Illicit Drug Data Report 2012-2013
Content
2012-13 ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION
Correspondence should be addressed to: Chief Executive Officer Australian Crime Commission PO Box 1936 Canberra City ACT 2601 Telephone: 02 6243 6666 (from within Australia) 61 2 6243 6666 (international) Facsimile: 02 6243 6687 (from within Australia) 61 2 6243 6687 (international) Published April 2014 The data contained in this report is produced by the Australian Crime Commission (ACC) with the endorsement of the eight police commissioners in Australia and the ACC Board. © Commonwealth of Australia 2014.
All material presented in this publication is provided under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia licence. For the avoidance of doubt, this means this licence only applies to material as set out in this document. The details of the relevant licence conditions are available on the Creative Commons website www.creativecommons.org. Use of the Coat of Arms The terms under which the Coat of Arms can be used are detailed on the It’s an Honour website www.itsanhonour.gov.au. ISSN 2202-3925
Cover artwork depicts crystal methylamphetamine hydrochloride ‘ice’.
2012-13 ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION
Introduction
FOREWORD
Illicit drugs affect every member of the community, at all levels of society. They have a profound and devastating impact on individuals, families, communities, economies and entire countries. In order to respond to the global challenge illicit drugs pose, a detailed understanding of the marketplace is essential. The Australian Crime Commission’s Illicit Drug Data Report (IDDR) is a statistical report which provides a national picture of the illicit drug market. It compiles data from a range of sources into one unique report to inform our understanding and assist in focusing our collective efforts to respond to the issue. Now in its 11th edition, the 2012–13 report paints a picture of a gravely serious issue, with over 19 tonnes of illicit drugs seized nationally in this reporting period alone. National illicit drug seizures and arrests were at record or decade highs for nearly all drug types in this reporting period. While disturbing, the figures also demonstrate the continued vigilance and achievements of law enforcement in combating the illicit drug trade. Organised crime remains an ever-present pillar of the drug trade. Crime groups thrive on the profits generated through the illicit drug market and accordingly continue to be a key focus of our response. Illicit drug use in Australia, and the profits gained from it, is directly linked to
IDDR 2012–13
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transnational organised crime groups that are implicated in large-scale criminality and corruption overseas. The dangers of illicit drugs and their significant health, anti-social and crimerelated implications are well known. The entrenched and evolving market for the production, distribution and use of methylamphetamine, particularly crystalline methylamphetamine (commonly known as ‘ice’), is currently a national concern. With its relative accessibility, affordability and destructive side-effects, crystal methylamphetamine is emerging as a pandemic akin to the issue of ‘crack’ cocaine in the United States.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
Central to addressing an issue of this scale are holistic responses aimed at reducing demand, supply and harm—the three pillars of the National Drug Strategy. Illicit drugs are not just a law enforcement issue. A broader approach is required, including cooperation, collaboration and participation of a diverse range of sectors. Through this collective approach we can reduce the impact the illicit drug market has on our community. The latest version of the IDDR is more detailed than ever before. For the first time, the report includes forensic profiling data of both border and domestic methylamphetamine and MDMA seizures, as well as profiling data of domestic heroin seizures. The IDDR is an integral part of the arsenal used to combat the threat of illicit drugs including methylamphetamine. The report provides governments, law enforcement agencies, policy makers, academia and interested stakeholders with a robust picture of the Australian illicit drug market. It informs prioritisation and decisionmaking to help to protect Australia against the threat, harm and destruction caused by illicit drugs. The production of this publication is a collective effort and I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to all of our partners—including law enforcement, forensic services, health and
academia—for their vital contributions. Without their continued support and input, it would not be possible to understand the complex and evolving illicit drug market in Australia.
Paul Jevtovic APM Acting Chief Executive Officer Australian Crime Commission
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
CONTENTS
FOREWORD EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABBREVIATIONS INTRODUCTION KEY POINTS 2 6 16 17 19 20
IDDR 2012–13
AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS
Key points Main forms International trends Domestic trends Domestic market indicators National impact References
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23 24 27 29 39 51 53
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CANNABIS
Key points Main forms International trends Domestic trends Domestic market indicators National impact References
57
57 58 60 62 65 71 72
HEROIN
Key points Main forms International trends Domestic trends Domestic market indicators National impact References
75
75 76 78 81 88 94 95
COCAINE
Key points Main forms International trends Domestic trends Domestic market indicators National impact References
97
97 98 100 103 109 116 117
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
OTHER DRUGS
Key points Anabolic agents and selected hormones Tryptamines Anaesthetics Pharmaceuticals Drug analogues and new psychoactive substances Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified National impact References
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119 120 130 137 143 154 161 164 166
CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
Key points Main forms International trends Domestic trends Domestic market indicators National impact References
175
175 176 178 180 185 193 194
5
INITIATIVES
Key points Introduction
197
197 198
STATE AND TERRITORY LEGISLATIVE AMENDMENTS AND INITIATIVES
Introduction Legislative and regulatory amendments State and territory initiatives
203
203 204 209
STATISTICS
Introduction Counting methodology Data sources Limitations of the data Jurisdictional issues Explanatory notes Arrest tables Seizure tables Purity tables Price tables
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217 218 219 221 224 227 230 236 238 248
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
EXECUTVE SUMMARY
The Australian Crime Commission (ACC) Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13 provides a snapshot of the Australian illicit drug market. The report combines illicit drug data from a variety of sources including law enforcement, health and academia. The Illicit Drug Data Report is the only report of its type in Australia and provides the important evidence base to assist decision makers in the development of strategies to combat the threat posed by illicit drugs. There were numerous record detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. The number of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS excluding MDMA), MDMA, cannabis, cocaine, tryptamine, anaesthetic and performance and image enhancing drug (PIED) detections are the highest on record, with the weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and heroin detections also at a record high. The number of ATS precursor (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border is the highest reported in the last decade.
IDDR 2012–13
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There were a record number of national illicit drug seizures and arrests reported in 2012–13. A record 86 918 national illicit drug seizures were reported in 2012–13, a 66.4 per cent increase on the 52 231 seizures reported in 2003–04. While the weight of illicit drugs seized nationally decreased from the record 23.8 tonnes seized in 2011–12, the 19.6 tonnes seized this reporting period is the second highest on record and a 75 per cent increase on the weight of illicit drugs seized in 2003–04. The number of national illicit drug arrests has increased 27.2 per cent over the last decade, from 80 020 in 2003–04 to a record 101 749 in 2012–13. Cannabis continues to dominate the Australian illicit drug market, with the number of national cannabis seizures and arrests in 2012–13 the highest reported in the last decade. While cannabis accounts for the majority of national seizures and arrests, ATS continues to increase in prominence in the Australian market, with record national ATS seizures (both number and weight) and arrests reported in 2012–13. A record number of national cocaine seizures and arrests were reported in 2012–13, with the weight of national cocaine and heroin seizures this reporting period the highest reported in the last decade. There were a record number of national steroid seizures and arrests this reporting period. There were a record number of national hallucinogen arrests this reporting period, with the number of national hallucinogen seizures in 2012–13 the highest reported in the last decade. While the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally this reporting period decreased from a record 809 laboratories in 2011–12, the 757 detections is the second highest on record. The majority of clandestine laboratories continue to be detected in residential areas, however there has been an increase in the number of detections in commercial/industrial locations this reporting period.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
Key findings for 2012–13: the number of national illicit drug arrests and seizures are the highest on record the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and the weight of heroin detections at the Australian border are the highest on record the number and weight of national ATS seizures are the highest on record profiling1 of both border and national methylamphetamine seizures indicates the predominance of methylamphetamine manufactured from ephedrine/ pseudoephedrine a record number of cannabis detections were made at the Australian border, with seeds continuing to account for the majority of detections the number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased, with the number of seizures the highest reported in the last decade profiling2 of both border and national heroin seizures indicates South-East Asia as the prominent source region while there was a record number of cocaine detections at the Australian border, the weight detected almost halved profiling3 of cocaine border seizures indicates Colombia is the prominent source country while the weight of national steroid seizures decreased, the number of national seizures and arrests continued to increase and are the highest on record despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally, the number detected is the second highest reported in the last decade. The following charts provide an overview of the Australian illicit drug market in 2012–13.
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ARRESTS, 2012–13
1 Profiling data is based on calendar years and the first six months of 2013. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
SEIZURES BY NUMBER, 2012–13
SEIZURES BY WEIGHT, 2012–13
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
The following charts provide an overview of changes that have occurred in the illicit drug market in the last decade.
NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG ARRESTS, 2003–04 TO 2012–13
The number of national ATS arrests has increased over the last decade, accounting for 21.8 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 2012–13, second only to cannabis. National cannabis arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national illicit drug arrests, accounting for 61.0 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 2012–13. Over the last decade, national heroin and other opioid arrests have decreased by one-third. National cocaine arrests have accounted for less than 1.5 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in the last decade. A record number of national other and unknown drug arrests this reporting period accounted for 13.5 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 2012–13.
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
NUMBER OF NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, 2003–04 TO 2012–13
Cannabis continues to account for the greatest number of national illicit drug seizures, with the 54 181 cannabis seizures in 2012–13 the highest number reported in the last decade.
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ATS seizure numbers have remained second to cannabis over the last decade, with the record 21 056 ATS seizures reported in 2012–13 accounting for 24.2 per cent of national illicit drug seizures this reporting period. National heroin and other opioid seizures accounted for 1.9 per cent of the number of national illicit drug seizures this reporting period, the lowest proportion reported in the last decade. Over the last decade, the number of national cocaine seizures has increased by 158.3 per cent, from 839 in 2003–04 to a record 2 167 in 2012–13. The 7 828 national other and unknown drug seizures this reporting period is the highest reported in the last decade, accounting for 9.0 per cent of national illicit drug seizures in 2012–13.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
WEIGHT OF NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, 2003–04 TO 2012–13
The weight of national illicit drug seizures has fluctuated over the last decade, ranging between 6.4 tonnes in 2005–06 and 23.8 tonnes in 2011–12. With the exception of 2006–07 and 2011–12, cannabis has accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of national illicit drug seizures, accounting for 47.6 per cent of the weight of national seizures this reporting period. The 1 056 kilograms of cocaine seized nationally in 2012–13 is the highest weight reported in the last decade. The 550 kilograms of heroin and other opioids seized nationally in 2012–13 is the second highest weight reported in the last decade. The weight of national other and unknown drug seizures decreased this reporting period, accounting for 11.3 per cent of the weight of national seizures in 2012–13.
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
The following charts present national illicit drug arrests and seizures reported in 2012–13 by state and territory and drug type.
NUMBER OF ILLICIT DRUG ARRESTS, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL ARRESTS, BY STATE AND TERRITORY, 2012–13
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With the exception of Victoria, over half of all illicit drug arrests in all states and territories related to cannabis. With the exception of Tasmania, the proportion of arrests related to ATS was second only to cannabis in all states and territories. In the Australian Capital Territory, 3.1 per cent of illicit drug arrests were related to cocaine, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13. In Victoria, 6.1 per cent of illicit drug arrests were related to heroin and other opioids, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13. In Western Australia, 21.0 per cent of all illicit drug arrests were related to other and unknown drugs, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
NUMBER OF ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL SEIZURES, BY STATE AND TERRITORY, 2012–13
Cannabis accounts for the greatest proportion of the number of illicit drug seizures in all states and territories this reporting period. All states and territories reported ATS as the second most seized drug in 2012–13. In South Australia, 4.7 per cent of illicit drug seizures related to heroin and other opioids, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13. In New South Wales, cocaine accounted for 4.5 per cent of illicit drug seizures, the highest proportion reported in any state or territory in 2012–13. In New South Wales, 11.3 per cent of illicit drug seizures related to other and unknown drugs, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13.
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
WEIGHT OF ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL WEIGHT, BY STATE AND TERRITORY, 2012–13
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With the exception of New South Wales, Western Australia and the Northern Territory, cannabis accounts for the greatest proportion of the weight of illicit drug seized in 2012–13. Cannabis continues to account for over 90 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized in South Australia, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory. In New South Wales, ATS accounts for 53.0 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized this reporting period, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13. In New South Wales, cocaine accounts for 12.4 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized this reporting period, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13. In Queensland, heroin and other opioids account for 8.6 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized this reporting period, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13. In the Northern Territory, other and unknown drugs accounted for 75.1 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13.4 In Western Australia, the weight of other and unknown drugs accounted for the greatest proportion of weight of illicit drugs seized in that jurisdiction, accounting for 46.1 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized in 2012–13.
4 In the Northern Territory, illicit kava is trafficked in kilograms amounts and is the primary driver for the considerable weight of seizures reported as other and unknown drugs in 2012–13.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
The following chart provides an overview of self-reported illicit drug use, in the 12 months preceding interview, in an Australian detainee population, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology).
PROPORTION OF THE DETAINEES REPORTING ILLICIT DRUG USE IN THE 12 MONTHS PRECEDING INTERVIEW, 2003–04 TO 2012–13 (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
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Cannabis remains the most commonly reported illicit drug used by police detainees in the 12 months preceding interview. Following a decrease in 2007–08, reported use has remained relatively stable. Amphetamines remain the second most commonly reported illicit drugs used by police detainees. Reported heroin use in this population has decreased over the last decade, decreasing from over 19 per cent in 2003–04 to 13 per cent in 2012–13. Reported cocaine use in this population has remained relatively stable over the last decade at around 11 per cent.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
AcKnoWLedGements
This report contains data and analysis provided by federal, state and territory police, as well as forensic laboratories and the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service. Police and forensic data managers contributed significantly to improving this report’s data quality. Their expertise and experience, along with their continued support, has been invaluable to the Australian Crime Commission. Key contributors are listed below: Attorney-General’s Department Australian Customs and Border Protection Service Australian Institute of Criminology, Drug Use Monitoring in Australia Program Australian Federal Police Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence
IDDR 2012–13
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Australian Federal Police, ACT Policing ChemCentre Forensic Science Service Tasmania Forensic Science South Australia New South Wales Health, Mental Health and Drug and Alcohol Office New South Wales Forensic and Analytical Science Service New South Wales Police Force Northern Territory Police Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services Queensland Police Service South Australia Police Tasmania Police Victoria Police Western Australia Police.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
ABBREVIATIONS
AAS ACC ACT AFP ANSPS ASADA ATS BINLEA CBD CEN CIN CIR Anabolic and Androgenic Steroids Australian Crime Commission Australian Capital Territory Australian Federal Police Australian Needle and Syringe Program Survey Australian Sports Anti-Doping Agency Amphetamine-Type Stimulants Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs Cannabidiol Cannabis Expiation Notice Cannabis Infringement Notice Cannabis Intervention Requirement
IDDR 2012–13
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Customs and Australian Customs and Border Protection Service Border Protection DANPS DEA DHEA DIN DUMA Drug Analogues and New Psychoactive Substances Drug Enforcement Administration Dehydroepiandrosterone Drug Infringement Notice Drug Use Monitoring in Australia
EDRS Ecstasy and related Drugs Reporting System ENIPID Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs EPO Erythropoietin FDI FSANZ Forensic Drug Intelligence Food Standards Australia New Zealand
GBL Gamma-butyrolactone GHB Gamma-hydroxybutyrate gms Grams hCG hGH Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin Human Growth Hormone
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
IDDR Illicit Drug Data Report IDRS Illicit Drug Reporting System IGCD Intergovernmental Committee on Drugs INCB International Narcotics Control Board LSD Lysergic Acid Diethylamide MDMA 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine NDS National Drug Strategy NDSHS National Drug Strategy Household Survey NEC Not Elsewhere Classified NFRL National Forensic Rapid Lab NIDRF National Illicit Drug Reporting Format NMI National Measurement Institute NSW New South Wales NT Northern Territory P2P Phenyl-2-propanone
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PAG Precursor Advisory Group PBS Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme PIEDs Performance and Image Enhancing Drugs Qld Queensland SA South Australia SCON Simple Cannabis Offence Notice SUSMP Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons Tas Tasmania THC Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol UK United Kingdom UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime US United States of America Vic WA WADA 4-MMC Victoria Western Australia World Anti-Doping Authority 4-methylmethcathinone
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
The Illicit Drug Data Report is the only report of its type in Australia, providing governments, law enforcement agencies and interested stakeholders with a national picture of the illicit drug market. This report provides the data necessary to assess current and future illicit drug trends and offers a brief analysis of those trends. The Australian Crime Commission collects data annually from all state and territory police services, the Australian Federal Police, the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service, and state and territory forensic laboratories. The illicit drug data collected and presented in this report for the 2012–13 financial year includes: arrests seizures purity levels profiling data prices. The purpose of this report is to provide statistics and analysis to assist decision makers in developing illicit drug supply and harm reduction strategies. The data also assists the Australian Government to meet national and international reporting obligations. The Australian Crime Commission uses the National Illicit Drug Reporting Format to standardise the data received from each law enforcement agency and other contributing organisations.
IDDR 2012–13
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
IDDR 2012–13
KEY POINTS
AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS
The number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border increased in 2012–13 and are the highest on record. The number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border increased this reporting period, with the 4 139 detections in 2012–13 the highest number on record. Drug profiling data indicates that the majority of analysed methylamphetamine seizures are primarily manufactured from ephedrine/psuedoephedrine. The number and weight of national ATS seizures increased in 2012–13 and are the highest on record.
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The number of national ATS arrests continued to increase, with the 22 189 arrests in 2012–13 the highest on record.
CANNABIS
There were a record 3 629 cannabis detections at the Australian border in 2012–13, with cannabis seeds continuing to account for the majority of detections. The number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased, with the number of seizures the highest reported in the last decade. National cannabis arrests continued to increase, with the 62 120 arrests in 2012–13 the highest number reported in the last decade.
HEROIN
The number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border increased in 2012–13, with the 513.8 kilograms detected the highest on record. Profiling data from 2012 indicates the majority of analysed heroin seizures originated in South-East Asia. The weight of national heroin seizures increased to 544.4 kilograms in 2012–13, the highest weight reported in the last decade. The 2 463 national heroin and other opioid arrests reported in 2012–13 is the lowest number reported since 2007–08.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
KEY POINTS
COCAINE
Although the weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border almost halved in 2012–13, the number of detections more than doubled and is the highest on record. Cocaine profiling data indicates the continued prominence of Colombia as a source country for cocaine seized at the Australian border. There was a record number of national cocaine seizures this reporting period, with the weight of national cocaine seizures the highest reported in the last decade. There was a record 1 282 national cocaine arrests in 2012–13.
IDDR 2012–13
OTHER DRUGS
Over the last decade, the number of performance and image enhancing drugs detected at the Australian border has increased 751.6 per cent, with the 10 356 detections in 2012–13 the highest number on record. The number of national steroid seizures and arrests continued to increase in 2012–13 and are the highest number on record. There was a record 509 tryptamine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. There was a record 277 anaesthetic detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. The 565 national hallucinogen arrests reported in 2012–13 is the highest number on record.
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CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
Despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally, the 757 laboratories detected in 2012–13 is the second highest number in the last decade. The majority of clandestine laboratories continue to be detected in residential areas; however detections in commercial/industrial locations increased in 2012–13. The greatest proportion of laboratories continue to be addict-based; however, the proportion attributed to laboratories of other sizes almost doubled in 2012–13. While the weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border decreased in 2012–13, the number of detections increased and is the highest reported in the last decade.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
IDDR 2012–13
KEY POINTS
INITIATIVES
The leading drug policy document in Australia is the National Drug Strategy 2010–2015. A number of key amendments were recently made to the Criminal Code Act 1995 to strengthen the serious drug offences framework. The Australian Government is considering options to strengthen existing border controls to prohibit the importation of new psychoactive substances and is working with states and territories to address the domestic manufacture, supply and advertising of these substances.
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS
Key points
The number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border increased in 2012–13 and are the highest on record. The number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border increased this reporting period, with the 4 139 detections in 2012–13 the highest number on record. Drug profiling data indicates that the majority of analysed methylamphetamine seizures are primarily manufactured from ephedrine/psuedoephedrine. The number and weight of national ATS seizures increased in 2012–13 and are the highest on record. The number of national ATS arrests continued to increase, with the 22 189 arrests in 2012–13 the highest on record.
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
MAIN FORMS
TABLE 1: ATS used in Australia
Drug type Amphetamine Common names Forms
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) stimulate the central nervous system and speed up messages travelling between the brain and the rest of the body. Made in illegal clandestine laboratories (commonly referred to as ‘clan labs’), ATS pose a serious health risk to users due to their unknown content and purity. Drugs within the ATS group include amphetamine, methylamphetamine and phenethylamines (ADF 2013a; APAIC 2009). A list of common ATS used in Australia is outlined in Table 1.
Speed, whiz, uppers, White, yellow, pink goey, louee, dexies, or brown powder, pep pills paste Dexies, D-amp, dex
Method of administration Oral, intranasal, injection, anala
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Dexamphetamineb (amphetamine dextro isomer in a pharmaceutical preparation)
White, round tablets Oral, intranasal, that can have the injections, anala marking ‘D5’ White, yellow or brown powder, paste, tablets or a red liquid Oral, intranasal, injection, anala
Methylamphetamine (general term, Meth, speed, whiz, frequently ‘cut’ or diluted form of fast, uppers, goey, methylamphetamine hydrochloride salt) louee, Lou Reedc, rabbitc, tailc, pep pills; in paste form can be referred to as base, pure or wax; in liquid form can be referred to as ox blood, leopard’s blood, red speed or liquid red Methylamphetamine hydrochloride (crystalline form - ‘uncut’, undiluted) Small crystal particle size known as ‘crystal’– larger particle sizes known as ‘ice’; other terms include meth, d‑meth, glass, crystal, batu, shabu (from the Philippines)
Crystalline— resembles crushed ice, particle size variable
Smoking, intranasal, injection
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Drug type 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)
Common names
Forms
XTC, X, ecstasy, Tablet, powder, Adam, M&M, eccy, capsule, E, go, Scooby snacks, geltab (rare) hug, beans Eve Tablet
Method of administration Oral, intranasal, smoking, injecting
3,4- methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA)
Oral
3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) Love bug, crystal, P, window pane N-methyl-1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2butanamine (MBDB) Paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA)d Eden
Tablet
Oral
Tablet
Oral
Death, Dr Death, Mitsubishi double PMMA
Tablet, powder
Oral, intranasal, injecting (rare) Oral
Paramethoxymethylamphetamine (PMMA)
Tablet
4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine Nexus, 2-CB, bromo, Tablet (Nexus), TWOs blotting paper, powder 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (DOB) 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine (DOM) 4-methylthioamphetamine (4-MTA) DOB, 4-bromo-DMA, Tablet, blotting bromo paper DOM, STP Tablet, blotting paper Tablet
Oral, intranasal
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Oral
Oral
Flatliner, golden eagle
Oral
a. In tablet form, the drug can be inserted into the anus or the vagina to avoid irritation to the user’s stomach, which commonly occurs when taken orally (also known as ‘shafting’ or ‘shelving’). b. Dexamphetamine (also known as dextroamphetamine sulphate) is sold in tablet form in Australia for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy, in accordance with state and territory laws. It is also used illicitly. c. Terminology noted in Queensland. d. PMA has stimulant and hallucinogenic properties.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
The most common forms of amphetamine are powder and tablets or capsules. Methylamphetamine has four common forms—tablet, crystal, base (also referred to as paste) and powder (also referred to as speed)—with powder the most common form used in Australia. Crystal methylamphetamine, often referred to as ‘ice’, is a highly purified form that is crystalline in appearance.1 Ice is generally heated and the vapours inhaled. It may also be injected after being dissolved in water (ADF 2013b; AIC 2011). Due to slight structural differences, methylamphetamine produces a stronger nervous system response than amphetamine. Short-term effects of amphetamine and methylamphetamine use may include sweating, headaches, insomnia, anxiety and paranoia. High doses can result in blurred vision, hallucinations, tremors and stroke. Long-term use may result in severe dental problems, reduced immunity, high blood pressure, depression, impaired memory and concentration, deficits in motor skills, aggressive or violent behaviour, anxiety, cardiovascular problems and kidney failure (ADF 2013b; CAMH 2012; Jenner 2012). Phenethylamines refer to a class of substances with psychoactive and stimulant effects which include 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4‑methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and other similar substances. This report focuses on MDMA, which has a chemical structure similar to that of amphetamine. MDMA is a synthetic stimulant and is commonly referred to as ‘ecstasy’2 (EMCDDA 2013; NIDA 2012). MDMA is most commonly sold in tablet form, featuring a characteristic impression or logo. Other forms include capsule, powder and crystal. MDMA is most commonly ingested, although it can also be snorted, inhaled or injected. Drugs purported to be MDMA may contain other substituted amphetamine derivatives, such as MDEA, MDA or a combination of synthetic hallucinogens and stimulants. As such, health risks associated with MDMA use are increased as the effects of tablets sold as MDMA are unpredictable and vary due to the unknown content (DoHA 2010; EMCDDA 2013; NIDA 2012). Having stimulant and hallucinogenic effects, MDMA has a wide-range of physical and psychological health impacts. Short-term effects of MDMA use may include anxiety, panic attacks, increased blood pressure and convulsions. Long-term use may lead to long-lasting confusion, depression and memory and cognitive impairment (DoHA 2010; NSW Health 2012).
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1
While the crystal form of methylamphetamine is typically of higher purity, appearance alone is not a reliable indicator of purity as purity levels may be influenced by a number of factors, including the adulterants used. 2 Ecstasy refers to tablets sold as MDMA, but which may contain a range of other substances and little to no MDMA.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Amphetamine-type stimulants
InternationaL trends
The ATS market continues to evolve and grow. Globally, it remains the second most widely used illicit drug after cannabis. In 2012, the World Customs Organization reported an increase in border detections of ATS in North America, Western Europe and the Middle East, with large quantities also detected in the Asia-Pacific region. During 2012, customs agencies reported a global increase in the number and weight of methylamphetamine and MDMA detections. The largest methylamphetamine border detections by weight were reported by customs agencies in Asia-Pacific, Western Europe and North America (WCO 2013). Several South-East Asian countries have entrenched synthetic drug markets, with a number of them reporting the ongoing detection of ATS clandestine laboratories. In 2013, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reported that methylamphetamine seizures in East and South-East Asia reached record levels in 2012. In Indonesia alone, the methylamphetamine market reportedly generates approximately US$1 billion in revenue each year (UNODC 2013b; UNODC 2013c). According to UNODC reporting, in December 2012 the Indonesian National Police intercepted a Malaysian-led drug trafficking organisation and seized over 250 kilograms of crystalline methylamphetamine with an estimated market value of US$39 million (UNODC 2013b). The size of the ATS market in South-East Asia makes it an attractive target for international organised crime groups. West African and Iranian crime groups are active in moving ATS into South-East Asia, supplying significant quantities of methylamphetamine and MDMA, both for domestic consumption and transhipment to other international markets. According to open source reporting, Chinese and West African drug traffickers are using Cambodian international airports to move illicit drugs out of Cambodia (Phnom Penh Post 2013a). In August 2012, Cambodian Police seized more than 1 kilogram of MDMA and approximately 85 000 tablets of methylamphetamine that were being trafficked through Cambodia to Thailand (Phnom Penh Post 2013b).
27
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Iran is a growing source of methylamphetamine destined for both domestic and international markets. Iran-based methylamphetamine trafficking networks have become leading domestic market suppliers, in addition to supplying user markets across the Middle East and Asia-Pacific region. The Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) reported that while Iranian seizures of opium and heroin have remained stable, seizures of methylamphetamine are increasing, with 2012 figures reportedly increasing elevenfold from 2008 to 2011 (BINLEA 2013a). North America remains both a transit and a source region for methylamphetamine. According to open source reporting, in July 2012 Canada’s Ontario Police detected three drug laboratories and seized 120 kilograms of methylamphetamine, 110 483 methylamphetamine tablets, 14 kilograms of methylamphetamine powder and CA$81 000 cash representing one of the largest drug seizures in Canadian history (Criger 2013). According to BINLEA reporting, Mexico continues to produce large quantities of methylamphetamine, with an increasing number of clandestine laboratories detected. In 2012, the Government of Mexico seized over 30 tonnes of methylamphetamine and dismantled 267 methylamphetamine laboratories, compared with 227 in 2011 (BINLEA 2013b). According to open source reporting, the Mexican Navy seized 614 kilograms of methylamphetamine and 72 203 psychotropic tablets in operations targeting organised crime groups between 1 December 2012 and 31 July 2013 (Mexico City Milenio 2013). Mexico remains the primary source for methylamphetamine in the United States of America (US), with media reporting indicating that more than 80 per cent of the methylamphetamine seized in the US is manufactured in Mexico (Replogle 2013).
28
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Domestic trends
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service continues to detect amphetamine and methylamphetamine at the border. Apart from a number of large detections in sea cargo, the majority of detections in 2012–13 were in the postal stream, for amounts ranging from less than 1 gram to 9 kilograms. In 2012–13, both the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border increased and are the highest on record (see Figure 1). The number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections increased 85.6 per cent this reporting period, from 1 077 in 2011–12 to 1 999 in 2012–13. The total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections increased by 515.8 per cent, from 347.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 2 138.5 kilograms in 2012–13. FIGURE 1: Number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Amphetamine-type stimulants
29
The increase in the weight of detected ATS (excluding MDMA) in 2012–13 is largely due to 3 large detections in sea cargo, which have a combined weight of 1 254.8 kilograms. By comparison, the top 3 detections during 2011–12 had a combined weight of 187.2 kilograms. Of the 1 999 detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) in 2012–13, 112 were over 1 kilogram (5.6 per cent). These detections were predominantly of crystal methylamphetamine and methylamphetamine liquid.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
The number of MDMA detections increased by 329.4 per cent this reporting period, from 964 in 2011–12 to 4 139 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. The total weight of MDMA detections increased by 1 143.3 per cent, from 12.0 kilograms in 2011–12 to 149.2 kilograms in 2012–13, the largest weight detected since 2007–08 (see Figure 2). FIGURE 2: Number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
30
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) in 2012–13 include: 585 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected in February 2013, declared as metabisulphite, via sea cargo from China to Sydney 363.8 kilograms3 of liquid methylamphetamine detected in April 2013, suspended in 96 bottles of carpet cleaning products, via sea cargo from China to Melbourne 306 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected in July 2012, concealed in 3 200 terracotta pots, via sea cargo from Thailand to Sydney 75 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected in May 2013, concealed in sofas and chairs, via sea cargo from China to Sydney 72.9 kilograms4 of liquid methylamphetamine detected in May 2013, concealed and suspended in shampoo and conditioner, via sea cargo from China to Sydney. The 5 detections listed above have a combined weight of 1 402.7 kilograms and account for 65.1 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
3 The final weight of the liquid seizure is in kilograms as it represents the drugs’ final weight after being extracted from the suspension liquid and dried. 4 Ibid.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Significant border detections of MDMA in 2012–13 include: 117 kilograms of MDMA detected in January 2013, extracted from a suspension in olive oil, via sea cargo from Spain to Sydney 397 grams of MDMA powder detected in May 2013, concealed between the pages of a magazine, via air cargo from Germany to Brisbane 268 grams of MDMA tablets detected in September 2012, concealed in candles, via international mail from Germany to Sydney 265 grams of MDMA crystals detected in April 2013, concealed in an external hard disc, via international mail from Germany to Sydney. The 4 detections listed above have a combined weight of 117.9 kilograms and account for 79 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
IMPORTATION METHODS
The postal stream continues to account for the majority of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections by number, accounting for 86.1 per cent of detections in 2012–13 (see Figure 3). Detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) in parcel post this reporting period were in crystal and powder form. FIGURE 3: Number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
31
Two sea cargo detections made between February and April 2013 accounted for approximately 44 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected this reporting period. Despite being the prominent method of importation by number, the weight of parcel post detections remains low, accounting for 5.9 per cent of the weight of detections in 2012–13 (see Figure 4).
