-fifth, to about three-fifthsof the world average. Movement from rural to urban areas in Macedonia in the early 21st century was much more common than the reverse. Emigration to other parts of Europe, as well as to North America and Australia, has also had a significant influence on demographic trends in Macedonia. Revised to address the complexity of the Macedonian Question and updated for recent events. History As described in this article’s introduction, the name Macedonia is applied both to a region encompassing the present-day Republic of Macedonia and portions of Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece and to the republic Republic of Macedoniaitself, the boundaries of which have been defined since 1913. In the following discussion, Macedonia the name “Macedonia” is used generally to describe the larger region prior to 1913 and the area of the present-day republic thereafter. The ancient world The Macedonian region has been the site of human habitation for millennia. There is archaeological evidence that the Old European (Neolithic) civilization flourished there between 7000 and 3500 bc bce. Seminomadic peoples speaking languages of the Indo-European family then moved into the Balkan Peninsula. During the 1st millennium bc bce the Macedonian region was populated by a mixture of peoplesâ€ŗDacians, Thracians, Illyrians, Celts, and Greeks. Although Macedonia is most closely identified historically with the kingdom of Philip II of Macedon in the middle of the 4th century bc bce and the subsequent expansion of that empire by his son Alexander III (the Great), none of the states established in that era was very durable; until . Until the arrival of the Romans, the pattern of politics was a shifting succession of contending city-states and chiefdoms that occasionally integrated into ephemeral empires. Nevertheless, this

period is important in understanding the present-day region, as both Greeks and Albanians base their claims to be indigenous inhabitants of it on the achievements of the Macedonian and Illyrian states. At the end of the 3rd century bc bce, the Romans began to expand into the Balkan Peninsula in search of metal ores, slaves, and agricultural produce. The Illyrians were finally subdued in ad 9 ce (their lands becoming the province of Illyricum), and the north and east of Macedonia were incorporated into the province of Moesia in ad 29 ce. A substantial number of sites bear witness today to the power of Rome, especially Heraclea Lyncestis (modern Bitola) and Stobi (south of Veles on the Vardar River). The name Skopje is Roman in origin (Scupi). Many roads still follow courses laid down by the Romans. Beginning in the 3rd century, the defenses of the Roman Empire in the Balkans were probed by Goths, Huns, Bulgars, Avars, and other seminomadic peoples. Although the region was nominally a part of the Eastern Empire, control from Constantinople became more and more intermittent. By the mid-6th century , Slavic tribes had begun to settle in Macedonia, and , from the 7th to the 13th century , the entire region was little more than a system of military marches governed uneasily by the Byzantine state through alliances with local princes. The medieval states In that the medieval period the foundations were laid for modern competing claims for control over Macedonia. During the 9th century the Eastern tradition of Christianity was consolidated in the area. The mission to the Slavs has come to be associated with Saints Cyril and Methodius, whose great achievement was the devising of an alphabet based on Greek letters and adapted to the phonetic peculiarities of the Slavonic tongue. In its later development as the Cyrillic alphabet, this came to be a distinctive cultural feature uniting several of the Slavic peoples. Although the central purpose of the missionaries was to preach the Gospel to the Slavs in the vernacular, their ecclesiastical connection with the Greek culture of Constantinople remained a powerful lever to be worked vigorously during the struggle for Macedonia in the 19th century. The people who form the majority About three-fourths of the inhabitants of the contemporary Macedonian republic are clearly not Greeks but Slavs. However, this ecclesiastical tradition, taken together with the long period during which the region was associated present-day Republic of Macedonia have a Macedonian national identity. They are Slavic-speaking descendants of the Slavic tribes who have lived in the area since the 6th century. The long association of the area with the Greek-speaking Byzantine state, and above all the brief ascendancy of the Macedonian empire (c. 359â€Ŗ321 bc) continue to provide Greeks with a sense that Macedonia is Greek.Yet, although the inhabitants of the present-day republic are Slavs, it remains to be determined what kind of Slavs they arethe Greek claim to continuity with the ancient Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great, has led the Greek state to claim that “Macedonia was, is, and always will be Greek.” Since the independence of the Republic of Macedonia in 1991, Gr eece has on these grounds attempted to block the international recognition of the Republic of Macedonia by its constitutional name and to deny the Macedonians of the Republic of Macedonia and Greece the right to identify themselves as Macedonians. What is less clear is the history of the emergence of a Macedonian national identity from a more general identity as Slavic-speaking Orthodox Christians as well as from a Bulgarian national identity, the latter of which developed before a Macedonian identity did. Among the short-lived states jostling for position with Byzantium were two that modern Bulgarians claim give them a special stake in Macedonia. Under the reign of Simeon I (893â€Ŗ927), Bulgaria emerged briefly as the dominant power in the peninsula, extending its control from the Black Sea to the Adriatic. Following a revolt of the western provinces, this first Bulgarian empire fell apart, but it was partially reintegrated by Samuel (reigned 976â€Ŗ1014), who set up his own capital in Ohrid (not the traditional Bulgarian capital of Preslav [now known as Veliki Preslav]) and also established a patriarchate there. Although the Byzantine state reasserted its authority after 1018, a second Bulgarian empire raised its head in 1185; this included northern and central Macedonia and lasted until the mid-14th century. Possible links between Macedonians and Bulgars during the seminomadic period of the arrival of the Slav peoples in the Balkans are unclear and probably impossible to determine. Modern Bulgarians have based their claims to the historical unity of the two peoples principally on two considerations. First, they emphasize the lack of clear distinctions between early variants of the old Slavonic languages, explaining later developments that were peculiar to the Macedonian tongue as reflecting subsequent Serbianization. Consequently, Macedonian is interpreted as a

dialect of Bulgarian. Bulgarians also point out that, throughout the rise and fall of the early Bulgarian empires, control over a great part of Macedonia was a common factor. A supplementary but important point is the continuing role of Ohrid as a symbolic centre of ecclesiastical life for both peoples. During the second half of the 12th century, a more significant rival to Byzantine power in the Balkans emerged in the Serbian Nemanjić dynasty. Stefan Nemanja became veliki župan, or “grand chieftain,” of RaÅ¡ka in 1169, and his successors created a state that , under Stefan DuÅ¡an (reigned 1331â€Ŗ55) , incorporated Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia, all of modern Albania and Montenegro, a substantial part of Bosnia, and Serbia as far north as the Danube. Although the cultural heart of the empire was RaÅ¡ka (the area around modern Novi Pazar) and Kosovo, as the large number of medieval Orthodox churches in those regions bear witness, Stefan DuÅ¡an was crowned emperor in Skopje in 1346. Within half a century after his death, the Nemanjić state was eclipsed by the expanding Ottoman Empire; nevertheless, it is to this golden age that Serbs today trace their own claims to Macedonia. The Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire originated in a small emirate established in the second half of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia. By 1354 it had gained a toehold in Europe, and by 1362 Adrianopole (modern Edirne, Turkey) had fallen. From this base the power of this Turkicspeaking Turkish and Islamic state steadily expanded. From a military point of view, the most significant defeat of the Serbian states took place in the Battle of the Maritsa River at Chernomen in 1371, but it is the defeat in 1389 of a combined army of Serbs, Albanians, and Hungarians under Lazar at the Battle of Kosovo Polje that has been preserved in legend as symbolizing the subordination of the Balkan Slavs to the “Ottoman yoke.” Constantinople itself did not fall to the Ottoman Turks until 1453; , but by the end of the 14th century the Macedonian region had been incorporated into the Ottoman Empire. Thus began what was in many respects the most stable period of Macedonian history, lasting until the Turks were ejected from the region in 1913. Half a millennium of contact with Turkey had a profound impact on language, food habits, and many other aspects of daily living life in Macedonia. Within the empire, administrators, soldiers, merchants, and artisans moved in pursuit of their professions. Where war, famine, or disease left regions underpopulated, settlers were moved in from elsewhere with no regard for any link between ethnicity and territory. By the system known as devÅŸirme (the notorious “blood tax”), numbers of Christian children were periodically recruited into the Turkish army and administration, where they were Islamized and assigned to wherever their services were required. For all these reasons, many Balkan towns acquired a cosmopolitan atmosphere. This was particularly the case in Macedonia during the 19th century, when, as the Serbian, Greek, and Bulgarian states began to assert their independence, many who had become associated with Turkish rule moved into lands still held by the Sublime Porte. Whatever distinctive characteristics Macedonians may or may not have had before the coming of the Turks, it is undoubtedly the case that, by the outbreak of the Balkan Wars, they (along with the Muslims of Bosnia) were the European people most closely tied to Ottoman culture. The economic legacy of Turkish rule is also important. During the expansionist phase of the empire, Turkish feudalism consisted principally of the timar system of “tax farming,” whereby local officeholders raised revenue or supported troops in the sultan’s name but were not landowners. As the distinctively military aspects of the Ottoman order declined after the 18th century, these privileges were gradually transformed in some areas into the çiftliksystem, which more closely resembled proprietorship over land. This process involved the severing of the peasantry from their traditional rights on the land and a corresponding creation of large estates farmed on a commercial basis. The çiftlik thus yielded the paradox of a population that was heavily influenced by Ottoman culture yet bound into an increasingly oppressive economic subordination to Turkish landlords. The independence movement Conflict and confusion deepened in Macedonia in the closing decades of the 19th century. As the Turkish empire decayed, Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria all looked to benefit territorially from the approaching carve-up division of Macedonia that would inevitably follow the end of Ottoman rule. At the same time, these indigenous three states all each became in different ways stalking horses for the aspirations of the European Great Powersgreat powers. The weapons employed in this conflict ranged widely; they included opening schools and churches in an attempt to inculcate a particular linguistic and confessional identity, controlling ecclesiastical office, exerting influence