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 4: Weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
32
Over the last decade, parcel post has accounted for over 80 per cent of the number of MDMA border detections. In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 99.9 per cent of the number of MDMA detections at the Australian border, the highest percentage reported in the last decade (see Figure 5). FIGURE 5: Number of MDMA detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
MDMA parcel post detections weighed an average of 0.76 grams this reporting period, with the number of importations through this stream accounting for 21.1 per cent of the weight of border detections in 2012–13. Sea cargo detections accounted for 78.4 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detected at the border this reporting period. A single detection of MDMA this reporting period weighed 117 kilograms and accounted for 78.4 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detected at the Australian border in 2012–13 (see Figure 6). FIGURE 6: Weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
33
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 49 countries were identified as embarkation points for ATS (excluding MDMA) detected at the Australian border, compared with 112 countries in 2011–12. China was the most significant embarkation point by weight this reporting period, accounting for 8 detections in the sea cargo stream, weighing a total of 1 224.6 kilograms. Prominent embarkation points by number and weight in 2012–13 were Thailand (43 detections, weighing a total of 313.9 kilograms), Hong Kong (96 detections, weighing a total of 224.1 kilograms) and Canada (520 detections, weighing a total of 74.3 kilograms). The combined total of these 3 embarkation points accounted for 42.5 per cent of the total number and 88.7 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. In 2012–13, a total of 33 countries were identified as embarkation points for MDMA detected at the Australian border, compared with 13 countries in 2011–12. By number, the Netherlands was the prominent embarkation point for MDMA, with 2 017 detections. By weight, Spain was the prominent embarkation point for MDMA detections at the Australian border, with 117 kilograms in 2012–13. Of the 33 embarkation points for MDMA in 2012–13, only 6 countries reported a total detection weight of more than 1 kilogram. These were Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, the United Kingdom, Belgium and Canada. These 6 embarkation points accounted for 96.3 per cent of the total number and 98.3 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border in 2012–13.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
DRUG PROFILING
The Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team operates a forensic drug profiling capability through the National Measurement Institute which enables the identification of the synthetic route of synthesis for samples of methylamphetamine and MDMA submitted from seizures made at the Australian border. The capability also allows for comparisons within and between seizures to identify distinct batches of drugs or potentially demonstrate links between groups involved in illicit drug manufacture or trafficking. However, only certain drug types are examined and not every seizure of drugs is analysed or profiled.5 Between 2010 and 2013, analysed samples of methylamphetamine seized at the border have been primarily manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine (Eph/PSE). During 2012, 721 samples of methylamphetamine were submitted from 126 seizures, representing a total bulk weight of 1 172 kilograms. This is significantly higher than the 507 samples submitted from 99 seizures in 2011, which had a total bulk weight of 681 kilograms. This trend has continued, with the 99 seizures submitted for analysis in the first six months of 2013 representing a total bulk weight of 1 640 kilograms of methylamphetamine. In 2011, phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) was used in the production of approximately 236 kilograms (62.8 per cent) of the drug. In 2010, Eph/PSE was used in the production of approximately 83 kilograms (48.5 per cent) of the total bulk weight, while P2P was used in the production of approximately 3 kilograms (1.8 per cent) (see Table 2 and 3). TABLE 2: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine samples as a proportion of analysed AFP border seizures classified by precursor, 2010–-June 2013
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010 Synthetic Route Eph/PSE % 74.6 71.8 56.8 80.4 P2P % 25.4 19.1 13.6 5.9 Mixed/Unclassified % – 9.1 29.6 13.7
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Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
TABLE 3: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine samples as a proportion of total bulk weight of analysed AFP border seizures, 2010–June 2013
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010 Synthetic Route Eph/PSE % 83.8 72.2 35.6 48.5 P2P % 16.2 8.0 62.8 1.8 Mixed/Unclassified % – – 1.6 49.7
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
5
For all reporting years, the data represents a snapshot across the applicable reporting period. These figures cannot reflect seizures that have not been submitted for forensic examination due to prioritisation of law enforcement resources or those that have passed through the border undetected. Certain seizures/samples, such as those containing swabs or trace material, have been omitted from the analysis as they are not amenable to chemical profiling.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
The Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project extends the routine drug profiling capabilities of law enforcement from seizures at the border to also include state and territory seizures involving heroin, methylamphetamine, MDMA, and more recently cocaine.6 This enables detection of similarities between supply routes into different jurisdictions; links between different criminal groups; as well as comparison of trends between jurisdictions, including importations seized and profiled from the border. The period between 2010 and 2013, saw methylamphetamine ENIPID samples primarily manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine (Eph/PSE) using phosphorus/iodine (P/I) routes, with quantities also made through the Emde method, reductive amination or Leuckart reaction using P2P. In 2011, 2012 and 2013, approximately 68 per cent, 86 per cent and 55 per cent respectively of profiled ENIPID samples contained methylamphetamine manufactured from Eph/PSE, with approximately 3 per cent, 5 per cent and 17 per cent respectively made through the reductive amination or Leuckart reaction, using P2P. This prevalence is also reflected in the number of seizures involving the respective precursors. This data suggests that domestically seized samples are slowly moving away from Eph/PSE based methods and towards those using P2P. This increase was also reflected in the number of cases involving P2P based routes (see Table 4 and 5). TABLE 4: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional samples, classified by precursor, 2011–2013
Synthetic Route Year Jurisdiction NSW NT 2013 TAS VIC WA Total ACT NSW 2012 NT TAS WA Total NSW 2011 NT TAS WA Total Eph/PSE % 36.4 3.0 2.5 – 13.3 55.2 4.7 38.2 7.9 0.6 34.4 85.8 13.7 5.7 2.4 46.0 67.8 P2P % 5.9 – 0.5 0.5 9.9 16.8 – 0.6 – – 4.4 5.0 0.9 0.5 – 1.9 3.3 Mixed/ Unclassified % 8.8 1.0 – – 18.2 28.0 – 6.2 0.3 – 2.7 9.2 2.4 – – 26.5 28.9 Total % 51.1 4.0 3.0 0.5 41.4 100 4.7 45.0 8.2 0.6 41.5 100 17.0 6.2 2.4 74.4 100
35
Note: This data set represents a total of 754 methylamphetamine samples. Due to a lack of available data, 60 samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
6 Profiling of cocaine samples under the ENIPID project commenced in late 2013 and therefore falls outside the reporting period.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
TABLE 5: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional cases, classified by precursor, 2011–2013
Synthetic Route Year Jurisdiction NSW NT 2013 TAS VIC WA Total ACT NSW 2012 NT TAS WA Total NSW 2011 NT TAS WA Total Eph/PSE % 44.7 3.5 2.7 – 6.1 57.0 3.5 41.3 11.4 1.0 26.8 84.0 13.5 8.1 4.5 32.4 58.5 P2P % 6.1 – – 0.9 3.5 10.5 – 0.5 – – 5.0 5.5 1.8 1.0 – 2.7 5.5 Mixed/ Unclassified % 12.3 1.8 0.9 – 17.5 32.5 – 5.5 0.5 – 4.5 10.5 4.5 – – 31.5 36.0 Total % 63.1 5.3 3.6 0.9 27.1 100 3.5 47.3 11.9 1.0 36.3 100 19.8 9.1 4.5 66.6 100
36
Note: This data set represents a total of 754 methylamphetamine samples (426 cases). Due to a lack of available data, 60 samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
Of the 2010 and 2011 MDMA AFP border seizures amenable to profiling, the dominant synthetic route of manufacture was observed to be the reductive amination – borohydride method, however, due to the relatively small number of seizures during these periods (15 in both 2010 and 2011) there are limitations to how far this data can be extrapolated with respect to the broader market. Throughout 2012 and the first six months of 2013, a significant increase in the number of MDMA seizures was observed, which also corresponded with a shift towards MDMA manufactured through the reductive amination – platinum hydrogenation method (see Table 6).
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
TABLE 6: Synthetic route of manufacture of AFP MDMA border seizure samples as a proportion of analysed seizures, 2010–June 2013
Reductive Amination
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010
Unclassified %
Borohydride %
Platinum Hydrogenation %
Aluminium Amalgam %
Mixed/ Unclassified %
9.7 14.0 – –
9.7 8.0 58.3 66.7
67.7 70.0 16.7 22.2
– – 8.3 –
12.9 8.0 16.6 11.1
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
MDMA produced via the reductive amination – borohydride method comprised the highest proportion of the bulk weight profiled from 2010 to 2012. In 2012, 3 seizures all produced by this method accounted for approximately 96 per cent of the total bulk weight profiled for the period. The 2013 reporting period saw the largest seizure of MDMA since 2007, weighing approximately 117 kilograms. While profiling data on this seizure was not available at the time of writing, of the seizures that were profiled in the first six months of 2013, the reductive amination – platinum hydrogenation method was used to manufacture the highest proportion of the total bulk weight, a shift from previous reporting periods (see Table 7). TABLE 7: Synthetic route of manufacture of AFP MDMA border seizure samples as a proportion of analysed bulk weight, 2010–June 2013
Reductive Amination
37
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010
Unclassified %
Borohydride %
Platinum Hydrogenation %
Aluminium Amalgam %
Mixed/ Unclassified %
3.2 0.9 – –
1.9 96.7 70.6 99.9
94.9 2.4 26.6 0.1
– – 2.0 –
– – 0.8 <0.1
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
MDMA produced via reductive amination – platinum hydrogenation was the most common synthetic route observed in ENIPID samples between 2011 and June 2013. This is the reverse of what was observed at the border during 2011, however the number of samples from both the ENIPID project and the border was quite small, therefore the extent to which these represent trends in the broader market may be limited. While MDMA produced via the reductive amination—aluminium amalgam method has only been observed in two border samples in 2011, this method has been observed consistently—although in low proportions—throughout ENIPID MDMA samples (see Table 8 and 9).
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
TABLE 8: Synthetic route of manufacture of MDMA ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional samples, 2011–June 2013
Reductive Amination Year Jan–Jun 2013 Total ACT 2012 NSW NT WA Total NSW 2011 Total NT WA Jurisdiction NSW NT WA Unclassified % 14.6 2.4 2.4 19.4 – 10.7 – 5.4 16.1 15.4 15.4 – 30.8 Aluminium Amalgam % 12.2 – – 12.2 2.7 14.7 – – 17.4 – – 30.8 30.8 Borohydride % – – 26.8 26.8 1.3 16.0 1.3 9.3 27.9 – – 7.6 7.6 Platinum Hydrogenation % 36.6 – 5.0 41.6 1.3 24.0 1.3 12.0 38.6 15.4 15.4 – 30.8 Total % 63.4 2.4 34.2 100 5.3 65.4 2.6 26.7 100 30.8 30.8 38.4 100
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Note: This data set represents a total of 129 MDMA samples. Due to a lack of available data, 37 samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
TABLE 9: Synthetic route of manufacture of MDMA ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional cases, 2011–June 2013
Reductive Amination Year Jan–Jun 2013 Total ACT 2012 NSW NT WA Total NSW 2011 Total NT WA Jurisdiction NSW NT WA Unclassified % 16.7 3.3 3.3 23.3 – 9.6 – 1.9 11.5 25.0 – – 25.0 Aluminium Amalgam % 13.3 – – 13.3 1.9 13.5 – – 15.4 – – 12.5 12.5 Borohydride % – – 13.3 13.3 – 15.4 1.9 9.6 26.9 – – 12.5 12.5 Platinum Hydrogenation % 40.1 – 6.7 46.8 – 21.2 1.9 11.6 34.7 25.0 12.5 – 37.5 Mixed % 3.3 – – 3.3 1.9 9.6 – – 11.5 – 12.5 – 12.5 Total % 73.4 3.3 23.3 100 3.8 69.3 3.8 23.1 100 50.0 25.0 25.0 100
Note: This data set represents a total of 129 MDMA samples (90 cases). Due to a lack of available data, 37 samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
See the Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter for information regarding the route of ATS manufacture identified in detected domestic clandestine laboratories.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Domestic marKet indicators
Of the 757 clandestine laboratories detected in 2012–13, the majority were identified as producing ATS (excluding MDMA). The number of MDMA laboratories detected this reporting period increased, from 2 in 2011–12 to 7 in 2012–13 (see Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter). According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 7.0 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using amphetamine/ methylamphetamine at least once in their lifetime. In the same 2010 survey, 2.1 per cent reported recent7 amphetamine/methylamphetamine use (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting the recent8 use of any form of methylamphetamine increased, from 66 per cent in 2011 to 68 per cent in 2012. Recent methylamphetamine users within this regular injecting drug user population reported using methylamphetamine a median of 22 days in the six months preceding interview, the highest reported since 2007. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of methylamphetamine decreased to 66 per cent, with the reported median days of methylamphetamine use in the six months preceding interview increasing to 24 days. Within this user population, the proportion of respondents reporting recent crystal methylamphetamine use increased, from 45 per cent in 2011 to 54 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent crystal methylamphetamine use increased to 55 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting the recent use of methylamphetamine powder (speed) decreased, from 44 per cent in 2011 to 40 per cent in 2012, with early findings of the 2013 study indicating this has decreased to 34 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting the recent use of base decreased from 21 per cent in 2011 to 18 per cent in 2012. Early findings of the 2013 study indicate this has decreased to 13 per cent (see Figure 7) (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
Amphetamine-type stimulants
39
7 In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview. 8 The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in the six months preceding interview.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 7: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent use of speed, base and crystal/ice compared to median days of use of any form of methylamphetamine, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
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In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents reporting methylamphetamine as their drug of choice increased, from 20 per cent in 2011 to 21 per cent in 2012. For any form of methylamphetamine, injection (65 per cent) was the most common method of administration, followed by smoking at 19 per cent and swallowing at 8 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2013). The prevalence of ecstasy use in the regular injecting drug user population decreased, from 14 per cent in 2011 to 12 per cent in 2012. Swallowing was the most common method of administration reported within this user population (Stafford & Burns 2013).9 In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of one or more forms of methylamphetamine increased, from 60 per cent in 2011 to 61 per cent in 2012, the highest reported since 2008. Powder (speed) remains the most common form of methylamphetamine used, followed by crystal and base. For any form of methylamphetamine, swallowing (76 per cent) was the most common method of administration, followed by smoking at 46 per cent and snorting at 28 per cent. Recent users of any form of methylamphetamine within this drug user population reported using methylamphetamine a median of 6 days in the six months preceding interview, which has remained stable since 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of any form of methylamphetamine decreased to 50 per cent, with the reported median days of methylamphetamine use in the six months preceding interview decreasing to 4 days (see Figure 8) (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
9 The IDRS is not designed to monitor trends in ecstasy and related drug use as the frequency and prevalence of use in people who inject drugs is low.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 8: Proportion of a regular ecstasy user population reporting the recent use of speed, base and crystal/ice compared to median days of use of any form of methylamphetamine, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
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In the regular ecstasy user population, the proportion of respondents reporting methylamphetamine powder as their drug of choice decreased, from 5 per cent in 2011 to 4 per cent in 2012, followed by crystal methylamphetamine at 3 per cent and base at <1 per cent. In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents who reported ecstasy as their drug of choice increased, from 27 per cent in 2011 to 32 per cent in 2012, however it remains lower than the 52 per cent reported in 2003. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents who reported ecstasy as their drug of choice increased to 33 per cent in 2013, the third lowest percentage reported in the last decade10 (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). Tablets remain the most common form of ecstasy used by the regular ecstasy user population. The proportion of users reporting tablets as the most common form of ecstasy used in the six months preceding interview decreased, from 97 per cent in 2011 to 95 per cent in 2012. The proportion of respondents reporting the use of ecstasy powder decreased from 26 per cent in 2011 to 25 per cent in 2012, while the reported use of ecstasy capsules remained stable at 53 per cent in 2012 (Black et al. 2008; Dunn et al. 2007; Sindicich et al. 2009; Sindicich & Burns 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013).
10 In response to the difficulties experienced by smaller states and territories in recruiting regular ecstasy users, the recruitment criteria was broadened in 2012 to include recent use of any psychostimulants. As such, caution should be exercised when comparing to previous reporting periods.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey and voluntary urinalysis. The self-report survey is based on the combined reporting of amphetamine and methylamphetamine use in the 12 months preceding interview and is referred to as amphetamines use. In 2012–13, the proportion of detainees testing positive11 for amphetamine12 increased from 24.9 per cent in 2011–12 to 27.3 per cent in 2012–13, the highest reported since 2006–07, but lower than figures reported between 2003–04 and 2006–07. The proportion of detainees testing positive for methylamphetamine also increased, from 23.4 per cent in 2011–12 to 25.9 per cent in 2012–13.13 The proportion of detainees testing positive for amphetamines is higher than the proportion of detainees testing positive for heroin, cocaine, opiates, benzodiazepines and MDMA. Drug Use Monitoring in Australia (DUMA) statistics indicate a high proportion of detainees testing positive for amphetamines over the past decade, with the self-reported use of amphetamines increasing from 37.4 per cent in 2011–12 to 39.7 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 9). FIGURE 9: National proportion of detainees testing positivea for amphetamine/ methylamphetamine compared with self-reported use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
42
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
In regards to MDMA use, the proportion of detainees testing positive for MDMA increased, from 0.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 1.36 per cent in 2012–13, the highest percentage reported since 2008–09. Self-reported use of MDMA increased from 11.06 per cent in 2011–12 to 13.39 per cent in 2012–13, the highest percentage reported since 2009–10 (see Figure 10).
11 Amphetamines and their metabolites can be detected in urine on average 2 to 14 days after use (Makkai 2000). 12 Results for all amphetamine types including MDMA, methylamphetamine. 13 It should be noted that following administration, methylamphetamine is metabolised into amphetamine, which could account for the high proportion of positive amphetamine results in urine testing.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 10: National proportion of detainees testing positivea for MDMA compared with self-reported use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
a. Urine was collected in one site only during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflects data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
43
PRICE
Nationally, the price of a gram of amphetamine remained stable in 2012–13, ranging between $150 and $800. The Northern Territory reported the highest price for a gram of amphetamine this reporting period, which ranged between $600 and $800. In Australia, the price for non-crystal methylamphetamine is generally lower than crystal methylamphetamine. There has been no change in the national price range for a gram of non-crystal methylamphetamine, which ranged between $70 and $900 in 2012–13. New South Wales and Victoria were the only two states to report the price of a kilogram of non-crystal methylamphetamine this reporting period. The prices remained stable compared to the previous reporting period in these two states, in New South Wales the price ranged between $70 000 and $110 000, and in Victoria the price ranged between $100 000 and $120 000. Nationally, the price for a gram of crystal methylamphetamine in 2011–12 ranged between $300 and $2 000, compared with between $400 and $1 600 in 2012–13. The Northern Territory reported the highest price for a gram of crystal methylamphetamine this reporting period, ranging between $1 200 and $1 600. New South Wales and Victoria were the only two states to report the price for one kilogram of crystal methylamphetamine. The prices remained relatively stable, ranging between $200 000 and $320 000 in 2012–13, compared with $200 000 and $330 000 in 2011–12.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Nationally, the price range for a single MDMA tablet remained relatively stable, ranging between $20 and $50. New South Wales and Queensland reported the greatest price range for a single tablet, which ranged between $20 and $50 this reporting period.
PURITY
Figure 11 illustrates the annual median purity of amphetamine14 over the last decade. Since 2003–04, the median purity of analysed amphetamine samples has fluctuated greatly, ranging between 0.4 per cent and 45.2 per cent. In 2012–13, the annual median purity ranged between 3.2 per cent in Queensland and 71.2 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory. New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia all reported a decrease in annual median purity this reporting period. FIGURE 11: Annual median purity of amphetamine samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Figure 12 illustrates the median purity of analysed amphetamine samples on a quarterly basis in 2012–13. This reporting period, the quarterly median purity of amphetamine ranged from 0.3 per cent in Western Australia to 73.5 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory.
14 Amphetamine is a manufacturing by-product of some commonly used methods of methylamphetamine production. This can result in two separate purity figures for a single drug sample—one as methylamphetamine with considerable purity and another as amphetamine of low purity.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 12: Quarterly median purity of amphetamine samples, 2012–13
Figure 13 illustrates the annual median purity of methylamphetamine over the last decade. Since 2003–04, the median purity of analysed methylamphetamine samples has ranged from 4.4 per cent to 76.1 per cent. In 2012–13, every state and territory reported an increase in the median purity of methylamphetamine. Victoria reported the highest annual median purity of 76.1 per cent this reporting period, the highest median purity reported in the last decade. FIGURE 13: Annual median purity of methylamphetamine samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Figure 14 illustrates the median purity of analysed methylamphetamine samples on a quarterly basis in 2012–13. During this reporting period, the median purity of methylamphetamine samples ranged from 6.2 per cent in Tasmania to 78.8 per cent in Victoria. Tasmania reported the greatest fluctuation in quarterly median purity this reporting period, ranging from a low of 6.2 per cent in the third quarter of 2012 to 64.1 per cent in the first quarter of 2013. FIGURE 14: Quarterly median purity of methylamphetamine samples, 2012–13
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Figure 15 illustrates the annual median purity of phenethylamine samples over the last decade, the majority of which relate to MDMA. Since 2003–04, the annual median purity of analysed phenethylamine samples ranged from 6.8 per cent to 82.7 per cent. In 2012–13, the annual median purity of phenethylamine samples ranged from 14.3 per cent in South Australia to 82.7 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory. Although minimal, Queensland and South Australia reported a decrease in the median purity of phenethylamine samples in 2012–13.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 15: Annual median purity of phenethylamine samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Figure 16 illustrates the median purity of analysed phenethylamine samples on a quarterly basis during 2012–13, the majority of which relate to MDMA. During this reporting period, the median purity of phenethylamine samples ranged from 12.9 per cent in South Australia to 82.7 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory. FIGURE 16: Quarterly median purity of phenethylamine samples, 2012–13
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AVAILABILITY
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of methylamphetamine powder (speed), 89 per cent reported methylamphetamine as being easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from 80 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has decreased to 84 per cent. In the same study, 79 per cent of respondents reported base as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from 74 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate that this has increased to 80 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting ice as easy or very easy to obtain increased from 83 per cent in 2011 to 84 per cent in 2012, with early findings from the 2013 study indicating that this has increased to 88 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2013). In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of methylamphetamine powder (speed), 75 per cent reported powder as being easy or very easy to obtain, a decrease from the 87 per cent reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has increased to 78 per cent. In the same 2012 study, 68 per cent of respondents reported base as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from 61 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has increased to 95 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting ice as easy or very easy to obtain increased from 86 per cent in 2011 to 90 per cent in 2012, with early findings from the 2013 study indicating this has decreased to 88 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). In the same 2012 study, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of ecstasy, 89 per cent reported ecstasy as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from the 78 per cent reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has decreased to 86 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).15
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SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
Since 2009–10, both the number and weight of national ATS seizures have continued to increase, with the number and weight of national ATS seizures in 2012–13 the highest on record (see Figure 17).
15 In response to the difficulties experienced by smaller states and territories in recruiting regular ecstasy users, the recruitment criteria was broadened in 2012 to include recent use of any psychostimulants. As such, caution should be exercised when comparing to previous reporting periods.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 17: National ATS seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
The number of national ATS seizures increased by 38.6 per cent this reporting period, from 15 191 in 2011–12 to 21 056 in 2012–13. The weight of national ATS seizures increased by 310.4 per cent, from 1 572.6 kilograms in 2011–12 to 6 453.7 kilograms in 2012–13. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number and weight of national ATS seizures, accounting for 41.6 per cent and 68.2 per cent respectively in 2012–13. Victoria reported the greatest percentage increase in the number of ATS seizures this reporting period, while New South Wales reported the greatest percentage increase in the weight of ATS seized (see Table 10). TABLE 10: Number, weight and percentage change of national ATS seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
ab
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Weight (grams) % change 51.8 73.7 24.5 -35.8 34.7 -6.6 6.7 22.8 38.6 2011–12 882 916 580 063 41 266 14 155 29 578 4 683 19 450 517 1 572 628 2011–12 4 403 788 1 850 879 58 053 53 359 74 688 5 199 7 032 738 6 453 736 % change 398.8 219.1 40.7 277.0 152.5 11.0 -63.8 42.7 310.4 8 762 2 422 4 172 346 4 580 241 350 183
2011–12 5 772 1 394 3 350 539 3 401 258 328 149 15 191
2012–13
New South Wales
21 056
a. The term amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) encompasses drugs included under both the amphetamines and phenethylamines groupings. For further details see the Statistics chapter. b. Includes seizures by state/territory police and the AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Figure 18 illustrates the number of national ATS arrests since 2003–04. Over the last decade, ATS arrests have increased 131.3 per cent, from 9 593 in 2003–04 to 22 189 in 2012–13, the highest number of ATS arrests on record. In 2012–13, consumer offences accounted for 75.0 per cent of national ATS arrests. However, South Australia reported more ATS provider than consumer arrests in this reporting period. FIGURE 18: Number of national ATS arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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The number of national ATS arrests increased by 31.9 per cent, from 16 828 in 2011–12 to 22 189 in 2012–13. Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory reported a decrease in ATS arrests, while the Northern Territory reported the greatest percentage increase. Victoria accounted for the greatest number of national ATS arrests, followed by New South Wales and Queensland. These three states account for 79.4 per cent of national ATS arrests in 2012–13 (see Table 11). TABLE 11: Number and percentage change of national ATS arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
ab
2011–12 4 451 4 494 4 188 1 049 2 347 161 14 124 16 828
2012–13 5 905 6 762 4 941 1 312 2 870 125 169 105 22 189
% change 32.7 50.5 18.0 25.1 22.3 -22.4 1 107.1 -15.3 31.9
New South Wales
a. The term amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) encompasses drugs included under both the amphetamines and phenethylamines groupings. For further details see the Statistics chapter. b. The arrest data for each state and territory includes Australian Federal Police data.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Amphetamine-type stimulants
NATIONAL IMPACT
During the past decade, the Australian drug market has seen a shift towards the use of synthetic substances such as ATS. Historically, the domestic methylamphetamine market has primarily been supplied by domestic manufacture, facilitated by the domestic diversion and importation of precursor chemicals. In addition to domestic production, the Australian ATS market is supplemented to an unknown extent by the importation of finished product. Between 2010 and 2013, analysed samples of methylamphetamine seized at the border have been primarily manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine. Over this period, there has been an increase in the proportion of samples identified as being manufactured from phenyl-2-propanone (P2P). The predominance of methylamphetamine manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine and an increase in the samples manufactured from phenyl-2-propanone is also reflected in methylamphetamine profiled as part of the ENIPID project. Between 2010 and 2013, analysed samples of MDMA seized at the border have indicated a shift from MDMA manufactured through the borohydride method towards MDMA manufactured using the platinum hydrogenation method. MDMA samples profiled as part of the ENIPID project since 2011 indicate the ongoing prominence of MDMA manufactured using the platinum hydrogenation method. Due to the relatively small number of seizures during these periods (particularly in 2010 and 2011) there are limitations to how far this data can be extrapolated with respect to the broader market. In 2012–13, while the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors detected at the Australian border continued to increase, the weight of related detections decreased. Despite this decrease, over 1.7 tonnes of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors were detected at the Australian border this reporting period, the majority of which related to pseudoephedrine and ephedrine detections. There were 12 detections of MDMA precursors at the Australian border in 2012–13, the highest number of detections reported in the last decade. Of these, 7 related to safrole detections, which accounted for almost 100 per cent of the total weight of MDMA precursors detected at the Australian border this reporting period (see Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter). In 2012–13, both the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border increased and are the highest on record. The number of detections increased from 1 077 in 2011–12 to 1 999 in 2012–13, while the weight increased 515.8 per cent, from 347.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 2 138.5 kilograms in 2012–13. Parcel post continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, while sea cargo accounted for the greatest
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Amphetamine-type stimulants
proportion of the weight of detections this reporting period. The number of embarkation points identified for ATS (excluding MDMA) decreased by 56.3 per cent this reporting period, from 112 countries 2011–12 to 49 countries in 2012–13. In 2012–13, Canada was the prominent embarkation point for ATS (excluding MDMA) detections by number, while China was the prominent embarkation point by weight. In 2012–13, both the number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border increased, with the number of detections the highest on record. While the weight of MDMA border detections also increased, from 12 kilograms in 2011–12 to 149.2 kilograms in 2012–13, it remains low compared to weights detected earlier in the decade. Parcel post continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of MDMA detections at the Australian border, while sea cargo accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of detections this reporting period. The number of embarkation points identified for MDMA increased by 153.8 per cent this reporting period, from 13 countries 2011–12 to 33 countries in 2012–13. The Netherlands was the prominent embarkation point by number for MDMA detections at the Australian border in 2012–13, while Spain was the prominent embarkation point by weight. Of the 757 clandestine laboratories detected nationally this reporting period, 544 were producing ATS (excluding MDMA), a decrease from the 552 laboratories detected in 2011–12. While the number of laboratories identified as producing MDMA increased, from 2 in 2011–12 to 7 in 2012–13, it remains lower than the 16 detected in 2010–11 (see Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter). ATS remain the second most widely used illicit drug in Australia and continue to account for a significant proportion of illicit drug seizures and arrests. Both the number and weight of national ATS seizures increased in 2012–13 and are the highest on record. The number of national ATS seizures increased, from 15 191 in 2011–12 to 21 056 in 2012–13, while the weight of ATS seized increased from 1 572.6 kilograms in 2011–12 to 6 453.7 kilograms in 2012–13. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national seizures, accounting for 41.6 per cent of the number and 68.2 per cent of the weight of seizures this reporting period. The number of national ATS arrests continued to increase in 2012–13, with the 22 189 arrests this reporting period the highest number on record. New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland continue to account for the greatest proportion of national ATS arrests, accounting for 79.4 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. Consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national ATS arrests, however, in 2012–13 South Australia reported more ATS provider arrests than consumer arrests.
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Amphetamine-type stimulants
Amphetamine-type stimulants
references
Asia & Pacific Amphetamine-Type Stimulants Information Centre (APAIC) 2009, ATS information, APAIC, Bangkok, viewed 19 August 2013, <http://www.apaic.org/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92&Itemid=63>. Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2013a, Drug information: drug facts: amphetamines, ADF, Melbourne, viewed 19 August 2013, <http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/ amphetamines>. Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2013b, Drug information: drug facts: ice, ADF, Melbourne, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/ice>. Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC) 2011, Amphetamines, AIC, Canberra, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.aic.gov.au/crime_types/drugs_alcohol/drug_types/ amphetamines.html>. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011, ‘2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey report’, Drug statistics, no. 25, Cat. no. PHE 145, AIHW, Canberra. Black, E, Dunn, M, Degenhardt, L, Campbell, G, George, J, Kinner, S, Mathews, A, Quinn, B, Roxburgh, A, Urbancic-Kenny, A and White, N 2008, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2007: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trends Series no. 10, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales. Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) 2013a, 2013 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, Country reports: Honduras through Mexico, BINLEA, US Department of State, Washington, <http://www.state.gov/j/inl/rls/ nrcrpt/2013/vol1/204050.htm>. Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) 2013b, ‘International Narcotics Control Strategy Report’, Drug and Chemical Control, vol. 1, BINLEA, US Department of State, Washington, <http://www.state.gov/documents/ organization/204265.pdf>.