over the course of railway buildinglines, diplomatic attempts to secure the ear of the Sublime Porte, and even financing guerrilla bands. Partly in response to the intensity of these campaigns of pressure and even terror, a movement called the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) was founded in 1893, at Resana (Resen) near Ohrid. The aim of IMRO was “Macedonia for the Macedonians,” and on July 20 (August 2 (July 20, Old New Style), 1903, it raised the banner of revolt against the Turks at KruÅ¡evo and declared Macedonian independence. The Ilinden, or St. Elijah’s Day, Uprising was quickly and brutally crushed, but the Macedonian Question thereafter aroused intense international concern. The Great Powers made several attempts to impose reform on the Porte, including sending their own officers to supervise the gendarmerieâ€ŗin effect, the first international peacekeeping force. One of IMRO’s leaders, Gotsé Delchev, whose nom de guerre was Ahil (Achilles), is regarded by both Macedonians and Bulgarians as a national hero. He seems to have identified himself as a Bulgarian and to have regarded the Slavs of Macedonia as Bulgarians. He died and was buried in what is now northern Greece in 1903. During World War I he was reburied in Bulgaria, and then in 1946 his remains were moved again, this time to Skopje, where his body remained. From this period at the beginning of the 20th century, the Macedonian Question has been a major force in Balkan history and politics. War and partition In spite of their conflicting interests, in 1912 Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria in 1912 concluded a series of secret bilateral treaties that had as their the explicit intention of ejecting the Ottoman Turks from Europe. They took advantage of an uprising by the Albanian population to intervene in October 1912 and, following their defeat of the sultan’s armies in the first of the Balkan Wars, partitioned the remaining Turkish possessions (including Macedonia) among them. The Treaty of London (May 1913), which concluded this First Balkan War, left Bulgaria dissatisfied; , but, after that country’s attempt to enforce a new partition in a Second Balkan War, the Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913) confirmed a pattern of boundaries that (with small variations) has remained in force ever since. Although the region was again engulfed in war in 1914 conflict during World War I, and Bulgaria occupied large parts of Macedonia, the partition of 1913 was reconfirmed at the end of World War I war in 1918. During the interwar years, intensive campaigning took place in all areas of Macedonia to impose identities on the population that suited the interests of the controlling states. In an a Serbian attempt to secure its northern, or “Vardar,” Macedonia’s status as South Serbia, “Vardar Macedonia” the area was subjected to an active Serbian colonization program under land-reform legislation. Following the forcible ejection of Greeks from Turkey during the 1920s, thousands of Greek settlers were given land in southern, or “Aegean,”Macedonia. ”Both Serbia and Greece took advantage of the displacement by war or expulsion of many former Turkish landowners. During that period a link was consolidated between politicized agricultural labourers (especially tobacco workers) on the large Macedonian estates and the nascent Communist Partyâ€ŗa link that survived the proscription of the party in Yugoslavia after 1921. Partly because of its communist associations, the movement for Macedonian independence was then sustained largely underground until the outbreak of World War II. The republic When war overtook the Balkans again in 1941, the kingdom of Yugoslavia was again divided, this time between the Axis powers and their allies. Yugoslav Macedonia was occupied principally by Bulgaria, the western part being joined to a united Albania under Italian control. The ethnic complexity of the region, together with its history of division and manipulation by outsiders, left the local population demoralized and confusedconflicted. The need to reconcile communist internationalism with the desire for national self-determination posed problems of extreme political sensitivity for resistance groups. In 1945 the area was reincorporated into Yugoslavia, this time under communist control. In an attempt to correct the mistakes of the first Yugoslavia, in which a heavily centralized regime had been dominated by the Serbian dynasty, administration, and armed forces, the second Yugoslavia was organized as a federation, and Macedonia was established as one of its six constituent republics. The consolidation of communist control after the expulsion of the Axis powers was relatively rapid and effective in Yugoslavia. In Greece, however, civil war between communist and royalist forces lasted until 1949, when, under international pressure, Yugoslavia agreed to end its support for the Greek guerrillas. Because of the close links between communism ties between Macedonian

communists in Yugoslavia and ethnic Macedonians living in Greece, many Macedonian Slavs then migrated from there and settled in the new Macedonian republic.thousands of Macedonians fled Greece both during and after the Greek Civil War of 1946â€Ŗ49.. The autonomy of the republic was perhaps more cosmetic than real, although great efforts were made to boost support a sense of cultural national identity among Macedonians. A Macedonian language was codified and disseminated through education the educational system (including the first Macedonian university), the mass media of communication, and the arts. An important symbol of the independence existence of the a Macedonian republic nation was the creation of an autocephalous Macedonian Orthodox churchChurch. Since the 1890s a great deal of dissatisfaction had been expressed in Macedonia with the unsympathetic attitude of the Serbian church, with which Orthodox Macedonians had long been affiliated. There is little doubt, however, that their autocephalous status would never have been achieved without the vigorous support of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. The archbishopric of Ohrid was restored in 1958, and autocephaly was declared in 1967. Although national churches are typical in the Orthodox communion, in the case of the Macedonians it became the root of a great deal of hostility on the part of neighbouring Orthodox peoples. The Macedonian Orthodox Church is not recognized by the patriarch or by any other Orthodox church. Macedonia’s economic development lagged behind that of the more-developed republics throughout the communist period, yet Macedonians remained among the most loyal supporters of the Yugoslav federation, which seemed to offer their best guarantee against claims on their territory by other countries and against secessionist sentiments on the part of internal minorities. This loyalty survived the strain both of the suppression of liberal Marxism nationalism by Yugoslav federal authorities and of disputes over republican autonomy between 1968 and 1974. Macedonian politicians persistently sought to broker solutions to the final constitutional crisis and to the breakup of the League of Communists and the Yugoslav federation itself after 1989. Independence Although the first multiparty elections, held in November and December 1990, brought to prominence a nationalist party (also calling itself IMRO), it was only with great reluctance that the independence of Macedonia was declared one year later. In contrast to the other Yugoslav republics, whose efforts to secede from Yugoslavia provoked campaigns of nationalist violence and ethnic cleansing in the early 1990s, the Republic of Macedonia was peacefully established as a sovereign and independent state on September 8, 1991, by a vote of the citizens of Macedonia. Since then Macedonia has faced many serious challenges on both the domestic and international fronts. Conflict with the Albanian minority and the dispute with Greece over the name “Macedonia” have combined to pose significant threats to much -needed foreign investment and economic growth. Moreover, while overseeing the demanding transition to a freemarket economy, a succession of Macedonian governments have been bedeviled by corruption and forced to combat organized crime. More importantly, however, the Macedonian government has been faced with the challenge of maintaining peaceful relations between the country’s Orthodox Christian Macedonian majority and a Muslim Albanian minority that constitutes approximately one-fourth of the population. A key issue that has proven difficult to resolve has been balancing Macedonian nationals’ commitment to the preservation of a Macedonian state with Albanians’ demands for the full rights of citizenship. According to the original preamble of the 1991 constitution, the Republic of Macedonia was established as “a national state of the Macedonian people in which full equality as citizens and permanent coexistence with the Macedonian people is provided for Albanians, Turks, Vlachs, Romanies [Roma], and other nationalities.” As a result of long -standing Albanian grievances over their status as second-class citizens in the republic and the Albanian insurgency in the northwest of the country that followed the NATO defeat of Slobodan MiloÅ¡ević’s Serbia in the Kosovo conflict, in 2001 the preamble of the Macedonian constitution was recast to reflect a more pluralist perspective. It now refers to “the citizens of the Republic of Macedonia, the Macedonian people, as well as citizens living within its borders who are part of the Albanian people, the Turkish people, the Vlach [Aromani] people, the Serbian people, the Romany people, the Bosniak people.” Kiro Gligorov, a well-respected veteran of many years of service in the Yugoslav federal government, deftly guided the republic through its difficult early years as its first president. A member of the moderate Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM), which consisted of

former communists and social democrats, he was seriously wounded in an assassination attempt in 1995. After having turned over the reigns of power to an acting president for six weeks, he resumed his duties and served as president until 1999. . That year power shifted to the right, and Boris Trajkovski of the more nationalist Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organizationâ€ŖDemocratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMRO-DPMNE) came to power. In 2004 the presidency shifted to the SDSM, to Branko Crvenkovski, then in 2009 back to the VMRO-DPMNE in the person of Gjorge Ivanov. Historically, the Albanian minority has voted as a bloc for ethnic Albanian parties, and all governments since independence have been coalitions that included an Albanian party. In 1999, during the Kosovo conflict, more than 350,000 Kosovar Albanian refugees fled to Macedonia with significant consequences for the republic. Living standards in Macedonia plummeted, exports declined, and unemployment, already at more than 30 percent before the conflict, rose dramatically to as high as 40â€Ŗ50 percent, according to some estimates. Another serious threat to the country’s political stability was posed by the armed insurgency that erupted between an Albanian military group and Macedonian security forces in 2001. This conflict was brought to an end in August 2001 by the signing of the Ohrid Framework Agreement, which contained the government’s promises to make Albanian an official language, to increase autonomy for areas with large Albanian populations, and to raise the number of Albanians serving in the army and police as well as in the government. The Macedonian economy gradually recoveredâ€ŗwith slow but steady GDP growth and minimal inflationâ€ŗuntil 2009, when it began to struggle in response to the global financial downturn. By far the greatest challenge for the Republic of Macedonia was Greece’s effort to prevent its neighbour from gaining international recognition under its constitutional name, along with blocking Macedonia’s participation in international organizations. Greece’s attempt to monopolize the name “Macedonia” successfully prevented the republic from gaining entry into a variety of international organizations and from enjoying the economic and political stability that membership in such organizations would provide. When the Republic of Macedonia declared its independence in 1991, Greece immediately objected to the name of the new republic, insisting that “Macedonia” had been used by Greeks since ancient times and that its appropriation indicated a “appropriation” by the Republic of Macedonia constituted a “falsification of history” and a revival of territorial claims on Greek Macedonia (MakedonÃa). The Macedonian republic argued in turn that Slavs had lived in the area for 14 centuries and had used the name Macedonia for hundreds of years. As a compromise, Macedonia joined Responding to the Republic of Macedonia’s attempt to gain recognition from the European Community (EC; later the European Union), an EC arbitration commission concluded not only that the newly independent country met all the criteria necessary for recognition but also that its use of the name “Macedonia” implied no claims on Greek territoryâ€ŗthe contention of the Greek government. Nevertheless, Greece was able to prevent EC recognition of the republic. Only by acceding to a provisional designation as “the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia” did Macedonia gain admission to the United Nations in 1993 under the name The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Further international recognition followed, though the name remained contentious into the 21st century. After independence, political life became a matter of delicately balancing the demands of social-democratic parties (former communists), Macedonian nationalists, and ethnic minorities (principally Albanians). Ethnic tensions periodically erupted into violence, notably in 2001, when ethnic Albanians mounted a major armed insurgency that was finally diffused after outside mediators brokered peace talks. In addition, NATO deployed a peacekeeping force in the country for some 18 months. In early 1994, seemingly turning up the pressure on the republic to relinquish its claims to the name Macedonia, Greece instituted an economic blockade that had dire consequences for Macedonia. In September 1995, with more and more countries inveighing for Greece and Macedonia to come to a settlement, the two signed an Interim Accord. The agreement called for Macedonia to remove the 16-ray Sun or Star of Verghinaâ€ŗa symbol of the ancient Macedonian royal family that Greece had claimed as a national symbolâ€ŗfrom its flag and to renounce all territorial claims on Greek Macedonia in return for Greece’s termination of the embargo. Moreover, it was agreed that the “name issue” would be submitted to UN -sponsored mediation. In 2004 the Republic of Macedonia was recognized by the United States under its constitutional name. In 2008, however, Greece violated the Interim Accord by preventing Macedonia from being invited to become a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization

(NATO), again raising objections to the republic’s use of the name “Macedonia.” Nonetheless, UN-sponsored bilateral negotiations over the name continued. If the Republic of Macedonia is able to successfully meet its economic challenges, maintain good relationships with its Albanian minority, and resolve the name dispute with Greece, it will demonstrate that it is possible to create a truly multinational state in the Balkans.

Updated Trade and Economy sections and added new Agriculture, Resources and power, Manufacturing, and Finance sections. The economySocialist developmentEconomy Along with the rest of the Balkan Peninsula, Macedonia underwent an impressive economic transformation after 1945â€ŗin this case within the framework provided by Yugoslavia’s system of “socialist self-management.” Even so, Macedonia remained the poorest of the Yugoslav republics and was included throughout the communist period in the list of regions that merited economic aid from wealthier parts of the federation. While this status undoubtedly brought much investment, several projects were located placed without adequate attention to the supply of materials or access to markets. A prime example was the choice of Skopje as the site for a steel industry. Within the Yugoslav framework, Macedonia built up important capacities in the production of sheet and strip metal, ferrous alloys, zinc, lead, and copper. Textile fibres and finished textiles, pharmaceuticals, and construction materials were among the most successful products of manufacturing industries. Meanwhile, agriculture remained central to the Macedonian economy, especially the production of tobacco, rice, fruit, vegetables, and wine. Tourism became a significant feature during the 1980s.The private sector Although socialized production dominated industrial and commercial life after the communists’ rise to power in 1945, the private sector remained important in agriculture, craft production, and retail trade. Seventy About 70 percent of agricultural land was held privately, accounting for some 50 percent of output. However, privately owned enterprises were typically traditionalist in structure and outlook, and, even after the liberalization of the communist system in 1991, they were unable to develop a dynamic economic role. Trade Following the onset of the Yugoslav civil war in 1991, the economic position of Macedonia became very precarious. The republic had previously depended heavily on Yugoslav rather than foreign markets, and its participation in Yugoslavia’s export trade was heavily skewed toward the countries of the former Soviet bloc, which were concurrently undergoing economic crisis crises. United Nations sanctions against the rump Yugoslavia (the federation of Serbia and Montenegro) added to these difficulties by throttling the transport of goods through Macedonia. Also, an acrimonious dispute with Greece over the name of the republic frustrated Macedonia’s quest for international recognition, thereby deterring foreign investment and delaying economic reform. CommunicationsThe location of the republic across By the mid-1990s, however, Macedonia had begun to find new trading partners, and the economy began to prosper. Though gross domestic product (GDP) dipped at the turn of the 21st century, it rebounded quickly, and the country weathered the worldwide economic downturn that began in 2008 better than many other countries. Nevertheless, unemployment remained high, exceeding 30 percent for much of the first decade of the 21st century. Agriculture In the early 21st century the agricultural sector contributed about one-tenth of Macedonia’s GDP and engaged about one-sixth of the country’s workforce. The main crops are tobacco, fruits (including apples and grapes), vegetables, wheat, rice, and corn (maize). Viticulture and dairy farming are also important. Resources and power Although there are deposits of zinc, iron, copper, lead, chromium, manganese, antimony, nickel, silver, and gold in Macedonia, the country’s mining industry is focused on the e xtraction of

lignite (brown coal). More than three-fourths of Macedonia’s power is produced from fossil fuels (principally lignite). The remainder comes from hydroelectricity. Manufacturing Manufacturing constituted less than one-fifth of GDP in Macedonia in the early 21st century and accounted for between one-tenth and one-fifth of employment. Because of the presence of mineral resources such as nickel, lead, and zinc in Macedonia, ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy have long been linchpins of the country’s manufacturing sector. Among the principal products associated with this industry are ferronickel, flat-rolled sheet steel, and seamed pipes. Automobile parts, electrical equipment, household appliances, and clothing are also produced, and there are wood- and plastic-processing industries Finance Macedonia’s national currency is the denar. The National Bank of the Republic of Macedonia is the bank of issue, authorizes bank licensing, and oversees a system composed of banks (some of which are permitted to conduct only domestic business) and “savings houses.” A large portion of capital in the banking system comes from foreign investors. Trade By the first decade of the 21st century, Macedonia’s principal trading partners were Germany, Serbia, Russia, Greece, and Italy. The country’s main exports were iron and steel (especially ferronickel and flat-rolled products), clothing and accessories, and food products. Imports included machinery, petroleum, and iron and steel. Transportation and communications The location of the republic along the Morava-Vardar route from Belgrade, Serbia, to ThessalonÃki, Greece, has endowed it with reasonably modern road and rail links on a northwest-southeast axis. However, the Macedonia’shistoric rail link with Greece passes through Bitola and other branch lines are much in need of modernization. Essentially, national infrastructure needs have been met only where these coincide with international requirements. For this reason, communications are particularly poor in the east, which conducts little trade with the outside. The development of tourism in the MavrovoOhrid area has ensured new road building in the west, and an airport at Ohrid supplements facilities at Skopje.. Airports at Skopje and Ohrid serve international destinations. By 2010 more than half of Macedonians had Internet access, a 35-fold increase in a period of just 10 years.