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH) 2012, Amphetamines, CAMH, Toronto, viewed 2 August 2013, <http://www.camh.ca/en/hospital/health_information/a_z_ mental_health_and_addiction_information/Amphetamines/Pages/default.aspx>. Criger E 2013, ‘$5M meth bust said to be Ontario’s largest ever’, Ontario City News, 9 May 2013, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.citynews.ca/2013/09/05/5m-methbust-said-to-be-ontarios-largest-ever/#ad-image-0>. Department of Health and Ageing (DoHA) 2010, National Drugs Campaign: ecstasy, DoHA, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.drugs.health.gov.au/internet/drugs/ publishing.nsf/content/ecstasy>. Dunn, M, Degenhardt, LJ, Campbell, G, George, J, Johnston, J, Kinner, S, Matthews, A, Newman, J, and White, N 2007, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2006: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)’, Monograph no. 61, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013, Drug Profiles: methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or ‘Ecstasy’), EMCDDA, Lisbon, viewed 2 August 2013, <http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/ mdma>. Jenner, L 2012, ‘Ups and downs: physical and mental health consequences of amphetamine-type stimulant use’, ed. S Allsop and N Lee, Perspectives on amphetaminetype stimulants, IP Communications, Melbourne. Mexico City Milenio, Mexican navy spearhead fight on crime, 3 September 2013, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.milenio.com/>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends Conference: Highs and lows of contemporary drugs in Australia: emerging psychoactive substances, pharmaceutical opioids and other drugs, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney. National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2012, Drug facts: MDMA (Ecstasy), NIDA, Maryland, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/ mdma-ecstasy>. New South Wales Government, Health (NSW Health) 2012, druginfo@your library, NSW Health, viewed 22 August 2013, <http://www.druginfo.sl.nsw.gov.au/drugs/list/ methamphetamines.html>.
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Phnom Penh Post 2013a, Drugs use on rise in Kingdom, 27 June 2013, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/drug-use-rise-kingdom>. Phnom Penh Post 2013b, Busted general faces possible life sentence, 29 August 2012, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/busted-generalfaces-possible-life-sentence>. Replogle J 2013, PBS News hour Online, San Diego cracks down on Mexican meth, seizures expected to surpass 2012 records, 6 August 2013, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/2013/08/san-diego-biggest-entry-point-formexican-meth.html>. Sindicich, N, Burns, L, George, J, Kong, F, Mathews, A, Rainsford, C, Rowe, P, Scott,L & White, N 2009, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2008: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 28, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2010, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2009: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 46, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2011, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2010: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 64, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2012, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2011: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 82, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2012: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trends Series, no. 100, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 13 August 2013, <http://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/ default/files/ndarc/resources/EDRS%202012%20national%20report%20FINAL.pdf>. Stafford J & Burns LA, 2013, ‘Australian Drug Trends 2012: Findings from the Illicit Drugs Reporting System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trends Series no. 91, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/resource/illicit-drug-reporting-systemidrs-national-report-2012>.
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United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, Patterns and trends of amphetamine-type stimulants and other drugs: challenges for Asia and the Pacific 2013, A report from the Global SMART Programme, UNODC, Vienna, viewed 14 November 2013, <http://www.unodc.org/documents/southeastasiaandpacific//Publications/2013/ ats-2013/2013_Regional_ATS_Report_web.pdf>. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Global Smart Update March 2013, vol. 9, UNODC, Vienna. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013c, ‘Methamphetamine fuelling crime, public health concerns’, viewed 2 September 2013, UNODC, Vienna. <http://www. apaic.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=153&Itemid=2>. World Customs Organization, (WCO) 2013, Illicit trade report 2012, WCO, Brussels.
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CANNABIS
Key points
There were a record 3 629 cannabis detections at the Australian border in 2012–13, with cannabis seeds continuing to account for the majority of detections. The number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased, with the number of seizures the highest reported in the last decade. National cannabis arrests continued to increase, with the 62 120 arrests in 2012–13 the highest number reported in the last decade.
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CANNABIS
MAIN FORMS
Cannabis is derived from the Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica plants—two species of plants within the Cannabis genus1—and globally remains the most widely produced and used illicit drug. Cannabis is grown outdoors in many regions of the world and is increasingly cultivated by means of indoor hydroponic technology. Cannabis plants are grouped into two categories: hemp and marijuana. Hemp is low in psychoactive components with the roots, stalks and stems providing raw materials for products including skin care and clothing. Marijuana—commonly referred to as cannabis—is a plant high in psychoactive components and is an illicit drug (NCPIC 2011; UNODC 2013a). There are over 500 chemical compounds in the Cannabis sativa plant, including over 70 unique compounds—referred to as cannabinoids2—some of which produce psychoactive effects (McLaren et al. 2008). The main psychoactive component of the cannabis plant is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is generally concentrated in the flowering heads of the plant. Cannabidiol (CBD), which is also present in cannabis, is an antipsychotic and is believed to have a balancing effect with THC, reducing symptomatic effects like anxiety and paranoia (Bhattacharyya et al. 2010; Hall & Swift 2000; NCPIC 2011; Zuardi et al. 2012). There are three main forms of cannabis: herb, resin and oil. Cannabis herb refers to the dried flowering heads and leaves of the cannabis plant and is the least potent of all the cannabis products. Cannabis resin (hashish) is produced from the compressed resin glands of the cannabis plant. Cannabis oil—the most potent cannabis product in terms of THC content—is a thick oily substance extracted from cannabis resin. The main forms of cannabis and methods of administration are outlined in Table 12 (NCPIC 2011; UNODC 2006).
CANNABIS
58
1 The third species of plant within the Cannabis genus, Cannabis ruderalis, is rarely grown for illicit use due to its low THC content. 2 Drug analogues and new psychoactive substances that are categorised as synthetic cannabinoids are discussed in the Other Drugs chapter.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
CANNABIS
TABLE 12: Main forms of cannabis
Form Herbal cannabis Description The leaves and flowering heads Properties Low levels of THC Method of administration Smoked as a rolled cigarette or inhaled through a water pipe or ‘bong’ Crumbled and smoked in a pipe or bong, rolled into a cigarette with cannabis leaf or tobacco, or cooked with food and eaten, most notably as ‘hash cookies’ Small amounts applied to cannabis or tobacco cigarettes; can also be heated and the vapour inhaled
Cannabis resin (hashish)
Made from the resinous material of the cannabis plant, dried and compressed into balls, blocks or sheets; colour ranges from light brown to dark green to black Viscous oil extracted using a solvent such as acetone, isopropanol or methanol; colour ranges from amber to dark brown
Medium levels of THC
Cannabis oil
High levels of THC
Due to the range of effects cannabis can produce, it may be categorised as a stimulant, depressant or hallucinogen. As a result, cannabis users may experience a sense of euphoria and relaxation, loss of inhibition and mood changes. Short-term effects of cannabis use may include bloodshot eyes, drowsiness, anxiety and paranoia. Long-term effects of cannabis use may include decreased memory and learning abilities, a distorted sense of space and time and an increased risk of respiratory disease (NCPIC 2011). Several mental health disorders have been linked to cannabis use, such as anxiety and depression. In some cases, cannabis use may cause psychosis—having beliefs that are not based on reality (delusions) or seeing or hearing things that are not there (hallucinations). Cannabis use may also exacerbate existing psychotic conditions, such as schizophrenia. Studies have shown that the use of cannabis at a young age and heavy use of cannabis are associated with up to six times the risk of developing schizophrenia in people with a genetic vulnerability (NCPIC 2012). The relationship between cannabis use and other illicit drug use is complex. Cannabis has been identified as a potential ‘gateway’ drug to other illicit drugs. This concept is based on the premise that users, particularly adolescents, may use cannabis as their first illicit drug; with cannabis seen as a predictor for progression from licit drugs (such as alcohol), to illicit drugs such as heroin, cocaine and/or MDMA (NCPIC 2009).
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CANNABIS
InternationaL trends
The 2013 World Drug Report indicates there was only a small increase in the global number of cannabis users. Cannabis herb is cultivated in its main user markets in the Americas and Europe, with localised cultivation generally supplying domestic markets. In 2012, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) of the United States of America (US) announced that cannabis cultivation in the US decreased 42 per cent from 2011, which followed a 35 per cent decrease from 2010 (Armentano 2013). The eradication of indoor and outdoor cannabis plants continues across all regions. Eradication programs and adverse environmental factors are impacting on established large scale cultivation areas. In 2011, Mexico and Morocco reported the largest area of cannabis plants eradicated, at 13 430 hectares and 8 000 hectares respectively. The US, Philippines and Tajikistan reported the highest number of outdoor plants eradicated during 2011, while the Netherlands, US and Belgium reported the highest number of indoor plants eradicated (UNODC 2013a). In Europe, the annual consumption of both herbal cannabis and cannabis resin is estimated at 2 500 tonnes (EMCDDA 2013). Decreased seizures of cannabis resin were offset by increased seizures of cannabis herb, which represented over half of all cannabis seizures in Europe (EMCDDA 2013). According to media reports, Italian police seized 20 tonnes of cannabis with an estimated street value of £250 million in a vessel off the Sicilian coast in April 2013. The shipment originated from Morocco and was found on an Egyptian registered vessel with a Syrian crew (Pisa 2013). In the Americas, Mexico is the largest cultivator of herbal cannabis, primarily supplying the increasing US market. In the US and Mexico, seizures were higher for herbal cannabis than cannabis resin. North America accounted for 69 per cent of global cannabis herb seizures in 2011. Latin America and the Caribbean region reported the second highest number of cannabis herb seizures in 2011—with Bolivia, Colombia and Paraguay reporting increases of more than 100 per cent from previous years (UNODC 2013a).
CANNABIS
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CANNABIS
Morocco remains the major source country for cannabis resin products, predominantly supplying Western and Central European markets. Cannabis resin is trafficked into Europe via maritime and air streams, predominantly through Spain due to its proximity to Morocco3 (EMCDDA 2013). Afghani cannabis resin production continues to fluctuate in response to official monitoring and eradication measures combined with seasonal crop harvest yields (UNODC 2013a). In 2012, the commercial cultivation of cannabis in Afghanistan was reported at 10 000 hectares, a decrease from 12 000 hectares reported in 2011. Despite this, the potential production of cannabis resin was reported at 1 400 tonnes, an increase from 1 300 tonnes reported in 2011 (UNODC 2013b). According to media reports, Algerian authorities seized 157 tonnes of cannabis resin in 2012, compared to 53 tonnes in 2011 (Global Post 2013). In Afghanistan, there are links between opium poppy cultivation and cannabis cultivation, as the majority of farmers who cultivate opium poppy in the winter cultivate cannabis in summer (UNODC 2013a).
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outdoor cannabis crop
3 In 2011, Spain accounted for 34 per cent of global cannabis resin seizures, followed by Pakistan (18 per cent) and Morocco (12 per cent).
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
CANNABIS
DOMESTIC trends
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
In 2012–13, the number of cannabis detections at the Australian border increased by 36.4 per cent, from 2 660 in 2011–12 to 3 629 in 2012–13, and is the highest on record. The weight of cannabis border detections has fluctuated over the last decade, from 5.0 kilograms in 2004–05 to 709.0 kilograms in 2003–04. In 2012–13, the weight of cannabis detections increased by 26.5 per cent, from 17.0 kilograms in 2011–12 to 21.5 kilograms4 in 2012–13 (see Figure 19). FIGURE 19: Number and weight of cannabis detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)5
CANNABIS
62
Cannabis seeds continue to be the most common form of cannabis detected at the Australian border, accounting for 89.2 per cent of the number of cannabis detections in 2012–13.
4 Note that 9 cannabis border detections weighing a total of 10.7 kilograms were seized in ‘Hemp Force’, a food product—protein supplement—containing hemp and manufactured in the US. Excluding these hemp products, there were 3 620 cannabis border detections in 2012–13, weighing a total of 10.8 kilograms. 5 Cannabis statistics for 2012–13 have been skewed by a number of food products containing hemp from the US. Food products containing hemp have no traces of THC, but due to the wording of current Australian legislation, any product containing hemp that can be ingested is prohibited because it comes from the cannabis plant. This consideration is currently under review by Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ).
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CANNABIS
In this reporting period, only 4 cannabis detections weighed over 1 kilogram. These 4 detections had a combined weight of 10.3 kilograms and account for 47.9 per cent of the total weight of cannabis detected in 2012–13. Of these, 2 detections were hemp products, weighing a total of 7.17 kilograms. The remaining 2 detections were of cannabis seed and leaf, weighing 1.85 kilograms and 1.33 kilograms respectively.
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections6 of cannabis in 2012–13 include: 1.85 kilograms of cannabis seed detected in May 2013, via parcel post from Iran to Sydney 1.33 kilograms of cannabis leaf detected in May 2013, via parcel post from Canada to Sydney 0.33 kilograms of cannabis buds and leaf detected in January 2013, via parcel post from the Netherlands to Melbourne. The 3 detections listed above have a combined weight of 3.51 kilograms and account for 32.5 per cent of the total weight of cannabis (excluding hemp products) detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
IMPORTATION METHODS
The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of cannabis border detections. In 2012–13, the postal stream accounted for 98.8 per cent of detections (see Figure 20). FIGURE 20: Number of cannabis detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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6 These detections exclude hemp products, such as Hemp Force.
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CANNABIS
In this reporting period, parcel post accounted for 51.2 per cent of the weight of cannabis detected at the Australian border, followed by air cargo at 38.1 per cent (see Figure 21). FIGURE 21: Weight of cannabis detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 43 countries were identified as embarkation points for cannabis detected at the Australian border, compared with 32 countries in 2011–12. The United Kingdom (UK) accounted for 59.5 per cent of the number of cannabis detections in 2012–13, with 2 159 detections. Iran, Canada, South Africa and the Netherlands all had a total detection weight in excess of 1 kilogram. The total number of detections from these countries accounted for 24.4 per cent of cannabis detections in 2012–13. In terms of weight, the prominent embarkation points for cannabis (excluding hemp) detections at the Australian border this reporting period were Iran and Canada. The combined total of these 2 embarkation points accounted for 43.1 per cent of the total weight of cannabis border detections in 2012–13.
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CANNABIS
Domestic marKet indicators
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 35.4 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using cannabis at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey, 10.3 per cent reported recent7 cannabis use, the first increase reported since 1998 (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent8 cannabis use decreased from 79 per cent in 2011 to 76 per cent in 2012. Recent cannabis users within this regular injecting drug user population reported using cannabis a median of 160 days in the six months preceding interview, the lowest reported figure in the last decade. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent cannabis use has decreased to 72 per cent, however, the reported median days of cannabis use in the six months preceding interview increased to 170 days (see Figure 22) (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). FIGURE 22: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent cannabis use and median days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
CANNABIS
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a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary. 7 In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview. 8 The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in the six months preceding interview.
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CANNABIS
In the same 2012 study, cannabis herb was the most common form of cannabis used by recent users (hydroponic 70 per cent, bush 39 per cent9), followed by cannabis resin at 7 per cent and cannabis oil at 5 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2013). In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent cannabis use decreased from 85 per cent in 2011 to 82 per cent in 2012. Recent cannabis users within this regular ecstasy user population reported using cannabis a median of 60 days in the six months preceding interview, an increase from the 48 days reported in 2011. Although this is the highest reported figure in the last decade, it remains substantially lower than that reported by regular injecting drug users. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent cannabis use has increased to 86 per cent, while the reported median days of cannabis use in the six months preceding interview decreased to 48 days (see Figure 23) (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). FIGURE 23: Proportion of a regular ecstasy user population reporting recent cannabis use and median days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
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a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey10 and voluntary urinalysis. Over the last decade, the proportion of detainees testing positive for cannabis has decreased, from 58.0 per cent in 2003–04 to 49.0 per cent in 2012–13. Self-reported use of cannabis has also decreased, from 65.4 per cent in 2003–04 to 55.6 per cent in 2012–13. More recently, the proportion of detainees testing positive for cannabis use increased from 47.9 per cent in 2011–12 to 49.0 per cent in 2012–13, while self-reported use of cannabis decreased from 57.2 per cent in 2011–12 to 55.6 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 24).
9 The distinction between hydroponic and bush cannabis is based on the respondents’ views and is not supported by any scientific analysis. 10 The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months preceding interview.
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CANNABIS
FIGURE 24: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for cannabis compared with self-reported use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
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The number of cannabis oil extraction laboratories detected in Australia remains low. Between 2007–08 and 2011–12, there were 3 detections in each reporting period. In 2012–13, there were 2 cannabis oil extraction laboratories detected, one each in New South Wales and South Australia (see Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter).
PRICE
Nationally, cannabis prices remained relatively stable in 2012–13. The price of a gram of hydroponic cannabis head in 2012–13 ranged between $12 and $50. The price of an ounce11 of hydroponic cannabis head ranged between $250 and $450, while the price for a single mature hydroponic cannabis plant ranged between $2 000 and $5 000.
AVAILABILITY
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of hydroponic cannabis, 92 per cent reported hydroponic cannabis as being easy or very easy to obtain, a decrease from the 94 per cent reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate a slight increase to 93 per cent (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
11 An ounce equates to approximately 28 grams.
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CANNABIS
According to a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of hydroponic cannabis, 95 per cent reported hydroponic cannabis as being easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from the 93 per cent reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate a small decrease to 90 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
The number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased this reporting period, with the number of seizures the highest reported in the last decade. The weight of national seizures was the second highest reported in the last decade. In 2012–13, the number of national cannabis seizures increased by 4.6 per cent, from 51 823 in 2011–12 to 54 181 in 2012–13. The weight of national cannabis seizures increased by 27.1 per cent, from 7 349.2 kilograms in 2011–12 to 9 344.0 kilograms in 2012–13 (see Figure 25). FIGURE 25: National cannabis seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Queensland continues to account for the greatest number of national cannabis seizures, followed by New South Wales. Since 2007–08, Victoria has accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of national cannabis seizures, accounting for 56.9 per cent of the weight of national seizures this reporting period. In 2012–13, the Australian Capital Territory reported the greatest percentage increase in the number of cannabis seizures, while Victoria reported the greatest percentage increase in seizure weight (see Table 13).
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CANNABIS
TABLE 13: Number, weight and percentage change of national cannabis seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
Weight (grams) % change 6.3 5.7 -1.5 -24.0 20.7 2.2 -22.9 47.3 4.6 2011–12 1 247 137 3 142 626 808 353 1 001 215 295 008 205 103 238 224 411 587 7 349 253 2012–13 1 824 922 5 320 497 813 277 733 281 28 441 244 702 178 520 200 373 9 344 013 % change 46.3 69.3 0.6 -26.8 -90.4 19.3 -25.1 -51.3 27.1
2011–12 15 247 3 836 18 286 487 8 526 2 736 2 185 520 51 823
2012–13 16 205 4 056 18 009 370 10 294 2 796 1 685 766 54 181
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
Cannabis continues to account for the greatest proportion of illicit drug arrests in Australia. The number of national cannabis arrests increased by 1.8 per cent, from 61 011 in 2011–12 to 62 120 in 2012–13, and is the highest reported in the last decade. Consumer arrests accounted for 86.7 per cent of all cannabis related arrests in 2012–13 (see Figure 26). FIGURE 26: Number of national cannabis arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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CANNABIS
In the last decade, Queensland has accounted for the greatest proportion of national cannabis arrests. In 2012–13, Queensland and New South Wales accounted for 53.4 per cent of national cannabis arrests (see Table 14). TABLE 14: Number and percentage change of national cannabis arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia South Australia (CENs) Western Australia Western Australia (CINs/CIRs)c Tasmania Northern Territory Northern Territory (DINs)
d b a
2011–12 14 004 7 916 17 733 2 544 8 878 5 421 1 177 1 659 617 703 265 94 61 011
2012–13 14 796 8 305 18 365 2 378 8 677 5 358 1 463 1 338 528 521 277 114 62 120
% change 5.7 4.9 3.6 -6.5 -2.3 -1.2 24.3 -19.3 -14.4 -25.9 4.5 21.3 1.8
New South Wales
Australian Capital Territory
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Australian Capital Territory (SCONs)e Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data. b. Cannabis Expiation Notices. c. Cannabis Infringement Notices and Cannabis Intervention Requirements. Due to legislative changes effective in Western Australia as of 1 August 2011, CINs were replaced by CIRs. The data contained in Table 14 combines figures for CINs and CIRs for 2011–12. Please see ‘Jurisdictional Issues’ in the Statistics chapter for further information. d. Drug Infringement Notices. e. Simple Cannabis Offence Notices.
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CANNABIS
NATIONAL IMPACT
Cannabis remains the dominant illicit drug in Australia in terms of arrests, seizures and use. Due to abundant domestic cultivation, with the exception of cannabis resin, oil and seeds, the trafficking of cannabis to Australia is unnecessary or unprofitable and remains relatively low. In 2012–13, the number and weight of cannabis detections at the Australian border increased, with a record 3 629 detections this reporting period. Despite this, the weight of cannabis detected at the Australian border remains low. In 2012–13, the postal stream accounted for 98.8 per cent of cannabis detections by number and 51.2 per cent by weight. Cannabis seed importations continue to account for the majority of detections, accounting for 89.2 per cent of the number of cannabis border detections in 2012–13. The number of embarkation points identified for cannabis increased 34.4 per cent, from 32 countries in 2011–12, to 43 countries in 2012–13. By number, the UK was the primary embarkation point this reporting period. In terms of weight, the prominent embarkation points were Iran and Canada. There were 2 cannabis oil extraction laboratories detected in Australia in 2012–13, a decrease from the 3 laboratories detected in each reporting period since 2007–08. Both the number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased in 2012–13. The number of national cannabis seizures increased from 51 823 in 2011–12, to 54 181 in 2012–13, with the weight of national cannabis seizures increasing from 7 349.2 kilograms in 2011–12 to 9 344.0 kilograms in 2012–13. Cannabis arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national illicit drug arrests, with the 62 120 cannabis arrests in 2012–13 the highest number reported in the last decade.
cannabis
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CANNABIS
references
Armentano, P 2013, ‘DEA: Marijuana Plant Seizures Decline to Lowest Levels in Nearly a Decade’, NORML, Washington DC, 9 September 2013, viewed 17 October 2013, <http://blog.norml.org/2013/09/09/dea-marijuana-plant-seizures-decline-to-lowestlevels-in-nearly-a-decade/>. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011, ‘2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey report’, Drug Statistics Series, no. 25, Cat. No. PHE 145, AIHW, Canberra. Bhattacharyya, S, Morrison, P, Fusar-Poli, P, Martin-Santos, R, Borgwardt, S, Winton-Brown, T, Nosarti, C, O’ Carroll, CM, Seal, M, Allen, P, Mehta, M, Stone, J, Tunstall, N, Giampietro, V, Kapur, S, Murray, RM, Zuardi, AW, Crippa, JA, Atakan, Z & McGuire, PK 2010, ‘Opposite effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on human brain function and psychopathology’, Neuropsychopharmacology, vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 764–74, US.
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European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013, European Drug Report 2013: Trends and Developments, EMCDDA, Lisbon. Global Post 2013, Algeria drug seizures skyrocket in 2012, Global Post, viewed 14 November 2013, <http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130305/algeriadrug-seizures-skyrocket-2012>. Hall, W and Swift, W 2000, ‘The THC content of cannabis in Australia: evidence and implications’, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 503–508, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, Melbourne. McLaren, J, Swift, W, Dillon, P & Allsop, S 2008, ‘Cannabis potency and contamination: a review of the literature’, Addiction, vol. 103, no.7, pp. 1100–1109, Abingdon. National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) 2009, Polydrug use among cannabis users, NCPIC, Sydney, viewed 28 August 2013, <http://ncpic.org.au/ncpic/ publications/aic-bulletins/article/polydrug-use-among-cannabis-users>. National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) 2011, What is cannabis: fact sheet, NCPIC, Sydney, viewed 19 August 2013, <http://ncpic.org.au/workforce/ alcohol-and-other-drug-workers/cannabis-information/factsheets/article/what-iscannabis>.
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CANNABIS
National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) 2012, Cannabis and mental health: fact sheet, NCPIC, Sydney, viewed 19 August 2013, <http://ncpic.org.au/ ncpic/publications/factsheets/article/cannabis-and-mental-health>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends Conference—Highs and lows of contemporary drugs in Australia: Emerging Psychoactive Substances, pharmaceutical opioids and other drugs, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Pisa, N 2013, ‘Marijuana haul off Italy ‘biggest ever at sea’, Sky News, London, 18 April 2013, viewed 17 October 2013, <http://news.sky.com/story/1080009/marijuana-hauloff-italy-biggest-ever-at-sea>. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 100, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Stafford, J & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 91, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2006, ‘Review of the world cannabis situation’, Bulletin on Narcotics, vol. LVIII, nos. 1 & 2, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Afghanistan: survey of commercial cannabis cultivation and production 2012, UNODC, New York. Zuardi, AW, Crippa, JA, Hallak, JE, Bhattacharyya, S, Atakan , Z, Matin-Santos, R, McGuire, PK, Guimaraes, FS 2012, A critical review of the antipsychotic effects of cannabidiol: 30 years of a translational investigation, Current Pharmaceutical Design, vol. 18, no. 32, pp. 5131-40, viewed 14 November 2013, <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/22716160>.
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CANNABIS
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CANNABIS
HEROIN
Key points
The number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border increased in 2012–13, with the 513.8 kilograms detected the highest on record. Profiling data from 2012 indicates the majority of analysed heroin seizures originated in South-East Asia. The weight of national heroin seizures increased to 544.4 kilograms in 2012–13, the highest weight reported in the last decade. The 2 463 national heroin and other opioid arrests reported in 2012–13 is the lowest number reported since 2007–08.
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HEROIN
main forms
Heroin (diacetylmorphine) belongs to the opioid class and is synthesised from morphine, an organic derivative of the opium poppy. In its purest form, raw opium is the dried milky juice (latex) extracted from the unripe seed pods of opium poppy plants (Papaver somniferum). The three primary regions producing illicit opium are South-West Asia (‘Golden Crescent’1), South-East Asia (‘Golden Triangle’2) and Latin America (primarily Mexico) (UNODC 1998; UNODC 2013a). The extraction of morphine from opium involves a number of filtration processes to capture unwanted residues and to obtain the desired clean filtrate solution. Chemicals used in this process include calcium hydroxide, ammonium chloride and hydrochloric acid. As the solution cools, morphine hydrochloride salt precipitates, which produces heroin of a higher purity than if morphine base is used to produce heroin. The synthesis of heroin base from morphine involves using acetic anhydride, sodium carbonate and collecting the heroin base by filtration. Further purification processes are required to produce the heroin hydrochloride salt (street heroin) (UNODC 1998). The colour and appearance of heroin is not a definitive or reliable indicator of origin or purity. There are four main grades of heroin, which have different utility and desirability in the Australian market. These are: No. 4 grade heroin, which is a product of high purity that is easily dissolved and usually injected. It is the most common grade in developed countries. No. 3 grade heroin, which is less refined and granular in appearance. Considered unsuitable for injection, it is most commonly heated and the vapours inhaled. No. 2 and No.1 grade heroin refers to heroin base, which is its form prior to conversion to a hydrochloride salt. No.1 and No. 2 grade heroin are not commonly encountered in Australia (Booth 1998).
HEROIN
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1 The ‘Golden Crescent’ encompasses large areas of Afghanistan and parts of Pakistan. 2 The ‘Golden Triangle’ comprises the border regions of Burma, Thailand and Laos.
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HEROIN
The two most common forms of heroin found in Australia are powder and rock, which are usually white or off-white in colour. Unrefined heroin base is rarely found in Australia, with ‘homebake’ heroin being a crude form of heroin made from codeine (AIC 2011; Dunn 2012). While heroin is most commonly injected, it can also be smoked, snorted/sniffed or added to cannabis or tobacco. In Australia, the most common method of administration is intravenous injection. The second most common practice is inhaling the fumes, which is referred to as ‘chasing the dragon’ (ADF 2013). Heroin produces a ‘rush’ minutes after administration, which may lead to a state of relaxation and contentment. Heroin is a central nervous system depressant which slows brain functions, in particular those related to respiration and blood pressure, and affects users’ perceptions of pain and reward. Short-term effects of heroin use may include drowsiness, dry mouth, nausea and vomiting. Long-term effects of heroin use may include liver, heart and lung problems, skin abscesses, memory impairment and depression. Psychological and physical dependence are also associated with long-term heroin use. Dependent heroin users may develop a tolerance and need higher doses to achieve the desired effect. Heroin overdoses are often the result of suppressed respiration (AIC 2011; DoHA 2013; NSW Health 2011).
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opium poppy field
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HEROIN
internationaL trends
The global use of heroin remains stable, with some market shifts noted. According to the 2013 World Drug Report, South-West and Central Asia, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and North America reported a high prevalence of heroin use. Additionally, there is an emerging trend related to the increased trafficking and non-medical use of prescription or synthetic opioids, which mimic the effects of heroin. Conversely, in Western and Central Europe, the heroin market continued to decline in 2012 in terms of reported use and availability (UNODC 2013a). Opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan reached a record high in 2013. According to the 2013 Afghanistan Opium Survey, the area under cultivation amounted to 209 000 hectares, compared to the earlier record in 2007 of 193 000 hectares. This represents a 36 per cent increase compared to the 154 000 hectares in 2012. Opium production in Afghanistan also increased, from 3 700 tonnes in 2012 to 5 500 tonnes in 2013. The survey reported that opium poppy eradication in 2013 totalled 7 348 hectares, a 24 per cent decrease compared to the 9 672 hectares in 2012. In 2013, two provinces that had previously been declared poppy-free—Faryab and Balkh in Northern Afghanistan—were again identified as cultivating opium. Based on 2012 opium poppy cultivation figures, Afghanistan accounted for 74 per cent of global opium cultivation (UNODC 2013a; UNODC 2013b). In 2012, an estimated 300 to 500 heroin production laboratories capable of producing 380 to 400 tonnes of heroin were operating in Afghanistan. Heroin is trafficked out of Afghanistan using a complex network of routes and intermediary countries. The ‘Northern route’ accounts for approximately 30 per cent of opium/heroin trafficked out of Afghanistan via Iran and Pakistan, then westwards through Iran and Turkey into Europe, or overland into Russia or China. The ‘Southern route’ uses overland routes through Pakistan before shipments are consigned to Africa and South-East Asia via maritime routes. From Asian ports, heroin is trafficked predominately by land routes to China (Jane’s 2012).
HEROIN
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HEROIN
Burma remains the second highest opium producing country in the world, producing approximately a third of that produced by Afghanistan. Despite Burma reporting the second highest ever figure for opium poppy eradication in 2013 at 12 288 hectares, opium poppy cultivation increased for the seventh consecutive year to an estimated 57 800 hectares—the greatest reported figure since 2003. The related potential opium production was estimated to be 870 tonnes, representing a 26 per cent increase compared to 2012. In 2013, the UNODC assessed that poppy cultivation in Laos was estimated to be 3 900 hectares, a decrease from 6 800 hectares in 2012. Opium production also decreased from 41 tonnes in 2012 to 23 tonnes in 2013, but the UNODC noted that these figures reported for Laos were not comparable for technical reasons3 (UNODC 2013c). In Burma, heroin manufacturing laboratories continue to be predominantly located in the Shan State, which borders China, Laos and Thailand. Opium harvested in the Lao-VietnamChina border region is trafficked to Burma for production into heroin. Burma currently supplies two-thirds of the Chinese heroin market, with Afghanistan supplying the remaining third. Heroin seizures in several South-East Asian and Oceanic countries indicate trafficking through these countries continues to supply the established markets in Australia and New Zealand, as well as the rapidly expanding Chinese market. Heroin produced in Afghanistan may also be supplementing this market, with couriers trafficking into regional countries such as Malaysia and Thailand (Jane’s 2013; UNODC 2013d). In Europe, indicators suggest a downward trend in both use and availability of heroin. In 2012, some European countries reported that over the last decade heroin has been displaced from the market by other opioid drugs. Other countries have experienced more recent market shortages, generally followed by a partial recovery. The majority of heroin found in Europe is thought to be manufactured in Afghanistan or, to a lesser extent, in neighbouring Iran or Pakistan (EMCDDA 2013). Two trafficking routes exist for transporting heroin to Europe. Historically, the more important of these has been the ‘Balkan Route’, running west through Turkey, into Balkan countries (Bulgaria, Romania or Albania) and on to Central, Southern and Western Europe. A more recent trafficking route is the ‘Northern’ or ‘Silk Route’, which heads north to Russia, via the former Soviet republics of Central Asia. However, the situation now appears to have become more diverse, with heroin shipments from Iran and Pakistan entering Europe by air or sea, either directly or transiting through West and East African countries. In 2012, heroin seizures continued to decrease in Europe, notably in the amount of heroin trafficked through the established Balkan land route. This may be as a result of law enforcement activity targeting established trafficking routes (EMCDDA 2013; UNODC 2013a).