Characterization of temperature ranges generalized. The land Relief Geologically, Macedonia consists mainly of heavily folded ancient metamorphic rocks, which in the west have been eroded to reveal older granites. In the central region are found sedimentary deposits of more recent age. Traversing the country from north to south is a series of active fault lines, along which earthquakes frequently occur. The most severe of these in recent history was a shock of magnitude 9 on the Richter scale occurred at Debar in 1967. Skopje was largely destroyed by an earthquake in 1963. The mobility of the Earth’s crust has also created two tectonic lakes, Prespa and Ohrid, in the southwest and has resulted in the formation of several mineral springs and hot springs. Macedonia is largely mountainous, with many peaks rising above the treeline tree line at 6,600 feet (2,000 metres) above sea level. The highest elevation is at Mount Korab (9,030 feet, or 2,752 metres) , on the Albanian border. Near the Šar Mountains in the northwest, the country is covered with forest. Where this has been cleared (and often in the past overgrazed), the thin skeletal soils have been subjected to dramatic erosion and gullying. There are also several broad and fertile valleys that provide good potential for agriculture. Drainage The greater part of Macedonia (87 percent about nine-tenths of its area) drains southeastward into the Aegean Sea , via the Vardar River and its tributaries. Smaller parts of this basin drain into Lake Doiran (Macedonian: Dojran) and into the Aegean via the Strumica and Struma rivers. The remaining 13 percent remainder of Macedonian territory drains northward via the Crni Drim River toward the Adriatic Sea. The convoluted and fractured geology of the area imposes upon many of these rivers erratic courses that frequently drive through narrow and sometimes spectacular gorges. Such

formations facilitate the damming of rivers for electric power generation. Climate Macedonia stands at the junction of two main climatic zones, the Mediterranean and the continental. Periodically, air breaks through mountain barriers to the north and south, bringing dramatically contrasting weather patterns; one example is the cold northerly wind known as the vardarac. Overall, there is a moderate continental climate: temperatures average 32° in the low 30s F (0° Cabout 0 °C) in January and rise to 68°â€Ŗ77° the high 60s and 70s F (20°â€Ŗ25° Cabout 20â€Ŗ25 °C) in July. Annual precipitation is relatively light, between about 20 and 28 inches (about 500 and 700 millimetresmm). Rainfalls of less than 1 inch (25.4 mm) in the driest months (Julyâ€ŖAugust) rise to nearly 4 inches (about 100 mm) in Octoberâ€ŖNovember. Because of differences in local aspect and relief, there may be considerable variation in the climate, with the eastern areas tending to have milder winters and hotter, drier summers and the western (more mountainous) regions having more severe winters. Plant and animal life The mountainous northwestern parts of Macedonia support large areas of forest vegetation. On the lower slopes this is principally deciduous woodland, but conifers grow at elevations as high as 6,600 feet (2,000 metres). Some areas of forest have been cleared to provide rough summer pasture. The forests support a variety of wildlife, including wild pigs, wolves, bears, and lynx. The dry and warm summers result in a rich an abundance of insect life, with species of grasshopper grasshoppers much in evidence, along with numerous small lizards. Settlement patterns Successive waves of migration, as well as economic and political modernization, have left their mark in a diversity of settlement patterns. The highlands are still tended by shepherds living in remote hamlets and mountain refuges. Throughout the agricultural areas, farmers live as they have for centuries in nucleated villages. Several small market towns are of great antiquity. In Roman times Bitola was a commercial centre known as Heraclea Lyncestis. Ohrid became a major administrative and ecclesiastical centre in the early Middle Ages. The coming of the Turks in the 14th century promoted the growth of Skopje as a governmental and military centre and created large agrarian estates, which were later socialized by the communists and given over to extensive mechanized cultivation. This latter process has been responsible for the growth, since 1945, of Kavardarci and Veles. Industrialization in the second half of the 20th century had a dramatic impact upon population distribution. The population of Skopje has been boosted to roughly one-quarter of the population of the republic, its attractiveness as a pole for migration having been enhanced both by its location across a transcontinental transportation route and by its status as the republican capital. Acting as reasonably effective counterforces to the pull of Skopje are the growth of tourism around Ohrid and high rates of natural increase among Albanians in the northwest. Depopulation of the countryside has been particularly marked east of the Vardar, owing to tardy economic development. Added description of the breakdown into Vardar Macedonia, Aegean Macedonia, and Pirin Macedonia, of the situation of the Albanian minority, and of the contested nature of the term Macedonian. MacedoniaMacedonian Makedonija, officially Republic of Macedonia, Macedonian Republika Makedonijacountry of the southern south-central Balkans. It is bordered to the north by Kosovo and Serbia, to the east by Bulgaria, to the south by Greece, and to the west by Albania. The capital is Skopje. The republic Republic of Macedonia is located on in the northern part of the southern Balkan Peninsula area traditionally known as Macedonia, which is a geographical region bounded to the south by the Aegean Sea and the Aliákmon River; to the west by Lakes Prespa and Ohrid, the watershed west of the Crni Drim River, and the Å ar Mountains; and to the north by the mountains of the Skopska Crna Gora and the watershed between the Morava and Vardar river basins. The Pirin Mountains mark its eastern edge. Since 1913 this geographic and historical region has been divided among several countries, and only The Republic of Macedonia occupies about two-fifths of its area is occupied by the independent state that calls itself Macedoniathe entire geographical region of Macedonia. The rest of the region belongs to Greece and Bulgaria. Most people with a Macedonian national identity also refer to the region that constitutes their country as Vardar Macedonia, the Greek part of Macedonia as Aegean

Macedonia, and the Bulgarian part of Macedonia as Pirin Macedonia. In this article, unless otherwise indicated, the name Macedonia refers to the present-day state the Republic of Macedonia when discussing geography and history since 1913 and to the larger region as described above when used in earlier historical contexts. The region of Macedonia owes its importance neither to its size nor to its population but rather to its location across at a major junction of communication routesâ€ŗin particular, the great northsouth route from the Danube River to the Aegean formed by the valleys of the Morava and Vardar rivers and the ancient east-west trade routes connecting the Black Sea and Istanbul with the Adriatic Sea. Although the majority of the republic’s inhabitants are of Slavic descent and heirs to the Eastern Orthodox tradition of Christianity, 500 years of incorporation into the Ottoman Empire have left substantial numbers of other ethnic groups, including Albanians and Turks, Turks, Vlachs (Aromani), and Roma (Gypsies). Consequently, Macedonia forms a complex border zone between the major cultural traditions of Europe and Asia. Ottoman control was brought to an end by the Balkan Wars (1912â€Ŗ13), after which Macedonia was divided among Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia. Following World War I, the Serbian segment was incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (renamed Yugoslavia in 1929). After World War II , the Serbian part of Macedonia became a constituent republic within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The collapse of this federation in turn Yugoslavialed the Yugoslav republic Republic of Macedonia to declare its independence on December 19, 1991. Greece subsequently voiced concerns over the use of the name Macedonia, and the new republic joined the United Nations under the name The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.The two major problems facing the Republic of Macedonia since its independence have been ensuring that its large Albanian minority enjoys the rights of full citizenship and gaining international recognition under its constitutional name and membership in international organizations in the face of strong opposition from Greece, which claims a monopoly on the use of the term Macedonia. (See Researcher’s Note: Macedonia: a contested name.)

Updated Constitutional framework and Education sections and added new Political process, Justice, Security, and Health and welfare sections. Administration and social conditionsThe constitutionThe constitution of 1991 Government and society Constitutional framework Macedonia’s 1991 constitution established a republican assembly (called the Sobranie) consisting assemblyâ€ŗcalled the Sobranieâ€ŗconsisting of a single chamber of 120 seats competed for in multiparty elections. There is an explicit separation of powers between the legislature, the judiciary, and the executive: the . The prime minister and cabinet ministers, for example, do not have seats in the assembly. The executive, under the prime minister, is the most powerful branch, with the legislature and judiciary acting principally as checks and balances to the government’s activity. Whereas deputies are elected by a majority of those voting, the constitution insists that the president be elected by a majority of those on the electoral register. The presidency resembles the German rather than the French institution, the president serving The president, who is elected to a five-year term, serves principally as a symbolic head of state and is the commander in chief of the armed forces; a president may serve no more than two terms. In 2001 the constitution was amended to include a number of provisions aimed at protecting the rights of the Albanian minority. Local government The republic is divided into 32 84 opÅ¡tine (municipalities), to which are delegated many important social, judicial, and economic functions. Justice The Macedonian legal system is grounded in civil law. The judicial branch comprises basic and appellate courts, the Supreme Court, the Republican Judicial Council, and the Constitutional Court. The judges of the Constitutional Court are elected by the Sobranie.. Political process All citizens age 18 and over are eligible to vote. Members of parliament are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis from party lists in six districts, each of which has 20 seats. During the era of federated Yugoslavia, the only authorized political party in Macedonia was the League of Communists of Macedonia. Since independence, dozens of parties have put forward electoral