3 The UNODC reports that the estimate for Laos in 2013 (3 900 hectares) is not comparable with the much higher figure (6 800 hectares) estimated in 2012. The 2013 UNODC Southeast Asia Opium Production Survey took place in late February 2013, about two weeks later than in 2012. The report assessed that some poppy fields were no longer identifiable as they were already harvested. Further, the UNODC identified that in 2013 most images of poppy fields were digitised using very high resolution satellite imagery, whereas in 2012 this was true only for some poppy fields and the resolution of the imagery was lower. The UNODC identifies that research on illicit crop surveys in other countries demonstrated that using higher resolution imagery leads to more accurate, but often lower area estimates. The combination of both factors may have led to the low 2013 poppy estimate and tonnage for Laos (UNODC 2013d).
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HEROIN
Unlike Europe, according to the Drug Enforcement Administration National Drug Threat Assessment Summary 2013, the availability of heroin in the United States of America (US) increased in 2012. This is likely due to the high levels of heroin production in Mexico, with Mexican traffickers expanding into white powder heroin markets in the east and mid-west US. Law enforcement and treatment officials throughout the US are also reporting that many prescription opioid users have turned to heroin as a cheaper and/or more easily obtained alternative to prescription drugs (DEA 2013). All countries in the Americas, except Canada, are supplied by heroin produced in the region. According to Government reports, the Canadian heroin market is supplied by heroin originating in Asia, mainly Afghanistan. Mexico and Colombia remain the highest opium producing countries supplying the US heroin market (UNODC 2013a). In Africa, large increases in the weight of heroin seizures have been observed since 2009—especially in East Africa. The 2013 World Drug Report indicates that the amount of heroin seized in East, West and Central Africa remains small compared with those in other regions, but has increased over five-fold from 2009. This report also identifies that a vast majority of these seizures occurred across maritime trafficking routes,4 which the report suggests points to increased maritime trafficking of Afghan opiates towards Africa. Additionally, West and Central Africa reported increased trafficking of heroin, with East Africa emerging as a transit route for heroin from Afghanistan to European markets (UNODC 2013a). Although Afghanistan remains the world’s largest opium producer, over the last decade the potential production of opium in the three major source regions in the world has fluctuated. In 2013, the potential production of opium in Burma and Laos was 893 metric tonnes, the highest combined weight reported for those countries in the last decade (see Figure 27). FIGURE 27: Potential production of opium, 2004 to 2013 (Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime)
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4 The 2013 World Drug Report describes these seizures as occurring at sea borders, ports or on the open sea.
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HEROIN
domestic trends
AUSTRALIAN BORDER DETECTIONS
In 2012–13, the number of heroin detections at the Australian border increased by 32.4 per cent, from 179 in 2011–12 to 237 in 2012–13. The total weight of heroin detections increased by 100.6 per cent, from 256.1 kilograms in 2011–12 to 513.8 kilograms in 2012–13, the highest weight on record (see Figure 28). The increase in the weight of heroin detected in 2012–13 is primarily due to a single 252 kilogram sea cargo detection. FIGURE 28: Number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
heroin
81
In this reporting period, 204 of the 237 heroin detections at the Australian border weighed less than 1 kilogram, accounting for 86.1 per cent of the total number of heroin detections in 2012–13. The 33 heroin detections weighing more than 1 kilogram totalled 486.7 kilograms and accounted for 94.7 per cent of the total weight of heroin detections in 2012–13.
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections of heroin in 2012–13 include: 252 kilograms of heroin detected in July 2012, concealed in terracotta pots, via sea cargo from Thailand to Sydney 69 kilograms of heroin detected in June 2013, concealed inside the rotors of water pump electric motors, via sea cargo from Taiwan to Brisbane
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
HEROIN
58.5 kilograms of heroin detected in November 2012, concealed inside the base of two timber altars, via sea cargo from Vietnam to Brisbane 12 kilograms of heroin detected in May 2013, concealed within an air passenger’s suitcases, from Thailand to Sydney 10 kilograms of heroin detected in September 2012, concealed in the sides of four cartons that contained calendars, via air cargo from Vietnam to Sydney. The 5 detections listed above have a combined weight of 401.5 kilograms and account for 78.1 per cent of the total weight of heroin detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
IMPORTATION METHODS
In 2012–13, parcel post was the most commonly detected method of importation by number, accounting for 69.6 per cent of heroin detections. This was followed by air passenger/crew, which accounted for 16.0 per cent (see Figure 29). FIGURE 29: Number of heroin detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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While only 3 detections of heroin were in the sea cargo stream in 2012–13, they accounted for 73.9 per cent of the total weight of heroin detected at the Australian border. In 2012–13, air passenger/crew accounted for 17.4 per cent of heroin detections by weight (see Figure 30).
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
HEROIN
FIGURE 30: Weight of heroin detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 25 countries were identified as embarkation points for heroin detected at the Australian border, compared with 19 countries in 2011–12. By number, the Netherlands, Vietnam and Thailand were the primary embarkation points this reporting period. In terms of weight, the primary embarkation points were Thailand, Vietnam, Taiwan and Malaysia. Of the 25 embarkation points, 13 had a total heroin detection weight of over one kilogram. Figure 31 illustrates the key source countries and embarkation points for heroin detections by weight at the Australian border in 2012–13.
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Top 10 embarkation points by weight: Thailand Vietnam Taiwan Malaysia Singapore Madagascar India Belgium Tanzania Bangladesh
FIGURE 31: Key source countries and embarkation points for heroin detections, by weight, at the Australian border, 2012–13
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Key source country
Embarkation country
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DRUG PROFILING
The Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team operates a forensic drug profiling capability through the National Measurement Institute which enables the identification of regions of origin and manufacturing trends for samples of heroin submitted from seizures made at the Australian border. The capability also allows for comparisons within and between seizures to identify distinct batches of drugs or potentially demonstrate links between groups involved in illicit drug manufacture or trafficking. However, only certain drug types are examined and not every seizure of drugs is analysed or profiled.5 The figures presented in Table 15 reflect border seizures made by law enforcement which are amenable to chemical profiling. The results for 2012 and the first six months of 2013 are significant due to the prevalence of South-East Asia heroin amongst those border seizures. Previous years have seen notable fluctuation between the contribution attributed to the two sources, and this high proportion comes despite the reported dominance of South-West Asia in global opium cultivation. Ongoing monitoring of this breakdown can enable inferences to be drawn about the relative importance of the two regions to the Australian market. The proportion of analysed heroin border seizures, by number, originating from South-East Asia increased from 49.0 per cent in 2011 to 70.7 per cent in 2012. This proportion continued to increase in the first six months of 2013 to 81.3 per cent. Conversely, the proportion of analysed border seizures originating from South-West Asia decreased, from 51.0 per cent in 2011 to 25.9 per cent in 2012. This proportion continued to decrease in the first six months of 2013 to 18.7 per cent (see Table 15).
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5 In examining profiling data, it should be noted that it relates to seizures investigated by the AFP between 2005 to June 2013, and from which samples were submitted to the National Measurement Institute for routine analysis and profiling. Improvements in information technology have brought about changes to how the data is collated and presented, and for this reason, care should be taken in comparing figures before 2010 to more recent data. For all reporting years, the data represents a snapshot across the applicable reporting period. These figures cannot reflect seizures that have not been submitted for forensic examination due to prioritisation of law enforcement resources or those that have passed through the border undetected. Certain seizures/samples, such as those containing swabs or trace material, have been omitted from the analysis as they are not amenable to chemical profiling. It is difficult to extrapolate the impact of any observed trends on drugs reaching consumers i.e. street level seizures in Australia. The AFP is collecting samples of heroin from selected state and territory jurisdictions for chemical profiling as part of the Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project.
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TABLE 15: Geographical origin of heroin samples as a proportion of analysed AFP border seizures, 2008–June 2013
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 South-East Asia % 81.3 70.7 49.0 63.8 53.9 44.1 South-West Asia % 18.7 25.9 51.0 27.5 42.6 44.1 Unclassified % – 3.4 – 5.8 3.4 11.8 South-East Asia & Unclassified % – – – – – – South-West Asia & Unclassified % – – – 2.9 – –
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
The shift in the prominent source region for analysed heroin border seizures in 2011 is also reflected in the proportion of analysed seizures by total bulk weight (see Table 16). Five large seizures accounted for approximately 88 per cent of the total bulk weight (359.6 kilograms) of heroin seized in 2012, all of which were chemically profiled to be of South-East Asia origin. During the January to June 2013 period, 3 seizures chemically profiled to be of South-East Asia origin accounted for approximately 60 per cent of the total bulk weight of seized heroin (126.3 kilograms).
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The proportion of analysed heroin border seizures by total bulk weight originating from South-East Asia increased from 39.4 per cent in 2011 to 90.4 per cent in 2012. This proportion has continued to increase to 93.6 per cent in the first six months of 2013. Conversely, the proportion of analysed border seizures originating from South-West Asia decreased from 60.6 per cent in 2011 to 1.2 per cent in 2012. Figures reported in the first six months of 2013 continue to be low at 6.4 per cent (see Table 16). TABLE 16: Geographical origin of heroin samples as a proportion of total bulk weight of analysed AFP border seizures, 2005–June 20136
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 South-East Asia % 93.6 90.4 39.4 93.3 48.2 26.0 47.9 70.1 78.9 South-West Asia % 6.4 1.2 60.6 5.8 40.9 66.3 50.6 27.4 18.0 Unclassified % – 8.4 – 0.9 10.9 7.7 1.5 2.7 3.1
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
The Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project extends the routine drug profiling capabilities of law enforcement from seizures at the border to also include state and territory seizures involving heroin, methylamphetamine, MDMA,
6 Of note, analysed seizures in 2010 and 2011 were influenced by single large seizures from South-East Asia and South-West Asia respectively. The significant influence of these 2 seizures on the profiling data demonstrates that strategic assessments of the market must be made with caution.
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and more recently cocaine.7 This enables detection of similarities between supply routes into different jurisdictions; links between different criminal groups; as well as comparison of trends between jurisdictions, including importations seized and profiled from the border. ENIPID profiling data obtained between 2011 and 2013 shows heroin samples originating predominately from South-East Asia. While exact proportions vary from year-to-year and are subject to a range of variables, the predominating trend of South-East Asia heroin has remained consistent in terms of both samples and cases. As with border figures, the market appears to be fed through South-East Asia and South-West Asia sources, with no confirmed detections of South American heroin among ENIPID samples (see Table 17 and 18). TABLE 17: Geographical origin of heroin ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional samples, 2011–June 2013
Geographical Origin Year Jan–Jun 2013 Total ACT 2012 Total 2011 Total NSW WA NSW WA Jurisdiction NSW WA South-East Asia % 50.0 16.7 66.7 8.5 55.3 2.1 65.9 9.8 82.3 92.1 South-West Asia % – 25.0 25.0 – 12.8 8.5 21.3 2.0 – 2.0 Mixed/ Unclassified % 8.3 – 8.3 – 12.8 – 12.8 3.9 2.0 5.9 Total % 58.3 41.7 100 8.5 80.9 10.6 100 15.7 84.3 100
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Note: This data set represents a total of 110 heroin samples. Due to a lack of available data, 14 samples were classified based on sample collection date in place of sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
TABLE 18: Geographical origin of heroin ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional cases, 2011–June 2013
Geographical Origin Year Jan–Jun 2013 Total ACT 2012 Total 2011 Total NSW WA NSW WA Jurisdiction NSW WA South-East Asia % 60.0 20.0 80.0 9.4 46.9 3.1 59.4 18.8 56.3 75.1 South-West Asia % – 10.0 10.0 – 12.5 9.4 21.9 6.2 – 6.2 Mixed/ Unclassified % 10.0 – 10.0 – 18.7 – 18.7 12.5 6.2 18.7 Total % 70.0 30.0 100 9.4 78.1 12.5 100 37.5 62.5 100
Note: This heroin data set represents a total of 58 cases. Due to a lack of available data, 14 samples were classified based on sample collection date in place of sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013. 7 Profiling of cocaine samples under the ENIPID project commenced in late 2013 and therefore falls outside the reporting period.
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domestic marKet indicators
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 1.4 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using heroin at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey, 0.2 per cent reported recent8 heroin use (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent9 heroin use decreased from 62 per cent in 2011 to 60 per cent in 2012. Recent heroin users within this regular injecting drug user population reported using heroin a median of 72 days in the six months preceding interview, which has remained stable since 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of recent heroin use remained stable at 60 per cent, with the reported median days of heroin use in the six months preceding interview decreasing to 60 days (see Figure 32) (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). FIGURE 32: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent heroin use and median days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
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a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
8 In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview. 9 The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in the six months preceding interview.
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According to the 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, 54 per cent of respondents reported heroin as their drug of choice. Forms of heroin used were white/ off-white powder or rock (93 per cent) and brown powder or rock (48 per cent). There continues to be minimal reporting of home-bake heroin use, with injection the most common reported method of administration. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting heroin as their drug of choice decreased to 53 percent (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent heroin use decreased from 7 per cent in 2011 to 5 per cent in 2012. Recent heroin users within this regular ecstasy user population reported using heroin a median of 5 days in the six months preceding interview, a decrease from the 12 days reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent heroin use remains relatively stable at 4 per cent.10 Injection (80 per cent) was the most common reported method of administration, followed by smoking at 23 per cent, snorting at 13 per cent and swallowing at 3 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey11 and voluntary urinalysis. The proportion of detainees testing positive for heroin has decreased from 13.7 per cent in 2003–04 to 9.9 per cent in 2012–13. Self-reported use of heroin decreased from 19.6 per cent in 2003–04 to 13.4 per cent in 2012–13. More recently, the proportion of detainees testing positive for heroin use remained relatively stable between 2011–12 and 2012–13 at around 10 per cent, while self-reported heroin use decreased from 14.3 per cent in 2011–12 to 13.4 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 33). FIGURE 33: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for heroin compared with self-reported use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
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a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
10 Early findings from the 2013 EDRS for reported median days of heroin use were not available. 11 The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months preceding interview.
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PRICE
Nationally, the price for a gram of heroin in 2012–13 ranged between $220 and $1 000. The price for an 8-ball12 of heroin ranged between $550 and $2 000.13 The price for an ounce of heroin in Victoria, South Australia, and Western Australia was higher than prices reported in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory.
PURITY
Figure 34 illustrates the annual median purity of heroin in Australia since 2003–04. During the last decade, the median purity of analysed heroin samples ranged between 12.2 per cent and 51.0 per cent. In 2012–13, the annual median purity of heroin ranged between 14.1 per cent in Victoria to 30.0 per cent in Western Australia. Of note, since 2009–10, Western Australia has continued to report the highest annual median purity for heroin. In 2012–13, South Australia was the only jurisdiction to record an increase in annual median purity. FIGURE 34: Annual median purity of heroin samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Figure 35 illustrates the median purity of analysed heroin samples on a quarterly basis in 2012–13. The quarterly median purity of heroin ranged from 13.3 per cent in Queensland to 41.0 per cent in Western Australia. Of note, Western Australia reported the highest median purity for analysed heroin samples for three of the four quarters in this reporting period.
12 An 8-ball equates to 3.5 grams. 13 This high price is attributed to the reported price of an 8-ball of heroin in Western Australia, which ranged between $1 900 and $2 000 in 2012–13.
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FIGURE 35: Quarterly median purity of heroin samples, 2012–13
AVAILABILITY
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of heroin, 87 per cent reported heroin as being easy or very easy to obtain. This remains consistent with figures reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this figure has remained relatively stable, with 85 per cent of respondents reporting heroin as easy or very easy to obtain (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
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SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
In 2012–13, the number of national heroin seizures decreased by 9.9 per cent, from 1 758 in 2011–12, to 1 584 in 2012–13. Despite this decrease, the number of heroin seizures this reporting period is the third highest reported in the last decade. The weight of national heroin seizures increased by 40.2 per cent, from 388.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 544.4 kilograms in 2012–13 and is the highest reported in the last decade (see Figure 36).
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FIGURE 36: National heroin seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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New South Wales continued to account for the greatest proportion of national heroin seizures this reporting period, accounting for 53.5 per cent of the number of national seizures and 69.4 per cent of the weight of national seizures. In 2012–13, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory reported increases in the number of heroin seizures. New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, the Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory all reported increases in the weight of heroin seizures this reporting period, with Queensland and the Northern Territory reporting significant percentage increases compared to 2011–12 (see Table 19). TABLE 19: Number, weight and percentage change of national heroin seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
Weight (grams) % change -0.1 -23.2 -14.5 -31.0 -24.8 -100.0 166.7 48.4 -9.9 2011–12 283 653 100 662 989 1 489 1 548 1 8 46 388 396 2012–13 377 798 28 679 128 818 1 857 937 0 6 148 243 544 480 % change 33.2 -71.5 12 925.1 24.7 -39.5 -100.0 76 750.0 428.3 40.2 848 275 194 40 173 0 8 46 1 584
2011–12 849 358 227 58 230 2 3 31 1 758
2012–13
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
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Over the last decade, the number of national heroin and other opioid arrests has decreased 33.3 per cent, from 3 691 in 2003–04 to 2 463 in 2012–13. In this reporting period, national heroin and other opioids arrests decreased by 9.2 per cent, from 2 714 in 2011–12 to 2 463 in 2012–13. Consumer arrests accounted for 68.1 per cent of national heroin and other opioid arrests this reporting period, with South Australia reporting more heroin and other opioid provider arrests than consumer arrests (see Figure 37). FIGURE 37: Number of national heroin and other opioid arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Victoria has accounted for the greatest proportion of national heroin and other opioids arrests over the last decade, accounting for 49.4 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. South Australia, Tasmania and the Northern Territory all reported increases in the number of heroin and other opioid arrests this reporting period. In 2012–13, related arrests in New South Wales and Victoria accounted for 75.7 per cent of national heroin and other opioids arrests (see Table 20). TABLE 20: Number and percentage change of national heroin and other opioid arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests State/Territorya New South Wales Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
2011–12 668 1 425 314 85 180 13 1 28 2 714
2012–13 648 1 217 291 111 155 18 3 20 2 463
% change -3.0 -14.6 -7.3 30.6 -13.9 38.5 200.0 -28.6 -9.2
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NATIONAL IMPACT
In 2013, opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan reached a record high, with the estimated illicit opium production in Afghanistan increasing by 49 per cent compared with 2011. Afghanistan remains the largest producer of illicit opium in the world, accounting for 75 per cent of global illicit production in 2012. South-East and South-West Asia remain the key source regions for heroin seized at the Australian border. In 2012, the majority of heroin profiled was sourced from South-East Asia, with increases in the proportion of analysed border seizures of South-East Asian origin, for both number and total bulk weight. This trend has continued in the first six months of 2013. The predominance of heroin of South-East Asian origin is also reflected in heroin profiled as part of the ENIPID project. In 2012–13, both the number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border increased, with the weight the highest on record. Parcel post continues to account for the highest proportion of the number of heroin detections at the Australian border, while sea cargo accounted for the highest proportion of the weight of detected heroin this reporting period. In 2012–13, the number of countries identified as embarkation points for heroin detected at the Australian border increased by 31.6 per cent, from 19 countries in 2011–12 to 25 countries in 2012–13. By number, the Netherlands, Vietnam and Thailand were the primary embarkation points this reporting period. In terms of weight, Thailand, Vietnam and Malaysia continue to be prominent heroin embarkation points. The number of national heroin seizures decreased from 1 758 in 2011–12, to 1 584 in 2012–13. Despite this decrease, heroin seizures in this reporting period were the third highest reported in the last decade. The weight of national heroin seizures increased from 388.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 544.4 kilograms in 2012–13, and is the highest reported in the last decade. New South Wales continued to account for the greatest proportion of both the number and weight of national heroin seizures this reporting period, with Queensland and the Northern Territory reporting significant percentage increases in the weight of heroin seized compared with 2011–12. In 2012–13, heroin and other opioid arrests decreased, with the 2 463 arrests the lowest number reported since 2007–08. Victoria continued to account for the greatest proportion of national heroin and other opioids arrests this reporting period. While heroin and other opioid consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national arrests, in 2012–13, South Australia reported more heroin and other opioid provider arrests than consumer arrests.
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REFERENCES
Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2013, DrugInfo: heroin facts, ADF, viewed 21 August 2013, <http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/heroin>. Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC) 2011, Heroin, viewed 28 August 2013, <http://www.aic.gov.au/crime_types/drugs_alcohol/drug_types/heroin.html>. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011, ‘2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey report’, Drug Statistics Series, no. 25, Cat. No. PHE 145, AIHW, Canberra. Booth, M 1998, Opium: a history, St. Martins Press, New York. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) 2013, National Drug Threat Assessment Summary 2013, US Department of Justice, Washington DC, viewed 29 November 2013, <http://www.justice.gov/dea/resource-center/DIR-017-13%20NDTA%20Summary%20 final.pdf>. Department of Health and Ageing (DoHA) 2013, ‘Heroin or diacetylmorphine’, National Drugs Campaign, DoHA, viewed 21 August 2013, <http://www.health.gov.au/internet/ drugs/publishing.nsf/content/Heroin/$file/Heroin%20or%20diacetylmorphine.pdf>. Dunn, M 2012, ‘A quick guide to drugs and alcohol’, a druginfo@your library, State Library of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 21 August 2013, <http://www.druginfo. sl.nsw.gov.au/drugs/list/heroin.html pdf>. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013, European Drug Report 2013: Trends and Developments, EMCDDA, Lisbon. Jane’s 2012, ‘Serious and Organised Crime, Northern Exposure: Afghan heroin trafficking through Central Asia’, Jane’s Intelligence Review – July 2012, IHS Jane’s, Northampton. Jane’s 2013, ‘Serious and Organised Crime, Orient excess: Drug production in Myanmar’, Jane’s Intelligence Review – August 2013, IHS Jane’s, Northampton. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends Conference—Highs and lows of contemporary drugs in Australia: Emerging Psychoactive Substances, pharmaceutical opioids and other drugs, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney. New South Wales Government, Health (NSW Health) 2011, Factsheet: heroin, NSW Government, Health, viewed 21 August 2013, <http://www0.health.nsw.gov.au/ factsheets/drugandalcohol/heroin.html>.
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Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 100, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Stafford, J & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 91, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 1998, Recommended methods for testing opium, morphine and heroin: manual for use by national drug testing laboratories, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Afghanistan: Opium Survey 2013, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013c, Southeast Asia Opium Survey 2013, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013d, Transnational Organised Crime in East Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment, UNODC, New York.
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COCAINE
Key points
Although the weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border almost halved in 2012–13, the number of detections more than doubled and is the highest on record. Cocaine profiling data indicates the continued prominence of Colombia as a source country for cocaine seized at the Australian border. There was a record number of national cocaine seizures this reporting period, with the weight of national cocaine seizures the highest reported in the last decade. There was a record 1 282 national cocaine arrests in 2012–13.
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main forms
Cocaine (benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is the principle psychoactive alkaloid of the coca plant.1 The genus Erythroxylum has over 200 known species, of which at least 17 contain the alkaloid cocaine. The two main species cultivated for the production of cocaine are Erythroxylum Coca (E. Coca) and Erythroxylum Novogranatense (E. Novagranatense) E. Coca has the highest cocaine content of the two species and is cultivated along the eastern slopes of Bolivia and Peru. Erythroxylum Novogranatense is cultivated in Colombia and countries in Central America (Freye & Levy 2009). The extraction and production of cocaine hydrochloride from coca leaves involves a number of chemical processes that occur in three stages—obtaining coca paste from coca leaf, refining coca paste to cocaine base and converting cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride. Chemicals commonly used during this process include sulfuric acid, ammonium hydroxide, potassium permanganate, acetone and hydrochloric acid (Freye & Levy 2009). The most common form of cocaine available in Australia is powdered hydrochloride salt which can be snorted, rubbed into the gums or dissolved in water and injected. Another form of cocaine is base—or ‘crack’2—usually rock crystal in appearance, which is heated to produce vapours that are inhaled. Crack cocaine is not commonly encountered in Australia (NIDA 2013). Cocaine is a strong central nervous stimulant that increases levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Dopamine is associated with functions responsible for reward, motivation and the experience of pleasure. It is the increase in dopamine levels that cause cocaine’s characteristic ‘high’ and associated feelings of euphoria, confidence and energy (NIDA 2013). The intensity and duration of the cocaine high is influenced by the method of administration. Injecting or smoking cocaine delivers the drug rapidly into the bloodstream, producing a quicker and stronger, but shorter-lasting high than snorting. The effects from injecting or smoking cocaine may last 5 to 10 minutes, while the effects from snorting may last 15 to 30 minutes. In order to sustain effects, users may administer the drug in a ‘binge-pattern’.3 This practice can easily lead to addiction, a chronic relapsing disease caused by changes in the brain and may be characterised by uncontrollable drug-seeking (NIDA 2013).
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1 The coca plant is grown predominately along the Andean Ridge in South America. 2 The term crack refers to the crackling sound produced by the rock as it is heated. 3 The term ‘binge-pattern’ refers to taking the drug repeatedly within a relatively short period of time, at increasingly higher doses.
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Short-term effects of cocaine use may include increased heart rate, nausea, tremors and hallucinations. Long-term effects of cocaine use may include convulsions, kidney failure, respiratory problems and increased risk of stroke. When cocaine is used in conjunction with alcohol, the liver converts the combination into a third substance known as cocaethylene, which may lead to liver failure or heart attack (DoHA 2010; DRS 2011).
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coca plant field
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INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
According to the 2013 World Drug Report, the global cocaine market has declined in recent years. This assessment was informed by figures relating to the cultivation of coca bush, cocaine manufacture, cocaine seizures and cocaine user estimates in the major consumer countries. This is reflected in the situation in North America, where the cocaine market declined significantly over the period 2006 to 2012 and, to a lesser extent in Western and Central Europe, where the cocaine market appears to have stabilised following many years of growth.4 In contrast, over the last decade the prevalence of cocaine use appears to have increased in several regions with large populations, notably South America and to a lesser extent in Africa and Asia (UNODC 2013a).
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South America continues to dominate global coca cultivation. Despite this, Colombia, Bolivia and Peru all reported a decrease in coca cultivation in 2012 compared with 2011. Colombia reported the largest decrease in coca cultivation since crop monitoring began in 2001, decreasing from 64 000 hectares in 2011 to 48 000 hectares in 2012 (UNODC 2013b). Coca cultivation in Bolivia decreased from 27 200 hectares in 2011 to 25 300 hectares in 2012, with coca cultivation in Peru decreasing from 62 500 hectares in 2011 to 60 400 hectares in 2012 (UNODC 2013c; UNODC 2013d). Colombia reported a decrease in the area of coca bush eradicated, decreasing from 34 170 hectares in 2011 to 30 486 hectares in 2012, while Bolivia and Peru reported increases. In Bolivia, 11 044 hectares was eradicated in 2012 compared with 10 500 in 2011 and in Peru, 14 234 hectares was eradicated in 2012 compared with 10 290 in 2011 (UNODC 2013b; UNODC 2013c; UNODC 2013d). Colombian cocaine continues to be trafficked through Ecuador, Mexico and other South American countries to North American markets. Shipments consigned to West and Central Africa or European markets use maritime transit hubs in Brazil and Ecuador. According to media reporting, in May 2013 the Aeronaval National Service of Panama reported a seizure of 2 717 kilograms of cocaine in the Guna Yala shire, Panama, as part of Operation Santisima Trinidad (Xinhua 2013).
4
Despite 40 per cent decreases in the North American and European cocaine user markets, they continue to account for almost half of the global cocaine user market (BINLEA 2013).
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The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) reports that organised criminal groups are diversifying their trafficking techniques and routes. Cocaine continues to be trafficked into Europe via the traditional entry countries of Spain and Portugal, or through maritime shipping routes into the major ports of Belgium, the Netherlands and other West European countries. In 2012, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece and Baltic States reported increases in the weight of cocaine seizures at sea ports (EMCDDA 2013). The United States of America (US) continues to engage in regional capacity building and counter-narcotics initiatives with national authorities in Mexico, West Africa and the Caribbean. The US Customs and Border Protection regularly patrol areas in the West Caribbean and East Pacific. According to media reporting, during 1 October 2011 to 30 September 2012, these patrols detected 59 tonnes of cocaine worth an estimated US$8.8 billion. In a single month, they intercepted cocaine shipments estimated to be worth US$527 million (McLaughlin 2013). Among drug markets with potential for growth in the prevalence of cocaine use, the 2013 World Drug Report indicates that East and South-East Asia present the greatest risk of expansion (UNODC 2013a). According to media reporting, in July 2012 Hong Kong officials acting on US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) information seized 649 kilograms of cocaine with an estimated street value of US$98 million, concealed in a shipping container arriving from Guayaquil, Ecuador (CNN 2012). The Philippines has also seized large quantities of cocaine in recent years and Thailand—a country with a large consumer market for stimulants—identified the Philippines among the transit countries for cocaine reaching Thailand (UNODC 2013a). Since 2007, West Africa has been an important transhipment hub for cocaine trafficked from South America to Europe. West African nationals remain prominent traffickers and are involved with organised networks trafficking cocaine to various destinations. The availability of cocaine in West Africa and along the land trafficking routes may have also contributed to an increase in cocaine use in West and North Africa (UNODC 2013a). In the South Pacific, ongoing joint law enforcement operations involving the Australian Federal Police, Australian Customs and Border Protection Service, US DEA and various island-nation police services continue to target criminal groups using the region as a transit route or staging area for the trafficking of illegal substances. In November 2012, more than 200 kilograms of cocaine with an estimated street value of up to $116 million was located concealed in the hull of a 13 metre yacht off the Tongan coast. The yacht had been monitored by an international police taskforce since departing from Ecuador in August 2012. The monitoring was part of a combined international operation targeting organised criminal groups using the South Pacific to traffic drugs into the region (AFP 2012).
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Since 2005, the potential quantity of cocaine produced in Colombia has continued to decrease in each subsequent reporting period. In 2012, the potential quantity of cocaine produced in Colombia was reported at 309 tonnes, a decrease from the 345 tonnes reported in 2011 (see Figure 38) (UNODC 2013a). FIGURE 38: Potential production of cocaine, 2003 to 2012 (Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime)
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a. Due to the ongoing review of conversion factors, estimated production figures for Peru and Bolivia are not available beyond 2008.
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DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
The number of detections of cocaine at the Australian border has continued to increase since 2009–10. In 2012–13, the number of cocaine detections at the Australian border increased by 104.6 per cent, from 979 in 2011–12 to 2 003 in 2012–13 and is the highest number on record. The total weight of cocaine detected this reporting period decreased by 49.1 per cent, from 785.7 kilograms in 2011–12 to 399.6 kilograms in 2012–13 (see Figure 39). FIGURE 39: Number and weight of cocaine detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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Of note, 98.3 per cent of cocaine detections this reporting period weighed less than 1 kilogram. In 2012–13, 33 cocaine detections weighed over 1 kilogram. These 33 detections had a combined total weight of 363.6 kilograms and account for 90.9 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected in 2012–13.