slates, and the elections of the early 21st century were dominated by a pair of large electoral coalitions. Headed by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organizationâ€ŖDemocratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VnatreÅ¡no-Makedonska Revolucionerna Organizacijaâ€ŖDemokratska Partija za Makedonsko Nacionalno Edinstvo; VMRO-DPMNE), the Coalition for a Better Macedonia, which captured more than half of the seats in the parliamentary election of 2008, grew out of the National Unity coalition that had triumphed in the 2006 election. A number of smaller ethnic parties that joined the Coalition for a Better Macedonia previously had been members of the coalition led by the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (Socijaldemosratski Sojuz na Makedonija; SDSM), the descendant of the League of Communists. That coalition, initially known as Together for Macedonia, evolved into the Sun Coalition for Europe, which captured nearly one-fourth of the seats in parliament in the 2008 election. Other significant political parties include the Democratic Union for Integration and the Democratic Party of Albanians. At the beginning of the 21st century, a concentrated effort was made to increase the involvement of women in Macedonian politics and government, and the number of female representatives in the Sobranie grew from 8 in 2000 to 38 in 2011. Security Military service in Macedonia is voluntary. The principal component of the military is the army, augmented by the Air Wing, the Special Operations Regiment, and Logistic Support Command. Health and welfare The Ministry of Health oversees a compulsory state-funded health care system that requires employees and employers to pay contributions into the Health Insurance Fund. Private health care and private health insurance is also available. Among the top health priorities in Macedonia identified by the Ministry of Health in the early 21st century were early detection and treatment of breast cancer, obligatory immunization, blood donation, prevention of tuberculosis and brucellosis, and HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment. Education Primary education is universal and compulsory for eight years from the age of seven. It may be conducted in languages other than Macedonian where there are large local majorities of other ethnic groups. A further four years of secondary education are available on a voluntary basis in specialized schools, which often represent the particular economic strengths or needs of a locality. There is a single university, in Skopje, with satellite facilities in other citiesHigher education is provided by colleges and pedagogical academies offering two-year courses, as well as by universities that offer two- to six-year courses in a range of disciplines. Macedonia’s universities include the South East European University in Tetovo, University for Information Science and Technology "St. Paul the Apostle” in Ohrid, Saints Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, the State University of Tetova, and “Goce Delcev” University in Stip. Bibliography revised. Geography Joseph Obrebski, Ritual and Social Structure in a Macedonian Village, ed. by Barbara Kerewsky Halpern and Joel M. Halpern (1977), is a brief research report of rare quality. The Macedonian Literary Language (1959) is an official account of its development. An official view of ecclesiastical development is Doné Ilievski, The Macedonian Orthodox Church: The Road to Independence (1973). The following are of particular importance in understanding the significance of ethnicity in Macedonia: Jovan Trifunoski, Albansko StanovniÅ¡tvo u Socijalističkoj Republici Makedoniji (1988); and Vasiliki Neofotistos, The Risk of War: Everyday Sociality in the Republic of Macedonia (2012), on Albanians in Macedonia; C.N.O. Bartlett, The Turkish Minority in Yugoslavia (1980); H.R. Wilkinson, Maps and Politics: A Review of the Ethnographic Cartography of Macedonia (1951); and Loring M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World (1995). History Stoyan Pribichevich, Macedonia, Its People and History (1982); and Institute Of The Institute of National History, Skopje, A History of the Macedonian People (1979; originally published in Macedonian, 1972); Andrew Rossos, are distinguished for their specific focus on Macedonia Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History (2008); and Keith Brown, The Past in Question: Modern Macedonia and the Uncertainties of Nation (2003), are very useful. The competition for the partition of Macedonia is described in Elisabeth Barker, Macedonia: Its Place in Balkan Power Politics (1950, reprinted 1980). A classic study of the Macedonian independence

movement is Krste P. Misirkov, On Macedonian Matters (1903, reissued 1974; originally published in Serbo-Croatian, 1903). The World War II period is dealt with in Stephen E. Palmer, Jr., and Robert R. King, Yugoslav Communism and the Macedonian Question (1971). The transition from communist rule to a multiparty , independent state is illuminated by John B. Allcock, “Macedonia,” in Bogdan SzajkoswkiSzajkowski (ed.), Political Parties of Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Successor States(1994), pp. 279â€Ŗ291. Country Profile: Changed form of government.

Country Profile: Added name of head of state and head of government, along with urban-rural, life expectancy, literacy, and GNI per capita statistics. Macedonia%% years years%% Republika Makedonija (Macedonian); Republika Official name1 e Maqedonise Maqedonisë (Albanian) (Republic of Macedonia) Form of government Head of state Head of government Capital Official languages Official religion Monetary unit Population Total area (sq mi) Total area (sq km) Urban-rural population Rural: Life expectancy at birth Female: Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate Female: GNI per capita (U.S.$) Member of the United Nations under the name The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).
1

unitary multiparty republic with a unicameral legislature (Sobranie, or Assembly [120123]) President: Gjorge Ivanov Prime Minister: Nikola Gruevski Skopje Macedonian; Albanian none denar (MKD)

Urban: Male:

Male:

Country Profile: Updated area and population figures. Republika Makedonija (Macedonian); Republika Official name1 e Maqedonise Maqedonisë (Albanian) (Republic of Macedonia) Form of unitary multiparty republic with a unicameral legislature (Assembly [120]) government Head of state President Head of Prime Minister government Capital Skopje Official Macedonian; Albanian

languages Official religion none Monetary unit denar (MKD) Population (20082009) 2,039052,000 estimate Total area (sq 9,928 mi) Total area (sq 25,713 km) 1 Member of the United Nations under the name The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM). History section restructured. History As described in this article’s introduction, the name Macedonia is applied both to a region encompassing the present-day Republic of Macedonia and portions of Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece and to the republic itself, the boundaries of which have been defined since 1913. In the following discussion, Macedonia is used generally to describe the larger region prior to 1913 and the area of the present-day republic thereafter. The ancient world The Macedonian region has been the site of human habitation for millennia. There is archaeological evidence that the Old European civilization flourished there between 7000 and 3500 BC. Seminomadic peoples speaking languages of the Indo-European family then moved into the Balkan Peninsula. During the 1st millennium BC the Macedonian region was populated by a mixture of peoplesâ€ŗDacians, Thracians, Illyrians, Celts, and Greeks. Although Macedonia is most closely identified historically with the kingdom of Philip II of Macedon in the middle of the 4th century BC and the subsequent expansion of that empire by his son Alexander III (the Great), none of the states established in that era was very durable; until the arrival of the Romans, the pattern of politics was a shifting succession of contending city-states and chiefdoms that occasionally integrated into ephemeral empires. Nevertheless, this period is important in understanding the present-day region, as both Greeks and Albanians base their claims to be indigenous inhabitants of it on the achievements of the Macedonian and Illyrian states. At the end of the 3rd century BC, the Romans began to expand into the Balkan Peninsula in search of metal ores, slaves, and agricultural produce. The Illyrians were finally subdued in AD 9 (their lands becoming the province of Illyricum), and the north and east of Macedonia were incorporated into the province of Moesia in AD 29. A substantial number of sites bear witness today to the power of Rome, especially Heraclea Lyncestis (modern Bitola) and Stobi (south of Veles on the Vardar River). The name Skopje is Roman in origin (Scupi). Many roads still follow courses laid down by the Romans. Beginning in the 3rd century, the defenses of the Roman Empire in the Balkans were probed by Goths, Huns, Bulgars, Avars, and other seminomadic peoples. Although the region was nominally a part of the Eastern Empire, control from Constantinople became more and more intermittent. By the mid-6th century, Slavic tribes had begun to settle in Macedonia, and, from the 7th to the 13th century, the entire region was little more than a system of military marches governed uneasily by the Byzantine state through alliances with local princes. The medieval states In that period the foundations were laid for modern competing claims for control over Macedonia. During the 9th century the Eastern tradition of Christianity was consolidated in the area. The mission to the Slavs has come to be associated with Saints Cyril and Methodius, whose great achievement was the devising of an alphabet based on Greek letters and adapted to the phonetic peculiarities of the Slavonic tongue. In its later development as the Cyrillic alphabet, this came to be a distinctive cultural feature uniting several of the Slavic peoples. Although the central purpose of the missionaries was to preach the Gospel to the Slavs in the vernacular, their ecclesiastical connection with the Greek culture of Constantinople remained a powerful lever to be worked vigorously during the struggle for Macedonia in the 19th century. The people who form the majority of the inhabitants of the contemporary Macedonian republic are clearly not Greeks but Slavs. However, this ecclesiastical tradition, taken together with the long