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections of cocaine in 2012–13 include: 144.4 kilograms of cocaine detected in October 2012, suspended in four pallets of 250 cases of wine, via sea cargo from Chile to Sydney 138 kilograms of cocaine detected in September 2012, suspended in 900 cases of wine, via sea cargo from Chile to Sydney
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7.8 kilograms of cocaine detected in June 2013, via an air passenger’s suitcase from Peru to Sydney 6.9 kilograms of cocaine detected in December 2012, concealed within a granite water fountain, via air cargo from Canada to Sydney 6 kilograms of cocaine detected in December 2012, via sea cargo from Canada to Sydney.5 The 5 detections listed above have a combined weight of 303.1 kilograms and account for 75.8 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
IMPORTATION METHODS
Since 2000–01, the postal stream has accounted for over 70 per cent of the number of cocaine border detections. In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 94.1 per cent of detections, by number (see Figure 40). FIGURE 40: Number of cocaine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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In this reporting period, 3 sea cargo detections with a combined weight of 288.4 kilograms accounted for 72.2 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border. Air cargo accounted for 11.3 per cent and air passenger/crew accounted for 10.3 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected in 2012–13 (see Figure 41).
5 This border detection also included 40 kilograms of methylamphetamine concealed in table tops.
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FIGURE 41: Weight of cocaine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 56 countries were identified as embarkation points for cocaine detected at the Australian border, compared with 39 countries in 2011–12. The Netherlands accounted for the greatest number of cocaine detections this reporting period—with 682 detections—with Canada and Germany other prominent embarkation points. In terms of weight, the prominent embarkation point was Chile, which included 2 sea cargo detections with a combined weight of 282.4 kilograms. Chile was followed by Canada and the US. Figure 42 illustrates the key source countries and embarkation points for cocaine detections by weight at the Australian border in 2012–13.
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Top 10 embarkation points by weight: Chile Canada United States of America Argentina Peru Colombia Brazil Hong Kong Austria Costa Rica
FIGURE 42: Key source countries and embarkation points for cocaine detections, by weight, at the Australian border, 2012–13
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Key source country
Embarkation country
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DRUG PROFILING
The Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team operates forensic drug profiling capability through the National Measurement Institute which enables the identification of regions of origin and manufacturing trends for cocaine samples seized at the Australian border. The capability also allows for comparisons within and between seizures to identify distinct batches of drugs or potentially demonstrate links between groups involved in illicit drug manufacture or trafficking. However, only certain drug types are examined and not every seizure of drugs is analysed or profiled.6 The figures in Table 21 and Table 22 represent recent cocaine profiling results for border seizures, identifying the geographic origin of the coca-leaf used in the production of the drug. It should be noted that ‘unclassified’ figures include samples that are currently undergoing profiling, as well as samples for which a geographic origin could not be determined through existing profiling techniques. The presence of ‘mixed’ seizures highlights the existence of shipments where more than one type of cocaine was present (for example, cocaine of ‘Colombian’ and ‘Peruvian’ origin within a single shipment). The proportion of analysed cocaine border seizures, by number, with Colombian leaf-origin remained stable between 2011 and 2012, while the proportion identified as Peruvian leaf-origin decreased from 35.3 per cent in 2011 to 29.1 per cent in 2012. In the first six months of 2013, the proportion of seizures with Colombian leaf-origin increased to 70.8 per cent, while seizures of Peruvian leaf-origin continued to decrease to 25.0 per cent (see Table 21). TABLE 21: Geographical origin of coca leaf used to produce cocaine as a proportion of analysed AFP border seizures, 2007–June 2013
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 Colombian % 70.8 53.3 55.9 55.2 44.9 67.3 61.7 Peruvian % 25.0 29.1 35.3 30.2 32.7 28.6 23.3 Bolivian % – – – 1.0 2.0 – 1.7 Mixed % 4.2 5.9 5.9 6.3 10.2 – 9.9 Unclassified % – 9.7 2.9 7.3 10.2 4.1 3.4
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Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
6 In examining profiling data, it should be noted that it relates to seizures investigated by the AFP between 2005 and June 2013 and from which samples were submitted to the National Measurement Institute for routine analysis and profiling. Improvements in information technology have brought about changes to how the data is collated and presented, and for this reason, care should be taken in comparing figures before 2010 to more recent data. For all reporting years, the data represents a snapshot across the applicable reporting period. These figures cannot reflect seizures that have not been submitted for forensic examination due to prioritisation of law enforcement resources, or those that have passed through the border undetected. Certain seizures/samples, such as those containing swabs or trace material, have been omitted from the analysis as they are not amenable to chemical profiling. It is difficult to extrapolate the impact of any observed trends on drugs reaching consumers i.e. street level seizures in Australia. For this reason, as of 2014, samples are also being sought from significant domestic seizures.
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The data in Table 22 is based on the same analytical samples used as the basis for Table 21, but is organised in terms of the total bulk weight of seizures rather than number. Four large seizures contributed approximately 83 per cent of the total bulk weight (978.9 kilograms) of cocaine seized and chemically profiled in 2012. Available profiling data on 3 of these seizures indicates that they were manufactured from Peruvian coca leaves, and the other large seizure from Colombian coca leaves. The vast majority of Peruvian cocaine seized in 2012 consisted of 2 large seizures, which were in liquid form (545.1 kilograms). In the first six months of 2013, 4 seizures accounted for 59 per cent of the total bulk weight (11 kilograms) seized and profiled in that period. In terms of total bulk weight, the proportion of analysed cocaine border seizures of Colombian leaf-origin decreased from 51.3 per cent in 2011 to 23.7 per cent in 2012. Conversely, the proportion of analysed border seizures of Peruvian leaf-origin increased from 44.2 per cent in 2011 to 74.3 per cent in 2012. This trend reversed in the first six months of 2013, with the proportion of analysed seizures with Colombian leaf-origin being more prominent (see Table 22). TABLE 22: Geographical origin of coca leaf used to produce cocaine as a proportion of total bulk weight of analysed AFP border seizures, 2007–June 2013
Year Colombian % 75.9 23.7 51.3 96.3 91.3 95.1 86.3 Peruvian % 24.1 74.3 44.2 3.2 6.8 4.7 10.6 Bolivian % – – – <0.1 <0.1 – 0.4 Mixed % – 1.3 4.4 – – – – Unclassified % – 0.7 0.1 0.4 1.9 0.2 2.7
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Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
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DOMESTIC marKet indicators
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 7.3 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using cocaine at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey, 2.1 per cent reported recent7 cocaine use, the highest proportion ever reported in this survey for recent cocaine use (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent8 cocaine use decreased from 17 per cent in 2011 to 15 per cent in 2012, the lowest proportion reported in the last decade. Reported recent use of cocaine remained most common among participants in New South Wales (44 per cent), with the proportion of recent users in the majority of other states and territories remaining below the national figure of 15 per cent. Recent cocaine users within this regular injecting drug user population reported using cocaine a median of 3 days in the six months preceding interview in 2012, the lowest reported figure in the last decade. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of recent cocaine users has increased to 16 per cent, with the reported median days of cocaine use in the six months preceding interview remaining stable at 3 days (see Figure 43) (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). FIGURE 43: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent cocaine use and median days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
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a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
7 In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview. 8 The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in the six months preceding interview.
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In the same 2012 study, 3 per cent of respondents reported cocaine as their drug of choice. Powder remains the most commonly used form of cocaine (78 per cent) among recent users, with only minimal reporting of crack cocaine use. The most common method of administration was injection (12 per cent) followed by snorting (4 per cent). Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting cocaine as their drug of choice decreased to 2 per cent (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent cocaine use decreased from 46 per cent in 2011 to 40 per cent in 2012. New South Wales and Victoria accounted for the greatest proportion of recent cocaine users in 2012. Recent cocaine users within this regular ecstasy user population reported using cocaine a median of 3 days in the six months preceding interview, an increase from the 2 days reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of recent cocaine users has decreased to 36 per cent, with the reported median days of cocaine use in the six months preceding interview decreasing to 2 days (see Figure 44) (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). FIGURE 44: Proportion of a regular ecstasy user population reporting recent cocaine use and median days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
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a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
The proportion of respondents reporting cocaine as their drug of choice remained relatively stable in 2012 at 13 per cent. The most common form of administration was snorting at 97 per cent, followed by swallowing at 31 per cent. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting cocaine as their drug of choice decreased to 6 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
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Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey9 and voluntary urinalysis. Over the last decade, the proportion of detainees testing positive for cocaine has fluctuated, from a low of 0.7 per cent in 2003–04 to a high of 2.2 per cent in 2008–09. More recently, the proportion of detainees testing positive for cocaine use decreased from 1.5 per cent in 2011–12 to 1.1 per cent in 2012–13. Self-reported use of cocaine has remained relatively stable since 2004–05, ranging from 10.2 per cent in 2007–08 to 12.8 per cent in 2008–09. Self-reported use of cocaine increased from 10.6 per cent in 2011–12 to 11.2 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 45). FIGURE 45: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for cocaine compared with self-reported use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
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a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
PRICE
Nationally, the price of a gram of cocaine in 2012–13 ranged between $250 and $1 000. The price of a gram of cocaine in New South Wales has remained relatively stable since 2009–10 and ranged between $250 and $400 in 2012–13. The price for a gram of cocaine in the Northern Territory doubled this reporting period, increasing from $500 in 2011–12 to $1 000 in 2012–13. Nationally, the price range of a kilogram of cocaine increased this reporting period, from between $190 000 and $300 000 in 2011–12, to between $180 000 and $360 000 in 2012–13.
9 The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months preceding interview.
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PURITY
Figure 46 illustrates ongoing fluctuations in the annual median purity of cocaine over the last decade. Since 2003–04, the annual median purity of analysed cocaine samples has ranged between 3.0 per cent and 64.3 per cent. In 2012–13, the annual median purity ranged between 27.8 per cent in Queensland and 56.6 per cent in South Australia. Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory reported a decrease in the annual median purity of cocaine this reporting period. FIGURE 46: Annual median purity of cocaine samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Figure 47 illustrates the median purity of analysed cocaine samples on a quarterly basis for 2012–13. During the reporting period, the median purity of cocaine ranged between 20.0 per cent in Queensland and 57.5 per cent in South Australia. Queensland reported the greatest fluctuation in median cocaine purity during the reporting period, ranging between 20.0 per cent in the third quarter of 2012 and 55.3 per cent in the fourth quarter of 2012.
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FIGURE 47: Quarterly median purity of cocaine samples, 2012–13
AVAILABILITY
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, only small numbers of respondents were able to comment on the availability of cocaine in jurisdictions other than New South Wales, therefore any assessment should be made with caution. Of those respondents who commented on the availability of cocaine, 65 per cent described cocaine as easy or very easy to obtain, a decrease from 68 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate an increase in availability, with 70 per cent of respondents reporting cocaine as easy or very easy to obtain (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). According to a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of cocaine, 49 per cent reported cocaine as being easy or very easy to obtain. This remains consistent with figures reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate an increase in availability, with 58 per cent of respondents reporting cocaine as easy or very easy to obtain (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
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SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
In 2012–13, both the number and weight of national cocaine seizures increased. The number of national cocaine seizures is the highest on record, while the weight of seizures is the highest reported in the last decade. The number of national cocaine seizures has increased by 158.3 per cent over the last decade, from 839 in 2003–04 to 2 167 in 2012–13. The weight of national cocaine seizures has increased 783.4 per cent over the last decade, from 119.6 kilograms in 2003–04 to 1 056.5 kilograms in 2012–13 (see Figure 48).
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FIGURE 48: National cocaine seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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The number of national cocaine seizures increased by 62.2 per cent this reporting period, from 1 336 in 2011–12 to 2 167 in 2012–13. The weight of cocaine seized nationally increased by 10.5 per cent this reporting period, from 956.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 1 056.5 kilograms in 2012–13. Over the last decade, New South Wales has accounted for the highest proportion of the number of national cocaine seizures, accounting for 63.8 per cent of the national total in 2012–13. In this reporting period, while Western Australia reported the greatest percentage increase in the number of cocaine seizures, New South Wales accounted for 98.0 per cent of the weight of cocaine seized nationally in 2012–13 (see Table 23). TABLE 23: Number, weight and percentage change of national cocaine seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
Weight (grams) % change 54.2 86.3 48.0 75.0 215.9 -100.0 -75.0 -43.5 62.2 2011–12 189 974 470 157 294 763 837 325 64 2 216 956 338 2012–13 1 034 956 12 124 4 503 1 784 2 221 0 0 982 1 056 570 % change 444.8 -97.4 -98.5 113.1 583.4 -100.0 -100.0 354.6 10.5 1 382 298 253 21 199 0 1 13 2 167
2011–12 896 160 171 12 63 7 4 23 1 336
2012–13
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
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Figure 49 illustrates the number of national cocaine arrests since 2003–04. Over the last decade, cocaine arrests have increased by 290.9 per cent, from 328 in 2003–04 to 1 282 in 2012–13, the highest number of cocaine arrests on record. In 2012–13, consumer arrests accounted for 70.1 per cent of national cocaine arrests. However, South Australia, Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory all reported more cocaine provider than consumer arrests in this reporting period. FIGURE 49: Number of national cocaine arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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In 2012–13, the number of national cocaine arrests increased by 28.8 per cent, from 995 in 2011–12 to 1 282 in 2012–13. The Northern Territory was the only state or territory to report a decrease in cocaine arrests in 2012–13. While Western Australia reported the highest percentage increase in arrests this reporting period, New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national cocaine arrests, followed by Victoria and Queensland (see Table 24). TABLE 24: Number and percentage change of national cocaine arrests, 2011–12 to 2012–13
Arrests State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
a
2011–12 554 187 182 15 42 2 3 10 995
2012–13 694 235 213 30 91 2 0 17 1 282
% change 25.3 25.7 17.0 100.0 116.7 0.0 -100.0 70.0 28.8
New South Wales
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NationaL impact
South America continues to dominate global coca production. Despite this, in 2012 Colombia, Bolivia and Peru all reported decreases in coca cultivation. In 2012, the area under coca crop cultivation in Peru was greater than that of Colombia—reported to be 60 400 hectares and 48 000 hectares respectively. While profiling data for 2012 indicates that border seizures with Peruvian leaf-origin accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of analysed seizures, similar to previous years, profiling data for the first six months of 2013 identified Colombia as the predominant country of origin, by both number and weight, for analysed samples. There were a record 2 003 cocaine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. However, the weight of cocaine detected decreased, from 785.7 kilograms in 2011–12 to 399.6 kilograms in 2012–13. The number of embarkation points identified for cocaine increased 43.6 per cent this reporting period, from 39 countries in 2011–12 to 56 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account for the greatest proportion of cocaine border detections by number. Sea cargo accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of cocaine detected this reporting period, with 2 large sea cargo detections accounting for 70.7 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border. Both the number and weight of national cocaine seizures increased in 2012–13, with the number of seizures the highest on record and the weight of seizures the highest reported in the last decade. The number of national cocaine seizures increased from 1 336 in 2011–12 to 2 167 in 2012–13. The weight of national cocaine seizures increased from 956.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 1 056.5 kilograms in 2012–13. The weight of cocaine seized in Victoria and Queensland decreased significantly in 2012–13, with New South Wales accounting for 63.8 per cent of the number and 98.0 per cent of the weight of national cocaine seizures this reporting period. In 2012–13, the number of national cocaine arrests increased to 1 282 and is the highest number on record. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national cocaine arrests, with 694 arrests in 2012–13. All states and territories reported an increase in the number of cocaine arrests this reporting period, with the exception of the Northern Territory which decreased and Tasmania, which remained stable. Cocaine consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national cocaine arrests, however in 2012–13, South Australia, Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory reported more cocaine provider arrests than consumer arrests.
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References
Australian Federal Police (AFP) 2012, ‘Media Release: Joint South Pacific law enforcement operation results in huge cocaine haul’, AFP/ACBPS, 16 November 2012, viewed 23 October 2013, <http://www.afp.gov.au/media-centre/news/afp/2012/ november/media-release-joint-south-pacific-law-enforcement-operation-results-inhuge-cocaine-haul.aspx>. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011, ‘2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey report’, Drug Statistics Series, no. 25, Cat. No. PHE 145, AIHW, Canberra. Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) 2013, ‘International Narcotics Control Strategy Report Volume 1’, Drug and Chemical Control, March 2013, BINLEA, US Department of State, Washington. CNN 2012, ‘Official: Hong Kong drug operation hauls $98 million worth of cocaine’, CNN, 8 July 2012, viewed 17 October 2013, <http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/07/world/asia/ hong-kong-drug-seizure/>. Department of Health and Ageing (DoHA) 2010, National Drugs Campaign: problems using cocaine, DoHA, Canberra, viewed 22 August 2013, <http://www.drugs.health.gov. au/internet/drugs/publishing.nsf/content/cocaine4>. Drug Rehab Services (DRS) 2011, Cocaethylene: the danger of cocaine and alcohol, DRS, Canada, viewed 30 August 2013, <http://www.drugrehab.ca/cocaethylene-the-dangerof-cocaine-and-alcohol.html>. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013, European Drug Report 2013: Trends and Developments, EMCDDA, Lisbon. Freye, E & Levy, JV 2009, Pharmacology and abuse of cocaine, amphetamines, ecstasy and related designer drugs, Springer, Heidelberg, viewed 22 August 2013, <http://issuu. com/hospitalemfoco/docs/pharmacology_abuse_drugs>. McLaughlin, E 2013, ‘$527 million in cocaine intercepted en route to U.S’, CNN, 1 June 2013, viewed 17 October 2013, <http://edition.cnn.com/2013/05/30/justice/massivecbp-cocaine-seizure/index.html>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends Conference—Highs and lows of contemporary drugs in Australia: Emerging Psychoactive Substances, pharmaceutical opioids and other drugs, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney.
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National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2013, Drugfacts: cocaine, NIDA, National Institute of Health, Maryland, viewed 22 August 2013, <http://www.drugabuse.gov/ publications/drugfacts/cocaine>. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 100, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Stafford, J & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 91, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Colombia: coca cultivation survey 2012, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013c, Plurinational State of Bolivia: coca monitoring 2012, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013d, Peru: monitoring of coca crops in 2012, UNODC, New York.
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Xinhua 2013, ‘Biggest drug seizure accomplished in Panama’, People’s Daily Online, 29 May 2013, viewed 17 October 2013, <http://english.peopledaily.com. cn/90777/8261797.html>.
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OTHER DRUGS
Key points
Over the last decade, the number of performance and image enhancing drugs detected at the Australian border has increased 751.6 per cent, with the 10 356 detections in 2012–13 the highest number on record. The number of national steroid seizures and arrests continued to increase in 2012–13 and are the highest number on record. There was a record 509 tryptamine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. There was a record 277 anaesthetic detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. The 565 national hallucinogen arrests reported in 2012–13 is the highest number on record.
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OTHER DRUGS
ANABOLIC AGENTS AND OTHER SELECTED HORMONES
Other drugs and substances—collectively referred to in this report as ‘other drugs’— are being increasingly recognised as part of Australia’s illicit drug market. This chapter focuses on the main drugs and substances in this category: anabolic agents and other selected hormones, tryptamines, anaesthetics, pharmaceuticals, drug analogues and new psychoactive substances and other drugs not elsewhere classified.
Other drugs
MAIN FORMS
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Anabolic agents and selected hormones are commonly referred to as performance and image enhancing drugs (PIEDs). The Australian Standard Classification of Drugs of Concern distinguishes four classes of substances as anabolic agents and selected hormones: anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) beta-2-agonists other anabolic agents and selected hormones peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues (ABS 2011). ANABOLIC-ANDROGENIC STEROIDS (AAS), BETA-2-AgonistS AND OTHER ANABOLIC AGENTS and SELECTED HORMONES AAS, commonly referred to as steroids, are synthetic variants of the male sex hormone testosterone. ‘Anabolic’ refers to the muscle-building effects of the drug, while ‘androgenic’ refers to their masculinising effects. AAS may be derived from natural sources, but can also be synthetically manufactured for therapeutic use in human and veterinary treatment. AAS are used in the treatment of diseases that reduce lean muscle mass, including cancer and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and conditions of steroid deficiency, such as delayed puberty. In addition to use in treatment, AAS are also used to enhance image and sports performance (NIDA 2012). The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) categorises anabolic agents as either AAS or other anabolic agents. Both AAS and other anabolic agents are prohibited substances under the World Anti-Doping Code 2013 Prohibited List (WADA 2012).
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OTHER DRUGS
AAS are commonly administered by injection, orally, or via cream, gel or skin patches. Side effects of AAS use may include extreme mood swings, mania, depression, paranoia, delusions, impaired judgement, organ damage—including cardiovascular damage—high blood pressure and blood clots. Male-specific effects of use may include shrinkage of the testicles, reduced sperm-count or infertility, development of breasts and increased risk of prostate cancer. Female-specific effects of use may include the growth of facial hair, menstrual problems and baldness (Ip et al. 2012; NIDA 2012). The use of beta-2-agonists is prohibited under the World Anti-Doping Code 2013 Prohibited List, with the exception of specific asthma treatments and related doses administered via inhalation. Beta-2-agonists in aerosol form are commonly used in the treatment of asthma to relax muscles in the airway. However, when taken into the bloodstream, they may have anabolic effects. Beta-2-agonists, such as clenbuterol, may be used either alone or in conjunction with other substances to promote muscle definition and growth (anabolic effect) and decrease body fat (catabolic effect). The most frequently reported side effects associated with the use of beta-2-agonists include increased body temperature, nausea, headaches, insomnia, tremors and cardiovascular conditions. The misuse of beta-2-agonists may also lead to muscle cramps, palpitations and nervousness (NDARC 2005; NDARC 2006; USADA 2013; WADA 2012). AAS and other anabolic agents commonly used in Australia are outlined in Table 25. TABLE 25: AAS and other anabolic agents commonly used in Australia
Drug name AAS – Anabolic Potential effects Used to increase muscle mass through increased retention of protein Used to increase muscle mass by increasing male sex hormone levels Brand name Deca-durabolin, Anadrol-50, Oxandrin Depo-testosterone, Sustanon, Androil Testocaps Bricanyl, Ventolin, Spiropent (clenbuterol) and Ventipulmin (clenbuterol) Forms Ampoule, vial, prepacked syringe, tablet Vial, ampoule, prepacked syringe, capsule Ampoule, rotacap, inhaler, nebuliser, tablet
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AAS – Androgenic
Beta-2-agonists (including Commonly used to treat clenbuterol) asthma, however when taken into the bloodstream increase muscle mass by mimicking the effects of adrenaline and non-adrenaline
PEPTIDE HORMONES, MIMETICS AND ANALOGUES While AAS remain widely used, the PIEDs market has evolved to include an everexpanding range of substances which manipulate the body’s hormonal system. These substances, which include peptide hormones, mimetics1 and analogues, may provide similar effects to AAS and are considered by users to be new generation PIEDs.
1
Substances that are chemically different, but which mimic the pharmacological effects of a particular substance.
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Hormones are vital for the effective functioning of the human body and are naturally produced. Synthetic mimetics and analogues of these naturally occurring hormones have been developed to assist in the treatment of a number of medical conditions, with some diverted for non-medical use as a consequence of their performance enhancing effects. While peptides can be used on their own to promote muscle growth, these substances are also used in combination with anabolic steroids to maintain muscle gains. Peptide hormones which have potential performance enhancing properties are listed in the World Anti-Doping Code 2013. These include erythropoietin (EPO), human growth hormone (hGH), insulin-like growth factors (IGF-1), gonadotrophins (such as luteinising hormone [LH] and human chorionic gonadotrophin [hCG]), insulins and other growth factors affecting muscle, tendon or ligament proteins (ASADA 2013).2 EPO is a synthetic hormone, which stimulates bone marrow to produce more red blood cells and increases oxygen-absorption, thereby improving endurance and increasing metabolism and muscular healing. Side effects of EPO use may include increased risk of thrombosis in the heart, lungs and/or brain. Users of hCG may seek to decrease their body fat and improve brain activity. The use of hCG may boost natural testosterone production after a long AAS-cycle and may serve as a masking agent to avoid testing positive to other substances. Side effects of hCG use may include gynaecomastia, depression, irritability and headaches. Side effects of hGH use may include increases in the size of the jaw, chin, fingers, hands, toes, feet, nose, cheekbone and internal organs (NADA 2012; NDS 2006; NSW Health 2013; USADA 2013). Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues are generally administered via injection, nasal spray or orally. Despite potentially serious side effects, individuals continue the non-medical use of both natural and synthetic hormones. Side effects of hormone use vary and may be particular to the hormone used. For example, effects of EPO use may include increased blood pressure, convulsions, influenza-like symptoms, skin reactions, thrombosis, heart attack and stroke. Effects of hGH use may include low blood sugar, fluid retention, inadequate thyroid function, heart damage, impotence, premature ageing and death. Effects of hCG use may include over-stimulation of the hormonal system, acne, tiredness, mood changes, fluid retention, hair loss, enlargement of the prostate, heart disease, liver disease and infertility (Kanayama & Pope 2012; NDS 2006; Stenman 2009; UNODC 2013a). Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues commonly used in Australia are listed in Table 26.
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2
For a substance or method to be prohibited, it must meet at least two of the following three conditions: potential to enhance or does enhance performance in sport, potential to risk the athlete’s health and/or the World Anti-Doping Agency has determined that the substance or method violates the spirit of sport (ASADA 2013).
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TABLE 26: Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues commonly used in Australia
Drug name Erythropoietin (EPO) Potential effects Brand name Forms Ampoule, pre-packed syringe Vial, ampoule Increases endurance and Eprex, Aranesp recovery from anaerobic exercise Used to manage the side effects of AAS use such as gynaecomastiaa and shrinking testicles Used to increase muscle size and strength APL, Pregnyl, Profasi, Novarel, Repronex
Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)
Human growth hormone (hGH)
Norditropin, Norditropin Penset, vial, auto SimpleXx, Genotropin, injector cartridge Humatrope, Saizen, Scitropi NovoRapid, Apidra, Humalog, Hypurin Neutral, Actrapid, Humulin R, Protaphane, NovoMix 30 Clomid, Bravelle Vial, penset, pre-packed syringe
Insulin
Used because of the perception that it contributes to increased muscle bulkb Used to overcome the side effects of AAS use or as a masking agent
Pituitary and synthetic gonadotrophins Insulin-like growth factor Corticotrophins
Ampoule, tablet
Used to increase muscle Increlex bulk and reduce body fat Used because of its antiinflammatory properties and for mood elevating effects Used to manage the side effects of AAS use such as gynaecomastiaa Synacthen Depot
Vial Ampoule
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Anti-oesterones
Nolvadex
Tablet
a. The development of breast-like tissue in males. b. There is no scientific evidence of this.
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
There is no regulation on the production and trafficking of PIEDs in some parts of the world. Pharmaceuticals diverted from the licit market to the illicit market, combined with the growing number of unregulated online pharmacies, continue to ensure direct supply and unlimited access to PIEDs (Paoli 2012). International open source reports indicate that countries such as China, India, Pakistan, Thailand and some Eastern European countries are primary source countries for PIEDs, with numerous production sites and well-established trafficking routes. According to open source reporting, China and India are the fastest growing suppliers of PIEDs to the international market (ACMD 2010; SMH 2012). In 2012, the European Journal of Crime reported that networks of producers and traders—which includes athletes’ support personnel and representatives of national sport federations and governing bodies—may supply PIEDs to some athletes and noncompetitive users, such as fitness centres and dietary supplements shops (Paoli 2012).
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The global PIEDs market is supplied by a range of methods, including legal and illegal importation and domestic diversion from the legitimate market (Marcley et al. 2013). Due to the varying legal status of PIEDs internationally, producers can manufacture and stockpile PIEDs in countries where they are unregulated and utilise online websites to reach the global market (Paoli 2012). In the United States of America (US), anabolic steroids are primarily imported illegally, but are also diverted from legitimate sources, either through theft or inappropriate prescribing (US DEA 2011). Increased intelligence sharing and collaboration between international law enforcement agencies and other government bodies will continue to support WADA in their efforts to detect and deter the use of PIEDs by professional athletes (ADF 2013a; Paoli 2012; WADA 2012).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service continues to disrupt the movement of PIEDs3 into Australia. The number of PIEDs detected at the Australian border has continued to increase since 2004–05. The total number of PIEDs detected at the Australian border increased by 18.7 per cent this reporting period, from 8 726 in 2011–12 to 10 356 in 2012–13, with the 10 356 detections the highest number on record (see Figure 50). In this reporting period, there were 1 054 detections of clenbuterol, a common beta-2-agonist. FIGURE 50: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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3 PIEDs detected by the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service includes the following: anabol, dianabol, androstenedione, norandrostenedione, chronic gonadotrophins, clomiphenes, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), prasterone, erythropoietin, GH releasing hormones, somatorelines, methandienone, methandrostenelone, nandrolone, oxymetholone, stanozolol, hGH, somatropin/s and testosterone.
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Despite a 42.2 per cent decrease in the number of steroid detections this reporting period, from 6 126 in 2011–12 to 3 543 in 2012–13, the 3 543 steroid detections in 2012–13 is the third highest number reported in the last decade. Hormone detections increased 162.0 per cent, from 2 600 in 2011–12 to 6 813 in 2012–13, the highest number reported in the last decade (see Figure 51). FIGURE 51: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections, by category, at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–134 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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IMPORTATION METHODS Similar to previous reporting periods, parcel post was the most commonly detected method of importation by number, accounting for 88.2 per cent of PIED detections at the Australian border in 2012–13 (see Figure 52). There were 973 detections of clenbuterol this reporting period, which were primarily detected in the postal stream.
4
From 2011–12, DHEA detections have been incorporated into steroid detection numbers. All the data contained in Figure 51 has been updated to reflect this change to enable direct comparison across the decade.
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FIGURE 52: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
EMBARKATION POINTS
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In 2012–13, a total of 70 countries were identified as embarkation points for PIEDs detected at the Australian border, compared with 63 in 2011–12. The prominent embarkation points for PIEDs this reporting period were the US, China and Thailand, accounting for 62.9 per cent of the total number of PIED detections in 2012–13. Other major embarkation points this reporting period include Hong Kong, United Kingdom (UK), Canada, India, Turkey, Greece and Moldova. There were a total of 24 embarkation points identified for clenbuterol in 2012–13.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 0.1 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported recent5 non-medical steroid use (AIHW 2011). According to the Australian Needle and Syringe Program Survey (ANSPS), the prevalence of respondents reporting PIEDs as the drug last injected increased, from 5 per cent in 2011 to 7 per cent in 2012. In 2012, of the respondents who recently initiated6 injecting drug use, 55 per cent reported PIEDs as the last drug injected. Among males who were new initiates to injecting, the proportion of those reporting PIEDs as the last drug injected increased, from 53 per cent in 2011 to 68 per cent in 2012. Reported figures of use specific to the states and territories varied, with the prevalence of injecting PIEDs increasing in New South Wales and Queensland. In those states, prevalence increased from 2 per cent in 2008 to 12 per cent in 2012 and from 1 per cent in 2008 to 11 per cent in 2012 respectively. The reported prevalence of injecting PIEDs was stable at 2 per cent or less in all other states and territories (Iversen and Maher 2013).