period during which the region was associated with the Greek-speaking Byzantine state, and above all the brief ascendancy of the Macedonian empire (c. 359â€Ŗ321 BC) continue to provide Greeks with a sense that Macedonia is Greek. Yet, although the inhabitants of the present-day republic are Slavs, it remains to be determined what kind of Slavs they are. Among the short-lived states jostling for position with Byzantium were two that modern Bulgarians claim give them a special stake in Macedonia. Under the reign of Simeon I (893â€Ŗ927), Bulgaria emerged briefly as the dominant power in the peninsula, extending its control from the Black Sea to the Adriatic. Following a revolt of the western provinces, this first Bulgarian empire fell apart, but it was partially reintegrated by Samuel (reigned 976â€Ŗ1014), who set up his own capital in Ohrid (not the traditional Bulgarian capital of Preslav [now known as Veliki Preslav]) and also established a patriarchate there. Although the Byzantine state reasserted its authority after 1018, a second Bulgarian empire raised its head in 1185; this included northern and central Macedonia and lasted until the mid-14th century. Possible links between Macedonians and Bulgars during the seminomadic period of the arrival of the Slav peoples in the Balkans are unclear and probably impossible to determine. Modern Bulgarians have based their claims to the historical unity of the two peoples principally on two considerations. First, they emphasize the lack of clear distinctions between early variants of the old Slavonic languages, explaining later developments that were peculiar to the Macedonian tongue as reflecting subsequent Serbianization. Consequently, Macedonian is interpreted as a dialect of Bulgarian. Bulgarians also point out that, throughout the rise and fall of the early Bulgarian empires, control over a great part of Macedonia was a common factor. A supplementary but important point is the continuing role of Ohrid as a symbolic centre of ecclesiastical life for both peoples. During the second half of the 12th century, a more significant rival to Byzantine power in the Balkans emerged in the Serbian Nemanjić dynasty. Stefan Nemanja became veliki župan, or “grand chieftain,” of RaÅ¡ka in 1169, and his successors created a state that, under Stefan DuÅ¡an (reigned 1331â€Ŗ55), incorporated Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia, all of modern Albania and Montenegro, a substantial part of Bosnia, and Serbia as far north as the Danube. Although the cultural heart of the empire was RaÅ¡ka (the area around modern Novi Pazar) and Kosovo, as the large number of medieval Orthodox churches in those regions bear witness, DuÅ¡an was crowned emperor in Skopje in 1346. Within half a century after his death, the Nemanjić state was eclipsed by the expanding Ottoman Empire; nevertheless, it is to this golden age that Serbs today trace their own claims to Macedonia. The Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire originated in a small emirate established in the second half of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia. By 1354 it had gained a toehold in Europe, and by 1362 Adrianopole (modern Edirne, Turkey) had fallen. From this base the power of this Turkicspeaking and Islamic state steadily expanded. From a military point of view, the most significant defeat of the Serbian states took place in the Battle of the Maritsa River at Chernomen in 1371, but it is the defeat in 1389 of a combined army of Serbs, Albanians, and Hungarians under Lazar at Kosovo Polje that has been preserved in legend as symbolizing the subordination of the Balkan Slavs to the “Ottoman yoke.” Constantinople itself did not fall to the Turks until 1453; but by the end of the 14th century the Macedonian region had been incorporated into the Ottoman Empire. Thus began what was in many respects the most stable period of Macedonian history, lasting until the Turks were ejected from the region in 1913. Half a millennium of contact with Turkey had a profound impact on language, food habits, and many aspects of daily living in Macedonia. Within the empire, administrators, soldiers, merchants, and artisans moved in pursuit of their professions. Where war, famine, or disease left regions underpopulated, settlers were moved in from elsewhere with no regard for any link between ethnicity and territory. By the system known as devÅŸirme (the notorious “blood tax”), numbers of Christian children were periodically recruited into the Turkish army and administration, where they were Islamized and assigned to wherever their services were required. For all these reasons many Balkan towns acquired a cosmopolitan atmosphere. This was particularly the case in Macedonia during the 19th century, when, as the Serbian, Greek, and Bulgarian states began to assert their independence, many who had become associated with Turkish rule moved into lands still held by the Sublime Porte. Whatever distinctive characteristics Macedonians may or may not have had before the coming of the Turks, it is undoubtedly the case that, by the outbreak of the Balkan Wars, they (along with the Muslims of

Bosnia) were the European people most closely tied to Ottoman culture. The economic legacy of Turkish rule is also important. During the expansionist phase of the empire, Turkish feudalism consisted principally of the timar system of “tax farming,” whereby local officeholders raised revenue or supported troops in the sultan’s name but were not landowners. As the distinctively military aspects of the Ottoman order declined after the 18th century, these privileges were gradually transformed in some areas into the çiftliksystem, which more closely resembled proprietorship over land. This process involved the severing of the peasantry from their traditional rights on the land and a corresponding creation of large estates farmed on a commercial basis. The çiftlik thus yielded the paradox of a population that was heavily influenced by Ottoman culture yet bound into an increasingly oppressive economic subordination to Turkish landlords. The independence movement Conflict and confusion deepened in Macedonia in the closing decades of the 19th century. As the Turkish empire decayed, Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria all looked to benefit territorially from the approaching carve-up of Macedonia. At the same time, these indigenous states all became in different ways stalking horses for the aspirations of the European Great Powers. The weapons employed in this conflict ranged widely; they included opening schools in an attempt to inculcate a particular linguistic and confessional identity, controlling ecclesiastical office, exerting influence over the course of railway building, diplomatic attempts to secure the ear of the Sublime Porte, and even financing guerrilla bands. Partly in response to the intensity of these campaigns of pressure and even terror, a movement called the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) was founded in 1893, at Resana (Resen) near Ohrid. The aim of IMRO was “Macedonia for the Macedonians,” and on August 2 (July 20, Old Style), 1903, it raised the banner of revolt against the Turks at KruÅ¡evo and declared Macedonian independence. The Ilinden, or St. Elijah’s Day, Uprising was brutally crushed, but the Macedonian Question thereafter aroused intense international concern. The Great Powers made several attempts to impose reform on the Porte, including sending their own officers to supervise the gendarmerieâ€ŗin effect, the first international peacekeeping force. War and partition In spite of their conflicting interests, Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria in 1912 concluded a series of secret bilateral treaties that had as their explicit intention ejecting the Turks from Europe. They took advantage of an uprising by the Albanian population to intervene in October 1912 and, following their defeat of the sultan’s armies, partitioned the remaining Turkish possessions (including Macedonia) among them. The Treaty of London (May 1913), which concluded this First Balkan War, left Bulgaria dissatisfied; but, after that country’s attempt to enforce a new partition in a Second Balkan War, the Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913) confirmed a pattern of boundaries that (with small variations) has remained in force ever since. Although the region was again engulfed in war in 1914 and Bulgaria occupied large parts of Macedonia, the partition of 1913 was reconfirmed at the end of World War I in 1918. During the interwar years, intensive campaigning took place in all areas of Macedonia to impose identities on the population that suited the interests of the controlling states. In an attempt to secure its status as South Serbia, “Vardar Macedonia” was subjected to an active colonization program under land-reform legislation. Following the forcible ejection of Greeks from Turkey during the 1920s, thousands of Greek settlers were given land in “Aegean Macedonia.” Both Serbia and Greece took advantage of the displacement by war or expulsion of many former Turkish landowners. During that period a link was consolidated between politicized agricultural labourers (especially tobacco workers) on the large Macedonian estates and the nascent Communist Partyâ€ŗa link that survived the proscription of the party in Yugoslavia after 1921. Partly because of its communist associations, the movement for Macedonian independence was then sustained largely underground until the outbreak of World War II. The republic When war overtook the Balkans again in 1941, the kingdom of Yugoslavia was again divided, this time between the Axis powers and their allies. Yugoslav Macedonia was occupied principally by Bulgaria, the western part being joined to a united Albania under Italian control. The ethnic complexity of the region, together with its history of division and manipulation by outsiders, left the local population demoralized and confused. The need to reconcile communist

internationalism with the desire for national self-determination posed problems of extreme political sensitivity for resistance groups. In 1945 the area was reincorporated into Yugoslavia, this time under communist control. In an attempt to correct the mistakes of the first Yugoslavia, in which a heavily centralized regime had been dominated by the Serbian dynasty, administration, and armed forces, the second Yugoslavia was organized as a federation, and Macedonia was established as one of its six constituent republics. The consolidation of communist control after the expulsion of the Axis powers was relatively rapid and effective in Yugoslavia. In Greece, however, civil war between communist and royalist forces lasted until 1949, when, under international pressure, Yugoslavia agreed to end support for the Greek guerrillas. Because of the close links between communism and ethnic Macedonians living in Greece, many Macedonian Slavs then migrated from there and settled in the new Macedonian republic. The autonomy of the republic was perhaps more cosmetic than real, although great efforts were made to boost a sense of cultural identity among Macedonians. A Macedonian language was codified and disseminated through education (including the first Macedonian university), the media of communication, and the arts. An important symbol of the independence of the Macedonian republic was the creation of an autocephalous Macedonian Orthodox church. Since the 1890s a great deal of dissatisfaction had been expressed in Macedonia with the unsympathetic attitude of the Serbian church, with which Orthodox Macedonians had long been affiliated. There is little doubt, however, that autocephalous status would never have been achieved without the vigorous support of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. The archbishopric of Ohrid was restored in 1958, and autocephaly was declared in 1967. Although national churches are typical in the Orthodox communion, in the case of the Macedonians it became the root of a great deal of hostility on the part of neighbouring Orthodox peoples. Macedonia’s economic development lagged behind that of the more-developed republics throughout the communist period, yet Macedonians remained among the most loyal supporters of the Yugoslav federation, which seemed to offer their best guarantee against claims on their territory by other countries and against secessionist sentiments on the part of internal minorities. This loyalty survived the strain both of the suppression of liberal Marxism and of disputes over republican autonomy between 1968 and 1974. Macedonian politicians persistently sought to broker solutions to the final constitutional crisis and to the breakup of the League of Communists and the Yugoslav federation itself after 1989. Independence Although the first multiparty elections, held in November and December 1990, brought to prominence a nationalist party (also calling itself IMRO), it was only with great reluctance that the independence of Macedonia was declared one year later. Greece immediately objected to the name of the new republic, insisting that “Macedonia” had been used by Greeks since ancient times and that its appropriation indicated a revival of claims on Greek Macedonia. The Macedonian republic argued in turn that Slavs had lived in the area for 14 centuries and had used the name Macedonia for hundreds of years. As a compromise, Macedonia joined the United Nations in 1993 under the name The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Further international recognition followed, though the name remained contentious into the 21st century. After independence, political life became a matter of delicately balancing the demands of socialdemocratic parties (former communists), Macedonian nationalists, and ethnic minorities (principally Albanians). Ethnic tensions periodically erupted into violence, notably in 2001, when ethnic Albanians mounted a major armed insurgency that was finally diffused after outside mediators brokered peace talks. In addition, NATO deployed a peacekeeping force in the country for some 18 months.

Changed the elevation of Mount Korab from 9,032 feet to 9,030 feet. The land Relief Geologically, Macedonia consists mainly of heavily folded ancient metamorphic rocks, which in the west have been eroded to reveal older granites. In the central region are found sedimentary deposits of more recent age. Traversing the country from north to south is a series of active fault lines, along which earthquakes frequently occur. The most severe of these in recent history was a shock of magnitude 9 on the Richter scale at Debar in 1967. Skopje was largely destroyed by

an earthquake in 1963. The mobility of the Earth’s crust has also created two tectonic lakes, Prespa and Ohrid, in the southwest and has resulted in the formation of several mineral and hot springs. Macedonia is largely mountainous, with many peaks rising above the treeline at 6,600 feet (2,000 metres) above sea level. The highest elevation is at Mount Korab (9,032 030 feet, or 2,753 752 metres), on the Albanian border. Near the Å ar Mountains in the northwest, the country is covered with forest. Where this has been cleared (and often in the past overgrazed), the thin skeletal soils have been subjected to dramatic erosion and gullying. There are also several broad and fertile valleys that provide good potential for agriculture. Drainage The greater part of Macedonia (87 percent of its area) drains southeastward into the Aegean Sea, via the Vardar River and its tributaries. Smaller parts of this basin drain into Lake Doiran (Macedonian: Dojran) and into the Aegean via the Strumica and Struma rivers. The remaining 13 percent of Macedonian territory drains northward via the Crni Drim River toward the Adriatic. The convoluted and fractured geology of the area imposes upon many of these rivers erratic courses that frequently drive through narrow and sometimes spectacular gorges. Such formations facilitate the damming of rivers for electric power generation. Climate Macedonia stands at the junction of two main climatic zones, the Mediterranean and the continental. Periodically, air breaks through mountain barriers to the north and south, bringing dramatically contrasting weather patterns; one example is the cold northerly wind known as the vardarac. Overall there is a moderate continental climate: temperatures average 32° F (0° C) in January and rise to 68°â€Ŗ77° F (20°â€Ŗ25° C) in July. Annual precipitation is relatively light, between 20 and 28 inches (500 and 700 millimetres). Rainfalls of less than 1 inch in the driest months (Julyâ€ŖAugust) rise to nearly 4 inches in Octoberâ€ŖNovember. Because of differences in local aspect and relief, there may be considerable variation in the climate, with the eastern areas tending to have milder winters and hotter, drier summers and the western (more mountainous) regions having more severe winters. Plant and animal life The mountainous northwestern parts of Macedonia support large areas of forest vegetation. On the lower slopes this is principally deciduous woodland, but conifers grow at elevations as high as 6,600 feet. Some areas of forest have been cleared to provide rough summer pasture. The forests support a variety of wildlife, including wild pigs, wolves, bears, and lynx. The dry and warm summers result in a rich insect life, with species of grasshopper much in evidence, along with numerous small lizards. Settlement patterns Successive waves of migration, as well as economic and political modernization, have left their mark in a diversity of settlement patterns. The highlands are still tended by shepherds living in remote hamlets and mountain refuges. Throughout the agricultural areas, farmers live as they have for centuries in nucleated villages. Several small market towns are of great antiquity. In Roman times Bitola was a commercial centre known as Heraclea Lyncestis. Ohrid became a major administrative and ecclesiastical centre in the early Middle Ages. The coming of the Turks in the 14th century promoted the growth of Skopje as a governmental and military centre and created large agrarian estates, which were later socialized by the communists and given over to extensive mechanized cultivation. This latter process has been responsible for the growth, since 1945, of Kavardarci and Veles. Industrialization in the second half of the 20th century had a dramatic impact upon population distribution. The population of Skopje has been boosted to roughly one-quarter of the population of the republic, its attractiveness as a pole for migration having been enhanced both by its location across a transcontinental transportation route and by its status as the republican capital. Acting as reasonably effective counterforces to the pull of Skopje are the growth of tourism around Ohrid and high rates of natural increase among Albanians in the northwest. Depopulation of the countryside has been particularly marked east of the Vardar, owing to tardy economic development.

Article revised and updated. MacedoniaMacedonian Makedonija, officially Republic of Macedonia, Macedonian Republika

Makedonijacountry of the southern Balkans. It is bordered to the north by Kosovo and Serbia, to the east by Bulgaria, to the south by Greece, and to the west by Albania. The capital is Skopje. The republic is located on the part of the southern Balkan Peninsula traditionally known as Macedonia, which is bounded to the south by the Aegean Sea and the Aliákmon River; to the west by Lakes Prespa and Ohrid, the watershed west of the Crni Drim River, and the Å ar Mountains; and to the north by the mountains of the Skopska Crna Gora and the watershed between the Morava and Vardar river basins. The Pirin Mountains mark its eastern edge. Since 1913 this geographic and historical region has been divided among several countries, and only about two-fifths of its area is occupied by the independent state that calls itself Macedonia. In this article, the name Macedonia refers to the present-day state when discussing geography and history since 1913 and to the larger region as described above when used in earlier historical contexts. Macedonia owes its importance neither to its size nor to its population but rather to its location across a major junction of communication routesâ€ŗin particular, the great north -south route from the Danube River to the Aegean formed by the valleys of the Morava and Vardar rivers and the ancient east-west trade routes connecting the Black Sea and Istanbul with the Adriatic Sea. Although the majority of the republic’s inhabitants are of Slavic descent and heirs to the Eastern Orthodox tradition of Christianity, 500 years of incorporation into the Ottoman Empire have left substantial numbers of other ethnic groups, including Albanians and Turks. Consequently, Macedonia forms a complex border zone between major cultural traditions of Europe and Asia. Ottoman control was brought to an end by the Balkan Wars (1912â€Ŗ13), after which Macedonia was divided among Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia. Following World War I, the Serbian segment was incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (renamed Yugoslavia in 1929). After World War II, the Serbian part of Macedonia became a constituent republic within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The collapse of this federation in turn led the Yugoslav republic of Macedonia to declare its independence on December 19, 1991. Greece subsequently voiced concerns over the use of the name Macedonia, and the new republic joined the United Nations under the name The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The people Ethnicity and language Macedonia has inherited a complex ethnic structure. The largest group, calling themselves Macedonians (about two-thirds of the population), are descendants of Slavic tribes that moved into the region between the 6th and 8th centuriesAD. Their language is very closely related to Bulgarian and is written in the Cyrillic script. Among the Macedonians, however, are significant minorities of much older settlers. The most numerous of these (more than one-fifth of the population) are the Albanians, who claim to be descendants of the ancient Illyrians. They are concentrated in the northwest, along the borders with Albania and the predominantly Albanian province of Kosovo in Serbia. Albanians form majorities in at least 3 of Macedonia’s 32 municipalities (especially Tetovo and Gostivar) and very significant minorities in 7 others. Another vestige of old settlement is the Vlachs, who speak a language closely related to Romanian. The majority of the Vlachs in the republic live in the old mountain city of KruÅ¡evo. The Turkish minority are mostly scattered across central and western Macedonia; they are a legacy of the 500-year rule of the Ottoman Empire. Also associated with this period are Roma (Gypsies (Roma) and people who report their ethnicity as Muslim. In language, religion, and history, a case could be made for identifying Macedonian Slavs with Bulgarians and to a lesser extent with Serbs. Both have had their periods of influence in the region (especially Serbia after 1918); consequently, there are still communities of Serbs (especially in Kumanovo and Skopje) and Bulgarians. Religion The issue of ethnicity is made particularly sensitive by its tendency to coincide with religious allegiance. The various Slavic groups are usually Orthodox Christians, whereas Turks and the great majority of both Albanians and GypsiesRoma are Muslims. Altogether, more than onequarter of the population are of the Islĝmic faith. Demographic trends Historically, the Balkans experienced high rates of natural increase that declined remarkably in the 20th century in response to industrialization and urbanization. In Macedonia these processes have involved the Slavic Christian population to a much greater extent than the Muslims. Among

rural Muslims rates of increase have remained very high: in the case of Turks and Muslim Slavs they are 2.5 times those of the Macedonian majority, and among Albanians and GypsiesRoma they are 3 times as high. These differentials have been a source of political tension, although to a lesser extent than they have been in, for example, Serbia’s Kosovo province. Nevertheless, the collapse of the Yugoslav federation in 1991 brought severe economic and political strains that made ethnicity and religion subjects of growing anxiety in Macedonia.