5 In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview. 6 Less than 3 years since first injection.
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In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting steroid use at some stage in their lifetime decreased, from 8 per cent in 2011 to 6 per cent in 2012. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent7 use remained stable at 2 per cent. In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting steroid use at some stage in their lifetime decreased, from 4 per cent in 2011 to 2 per cent. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent steroid use also decreased, from 2 per cent in 2011 to 1 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of recent steroid users has decreased to less than 1 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). PRICE National law enforcement data on the price of PIEDs is limited. In 2012–13, the price for a single 10 millilitre vial of testosterone ranged between $120 and $250, with a per vial price of between $140 and $190 for 10 vials reported in Queensland. Prices reported per vial in Queensland for larger quantities ranged between $130 and $180 for 20 vials and between $110 and $160 for 50 vials. In 2012–13, the price for a 10 millilitre vial of anabolic steroids ranged between $230 and $300, with a per vial price of $140 for 10 vials reported in Queensland. Prices reported per vial in Queensland for larger quantities were $180 for 20 vials and $160 for 50 vials. AVAILABILITY Access to PIEDs is facilitated by purchases on the internet. According to the 2010 NDSHS, 1.0 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older was offered or had the opportunity to use steroids in the 12 months preceding interview, compared to 1.3 per cent in 2007. The 20–29-year-old age group reported the highest proportion at 2.0 per cent (AIHW 2011). SEIZURES AND ARRESTS In 2012–13, the number of national steroid seizures increased by 59.1 per cent, from 208 in 2011–12 to 331 in 2012–13, with the 331 seizures this reporting period the highest number on record. While the weight of national steroid seizures decreased 44.2 per cent this reporting period, from 33.7 kilograms in 2011–12 to 18.8 kilograms in 2012–13, it is the second highest weight reported in the last decade (see Figure 53).
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7 The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in the six months preceding interview.
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FIGURE 53: National steroid seizures, by number and weight 2003–04 to 2012–13
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New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national steroid seizures, accounting for 47.4 per cent of the number and 31.9 per cent of the weight national steroid seizures this reporting period. South Australia reported the highest percentage change in both the number and weight of steroid seizures in 2012–13 (see Table 27). TABLE 27: Number, weight and percentage change of national steroid seizures, 2011–12 to 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
Weight (grams) 2011–12 26 898 5 985 216 31 236 0 315 60 33 741 2012–13 % change 6 020 2 677 4 618 3 373 102 0 816 1 280 18 886 -77.6 -55.3 2 038.0 10 780.6 -56.8 0 159.0 2 033.3 -44.0 157 18 57 31 13 0 14 41 331 9.0 125.0 103.6 3 000.0 160.0 0 16.7 310.0 59.1
2011–12 144 8 28 1 5 0 12 10 208
2012–13 % change
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
National steroid arrests have been increasing since 2005–06. This reporting period, national steroid arrests increased 29.4 per cent, from 511 in 2011–12 to 661 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. Consumer arrests accounted for 77.0 per cent of national steroid arrests this reporting period, with Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory reporting more provider than consumer arrests (see Figure 54).
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FIGURE 54: Number of national steroid arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
In 2012–13, New South Wales, South Australia and the Australian Capital Territory reported a decrease in steroid arrests (see Table 28). Over the last decade, Queensland has continued to account for the highest proportion of national steroid arrests, accounting for 59.3 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. Tasmania reported the greatest percentage increase in steroid arrests this reporting period, however, the number of arrests remains low. TABLE 28: Number and percentage change of national steroid arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests State/Territorya New South Wales Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
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2011–12 41 62 296 10 65 8 11 18 511
2012–13 39 88 392 8 101 13 14 6 661
% change -4.9 41.9 32.4 -20.0 55.4 62.5 27.3 -66.7 29.4
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TRYPTAMINES
MAIN FORMS
Tryptamines are hallucinogenic substances that act upon the central nervous system, distorting mood, thought and perception. Some are found naturally in a variety of flowering plants, leaves, seeds and in spore-forming plants such as psilocybincontaining mushrooms, while others, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and diethyltryptamine, are synthetically manufactured (EMCDDA 2013a; UNODC 2011a). Tryptamine use may cause hallucinations—seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting or touching non-existent objects or existing ones in a distorted way. Other short-term effects of use may include decreased ability to make sensible judgements and recognise common danger, thus making users susceptible to accidents and injury. Long-term use may lead to dissociative experiences—a psychiatric disorder characterised by a reversible amnesia relating to personal identity (AIC 2011; NIDA 2009; UNODC 2013a).
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The following section will cover the two common tryptamines illicitly used in Australia: lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)—a synthetic drug—and psilocybin, a substance found in various species of mushrooms. LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE (LSD) LSD is manufactured from lysergic acid, which is found in ergot, a fungus that grows on rye and other grains. Often referred to as ‘acid’, LSD is among the most potent moodchanging chemicals, with only a small amount needed to cause visual hallucinations and distortions, known as ‘trips’. LSD is normally produced as a tartrate salt, which is colourless, odourless and water soluble. LSD is available in paper squares, sugar cubes, tablets and liquid form. LSD is most commonly sold on impregnated, single dose squares of blotting paper called tabs. Usually taken orally, other methods of LSD administration include snorting, injecting, smoking and shelving8 (NIDA 2009; Sindicich & Burns 2012). Short-term effects of LSD use may include extreme emotional swings, fear, panic and paranoia. Long-term effects of LSD use may include ‘flashbacks’,9 impaired memory and concentration and increased potential risk of mental illness10 (ADF 2013b).
8 Also known as ‘shafting’, the drug is inserted into the anus or the vagina to avoid irritation to the user’s stomach. 9 Users may experience recurrences of certain aspects of drug experiences, referred to as flashbacks. Flashbacks can persist in some users and lead to a condition known as hallucinogen persisting perceptual disorder. 10 Mental illness may include prolonged psychosis, depression and personality disruption in users with a predisposition to the condition.
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PSILOCYBIN-CONTAINING MUSHROOMS Psilocybin is a chemical with hallucinogenic properties that is found in certain species of mushrooms, often referred to as ‘magic mushrooms’, which affect the central nervous system and alters a person’s mood, thinking and behaviour. Grown in the forests of Victoria, New South Wales and some areas of Queensland and Western Australia, the most commonly consumed varieties of psilocybin-containing mushrooms in Australia are psilocybe cubensis (‘gold tops’), psilocybe subaeruginosa and copelandia cyanescens (‘blue meanies’) and psilocybe semilanceata (‘liberty caps’) (Cunningham 2008; WA DAO 2005). Hallucinogenic mushrooms are available fresh, treated or preserved, or in powder or capsule form. Usually sold as dried mushrooms, they can be eaten raw, brewed as a tea or combined with other foods to mask their bitter taste. The potency of hallucinogenic mushrooms varies and is dependant on species, growing conditions, harvest period and form (EMCDDA 2013a). Visually distinguishing between psilocybin-containing mushrooms and poisonous varieties is difficult. Therefore, accidental consumption of poisonous mushrooms may occur and result in permanent liver damage or death. Short-term effects of psilocybin-containing mushroom use may include drowsiness, paranoia and panic attacks. Long-term effects may include impaired memory and increased risk of mental illness (NDARC 2012; NIDA 2009).
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INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
According to the 2013 United Nations report on the challenge of new psychoactive substances, psilocin, psilocybin, diethyltryptamine hydrochloride (DET), dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and etryptamine are the only tryptamines under international control (listed in Schedule I of the 1971 Convention). While psilocybincontaining mushrooms continue to be harvested, tryptamines are also synthesised to mimic the effects of psilocybin (UNODC 2013a; UNODC 2013b). According to the 2013 European Drug Report, the prevalence of LSD and hallucinogenic mushroom use in Europe has remained relatively low and stable for a number of years (EMCDDA 2013b). According to the 2011 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 23 million people in the US population aged 12 years and older had used LSD in their lifetime (DEA 2013). Key findings on adolescent drug use in the US in 2012 reported that LSD use has decreased considerably and no longer accounts for the greatest proportion of reported hallucinogen use, with increases in the reported use of psilocybin. Of the students in years 8, 10 and 12 involved in the study, the year 12 students reported the highest proportion of hallucinogen use, both within their lifetime and in the past year, with reported use exceeding that reported for other illicit drugs including MDMA, methylamphetamine, cocaine and heroin (Johnston et al. 2013).
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Internationally, there is limited reporting available on the scale of cultivation of psilocybin-containing mushrooms. According to media reporting, in September 2012, approximately 62 kilograms of psychedelic mushrooms was seized in Ohio. Believed to be the largest mushroom seizure in the state, the seizure had an estimated value of US$3.1 million (Dungjen 2012).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION LSD and psilocybin-containing mushrooms are the most common tryptamines detected at the Australian border. This reporting period the number of tryptamine detections at the Australian border increased by 258.5 per cent, from 142 in 2011–12 to 509 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. Detections in this reporting period include—but is not limited to—344 LSD detections and 123 psilocybin-containing mushroom detections (see Figure 55). FIGURE 55: Number of tryptamine detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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IMPORTATION METHOD The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of tryptamine detections at the Australian border. In 2012–13, of the 509 tryptamine border detections, 505 detections were in the postal stream. Of these, 489 detections weighed less than 100 grams each. All of the psilocybin mushroom detections this reporting period occurred in the postal stream. Of the 344 LSD detections in 2012–13, all but 4 were in the postal stream.
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EMBARKATION POINTS In 2012–13, a total of 19 countries were identified as embarkation points for tryptamines detected at the Australian border, compared with 8 countries in 2011–12. The Netherlands accounted for 73.9 per cent of the number of tryptamine detections this reporting period. Other major embarkation points in 2012–13 include the US, Spain, the UK, Canada, Germany, Brazil, China, Israel and Poland. Canada accounted for 35.2 per cent of LSD detections in 2012–13, with 121 detections. Of the 123 psilocybin-containing mushroom detections, 63 were from the Netherlands and 38 from Canada, which accounted for 82.1 per cent of psilocybin-containing mushroom detections this reporting period. Other major embarkation points in 2012–13 include the US, Germany, the UK and Israel.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 8.8 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using hallucinogens at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey, 1.4 per cent reported recent use of hallucinogens, the first increase reported since 1998 (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, 65 per cent of respondents reported having used hallucinogens at some stage in their lifetime, which remained consistent with figures reported in 2011. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of hallucinogens decreased, from 8 per cent in 2011 to 6 per cent in 2012. LSD and mushrooms were the most common hallucinogens used (Stafford & Burns 2013). In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting the use of mushrooms at some stage in their lifetime increased marginally, from 70 per cent in 2011 to 71 per cent in 2012. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent LSD use decreased, from 46 per cent in 2011 to 34 per cent in 2012. This is the lowest percentage reported since 2003. The proportion of respondents reporting the recent use of mushrooms also decreased, from 29 per cent in 2011 to 27 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent mushroom use remained unchanged at 27 per cent, while the proportion of respondents reporting recent LSD use increased to 43 per cent. This is the second highest proportion reported since 2003 (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).11
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11 In response to the difficulties experienced by smaller states and territories in recruiting regular ecstasy users, the recruitment criteria was broadened in 2012 to include recent use of any psychostimulant. As such, caution should be exercised when comparing to previous reporting periods.
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PRICE In 2012–13, law enforcement data on the price of psilocybin-containing mushrooms was unavailable. Nationally, the price per tab of LSD ranged between $10 and $50 in 2012–13. In a 2012 study of regular ecstasy users, respondents reported the median price per tab of LSD ranged between $15 and $22.50 nationally. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate a price range of between $15 and $32.50 (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).12 AVAILABILITY According to the 2010 NDSHS, 3.7 per cent of the population had been offered or given the opportunity to use hallucinogens in the 12 months preceding interview. The proportion was higher in the 18–19 year (11.7 per cent) and 20–29 year age groups (11.0 per cent) (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, 65 per cent of respondents reported using hallucinogens in their lifetime, which remained consistent with figures reported in 2011. However, only 6 per cent reported recent use of hallucinogens, a decrease from 8 per cent in 2011. LSD and mushrooms were the most common hallucinogens used (Stafford & Burns 2013).
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In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of LSD in Australia, 63 per cent reported LSD as being easy or very easy to obtain, compared with 73 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate there has been an increase in availability of LSD, with 67 per cent of respondents reporting LSD as easy or very easy to obtain. There are no figures on the availability of psilocybin-containing mushrooms (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). SEIZURES AND ARRESTS In 2012–13, the number of national hallucinogen seizures increased by 11.9 per cent, from 285 in 2011–12 to 319 in 2012–13, the highest number reported in the last decade. The weight of national hallucinogen seizures decreased by 84.7 per cent, from 23.5 kilograms in 2011–12 to 3.6 in 2012–13 and is the lowest weight reported since 2008–09 (see Figure 56).
12 Due to the small numbers of respondents providing price comment in the study (n<10), these findings should be interpreted with caution.
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FIGURE 56: National hallucinogen seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Since 2005–06, New South Wales has accounted for the greatest proportion of national hallucinogen seizures, accounting for 62.4 per cent of the number and 66.5 per cent of the weight of national seizures in 2012–13. New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory reported an increase in the number of hallucinogen seizures this reporting period, while Queensland and Tasmania were the only states or territories to report an increase in seizure weight, increasing from 224 grams in 2011–12 to 278 grams, and 0 grams to 31 grams respectively in 2012–13 (see Table 29). TABLE 29: Number, weight and percentage change of national hallucinogen seizures, 2011–12 to 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
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Weight (grams) 2011–12 7 492 5 338 224 365 10 137 0 2 0 23 558 2012–13 % change 2 444 524 278 32 364 31 2 0 3 675 -67.4 -90.2 24.1 -91.2 -96.4 – 0.0 – -84.4 199 52 20 2 36 2 7 1 319 22.1 26.8 -4.8 -33.3 -28.0 – 0.0 – 11.9
2011–12 163 41 21 3 50 0 7 0 285
2012–13 % change
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
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Figure 57 illustrates the number of national hallucinogen arrests since 2003–04. Over the last decade, hallucinogen arrests have increased 355.6 per cent, from 124 in 2003–04 to 565 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. In 2012–13, consumer arrests accounted for 78.2 per cent of national hallucinogen arrests. However, South Australia and Tasmania reported more hallucinogen provider than consumer arrests this reporting period. FIGURE 57: Number of national hallucinogen arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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In 2012–13, the number of hallucinogen arrests increased 16.7 per cent, from 484 in 2011–12 to 565 in 2012–13 (see Table 30). Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of national hallucinogen arrests, accounting for 35.9 per cent of national arrests in 2012–13. TABLE 30: Number and percentage change of national hallucinogen arrests, 2011–12 to 2012–13
Arrests State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
a
2011–12 127 56 192 11 91 3 3 1 484
2012–13 157 70 203 16 111 3 4 1 565
% change 23.6 25.0 5.7 45.5 22.0 0.0 33.3 0.0 16.7
New South Wales
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ANAESTHETICS
MAIN FORMS
Originally developed for medical and veterinary use, a number of anaesthetics are diverted for illicit use. The following section will cover ketamine hydrochloride (ketamine) and gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), two common illicitly used anaesthetics. KETAMINE Ketamine hydrochloride, commonly referred to as K, Super K, Special K and Vitamin K, is a white crystalline powder, structurally and pharmacologically similar to phencyclidine (PCP). Used as an anaesthetic by veterinarians and medical professionals, it is used illicitly for its sedative and hallucinogenic effects. Classed as a dissociative anaesthetic, it induces feelings of detachment and ‘out of body experiences’, with higher doses producing full anaesthesia. Ketamine is commonly sold in three forms—powder, tablet and liquid—and is often swallowed, snorted or injected. It can also be combined with other substances, such as cannabis or tobacco and smoked (DEA 2012; NSW Health 2012). Short-term effects of ketamine use may include general aches and pains, poor coordination, amnesia, impaired judgement and disorientation. Long-term effects of ketamine use may include reduced ability to concentrate, personality and mood changes, depression and bladder conditions.13 Use of ketamine in combination with depressant drugs such as alcohol, heroin or tranquillisers, may result in vital organ-failure (ADF 2013c; Curcio 2012; DoHA 2010).
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GAMMA-HYDROXYBUTYRATE (GHB) AND RELATED SUBSTANCES
GHB—also known as fantasy, grievous bodily harm or GBH, liquid ecstasy and blue nitro—is found naturally in the body in small quantities and may be synthetically produced. First synthesised in 1960, GHB was originally developed as an anaesthetic due to its ability to rapidly permeate the blood–brain barrier and cause sleepiness. GHB acts as a central nervous system depressant, slowing messages travelling between the brain and the rest of the body (ADF 2013d; NSW Health 2006; Roll et al. 2012; WHO 2012). GHB is readily manufactured from its precursors, gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD). Both GBL and 1,4-BD metabolise into GHB in the body and are used as industrial solvents in industrial chemical processes, including the production of polymers. GHB use may promote growth hormone production, as such GHB may be used by some individuals to aid in fat reduction and muscle-building. GHB use may also enhance euphoria and facilitate sexual assault.
13 Ketamine use has been linked to cystitis, which can lead to blood in urine, incontinence, severe pain and kidney failure.
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High doses and regular use of GHB can lead to tolerance and—if discontinued— withdrawal symptoms. Users of stimulants such as amphetamines and ecstasy may use GHB to alleviate the effects of these stimulants. The competing effects of stimulant and depressant drugs may lead to a cycle of dependence (ADF 2013b; WHO 2012). GHB may appear as a colourless or bright blue liquid— which is bitter or salty-tasting—less commonly a crystal powder, and is usually sold in small bottles or vials. GHB is typically administered orally (swallowed) or intravenously (injected) (ADF 2013b; WHO 2012). The effects of GHB use appear to vary greatly according to the amount used, with increased risk of overdose as a consequence of the small dosage units. Effects may include hallucinations, tremors, decreased body temperature, blackouts, memory lapses, seizures, respiratory failure, coma or death. The possible presence of solvents or heavymetal contaminants in GHB also pose additional health risks to users (NSW Health 2006; Roll et al. 2012; WHO 2012). The risk of overdose increases when GHB is mixed with alcohol. Overdose may result in respiratory depression, rapid onset of drowsiness, muscle spasms, movement and speech impairments, memory loss and vomiting (NSW Health 2006).
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
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Global seizures of ketamine remained stable in 2012. According to UNODC reporting, many of the seized tablets sold as 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA, commonly referred to as ‘ecstasy’) in East and South-East Asia contain a variety of other psychoactive substances such as ketamine. According to media reporting, India remains a large manufacturer of ketamine, which is smuggled to the expanding South-East Asia market in liquid, powder and capsule form (Tan 2012). According to a health report the number of users of ‘club drugs’—including ketamine, methylamphetamine, GBL and mephedrone—seeking treatment increased, from 4 656 in 2005–06 to 6 486 in 2011 (NTA 2012). According to UNODC reporting, in New Zealand, GHB/GBL is often sold with methylamphetamine and marketed to assist with the come-down effects related to amphetamine-type-stimulants (ATS) use (UNODC 2012; UNODC 2013c).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION Anaesthetic detections at the Australian border include only GHB, GBL and ketamine detections. In 2012–13, the number of anaesthetics detected at the Australian border increased by 161.3 per cent, from 106 in 2011–12 to 277 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. The total number of GHB and GBL detections increased by 66.0 per cent, from 47 in 2011–12 to 78 in 2012–13, which consisted of 4 GHB detections and 74 GBL detections. The total number of ketamine detections increased 237.3 per cent this reporting period, from 59 in 2011–12 to 199 in 2012–13 (see Figure 58).
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FIGURE 58: Number of anaesthetic detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
IMPORTATION METHODS The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of anaesthetic border detections, accounting for 90.2 per cent of detections in 2012–13 (see Figure 59). FIGURE 59: Number of anaesthetic detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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In 2012–13, 98.5 per cent of the number of ketamine detections at the Australian border occurred in the postal stream. Of these, 99.4 per cent weighed less than 100 grams (see Figure 60). FIGURE 60: Number of ketamine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 68.9 per cent of the number of border detections of GHB and GBL, followed by air cargo with 31.1 per cent (see Figure 61). FIGURE 61: Number of GHB and GBL detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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EMBARKATION POINTS In 2012–13, a total of 21 countries were identified as embarkation points for anaesthetics detected at the Australian border, compared with 17 countries in 2011–12. By number, the primary embarkation point was the UK, which accounted for 32.1 per cent of the number of anaesthetic detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. Other prominent embarkation points by number this reporting period were the Netherlands, Poland, Canada, Germany, Thailand, India, Lithuania, Belgium and Ireland. By number, Poland was the primary embarkation point for GHB and GBL with 21 detections, which accounted for 26.9 per cent of the number of detections. Other major embarkation points identified for GHB and GBL detections this reporting period by number were Thailand, the UK, China, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Singapore and Germany. In 2012–13, a total of 18 countries were identified as embarkation points for ketamine detected at the Australian border, compared with 13 countries in 2011–12. By number, the UK was the primary embarkation point, accounting for 39.2 per cent of ketamine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. Other major embarkation points by number for ketamine detections this reporting period included the Netherlands, Canada, Germany, India, Belgium, Ireland, Spain, Taiwan and the US.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 1.4 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using ketamine at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey, 0.8 per cent reported using GHB at least once in their lifetime. The proportion of the population aged 14 years or older reporting recent use of ketamine and GHB was 0.2 per cent and 0.1 per cent respectively (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting ketamine use in their lifetime decreased, from 42 per cent in 2011 to 39 per cent in 2012. The proportion of respondents reporting recent ketamine use decreased, from 16 per cent in 2011 to 14 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent ketamine use has increased to 19 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents reporting GHB use in their lifetime decreased from 22 per cent in 2011 to 21 per cent in 2012. In 2012, reported recent GHB use remained low at 7 per cent. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent GHB use has decreased to 6 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
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PRICE Law enforcement price data for ketamine is limited. Consistent with prices reported in 2011–12, the price for a gram of ketamine in New South Wales ranged between $50 and $180 in 2012–13 and between $150 and $200 in Queensland. The price of a single ketamine tablet this reporting period ranged between $25 and $50 in Queensland, with $50 per tablet reported in the Northern Territory. Nationally, the price for 1–1.5 millilitres of GHB/GBL ranged between $3 and $25 in 2012–13, with the price per litre ranging between $2 000 and $5 000. PURITY According to a study of regular ecstasy users, the perceived purity of ketamine is reported as high. In 2012, 6 per cent of respondents were able to comment on the perceived purity of ketamine, of which 60 per cent reported the purity of ketamine as high, compared with 63 per cent in 2011 (Sindicich & Burns 2013).14 AVAILABILITY According to the 2010 NDSHS, 1.1 per cent of the population had been offered or given the opportunity to use ketamine and 1.0 per cent GHB in the 12 months preceding interview. These figures are consistent with those reported in the 2007 survey (AIHW 2011).
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In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, 6 per cent of respondents were able to comment on the availability of ketamine. Of these, 45 per cent reported ketamine as easy to very easy to obtain, a decrease from 52 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has increased to 69 per cent, however, the number of respondents able to comment remains low and findings should be interpreted with caution. In the same 2012 study, 27 respondents were able to comment on the availability of GHB. Of these, 59 per cent reported GHB as easy to very easy to obtain, an increase from 47 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting the availability of GHB as easy to very easy to obtain increased to 75 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
14 As very small numbers (n=27) of the national sample commented on characteristics of the ketamine market, results should be interpreted with caution.
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PHARMACEUTICALS
MAIN FORMS
Produced for legitimate medical use, many pharmaceutical drugs are diverted to the illicit market. The illicit pharmaceutical market encompasses the use of prescription pharmaceuticals that is inconsistent with their intended use or directions—including, but not limited to intentional misuse and overuse (also referred to as non-medical use)—and diversion from the legitimate market. Opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines are the most commonly misused pharmaceuticals in Australia (PHAA 2010; Sweeney 2007). Pharmaceuticals are obtained for illicit personal use through various methods including: family and friends with legitimate access stolen, altered or forged prescriptions feigning symptoms theft from surgeries or pharmacies doctor-shopping15 threatening general practitioners purchases over the internet poor prescription practices, such as prescribing larger than required quantities health practitioners self-prescribing or otherwise misappropriating through their work (ADF 2013e; DCPC 2007). The Australian Government subsidises numerous pharmaceuticals through the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS).16 With the increased availability of pharmaceuticals comes an increase in the potential for their misuse. The use of pharmaceutical drugs for non-medical purposes can have potentially dangerous effects and may lead to addiction, poisoning, disease and death (PHAA 2010). Dependence on the non-medical use of pharmaceuticals may occur following medical treatment for a physical or emotional trauma, or as a consequence of self-medication. Other reasons for the non-medical use of pharmaceuticals include being for the treatment of an underlying drug dependency problem, dealing with withdrawal symptoms, illicit drug substitution and/or for the enhancement of other drugs (AIC 2009). This section will focus on the pharmaceutical drugs most commonly used for non-medical purposes in Australia: benzodiazepines and opioids.
15 ‘Doctor-shopping’ refers to presenting to numerous doctors for the purpose of obtaining multiple prescriptions to deal with non-existent or exaggerated symptoms. 16 The PBS is a federally funded government program which subsidises the cost of a broad range of medicines for most medical conditions and was established to ensure Australians have affordable access to pharmaceutical medicines.
OTHER DRUGS
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BENZODIAZEPINES Benzodiazepines slow the activity of the central nervous system and the messages sent and received by the brain. Most commonly prescribed to relieve insomnia, anxiety and panic attacks, the desired effects of benzodiazepine use include relaxation, calmness and relief from anxiety. The use of benzodiazepines—even when its use is consistent with the intended directions at therapeutic level—may cause a range of harms to the user, such as cognitive impairment, dependence and depression. Benzodiazepines may be misused to ‘come down’ from the effects of stimulants, such as amphetamines or cocaine, to enhance the effects of other depressant drugs, or as a substitute for drugs of choice when they are unavailable (ADF 2013f; Nielsen & Thompson 2008). Benzodiazepines are among the most prescribed drugs in Australia. The most common forms of benzodiazepines are tablets and capsules, which are stamped with their proprietary name. Benzodiazepines can also be injected, which increases injectionrelated harms and mortality (Nielsen & Thompson 2008; PBAC 2007). Use of low to moderate doses of benzodiazepines may lead to confusion, impaired motor coordination, loss of appetite and nausea. Higher doses may result in impaired judgement, difficulty in thinking clearly, memory loss, mood swings and aggressive behaviour. Short-term effects of use may include drowsiness, memory loss and confusion. Long-term effects of benzodiazepine use may include developing a tolerance to the drug, vomiting, panic attacks and paranoia during withdrawal from dependent use. The combined effects of benzodiazepines and other depressant drugs, such as alcohol or heroin, increase the risk of overdose and fatalities (ADF 2013f; AIC 2009; Bradvik et al. 2007; DCPC 2007; Partanen et al. 2009). The main forms of benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals are listed in Table 31. TABLE 31: Main forms of commonly used benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceutical type Alprazolam Trade name Zanax, Alprazolam, Tafil, Farmapram, Asolan, Traxil, Niravam Lexotan Rivotril Valium, Ducene, Antenex, Propam Rohypnol, Hypnodorm Mogadon, Alodorm, Dormican, Nitepam Serepax, Murelax, Alepam, Benzotran Normison, Temaze, Euhypnos Rohies, roofies Moggies Sarahs Footballs, Normies User names Zanies, Zans, Blues, Quad Bars, Totem Poles, Z Bars
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Bromazepam Clonazepam Diazepam Flunitrazepam Nitrazepam Oxazepam Temazepam
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OPIOIDS The term ‘opioids’ describes a class of drugs derived from the opium poppy and includes synthetic substances with similar pain relieving properties. Opioid pharmaceuticals are commonly prescribed for pain management and the treatment of heroin and other opioid addiction. The most common opioids used to treat pain include codeine, morphine and oxycodone. The misuse of opioids may result in tolerance and dependence17 and instances of psychiatric conditions. Indicators of dependence include a strong desire to take the substance, limited control over its use and the need to increase dosage quantities to achieve the desired effect. Opioid withdrawal symptoms may include joint and muscle pain, nausea and vomiting, abdominal cramps and irritability (Degenhardt 2013; SA Health 2011). Available in tablet, capsule and liquid form, side effects of opioid use include drowsiness, nausea and depressed respiration. The injection of opioids may be linked to the transmission of blood-borne viruses, such as hepatitis B and C and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other injection-related infections, such as collapsed veins and abscesses. Opioid overdose is more likely to occur when it is combined with other central nervous system depressants, when the method of administration is injection, or if the user is experiencing a change in tolerance levels. Methadone and buprenorphine are the two main pharmaceuticals used in the treatment of opioid dependence (ADF 2011; ADF 2013e). Common opioid pharmaceuticals are listed in Table 32. TABLE 32: Main forms and effects of commonly used opioid pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceutical type Morphine Trade name MS Contin, Anamorph, Kapanol, Morphalgin Panadine Forte, Codral Forte, Dymadon Forte, Codalgin Forte, Mersyndol Forte Oxycontin, Endone, Wxynorm, Percocet, Roxidcodone, Tylox, Percodan Durogesic, Actiq (lozenge), Fenpatch, Denpax Peth Oxy, Oxies, O.Cs, Oxycottons, Oxy 80s, Hillbilly Heroin, Roxies, Percs User names M, Monkey, Morph, Miss Emma, Dreamer, Hard Stuff, Greys Comments Main component of opium; powerful narcotic analgesic
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Codeine
An extract of opium which is not as strong as morphine
Oxycodone
A semi-synthetic opioid analgesic similar to morphine
Fentanyl
An opioid analgesic more potent than morphine, with a rapid onset and short duration Synthetic narcotic analgesic, similar to morphine but shorter lasting Synthetic narcotic analgesic used in the treatment of opioid dependence; predominantly provided in syrup form to patients Used to treat withdrawal from heroin and employed in maintenance treatment to block the effects of other opioids
Pethidine
Methadone (or Physeptone— tablet form) Buprenorphine Subutex, Temgesic
Meth, Done, Metho
Beup, Mud
17 Drug dependence is defined by the International Classification of Diseases 10th Revision (ICD-10) as the presence of three or more indicators of dependence for at least a month within the previous year (Degenhardt et al. 2013).
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INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
All regions in the world continue to report high levels of the non-medical use of tranquillisers, sedatives and non-prescription pharmaceutical opioids. Poly drug users may use single-use tranquillisers, such as benzodiazepines, to enhance the effects of heroin. According to the UNODC, the non-medical use of codeine-containing cough medicines and suppressants continues unabated (UNODC 2013c). According to US reporting, the non-medical use of prescription drugs is increasing at a greater rate than that of other illicit drugs (Clinton Foundation 2013). The National Drug Intelligence Centre assesses that the non-medical use of controlled prescription and over-the-counter pharmaceutical drugs ranks second only to that of cannabis. Prescription drugs commonly used for non-medical purposes include opioid pain relievers, stimulants for treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and medication for treating anxiety disorders. Across all age groups (14 years and over) within the US, the number of deaths associated with prescription painkillers exceeds that of all other illicit drugs (NIDA 2013). According to the International Narcotic Control Board, Central American countries have reported the non-medical use of pharmaceutical preparations that contain stimulants, as well as of prescription stimulants. East and South-East Asian countries have also reported the trafficking in and non-medical use of prescription drugs and over-the-counter pharmaceutical preparations containing internationally controlled substances of concern. South Africa has reported high levels of non-medical use of prescription drugs (mainly benzodiazepines, analgesics, codeine preparations and sedative-hypnotics) (INCB 2013). The 2011 European School Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs survey found that the lifetime prevalence of non-prescription use of tranquillizers or sedatives among students remained relatively stable between 1995 and 2011, at about 7 to 8 per cent (INCB 2013). Licensed internet pharmacies provide accessible, convenient and private services to consumers. However, there are also illegal internet pharmacies that typically sell a variety of medications, which may pose health and safety risks to the user. These include access to unapproved drugs, legal prescription drugs dispensed without a valid prescription, products that are marketed with fraudulent health claims, or counterfeit pharmaceuticals.