Article revised and updated. MacedoniaMacedonian Makedonija, officially Republic of Macedonia, Macedonian Republika Makedonijacountry of the southern Balkans. It is bordered to the north by Serbia, to the east by Bulgaria, to the south by Greece, and to the west by Albania. The capital is Skopje. The republic is located on the part of the southern Balkan Peninsula traditionally known as Macedonia, which is bounded to the south by the Aegean Sea and the Aliákmon River; to the west by Lakes Prespa and Ohrid, the watershed west of the Crni Drim River, and the Å ar Mountains; and to the north by the mountains of the Skopska Crna Gora and the watershed between the Morava and Vardar river basins. The Pirin Mountains mark its eastern edge. Since 1913 this geographic and historical region has been divided among several countries, and only about two-fifths of its area is occupied by the independent state that calls itself Macedonia. In this article, the name Macedonia refers to the present-day state when discussing geography and history since 1913 and to the larger region as described above when used in earlier historical contexts. Macedonia owes its importance neither to its size nor to its population but rather to its location across a major junction of communication routesâ€ŗin particular, the great north -south route from the Danube River to the Aegean formed by the valleys of the Morava and Vardar rivers and the ancient east-west trade routes connecting the Black Sea and Istanbul with the Adriatic Sea. Although the majority of the republic’s inhabitants are of Slavic descent and heirs to the Eastern Orthodox tradition of Christianity, 500 years of incorporation into the Ottoman Empire have left substantial numbers of other ethnic groups, including Albanians and Turks. Consequently, Macedonia forms a complex border zone between major cultural traditions of Europe and Asia. Ottoman control was brought to an end by the Balkan Wars (1912â€Ŗ13), after which Macedonia was divided among Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia. Following World War I, the Serbian segment was incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (renamed Yugoslavia in 1929). After World War II, the Serbian part of Macedonia became a constituent republic within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The collapse of this federation in turn led the Yugoslav republic of Macedonia to declare its independence on December 19, 1991. Greece subsequently voiced concerns over the use of the name Macedonia, and the new republic joined the United Nations under the name The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Area 9,928 square miles (25,713 square km). Pop. (2003 est.) 2,056,000.

Article revised and updated. MacedoniaMacedonian Makedonija, officially Republic of Macedonia, Macedonian Republika Makedonijacountry of the southern Balkans. It is bordered to the north by the Serbian portion of Serbia and Montenegro, to the east by Bulgaria, to the south by Greece, and to the west by Albania. The capital is Skopje. The republic is located on the part of the southern Balkan Peninsula traditionally known as Macedonia, which is bounded to the south by the Aegean Sea and the Aliákmon River; to the west by Lakes Prespa and Ohrid, the watershed west of the Crni Drim River, and the Šar Mountains; and to the north by the mountains of the Skopska Crna Gora and the watershed between the Morava and Vardar river basins. The Pirin Mountains mark its eastern edge. Since 1913 this geographic and historical region has been divided among several countries, and only about two-fifths of its area is occupied by the independent state that calls itself Macedonia. In this article, the name Macedonia refers to the present-day state when discussing geography and history since 1913 and to the larger region as described above when used in earlier historical

contexts. Macedonia owes its importance neither to its size nor to its population but rather to its location across a major junction of communication routesâ€ŗin particular, the great north -south route from the Danube River to the Aegean formed by the valleys of the Morava and Vardar rivers and the ancient east-west trade routes connecting the Black Sea and Istanbul with the Adriatic Sea. Although the majority of the republic’s inhabitants are of Slavic descent and heirs to the Eastern Orthodox tradition of Christianity, 500 years of incorporation into the Ottoman Empire have left substantial numbers of other ethnic groups, including Albanians and Turks. Consequently, Macedonia forms a complex border zone between major cultural traditions of Europe and Asia. Ottoman control was brought to an end by the Balkan Wars (1912â€Ŗ13), after which Macedonia was divided among Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia. Following World War I, the Serbian segment was incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (renamed Yugoslavia in 1929). After World War II, the Serbian part of Macedonia became a constituent republic within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The collapse of this federation in turn led the Yugoslav republic of Macedonia to declare its independence on December 19, 1991. Greece subsequently voiced concerns over the use of the name Macedonia, and the new republic joined the United Nations under the name The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Area 9,928 square miles (25,713 square km). Pop. (2003 est.) 2,056,000. The land Relief Geologically, Macedonia consists mainly of heavily folded ancient metamorphic rocks, which in the west have been eroded to reveal older granites. In the central region are found sedimentary deposits of more recent age. Traversing the country from north to south is a series of active fault lines, along which earthquakes frequently occur. The most severe of these in recent history was a shock of magnitude 9 on the Richter scale at Debar in 1967. Skopje was largely destroyed by an earthquake in 1963. The mobility of the Earth’s crust has also created two tectonic lakes, Prespa and Ohrid, in the southwest and has resulted in the formation of several mineral and hot springs. Macedonia is largely mountainous, with many peaks rising above the treeline at 6,600 feet (2,000 metres) above sea level. The highest elevation is at Mount Korab (9,032 feet, or 2,753 metres), on the Albanian border. Near the Å ar Mountains in the northwest, the country is covered with forest. Where this has been cleared (and often in the past overgrazed), the thin skeletal soils have been subjected to dramatic erosion and gullying. There are also several broad and fertile valleys that provide good potential for agriculture. Drainage The greater part of Macedonia (87 percent of its area) drains southeastward into the Aegean Sea, via the Vardar River and its tributaries. Smaller parts of this basin drain into Lake Doiran (Macedonian: Dojran) and into the Aegean via the Strumica and Struma rivers. The remaining 13 percent of Macedonian territory drains northward via the Crni Drim River toward the Adriatic. The convoluted and fractured geology of the area imposes upon many of these rivers erratic courses that frequently drive through narrow and sometimes spectacular gorges. Such formations facilitate the damming of rivers for electric power generation. Climate Macedonia stands at the junction of two main climatic zones, the Mediterranean and the continental. Periodically, air breaks through mountain barriers to the north and south, bringing dramatically contrasting weather patterns; one example is the cold northerly wind known as the vardarac. Overall there is a moderate continental climate: temperatures average 32° F (0° C) in January and rise to 68°â€Ŗ77° F (20°â€Ŗ25° C) in July. Annual precipitation is relatively light, between 20 and 28 inches (500 and 700 millimetres). Rainfalls of less than 1 inch in the driest months (Julyâ€ŖAugust) rise to nearly 4 inches in Octoberâ€ŖNovember. Because of differences in local aspect and relief, there may be considerable variation in the climate, with the eastern areas tending to have milder winters and hotter, drier summers and the western (more mountainous) regions having more severe winters. Plant and animal life The mountainous northwestern parts of Macedonia support large areas of forest vegetation. On the lower slopes this is principally deciduous woodland, but conifers grow at elevations as high as 6,600 feet. Some areas of forest have been cleared to provide rough summer pasture. The

forests support a variety of wildlife, including wild pigs, wolves, bears, and lynx. The dry and warm summers result in a rich insect life, with species of grasshopper much in evidence, along with numerous small lizards. Settlement patterns Successive waves of migration, as well as economic and political modernization, have left their mark in a diversity of settlement patterns. The highlands are still tended by shepherds living in remote hamlets and mountain refuges. Throughout the agricultural areas, farmers live as they have for centuries in nucleated villages. Several small market towns are of great antiquity. In Roman times Bitola was a commercial centre known as Heraclea Lyncestis. Ohrid became a major administrative and ecclesiastical centre in the early Middle Ages. The coming of the Turks in the 14th century promoted the growth of Skopje as a governmental and military centre and created large agrarian estates, which were later socialized by the communists and given over to extensive mechanized cultivation. This latter process has been responsible for the growth, since 1945, of Kavardarci and Veles. Industrialization in the second half of the 20th century had a dramatic impact upon population distribution. The population of Skopje has been boosted to roughly one-quarter of the population of the republic, its attractiveness as a pole for migration having been enhanced both by its location across a transcontinental transportation route and by its status as the republican capital. Acting as reasonably effective counterforces to the pull of Skopje are the growth of tourism around Ohrid and high rates of natural increase among Albanians in the northwest. Depopulation of the countryside has been particularly marked east of the Vardar, owing to tardy economic development.

CONTRIBUTORS


Primary Contributors John B. Allcock
Contributions: Slovenia , Balkans , Kosovo , Macedonia , Slobodan Milosevic , Montenegro , Serbia , Yugoslavia ,Vojvodina



Loring Danforth
Contributions: Greece , Balkans , Bulgaria , Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) , Macedonia ,Macedonia , Macedonia , Macedonia: a contested name , Macedonian Question



Other Contributors The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica

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