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DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION Prescription pharmaceuticals are primarily imported by individuals without criminal intent. Pharmaceuticals continue to be purchased over the internet due to the anonymity afforded to purchasers without a prescription and the lower cost. Pharmaceutical border detections in 2012–13 include benzodiazepines and opioids. While the number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border decreased by 13.9 per cent this reporting period, from 1 337 in 2011–12 to 1 151 in 2012–13, it is the third highest number on record. The majority of these were benzodiazepines. The number of benzodiazepine detections decreased this reporting period, from 1 298 in 2011–12 to 1 056 in 2012–13. The total number of pharmaceutical opioid detections doubled this reporting period, increasing from 39 in 2011–12 to 79 in 2012–13. Oxycodone was the primary pharmaceutical opioid detected at the Australian border in 2012–13, accounting for 60.7 per cent of the total number of detections. Other pharmaceutical opioids detected this reporting period were morphine, buprenorphine and methadone (see Figure 62). FIGURE 62: Number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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IMPORTATION METHODS The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of pharmaceutical detections. In 2012–13, the postal stream accounted for 57.1 per cent of the number pharmaceutical detections, followed by air passenger/crew at 36.3 per cent (see Figure 63).
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FIGURE 63: Number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
EMBARKATION POINTS
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In 2012–13, a total of 60 countries were identified as embarkation points for pharmaceuticals detected at the Australian border, compared with 55 countries in 2011–12. Thailand was the prominent embarkation point, accounting for 19.5 per cent of the number of pharmaceutical detections in 2012–13. Other major embarkation points this reporting period by number were India, Singapore, Malaysia, the UK, Romania, South Africa, Indonesia, the US and Pakistan. In 2012–13, a total of 58 countries were identified as embarkation points for benzodiazepines detected at the Australian border. Thailand was the prominent embarkation point, accounting for 20.2 per cent of the number of benzodiazepine detections in 2012–13. Pakistan was the prominent embarkation point by number for opioid detections at the Australian border this reporting period, accounting for 13.9 per cent of detections in 2012–13.
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OTHER DRUGS
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 4.2 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported recent non-medical18 use of any pharmaceuticals, the first increase reported since 199819 (AIHW 2011). According to the ANSPS, pharmaceutical opioids (including morphine and oxycodone) were the third most commonly reported class of drug last injected nationally over the period 2008 to 2012. The prevalence of PIEDs injection increased in New South Wales, from 2 per cent in 2008 to 12 per cent in 2012, and in Queensland, from 1 per cent in 2008 to 11 per cent in 2012, and was stable at 2 per cent or less in all other jurisdictions. Consistent with previous years, pharmaceutical opioids were the drug most commonly injected in the Northern Territory (70 per cent) and Tasmania (40 per cent) in 2012. In the same study, methadone was reported as the last drug injected by less than 10 per cent of the ANSPS respondents over the period 2008 to 2012, with a decline in prevalence observed over this period (Iversen 2013). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of any of benzodiazepine decreased, from 69 per cent in 2011 to 64 per cent 2012, with 62 per cent of respondents reporting swallowing as the main route of administration. In the same study, 50 per cent of respondents reported recent use of any form of illicit benzodiazepine.20 The proportion of respondents reporting recent illicit morphine use decreased, from 39 per cent in 2011 to 38 per cent in 2012 and remained the most commonly injected pharmaceutical opioid (NDARC 2013). The same 2012 study showed variation between states and territories, with the Northern Territory and Tasmania reporting the highest illicit use of morphine—locations where heroin is traditionally reported as being difficult to obtain. In 2012, the proportion of respondents reporting recent illicit use of oxycodone increased, from 32 per cent in 2011 to 35 per cent in 2012. Figure 64 shows the reported recent use of various pharmaceutical drugs in 2012 by a regular injecting drug user population (Stafford & Burns 2013).
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18 The NDSHS relates use for non-medical purposes to ‘ways that induced or enhanced a drug experience, enhanced performance or were for cosmetic purposes’. 19 According to the NDSHS, pharmaceuticals include: pain-killers/analgesics, tranquillisers, steroids, methadone or buprenorphine and/or other opioids. 20 Refers to/includes sublingual administration of buprenorphine (trade name Subutex) and buprenorphine-naloxone (trade name Suboxone).
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OTHER DRUGS
FIGURE 64: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent use of illicit pharmaceuticals, by type of pharmaceuticals, 2012 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
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In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting the recent illicit use of benzodiazepines decreased, from 34 per cent in 2011 to 26 per cent. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting the recent illicit use of opiates also decreased, from 14 per cent in 2011 to 9 per cent in 2012. Figure 65 shows the recent reported illicit use of various pharmaceuticals in 2012 by a regular ecstasy drug user population (Sindicich & Burns 2013). FIGURE 65: Proportion of a regular ecstasy drug user population reporting recent use of illicit pharmaceuticals, by type of pharmaceutical, 2012 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
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OTHER DRUGS
Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey and voluntary urinalysis. The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months preceding interview. In contrast to other illicit drugs, the proportion of detainees testing positive for opiates or benzodiazepines exceeds that for self reported use. In 2012–13, the proportion of detainees testing positive21 for benzodiazepine use decreased, from 22.6 per cent in 2011–12 to 20.0 per cent in 2012–13, as did the self-reported use of benzodiazepines, which decreased, from 13.1 per cent in 2011–12 to 12.2 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 66). FIGURE 66: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for benzodiazepines compared with self-reported use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
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a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflects data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
The proportion of detainees testing positive22 for opiate use decreased this reporting period, from 15.0 per cent in 2011–12 to 14.0 per cent in 2012–13. The self-reported use of methadone also decreased, from 9.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 7.8 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 67).23
21 Benzodiazepines and their metabolites can be detected in urine on average 2 to 14 days after administration (Makkai 2000). 22 Opiates and their metabolites can be detected in urine on average 2 to 3 days after administration (Makkai 2000). 23 The self-report DUMA survey does not differentiate between use of opiates and methadone, with the self-report question includes use of ‘illegal morphine/street/methadone/homebake or other illegal opiates’ (AIC 2012–13).
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FIGURE 67: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for opiates compared with self-reported use of methadone, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
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PRICE Law enforcement price data for pharmaceuticals obtained for non-medical use is limited. In 2012–13, the price for a 60 milligram tablet of Oxycontin was $60. In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the median price for 40 milligrams of oxycodone was $30, an increase from $22.50 in 2011 and ranged between $20 in New South Wales and $40 in Tasmania (Stafford & Burns 2013).24 AVAILABILITY According to a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of illicit oxycodone, 68 per cent reported it as easy or very easy to obtain, compared with 61 per cent in 2011. The proportion of respondents reporting illicit morphine as easy or very easy to obtain in 2012 remained stable at 72 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2012; Stafford & Burns 2013). SEIZURES Following decreases in the number of national other opioid seizures in 2010–11 and 2011–12, the number of seizures increased 24.1 per cent this reporting period, from 83 in 2011–12 to 103 in 2012–13.
24 South Australia, Queensland, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory had small numbers reporting (n<10).
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OTHER DRUGS
Following a spike in the weight of national other opioid seizures in 2010–11, the weight of national other opioid seizures has continued to decrease, from 26.6 kilograms in 2011–12 to 6.1 kilograms in 2012–13 (see Figure 68). FIGURE 68: National other opioid seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Despite reporting a decrease in the number and weight of other opioid seizures in 2012–13, New South Wales continues to account for the majority of national other opioid seizures, accounting for 46.6 per cent of the number and 62.2 per cent of the weight of seizures this reporting period. In 2012–13, Tasmania reported the greatest percentage increase in the number of other opioid seizures, while Queensland reported the greatest percentage increase in weight (see Table 33). TABLE 33: Number, weight and percentage change of national other opioid seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
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Weight (grams) 2011–12 18 004 7 809 5 772 19 0 0 8 26 617 2012–13 % change 3 823 1 672 385 0 8 244 0 15 6 147 -78.8 -78.6 7 600.0 -100.0 -57.9 – 0 87.5 -76.9 48 13 16 0 4 17 0 5 103 14.3 30.0 166.7 -100.0 -42.9 1 600.0 0 -54.5 24.1
2011–12 42 10 6 6 7 1 0 11 83
2012–13 % change
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
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DRUG ANALOGUES & NEW PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
MAIN FORMS
Drug analogues and new25 psychoactive substances (DANPS), is an umbrella term referring to substances that mimic, or are intended to mimic, the effects of illegal drugs and which are marketed as alternatives to controlled drugs. DANPS have been present in Australia and overseas since at least the mid-2000s and are often referred to as novel substances, novel psychotropic substances, emerging psychoactive substances, analogues, mimetics, legal highs, new synthetics, herbal highs or designer drugs (UNODC 2011b; UNODC 2013b). A wide range of DANPS are available to users. According to the UNODC, the number of potential synthetic drug derivatives is technically unlimited. Three United Nations Conventions provide a framework for controlling the production, trade and possession of over 240 psychoactive substances, with the number of DANPS exceeding that of other illicit drugs regulated by these conventions or treaties. These so-called ‘legal highs’26 or mimetics have become the drug of choice for some illicit drug users (EMCDDA 2013b; Lancet 2013; UNODC 2013b). The marketing of DANPS as legal alternatives to controlled substances—including methylamphetamine, MDMA and cannabis—may be interpreted by prospective users as being safe to consume or less harmful than illicit drugs. As many of these substances are novel, there is limited research or knowledge about the short or longterm health consequences of DANPS use, the risk of dependence, possible effects of use in combination with other drugs, or potential fatal dosage levels. Some identified short-term effects associated with DANPS use include dilated pupils, hypertension, hyperventilation, paranoia, agitation, hyperthermia, tremors and seizures (Arnold 2013; UNODC 2013a).
OTHER DRUGS
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25 Use of the term ‘new’ does not necessarily refer to a new invention—as many DANPS may have been synthesised years or decades ago—rather that they have recently emerged on the market. 26 Use of the term ’legal high’ may not reflect the true legal status of these substances under Australian legislation.
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Two groups of DANPS that receive considerable public attention are synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones, in particular 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC). This section will cover these two groups in more detail. SYNTHETIC CANNABINOIDS Many synthetic cannabinoids27 were synthesised with the aim of using them in laboratory research as potential treatments for conditions such as nausea and glaucoma, or for their anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. In 2012, the European Union’s Early Warning System (EWS) was notified of 73 new psychoactive substances, of which 30 were synthetic cannabinoids. Synthetic cannabinoids mimic the effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main psychoactive substance in cannabis. While some synthetic cannabinoids share a chemical structure similar to THC, the vast majority identified to date have no structural relationship to THC. With the exception of a small number of substances which have very limited legitimate uses, the vast majority of identified substances have no legitimate industrial, scientific or medicinal application (ADF 2013h; Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013; EMCDDA 2013c; TGA 2011). Synthetic cannabinoids are typically dissolved in a solvent and sprayed onto dried plant material for use. As a consequence of the way in which synthetic cannabinoids are produced, there may be great variation both within and between the finished products. Synthetic cannabinoids are primarily smoked (via a pipe, in a cigarette or joint or blunt, or by using a hookah or water pipe or bong). Administration via vaporisation, in addition to oral and rectal ingestion has also been reported. Synthetic cannabinoids are sold on the internet or in various specialised shops and typically contain 1–3 grams of dried plant matter in a foil sachet, often labelled as a smoking mixture, herbal blend or incense. Synthetic cannabinoids are marketed under various brand names, which include Kronic, Spice, K2 and Northern Lights. Although a number of plant-based ingredients may be listed on the packaging, scientific testing has found that many of these are not actually present (ADF 2013g; Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013; NCPIC 2013; NSW Health 2011). Users of synthetic cannabinoids may experience elevated mood, relaxation and altered perceptions. Short-term effects of synthetic cannabinoid use may include fatigue, headaches, disorientation, hallucinations, tachycardia, hypertension, agitation, panic attacks, anxiety and depression. Long-term effects use may include an increased risk of heart attack (as a consequence of high blood pressure and reduced blood supply to the heart). Synthetic cannabinoids also have carcinogenic potential, which may put users at risk of developing chronic bronchitis and lung cancer, and may precipitate the development of psychosis in patients with a history of mental illness. According to UNODC reporting, several cases of severe toxicity and deaths have been associated with synthetic cannabinoid use (ADF 2013h; Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013; TGA 2011; UNODC 2013a).
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27 Scientifically, these are known as cannabimimetics due to the way the compounds mimic cannabis like behaviour. The commonly used term ‘synthetic cannabinoids’ has been used to avoid confusion and remain consistent with existing public terminology.
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Synthetic cannabinoids form part of the illicit drug market in Australia. Since 2011, some Australian states and territories have introduced new regulations to ban synthetic cannabinoids. From 1 May 2012, nine groups of synthetic cannabinoids were included within Schedule 9 (Prohibited Substance) in the Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons (SUSMP) (Poison Standard) (ADF 2013h, AG 2012).28 On 29 May 2013, the Commonwealth prescribed eight synthetic cannabinoids as border controlled drugs under the Criminal Code Act 1995.29 The list of border controlled drugs is found in the Criminal Code Regulations 2002. 4-MMC (4-METHYLMETHCATHINONE) Developed as an antidepressant, 4-MMC was first synthesised in 1929, however its strong addictive potential stopped it from being used for medical purposes. An illicit drug market for 4-MMC was established in the last decade after it was ‘rediscovered’ in 2003 (Bretteville-Jensen 2013; UNODC 2013a). 4-MMC, also known as mephedrone, is an analogue designed to mimic cathinone, which is a controlled drug. 4-MMC is a central nervous system stimulant, which increases the synaptic30 concentrations of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.31 Common street names for 4-MMC include ‘meph’, ‘meow’, ‘miaowmiaow’, ‘m-cat’, ‘drone’, ‘bubbles’ or ‘kitty cat’. 4-MMC is commonly marketed or mislabelled as bath salts, plant food or hoover freshener (ADF 2013i; Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Wood & Dargan 2012). Powder is the most common form of 4-MMC. It is available in tablet or capsule form. It can be snorted, swallowed, or dissolved for oral/rectal use or intramuscular/intravenous injection. The most common route of administration of 4-MMC is snorting (Sindicich & Burns 2013). Users report that 4-MMC produces a similar experience to amphetamines, MDMA or cocaine. Reported short term effects of 4-MMC use include dilated pupils, tremors or convulsions, insomnia, anxiety, paranoia, hypertension and breathing difficulties. Long-term effects of use may lead to memory deterioration, hallucinations, delusions, erratic behaviour, anxiety, paranoia and depression (Brunt et al. 2011; UNODC 2013a; Winstock et al. 2010).
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28 See the Initiatives chapter for further information. 29 Many synthetic cannabinoids (including the eight added to the border controlled drug list) also appear on the Customs (Prohibited Import) Regulations 1956, and are therefore subject to a range of licensing and permit requirements for import/export of these substances. 30 A synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell (neural or otherwise). 31 Both a hormone and a neurotransmitter.
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INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
DANPS are a global phenomenon, with all regions of the world virtually reporting simultaneous activity related to this market. Over the past few years, there has been unprecedented growth in the number, type and availability of DANPS, however reliable data on the scope and nature of this market is limited to some extent. Between 2005 and 2011, the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) EWS reported one new substance per week, with two-thirds of all reported DANPS either synthetic cannabinoids or synthetic cathinones (EMCDDA 2013b; Forensic Science Review 2013). Studies report numerous sales occur via the internet, with suppliers using the internet to promote their products. Both users and sellers value the impersonal and implied low-risk transaction method stemming from online purchases. The low price of synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones—compared to some other illicit drugs—and the ease of transaction, for both users and sellers, creates potential for market expansion (Forensic Science Review 2013). In Europe, clandestine laboratories producing DANPS sell direct to users via the internet, or through legitimate stores. In order to avoid detection by law enforcement or other regulatory bodies, suppliers may also deceptively label these substances as not for human consumption and market the substances in a variety of packaging, purporting them to be bath salts, plant food, research chemicals or fertiliser (Forensic Science Review 2013). According to the International Narcotics Control Board, many DANPS suppliers are based in China or India, with domestic manufacture also reported by countries in Europe, the Americas and other parts of Asia (INCB 2013). The UNODC reported the number of synthetic cathinones seizures remained stable in 2012 (UNODC 2013b). In June 2013, the US DEA announced a 1 500 kilogram seizure of synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones manufactured in India and China, intended for the US and Australian markets (Knight 2013). The United Arab Emirates seized 126 parcel consignments, totalling 23.5 kilograms of synthetic cannabinoids (Spice) over an eight month period in 2012 (UNODC 2013c). In January 2013, Egypt reported increasing seizures of synthetic cannabinoids (Voodoo) originating in Europe and trafficked through Libya (UNODC 2013c). There is no standard national or international approach to addressing the issue of DANPS. Many countries have adopted broad legislative approaches for controlling DANPS through the use of analogue and generic terms, temporary and emergency procedures and alternative non-drug specific legislation, such as consumer protection legislation. The US has enacted laws to target analogue compounds. Although not making synthetic drugs illegal, Sweden can seize them under the Destruction Act and the UK uses Temporary Drug Class Orders to ban new substances—usually effective within a month—while formal legislative change is enacted (Policing and Practice Journal 2013). In 2013, New Zealand introduced the Psychoactive Substances Act 2013, making it illegal to import, manufacture, sell or supply psychoactive substances without a licence. The burden of proof is now placed on the manufacturers and distributors to prove that their products present low risk for human use before they can be granted a licence (NZG 2013).
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DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER seizures DANPS comprise synthetic cannabinoids, substituted cathinones, analogues of amphetamine type-stimulants, as well as novel and obscure research chemicals. The main characteristic of these drugs is the diversity and large number of substances involved. DANPS are sourced from within large groups of chemical compounds, which complicate their regulation and may enable vendors to evade regulatory mechanisms by adjusting the chemical composition of their products. DANPS are increasingly seized at the Australian border, mainly in air cargo parcels and the international mail stream. Border regulation of DANPS is complex due to many new and emerging substances not being covered under current legislation. Their presumptive identification also poses challenges as current trace detection tools may not currently be calibrated to detect the thousands of drugs which potentially fall under this category. Shipments encountered at the Australian border are either personal use quantities that are purchased online and delivered by mail, or larger shipments intended for resale. Shipments intended for resale comprise either a large number of retail doses, mostly of synthetic cannabinoids, packaged as ready-to-use smoking mixtures, or bulk active agents in kilogram quantities, mainly from China. DANPS have low active dose thresholds such as 3–6 mg for synthetic cannabinoids, and 0.1–0.4 mg for the exceptionally dangerous NBOMe group compounds, which have been associated with fatalities in Australia and other countries. DANPS, which are sold in Australia at low prices per dose, have the potential to generate criminal profits in excess of those obtained from trafficking more established illicit drugs, such as heroin and cocaine, although at present the DANPS market does not compare in size with more traditional illicit drug markets. Although the breadth of new substances appearing on the market is very large, and some appear only sporadically, the Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team, in consultation with the National Measurement Institute (NMI), has identified the following categories of DANPS: amphetamine-type substances cathinone-type substances synthetic cannabinoids tryptamine-type substances others. Among the many different compounds detected and reported since 2006–07, some have been more common than others in terms of the weight of material seized and/or the overall number of seizures. These have included 4-MMC, N,N-dimethylamphetamine (DMA), 1-benzylpiperazine (BZP) and 3-trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP).
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Over the reporting periods, analysis of DANPS has included amphetamine-type substances, novel cathinone-type substances, synthetic cannabinoids, novel tryptamine-type substances, novel 2C-type substances and novel piperazine-type substances. Analysis of border seizures containing DANPS indicates that while the number of seizures decreased in 2012–13, the weight of seizures containing DANPS more than doubled (see Figure 69).32 FIGURE 69: Number and weight of seizures selected for further analysis and found to contain novel substances and drug analogues, 2006–07 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence)
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Since 2008–09, novel cathinone-type substances have accounted for the highest proportion of the number of seizures in this subset. In 2012–13, novel cathinone-type substances accounted for 44.6 per cent of analysed seizures containing novel substances, followed by novel amphetamine-type substances (17.9 per cent), novel 2C-type substances (16.1 per cent), novel piperazine-type substances (10.7 per cent), synthetic cannabinoids (8.9 per cent) and novel tryptamine-type substances (1.8 per cent). Following a spike in the weight of DANPS seized in 2010–1133 and the notable decrease in the weight of DANPS seized in 2011–12, the weight of analysed seizures increased by 139.3 per cent in 2012–13. Novel piperazine-type substances accounted for 41.8 per cent of the weight of novel substance seizures, followed by novel cathinone-type substances (35.1 per cent), novel amphetamine-type substances (19.6 per cent), synthetic cannabinoids (3.4 per cent) and novel tryptamine-type substances (<0.1 per cent).
32 The data in Figure 69 refers only to seizures made by the AFP, examined by AFP crime scene teams, sampled and subsequently confirmed to contain a novel substance by the NMI. Seizure data does not represent all AFP seizures of DANPS during these periods. 33 The spike in the weight of DANPS seized in 2010–11 was due to 3 large seizures containing novel amphetamine-type substances, which accounted for approximately 82 per cent of the weight of novel substances seized in that reporting period.
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DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent 4-MMC use decreased, from 14 per cent in 2011 to 5 per cent in 2012. Swallowing (62 per cent), followed by snorting (48 per cent), were the most common methods of administration, with minimal reporting of injecting. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent use has increased to 6 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of synthetic cannabinoids increased, from 6 per cent in 2011 to 15 per cent of in 2012. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent use has increased to 16 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). PRICE National law enforcement price data for DANPS, including 4-MMC and synthetic cannabinoids is limited. In 2012–13, the price of a tablet/capsule of 4-MMC in Tasmania the price was $30, with the price in Queensland ranging between $20 and $50. Nationally, the price for 3 grams of synthetic cannabinoids in 2012–13 ranged between $50 and $95.
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DOMESTIC SEIZURES Technical challenges exist for law enforcement agencies in identifying DANPS. Due to the dynamic nature of this market, data systems have limited capacity to accurately record and readily extract seizure and arrest data, with many of these drugs reported as ‘other drugs’. As a result, monitoring and reporting on national trends of these drugs is limited. Since 2007–08, jurisdictions have indicated an increase in the number and weight of DANPS seized. Key categories of seized substances include amphetamine-type substances, cathinone-type substances and synthetic cannabinoids.
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OTHER & UNKNOWN NOT ELSEWHERE CLASSIFIED DRUGS
Data of national other and unknown not elsewhere classified (NEC) drug arrests and seizures capture drugs and substances outside the other specific drug categories contained in the Illicit Drug Data Report. This category covers a range of substances including precursors, anaesthetics, DANPS, pharmaceuticals and drugs not elsewhere classified. Substances in this category are likely to change between reporting periods. Data limitations are further discussed in the Statistics chapter. Over the last decade, the number of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures increased 425.0 per cent, from 1 367 in 2003–04 to 7 177 in 2012–13. By comparison, the weight of seizures has fluctuated over the last decade, increasing 1 089.2 per cent, from 185 kilograms in 2003–04 to 2 200 kilograms in 2012–13. This reporting period the number of other and unknown NEC drug seizures increased 32.9 per cent, from 5 399 in 2011–12 to 7 177 in 2012–13, while the weight of seizures decreased 83.6 per cent, from 13 451.5 kilograms in 2011–12 to 2 200.0 kilograms in 2012–13. The significant decrease in the weight of related seizures between the 2011–12 and 2012–13 reporting periods is a direct consequence of a single 11 tonne seizure of hypophosphorous acid in 2011–12, a reagent chemical used in the manufacture of methylamphetamine (see Figure 70).
OTHER DRUGS
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FIGURE 70: National ‘Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified’ drug seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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New South Wales accounted for the greatest proportion of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures this reporting period, accounting for 43.5 per cent of the number and 29.8 per cent of the weight. Queensland, Western Australia and Northern Territory reported notable increases in the weight of other and unknown NEC drug seizures this reporting period, with their combined seizure weight accounting for 52.6 per cent of the weight of national seizures in 2012–13 (see Table 34). TABLE 34: Number, weight and percentage change of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
Weight (grams) % change 32.4 43.8 5.5 52.4 71.1 19.7 1.0 -3.3 32.9 2011–12 12 687 524 338 274 135 277 15 532 36 484 3 651 233 264 1 585 13 451 591 2011–12 655 050 371 678 486 917 13 926 90 523 1 807 578 715 1 444 2 200 060 % change -94.8 9.9 259.9 -10.3 148.1 -50.5 148.1 -8.9 -83.6 3 122 663 1 258 32 1 704 158 211 29 7 177
2011–12 2 358 461 1 192 21 996 132 209 30 5 399
2012–13
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded. b. Please note that kava seizures in the Northern Territory may constitute a significant proportion of the number and weight of other and unknown NEC seizures within a given reporting period. As such, care should be taken when interpreting these results.
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Over the last decade, the number of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests has increased 47.7 per cent, from 8 444 in 2003–04 to 12 469 in 2012–13, the highest number reported in the last decade. Since 2003–04, consumer arrests have accounted for over 70 per cent of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests, accounting for 72.9 per cent of arrests in this reporting period (see Figure 71). FIGURE 71: Number of national ‘Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified drug arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests, accounting for 31.6 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. This reporting period South Australia reported the highest percentage increase in other and unknown NEC drug arrests (see Table 35). TABLE 35: Number and percentage change of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests State/Territorya New South Wales Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
b
2011–12 1 714 2 417 3 558 154 2 103 477 178 3 10 605
2012–13 1 706 3 182 3 945 801 2 439 345 51 0 12 469
% change -0.5 31.7 10.9 420.1 15.9 -27.7 -71.3 -100.0 17.6
Australian Capital Territory
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NATIONAL IMPACT
The other drugs category includes a wide range of drugs and substances. In 2012–13, there was a record 10 356 detections of PIEDs at the Australian border. The number of embarkation points identified for PIED detections increased 11.1 per cent this reporting period, from 63 countries in 2011–12 to 70 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of detected PIEDs, with China and Thailand the prominent embarkation points for the number of PIEDs detected at the Australian border in 2012–13. While the weight of national steroid seizures decreased this reporting period, it is the second highest weight reported in the last decade. In 2012–13, the number of national steroid seizures and arrests increased and are the highest on record. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of both the number and weight of national steroid seizures, while Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of national steroid arrests. While consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national steroid arrests, in 2012–13, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory reported more provider arrests than consumer arrests. There was a record 509 detections of tryptamines at the Australian border in 2012–13, the majority of which relate to LSD detections. The number of embarkation points identified for tryptamines detections increased 137.5 per cent this reporting period, from 8 countries in 2011–12 to 19 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of tryptamine detections, with the Netherlands the prominent embarkation point for tryptamine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. Nationally, the weight of hallucinogen seizures decreased to 3.6 kilograms, the lowest weight reported since 2008–09. Despite this decrease, the number of national hallucinogen seizures continued to increase and is the highest reported in the last decade. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of both the number and weight of national hallucinogen seizures, with Queensland continuing to account for the greatest proportion of national hallucinogen arrests. While consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national hallucinogen arrests, South Australia and Tasmania reported more provider arrests than consumer arrests.
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There was a record 277 detections of anaesthetics at the Australian border in 2012–13, the majority of which relate to ketamine detections. The number of embarkation points identified for anaesthetic detections at the Australian border increased 23.5 per cent, from 17 countries in 2011–12 to 21 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of anaesthetic detections, with the UK the prominent embarkation point by number for anaesthetic detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. While the number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border decreased in 2012–13, it is the third highest number reported in the last decade. The majority of detections this reporting period were benzodiazepines. The number of embarkation points identified for pharmaceuticals detected at the Australian border increased 9 per cent, from 55 countries in 2011–12 to 60 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of pharmaceutical detections. Thailand was the prominent embarkation point for the number of benzodiazepines detected at the Australian border in 2012–13, with Pakistan the prominent embarkation point for the number of opioid detections. The most prevalent DANPS available in the Australian illicit drug market in 2012–13 were novel piperazine-type substances, novel cathinone-type substances, novel amphetaminetype substances and synthetic cannabinoids. While the number of analysed border seizures containing DANPS in 2012–13 decreased 56.3 per cent, the weight of seizures more than doubled. In this reporting period, novel cathinone-type substances accounted for the majority of analysed border seizures by number, while novel piperazine-type substances accounted the greatest proportion of the weight of seizures. The number of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures continued to increase this reporting period, with the 7 177 seizures in 2012–13 the highest number reported in the last decade. The weight of national seizures decreased considerably in 2012–13, a direct consequence of the 11 tonne seizure of hypophosphorous acid in 2011–12. New South Wales accounted for the greatest proportion of the number and weight of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures this reporting period. Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests, with consumer arrests accounting for the greatest proportion of arrests.
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Department of Health and Ageing (DoHA) 2010, National Drugs Campaign: other Drugs, ketamine, AG, Canberra, viewed 2 August 2013, <http://www.drugs.health.gov.au/ internet/drugs/publishing.nsf/Content/other4>. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) 2012, Drug fact sheet: ketamine, US Department of Justice, Washington DC, viewed 28 August 2013, <http://www.justice.gov/dea/ druginfo/drug_data_sheets/Ketamine.pdf>. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) 2013, D-lysergic acid diethylamide (street names: LSD, acid, blotter acid, window pane), US Department of Justice, Washington DC, viewed 18 December 2013, <http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/drug_chem_info/lsd.pdf>. Drugs and Crime Prevention Committee (DCPC) 2007, Inquiry into misuse/abuse of benzodiazepines and other pharmaceutical drugs—final report December 2007, Parliament of Victoria, Melbourne, viewed 5 August 2013, <http://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/images/ stories/committees/dcpc/pharmaceuticalmisuse/Benzo_Final_web_web_res.pdf>. Dungjen, T 2012, Psychedelic-mushroom seizure believed near record in Ohio: 137 pounds, worth $3.1M, in Toledo police custody, Law Officer Police & Law Enforcement, San Diego, viewed 18 December 2013, <http://www.lawofficer.com/ article/news/psychedelic-mushroom-seizure-b>.
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European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013a, Hallucinogenic mushrooms, EMCDDA, Lisbon, viewed 11 September 2013, <http://www. emcdda.europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/mushrooms>. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013b, European Drug Report: Trends and developments, EMCDDA, Lisbon, viewed 8 August 2013, <http:// www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_213154_EN_TDAT13001ENN1.pdf>. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013c, News 2013: old and new drug problems–The European landscape in 2013, EMCDDA, Lisbon, viewed 8 August 2013, <http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/news/2013/6>. Forensic Science Review 2013, ‘Synthetic Cannabinoids and Cathinones: Prevalence and Markets’, Volume 25, no. 1/2, March 2013, p. 20. Hughes, C 2013, The Australian (illicit) drug policy timeline: 1985–2013, Drug Policy Modelling Program, 15 March 2013. International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) 2013, Report of the International Narcotics Control Board, Annual Report 2012, INCB, Vienna. Ip, EJ, Barnett, MJ, Tenerowicz, MJ, Perry, PJ 2012, ‘The anabolic 500 survey: characteristics of male users versus nonusers of anabolic-androgenic steroids for strength training’, Pharmacotherapy: The journal of human pharmacology and drug therapy, vol.31, issue 8, pp. 756–766.
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Iversen, J and Maher, L 2013, Australian Needle and Syringe Program National Data Report 2008–2012, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 22 October 2013, <http://www.kirby.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/hiv/resources/ ANSPS_2008_2012%20KI.pdf>. Johnston, L D, O’Malley, P M, Bachman, J G, & Schulenberg, J E 2013, Monitoring the future national results on drug use: 2012 Overview, Key findings on adolescent drug use, Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan. Kanayama, G, Pope, HG Jr 2012, ‘Illicit use of androgens and other hormones: recent advances’, Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity, vol. 19, issue 3, viewed 28 August 2013, <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3337343/>. Knight, B 2013, ‘US authorities announce record global synthetic drug ring bust‘, viewed 29 August 2013, <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-06-27/world27s-biggest-syntheticdrug-bust/4784166>. Lancet 2013, ‘Legal highs and lows–illicit drug use around the world’, Editorial, The Lancet, vol. 382, issue 9886, p. 1, viewed 12 August 2013, <http://www.thelancet.com/ journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(13)61509-3/fulltext>. National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) 2013, Synthetic cannabinoids, NCPIC, Canberra, viewed 12 August 2013, <http://ncpic.org.au/ncpic/ publications/factsheets/article/synthetic-cannabinoids>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2005, ‘Use of performance and image enhancing drugs among men: A review’, NDARC Technical Report No. 232, NDARC, Sydney, viewed 29 July 2013, <http://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/ndarc/ resources/TR.232.pdf>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2006, Performance and image enhancing drugs: clenbuterol, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 30 July 2013, <http://www.nationaldrugstrategy.gov.au/internet/drugstrategy/ publishing.nsf/Content/fs-clenbuterol>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2012, Fact Sheets: Hallucinogens, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 10 September 2013, <http:// ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/ndarc.cms.med.unsw.edu.au/files/ndarc/resources/ Hallucinogens%20Fact%20Sheet%281%29.pdf>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends Conference: Highs and lows of contemporary drugs in Australia: emerging psychoactive substances, pharmaceutical opioids and other drugs, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney. National Drug Strategy (NDS) 2006, Performance and Image Enhancing Drugs – Erythropoietin (EPO), NDS, Australian Government, Canberra, viewed 2 September 2013, <http://www.nationaldrugstrategy.gov.au/internet/drugstrategy/Publishing.nsf/content/ fs-epo>.
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National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2009, DrugFacts: Hallucinogens - LSD, Peyote, Psilocybin and PCP, NIDA, National Institutes of Health, Maryland, viewed 30 July 2013, <http://www.nida.nih.gov/infofacts/hallucinogens.html>. National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2012, DrugFacts: anabolic steroids, NIDA, National Institutes of Health, Maryland, viewed 29 July 2013, <http://www.drugabuse. gov/publications/drugfacts/anabolic-steroids>. National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2013a, Monitoring the Future: survey, NIDA, January 2013. National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2013b, DrugFacts: prescription and over-thecounter medications, NIDA, viewed 31 October 2013, <http://www.drugabuse.gov/ publications/drugfacts/prescription-over-counter-medications>. National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse (NTA) 2012, News & events, Club drug users warned as new figures show more getting help, NTA, viewed 31 January 2014, <http://www.nta.nhs.uk/Club%20drugs%20report%202012.aspx>. Nationale Anti-Doping Agentur Austria (NADA) 2012, Peptide hormones, growth factors and related substances, NADA, Austria, viewed 12 December 2013, <http://www.nada.at>.
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New South Wales Government, Health (NSW Health) 2006, ‘Factsheet: GHB gamma hydroxy butyrate’, NSW Government Health, viewed 2 August 2013, <http://www0. health.nsw.gov.au/factsheets/drugAndAlcohol/ghb_fs.html>. New South Wales Government, Health (NSW Health) 2011, ‘Factsheet: synthetic cannabinoids’, NSW Government Health, viewed 12 August 2013, <http://www.health. nsw.gov.au/factsheets/drugAndAlcohol/synthetic_cannabis.html>. New South Wales Government, Health (NSW Health) 2012, ‘Factsheet: ketamine’, NSW Government Health, viewed 26 August 2013, <http://www0.health.nsw.gov.au/ factsheets/drugAndAlcohol/ketamine.html>. New South Wales Government, Health (NSW Health) 2013, Anabolic steroids, NSW Health Factsheet, viewed 12 December 2013, <http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/mhdao/ Factsheets/Pages/anabolic.aspx>. New Zealand Government (NZG 2013), New Zealand Legislation, NZG Parliamentary Counsel Office, viewed 21 October 2013, <http://www.legislation.govt.NZ/act/ public/2013>. Nielsen, S & Thompson, N 2008, ‘Prevention of Pharmaceutical Drug Misuse’, Pharmaceuticals, Prevention Research Quarterly: Current evidence evaluated, December 2008, DrugInfo Clearinghouse, Melbourne, viewed 4 October 2013, <http://www. druginfo.adf.org.au/attachments/343_PRQ_08Dec_pharmaceuticals_web.pdf>. Paoli L 2012, Doping and Anti-Doping: Neglected Issues in Criminology, European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, no. 20, pp. 231-238.
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Partanen TA, Vikatmaa P, Tukiainen Tukiainen E, Lepantalo M & Vuola J 2009, ‘Outcome after injections of crushed tablets in intravenous drug abusers in the Helsinki University Central Hospital’, European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, vol. 37, issue 6, pp. 704–11. Pharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee (PBAC) 2007, Australian Statistics on Medicines 2004–05, Department of Health and Ageing, Canberra. Policing and Practice Journal 2013, ‘Bath Salts – Synthetic Cathinones’, May 2013, pp. 30-37. Public Health Association of Australia (PHAA) 2010, Pharmaceutical Drug Misuse Policy, PHAA, viewed 5 August 2013, <http://www.nationaldrugstrategy.gov.au/ internet/drugstrategy/consult.nsf/78290A9B1D15615DCA2577F800069425/$FILE/ Attachment%20E-Pharmaceutical%20Drug%20Misuse%20Policy.pdf>. Roll, JM, Newton, T, Chudzynski, J, Cameron, JM, McPherson, S, Fong, T, Torrington, M 2012, ‘Preference for gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) in current users’, Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, vol. 97, issue 3, viewed 28 August 2013, <http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3372955/>. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2012, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2011: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 82, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2012: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trends Series, no. 100, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 13 August 2013, <http://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/ default/files/ndarc/resources/EDRS%202012%20national%20report%20FINAL.pdf>. South Australia Health, (SA Health) 2011, Drug treatment for opioid dependence, South Australia, Drug and Alcohol Services, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.dassa. sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=132>. Stafford J & Burns LA, 2013, ‘Australian Drug Trends 2012: Findings from the Illicit Drugs Reporting System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trends Series no. 91, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, <http://ndarc. med.unsw.edu.au/resource/illicit-drug-reporting-system-idrs-national-report-2012>. Stenman, UH 2009, ‘Detection of illicit use of growth hormone’, Clinical Chemistry, vol. 55, issue 3, pp. 387–388, Helsinki. Sydney Morning Herald (SMH) 2012, Steroid vacation, viewed 27 November 2013, <http://www.smh.com.au/national/health/steroid-vacation-20120526-1zblt.html>.
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Sweeny, K 2007, ‘Pharmaceutical industry in Australia’, Pharmaceutical Industry Project, Working Paper Series, Working Paper no. 34, Victoria University of Technology, Centre for Strategic Economic Studies, Melbourne, viewed 3 October 2013, <http://www.cfses. com/documents/pharma/34-Pharmaceutical_Industry_Aust_Sweeny.pdf>. Tan, T 2012, ‘Ketamine: from India to Asia Part 1 – Malaysia’, viewed 3 September 2012, <http://www.thecabinchiangmai.com/archive/ketamine-from-india-to-asia>. Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) 2011, Final decisions & reasons for decisions by delegates of the secretary to the Department of Health and Ageing, Department of Health and Ageing, Canberra, viewed 13 August 2013, <http://www.tga.gov.au/pdf/ scheduling/scheduling-decisions-1107-final-a.pdf>. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2011a, Laboratory and Scientific Section Portals. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2011b, NPS – FAQs, viewed 11 October 2013, <http://unodc.org/LSS/Page/NPS/FAQS>. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2012, Global SMART Programme, UNODC, Vienna, viewed 12 December 2013, <http://www.unodc.org/documents/ southeastasiaandpacific/2012/12/ats-2012/section/2012_Regional_ATS_Report_SEA. pdf>. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013, UNODC, Vienna, viewed 6 August 2013, <http://www.unodc.org/unodc/secured/wdr/ wdr2013/World_Drug_Report_2013.pdf>. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Global SMART Programme, The challenge of new psychoactive substances 2013, UNODC, Vienna. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013c, Global Smart Update March 2013, vol. 9, p. 15, UNODC, Vienna. United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) 2013, Effects of steroids, doping and performance-enhancing drugs, USADA, Washington, viewed 12 December 2013, <http://www.usada.org/effects-peds/>. United States Drug and Law Enforcement Agency (US DEA) 2011, Drugs of Abuse: 2011 Edition, US DEA Resource Guide, Washington, viewed 12 December 2013, <http://www. justice.gov/dea/pr/multimedia-library/publications/drug_of_abuse.pdf>. Western Australia Drug and Alcohol Office (WA DAO) 2005, Facts about drugs, WA DAO, Perth, viewed 1 August 2013, <http://www.dao.health.wa.gov.au/ DesktopModules/Bring2mind/DMX/Download.aspx?EntryId=351&Command=Core_ Download&PortalId=0&TabId=211>. Winstock, AR, Mitcheson, LR, Deluca, P, Davey, Z, Corazza, O, Schifano, F 2010, ‘Mephedrone, new kid for the chop?’, Addiction, vol. 106, issue 1, pp. 154–161, viewed 5 September 2013, <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.13600443.2010.03130.x/full>.
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Wood, DM & Dargan, PI 2012, ‘Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone): What is new in our understanding of its use and toxicity’, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, viewed 13 August 2013, <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/S0278584612000929>. World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) 2012, The World Anti-Doping Code: The 2013 prohibited list: International standard, WADA, Montreal, viewed 15 November 2013, <http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/World_Anti-Doping_Program/WADPProhibited-list/2013/WADA-Prohibited-List-2013-EN.pdf>. World Health Organisation (WHO) 2012, ‘Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB): critical review report’, Expert Committee on Drug Dependence—thirty-fifth meeting, 4-8 June 2012, WHO, Tunisia, viewed 29 August 2013, <http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/ quality_safety/4.1GHBcritical_review.pdf>.
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Clandestine laboratories and precursors
Key points
Despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally, the 757 laboratories detected in 2012–13 is the second highest number in the last decade. The majority of clandestine laboratories continue to be detected in residential areas; however detections in commercial/industrial locations increased in 2012–13. The greatest proportion of laboratories continue to be addict-based; however, the proportion attributed to laboratories of other sizes almost doubled in 2012–13. While the weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border decreased in 2012–13, the number of detections increased and is the highest reported in the last decade.
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CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
MAIN FORMS
CLAN LABS & PRECURSORS
Clandestine laboratories produce illegal substances using a variety of chemicals and manufacturing processes. Commonly referred to as ‘clan labs’, clandestine laboratories range from crude, makeshift operations using simple processes to highly sophisticated operations using technically advanced facilities and equipment. Regardless of their level of sophistication or size, clandestine laboratories pose significant risks to the community as a consequence of the corrosive and hazardous nature of the chemicals used (AFP 2012; NCCEH 2012). Drug manufacture carried out in clandestine laboratories may involve any or all of the following processes: Extraction—Raw materials are extracted using chemical solvents to produce a finished illicit drug. Examples of extraction include precursor chemicals extracted from pharmaceutical preparations,1 cannabis oil extracted from cannabis or morphine extracted from opium. Conversion—Raw or unrefined drug products are altered into a more soughtafter product by altering the chemical form. Examples include converting cocaine base into cocaine hydrochloride or methylamphetamine base into crystalline methylamphetamine hydrochloride. Synthesis—Raw materials are combined, and react under specific conditions to create the finished product through various chemical processes. Examples include methylamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, commonly known as ‘ecstasy’) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Tableting—Final products are converted into dosage units. An example is pressing MDMA powder into tablet form. There are three types of substances used in illicit drug manufacture: Precursors—Considered to be the starting materials for illicit drug manufacture. As a result of chemical reactions, the precursor’s molecular structure is modified to produce a specific illicit drug. For example, precursors such as ephedrine and pseudoephedrine can be converted into methylamphetamine. Reagents—Substances used to cause a chemical reaction that modifies the precursor’s molecular structure. For example, when hydriodic acid and red phosphorous are mixed with the precursors ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, the resulting compound is methylamphetamine.
1 Such as pseudoephedrine from cold and flu products.
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Solvents—Added to the chemical mixture to ensure effective mixing by dissolving precursors and reagents, diluting the reaction mixtures, and separating and purifying other chemicals. For example, ethyl ether, methyl ethyl ketone and acetone are used in cocaine production (APAIC 2012; INCB 2012). Globally, amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) are the most common illicit drugs manufactured in clandestine laboratories. In Australia, pseudoephedrine and ephedrine are the most common precursors used in the manufacture of ATS. Safrole, isosafrole, piperonal and 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone (MDP2P)2 are principal precursors used in the manufacture of MDMA (EMCDDA 2011; UNODC 2013a). Many legitimate industrial chemicals are used in the manufacture of illicit drugs. This creates a challenge for government and law enforcement in preventing the diversion of these chemicals from legitimate commerce to illicit drug manufacture. Precursor controls seek to stop the diversion of precursors to illicit markets, while maintaing access to these chemicals by legitimate industry. In 2007, the Australian Government funded the national roll-out of Project STOP, an initiative aimed at reducing the diversion of pharmaceutical products containing pseudoephedrine to the illicit drug manufacturing market. As of 30 June 2013, 79.4 per cent of approved community pharmacies were registered with Project STOP, compared with 79.2 per cent at 30 June 2012. Internationally, cohesive chemical control strategies play a key role in controlling percursors due to the global nature of illicit drug precursor manufacture. The Asian Collaborative Group on Local Precursor Control (ACoG), the South Pacific Precursor Control Forum (SPPCF) and other regional precursor-control capability forums are regional forums which provide Australia with an opportunity to inform and respond to illicit drug trafficking and precursor diversion (AFP 2013a). In March 2012, the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) launched the Precursors Incident Communication System (PICS), aimed at stemming the flow of precursor chemicals diverted from domestic distribution channels. In response to precursor controls, producers of ATS may move to the use of ‘pre-precursors’ or ‘masked precursors’—essential non-controlled chemicals that can be converted into precursor chemicals3 (EMCDDA 2013; INCB 2012; UNODC 2013a).
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2 3
Also known as PMK. For example, alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile (APAAN) can be converted into phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) to manufacture ATS.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
Globally, ATS manufacture has increased and expanded. The 2013 World Drug Report indicates increased manufacture in Europe, Asia, Central America and Africa. During 2012, ATS manufacture continued to expand in Europe, with first-time clandestine laboratory detections in regions of Poland and the Russian Federation (BINLEA 2013; UNODC 2013b). The 2013 World Drug Report indicates that East and South-East Asia are the largest ATS markets internationally, with the ‘Golden Triangle’4 remaining a major ATS production and trafficking hub (UNODC 2013b). According to media reporting, Thai authorities estimate at least 1.4 billion ATS tablets are being produced in the Golden Triangle each year, mainly in the Shan State of Burma (Daily Times 2013). Media sources also report in August 2012 that 347 kilograms of methylamphetamine was seized at an illicit drug production plant in Burma, on the Chinese-Burma border (Xinhua 2012). While the Golden Triangle is the primary region for global ATS production, during 2012–13 the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) reported large scale ATS manufacture in Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. BINLEA also reported the 2012 detection of a dual methylamphetamine/ MDMA clandestine laboratory in Phnom Penh, along with more than 3 000 litres of safrole oil allegedly smuggled from Thailand and pseudoephedrine-based medication from Vietnam (BINLEA 2013). According to BINLEA reporting, clandestine laboratories in Burma’s Shan State are producing large quantities of ATS using precursors sourced from Bangladesh, China, Laos, India, and Thailand. Since 2010, seizures of pseudoephedrine have increased in Burma, with almost 3 tonnes seized in the first nine months of 2012. Additionally, two operations seized 1.8 million and 8.7 million methylamphetamine tablets respectively (BINLEA 2013).
CLAN LABS & PRECURSORS
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4 The ‘Golden Triangle’ comprises the border regions of Burma, Thailand and Laos.
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CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
China and India remain the world’s largest licit producers and exporters of precursor chemicals. China and India are targeted as primary source countries for precursor chemicals due to the domestic regulatory framework and proximity to illicit drug manufacturing regions. While China has made legislative and administrative changes to prevent the diversion of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine—the two most common chemicals used to produce methylamphetamine—it remains a major source of these precursors (BINLEA 2013). The BINLEA report indicates that in Mexico, importations of precursor chemicals are increasing, along with methylamphetamine production. Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, which is illegally transported to Mexico, is primarily sourced from China, India and Bangladesh. Following tightened legislative controls on methylamphetamine precursor chemicals, authorities now believe that Mexican producers are importing non-scheduled precursor chemicals to manufacture methylamphetamine using alternative methods (BINLEA 2013). According to the 2013 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, attempted large importations of precursors into Mexico included methylamine, monomethylamine and phenyl acetic acid (PAA). The majority of these precursors were sourced from China, and to a lesser degree, Eastern European and Asian countries. Examples include the Mexican Government’s seizure of 96 237 litres and 34.7 tonnes of PAA, as well as 47.5 tonnes of methylamine in September 2012. Furthermore, in 2012 three major shipments of Chinese origin totalling 262 tonnes of the pre-precursor monomethylamine—used to manufacture ephedrine—were seized in Mexican ports (BINLEA 2013). According to open source reporting, while organised crime groups have traditionally used West Africa as a transit route for cocaine and heroin, they are increasingly trafficking methylamphetamine—which is cheaper, easier and more profitable to produce and transport (Africa Report 2013). The 2013 Threat Assessment of Transnational Organised Crime in West Africa reported that methylamphetamine manufactured in West Africa is primarily trafficked into East Asia, and to a lesser extent South Africa. While the current income from trafficking methylamphetamine to East Asia is high, competition from producers located in the destination markets could limit any long-term market for West-African manufactured methylamphetamine (UNODC 2013c). In April 2013, the Australian Federal Police and the Indonesian National Narcotic Control Board initiated a joint agency operation to target an organised crime syndicate with the potential to import commercial quantities of safrole. As a result of the operation, authorities seized 300 litres of pure safrole in Indonesia. It is alleged that the Indonesian national arrested was responsible for the distribution of an estimated 200 litres of safrole oil per month to persons in Australia, Canada, United States, Holland and New Zealand (AFP 2013b).
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DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
In recognition of ATS being the dominant illicit drug manufactured in Australian clandestine laboratories, border detection data will focus on ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor and MDMA precursor detections. In 2012–13, ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor border detections included ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. MDMA precursor border detections included safrole, piperonal, and 3,4-MDP2P. In the last decade, both the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor border detections have fluctuated. In 2012–13, the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections increased by 11.3 per cent, from 937 in 2011–12 to 1 043 in 2012–13, the highest number of detections in the last decade. While the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections decreased by 2.5 per cent, from 1 744.6 kilograms in 2011–12 to 1 700.4 kilograms in 2012–13, it is the third highest detection weight in the last decade (see Figure 72). FIGURE 72: Number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
CLAN LABS & PRECURSORS
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In 2012–13, there were 471 ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections weighing more than 1 kilogram each. These detections accounted for 96.7 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor chemical detections, totalling 1 644.5 kilograms.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
Since 2003–04, the number of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border has remained low. The number of MDMA precursor detections increased from 9 in 2011–12 to 12 in 2012–13, the highest number of detections in the last decade. Over the last decade, the quantity of MDMA precursor detections has fluctuated, with the total weight of detections exceeding 1 kilogram in only five reporting periods. In 2012–13, 7.98 kilograms of MDMA precursors were detected at the border. In 2011–12, 240 litres of safrole was detected (see Figure 73). In 2012–13, there were 7 detections of safrole, which accounted for almost 100 per cent of the total weight of MDMA precursor detections. In addition to these 7 detections, there was 1 detection of piperonal and 4 detections of 3,4-MDP2P. FIGURE 73: Number and weight/litresa of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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a. Significant detections of MDMA precursors occur in both litres and kilograms. As this figure reflects two units of measurement, it is necessary to refer to comment on ‘Significant Border Detections’ for individual reporting periods to determine the related unit of measurement.
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors in 2012–13 include: 33 kilograms of pseudoephedrine detected in June 2013, in metal hammock frames, via sea cargo from Vietnam to Sydney 21 kilograms of ephedrine detected in March 2013, in a metal cabinet, via sea cargo from India to Sydney 20.8 kilograms of pseudoephedrine detected in October 2012, concealed in 30 imported cartons of rubber tubing, via sea cargo from China to Sydney 20 kilograms of pseudoephedrine crystals detected in March 2013, concealed within tiles, via air cargo from Hong Kong to Sydney 19 kilograms of ephedrine detected in October 2012, concealed in packets of breadcrumbs and coffee, via the air passenger stream from Vietnam to Sydney.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
The 5 detections listed above have a combined weight of 113.8 kilograms and account for 6.7 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors detected at the Australian border in 2012–13. Significant border detections of MDMA precursors in 2012–13 include: 2 kilograms of safrole detected in March 2013, concealed in bottles of patchouli oil, via air cargo from Indonesia to Perth 2 kilograms of safrole detected in April 2013, concealed in bottles of patchouli oil, via air cargo from Indonesia to Brisbane 1.07 kilograms of safrole detected in June 2013, concealed in patchouli oil, via air cargo from Indonesia to Brisbane. The 3 detections listed above have a combined weight of 5.07 kilograms and account for 63.5 per cent of the total weight of MDMA precursors detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
IMPORTATION METHODS
In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 51.1 per cent of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections by number. This was followed by air cargo, which accounted for 30.8 per cent (see Figure 74). FIGURE 74: Number of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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In terms of weight, the air cargo stream accounted for 53.4 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections during 2012–13, while parcel post accounted for 28.4 per cent (see Figure 75). The largest single ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detection in 2012–13 was a 33 kilogram sea cargo detection.
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CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
FIGURE 75: Weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 50.0 per cent of MDMA precursor detections by number. This was followed by air cargo, which accounted for 41.7 per cent (see Figures 76). FIGURE 76: Number of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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In terms of weight, the air cargo stream accounted for 86.1 per cent of the total weight of MDMA precursor detections in 2012–13, while parcel post accounted for 12.6 per cent (see Figure 77).
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CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
FIGURE 77: Weight of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
EMBARKATION POINTS
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In 2012–13, 38 embarkation points were identified for ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border, an increase from 36 countries in 2011–12. China was the prominent embarkation point, accounting for 25.1 per cent of the total number and 41.2 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections. In 2012–13, Indonesia was the prominent embarkation point for MDMA precursor detections, accounting for 5 of the 12 detections by number, and the top 3 detections by weight.
TABLET PRESS DETECTIONS
On 1 March 2010, tablet presses became a prohibited import in accordance with the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 (AGD 2010, AG 2012). In 2012–13, there were 28 detections at the Australian border, an increase from the 20 detections in 2011–12. In 2012–13, China was the prominent embarkation point for tablet press detections at the Australian border, followed by Hong Kong and the United Kingdom. Of the 28 detections, 19 were tablet press parts and 9 were whole machines. Of these, 17 were detected in sea cargo, 8 in air cargo and 3 in parcel post. The 17 sea cargo detections consisted of 1 whole tablet press and 16 separate parts detections.
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DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
The number of clandestine laboratory detections is not indicative of production output, which is calculated using a number of variables including size of reaction vessels, amount and type of precursor chemicals used, the skill of people involved and the method of manufacture. Regardless of their size, the residual contamination arising from illicit drugs manufacture presents a serious risk to humans and the environment. In 2011, the Australian Government launched the Clandestine Drug Laboratory Remediation Guidelines in recognition of the hazardous nature of clandestine laboratories (AGD 2011).
CLAN LABS & PRECURSORS
CLANDESTINE LABORATORY DETECTIONS
The number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally has more than doubled over the last decade, increasing from 358 in 2003–04 to 757 in 2012–13. The 6.4 per cent decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected in Australia, from 809 in 2011–12 to 757 in 2012–13, is the first decrease since 2006–07. Despite this decrease, it is still the second highest number of detections on record (see Figure 78). FIGURE 78: National clandestine laboratory detections, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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New South Wales, Victoria and the Northern Territory were the only states and territory to report an increase in the number of clandestine laboratories detected in 2012–13 (see Table 36). Although the number of clandestine laboratories detected in Queensland decreased by 12.9 per cent from 379 in 2011–12 to 330 in 2012–13, it continues to account for the highest proportion of national clandestine laboratory detections. New South Wales reported the greatest percentage increase in clandestine laboratory detections, with the 105 detections in 2012–13 the highest number of detections for that state in the last decade. Clandestine laboratory detections in Victoria increased from 99 in 2011–12 to 113 in 2012–13, the highest number of detections for that state, which also reported 113 detections in 2009–10. While the number of clandestine laboratories detected in Western Australia has continued to decrease since 2010–11, it accounted for the second highest proportion of national clandestine laboratory detections in 2012–13 (see Table 36). TABLE 36: Number of clandestine laboratory detections, by state and territory, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Year 2003–04 2004–05 NSW 61 45 55 49 51 67 82 87 90 105 Vic 20 31 47 72 76 84 113 63 99 113 Qld 189 209 161 132 121 148 297 293 379 330 SA 48 25 50 51 69 65 71 75 58 56 WA 33 44 58 37 30 78 118 171 160 136 Tas 1 3 5 9 2 0 1 11 15 9 NT 6 21 12 1 1 7 12 2 7 8 ACT 0 3 2 5 6 0 0 1 1 0 Total 358 381 390 356 356 449 694 703 809 757
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2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13
SIZE AND PRODUCTION CAPACITY
There is currently no recognised standard, either in Australia or internationally, for measuring the size or production capacity of clandestine laboratories. In 2012–13, state and territory police services were asked to provide an indication of size and production capacity of detected laboratories using categories provided by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime for the World Drug Report. Full definitions for the four categories— addict-based, other small-scale, medium sized and industrial scale—are provided in the Statistics chapter.
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In 2012–13, clandestine laboratories detected in Australia ranged from addict-based laboratories, which typically use only basic equipment and simple procedures to manufacture less than 50 grams per production cycle, through to industrial scale laboratories, using oversized equipment and which typically manufacture 50 kilograms or more per production cycle. During this reporting period, for those able to be categorised, the majority of detected clandestine laboratories were addict-based laboratories.5 However, the proportion of laboratories attributed to other small-scale, medium sized and industrial scale laboratories increased, reflecting increases in the sophistication and/or size of detected laboratories. The proportion of industrial scale laboratories detected nationally increased from 2.7 per cent in 2011–12 to 8.0 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 79). FIGURE 79: Category of detected clandestine laboratories, by size and production capacity, 2012–13
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DRUG TYPES AND METHODS OF PRODUCTION
Clandestine laboratories manufacturing ATS (excluding MDMA) continue to be the most common type of laboratory detected in Australia. In 2012–13, of the laboratories where the drug produced was identified, 68.8 per cent were producing ATS (excluding MDMA). In 2012–13, methylamphetamine was the main drug produced in detected laboratories (see Table 37).
5 This is the second time jurisdictions have provided an indication of the size and production capacity of detected laboratories. Figures were not available for all clandestine laboratories detected.
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TABLE 37: Number of clandestine laboratory detections, by drug production type and state and territory, 2012–13
ATS State/ (excluding Territory MDMA) NSW Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT Total 93 83 183 34 135 8 8 0 544 Chemicals/ Cannabis Glassware/ Homebake oil PSE a Equipment MDMA Heroin extraction extraction GHB/ GBL Onlyb 3 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 7 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 4 3 0 0 3 0 11 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 2 21 2 1 0 0 26
Otherc Unknownd 5 3 4 0 1 0 0 0 13 3 24 137 19 0 0 0 0 183
Totale 105 113 333 82 138 9 11 0 791
a. Pseudoephedrine. b. The seizure of glassware or equipment only is not categorised as a laboratory detection in some jurisdictions. c. ‘Other’ refers to the detection of other illicit drug manufacture. d. ‘Unknown’ includes seized substances which were unable to be identified or are awaiting analysis. e. Total may exceed the number of clandestine laboratory detections due to multiple drug production types being identified at single laboratories.
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The number of ATS (excluding MDMA) laboratory detections decreased this reporting period, from 552 in 2011–12 to 544 in 2012–13. Since 2000–01, Queensland has accounted for the greatest proportion of ATS (excluding MDMA) clandestine laboratory detections, with Western Australia accounting for the second greatest proportion since 2008–09. While the number of clandestine laboratories detected manufacturing MDMA remains low, it increased 250 per cent, from 2 in 2011–12 to 7 in 2012–13. New South Wales has accounted for the greatest proportion of MDMA clandestine laboratory detections since 2004–05. In 2012–13, New South Wales reported 3 MDMA laboratory detections, of which 1 was a dedicated tableting laboratory. Two MDMA laboratories were also detected in both Queensland and South Australia. Since 2009–10, the number of laboratories extracting pseudoephedrine has continued to decrease. The number of laboratories extracting pseudoephedrine decreased from 17 in 2011–12 to 11 in 2012–13. The number of homebake heroin laboratory detections decreased from 3 in 2011–12 to 1 in 2012–13. During this reporting period, 4 clandestine laboratories manufacturing GHB/GBL were detected, a decrease from 6 laboratories in 2011–12. While cannabis oil extraction laboratories continue to be detected in Australia, detection numbers remain low. In 2012–13, 2 cannabis oil extraction laboratories were detected, 1 each in New South Wales and South Australia.
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Clandestine laboratories detected in Australia also manufacture a range of precursors and pre-precursors. In 2012–13, these include but are not limited to, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, hypophosphorous acid, P2P and ammonium chloride. Although the number of clandestine laboratories detected this reporting period decreased, the proportion of laboratories manufacturing ATS (excluding MDMA) attributed to each method of production has remained relatively stable. The hypophosphorous method of production remains the prominent production method identified in Australian clandestine laboratories, followed by the Nazi/Birch method (see Table 38). TABLE 38: Method of ATS (excluding MDMA) production in clandestine laboratory detections, by state and territory, 2012–13
State/ Territory NSW Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT Total Hypophosphorous (Iodine) 81 40 108 26 1 7 1 0 264 Redphosphorus (Hydriotic) 3 1 33 3 4 0 0 0 44 Nazi/Birch (Lithium/ Ammonia) 1 2 0 1 130 0 0 0 134 Phenyl-2Propanone (P2P) 3 10 1 1 0 1 0 0 16
Othera 5 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 7
Totalb 93 53 142 32 135 9 1 0 465
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a. ‘Other’ includes the detection of other ATS (excluding MDMA) production methodologies. b. Total may not equal the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) clandestine laboratory detections as the method of production may not be identified.
In 2012–13, the number of laboratories identified using the hypophosphorous method of manufacture decreased by 25.4 per cent, from 354 in 2011–12 to 264 in 2012–13. Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of detected hypophosphorous clandestine laboratories, followed by New South Wales. The number of clandestine laboratories using the Nazi/Birch method continued to decrease, from 157 in 2011–12 and to 134 in 2012–13. These laboratories continue to be predominantly detected in Western Australia. Detections of the red phosphorous production method decreased from 57 in 2011–12 to 44 in 2012–13. While Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of detected red phosphorous laboratories, the number decreased from 38 in 2011–12 to 33 in 2012–13.
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The number of clandestine laboratories identified as using the P2P method of production has remained stable in the last two reporting periods. This method was identified in 16 laboratories in both 2011–12 and 2012–13. In 2012–13, Victoria accounted for the greatest proportion of P2P laboratories, with 10 detections.
SIGNIFICANT PRECURSOR SEIZURES
While the majority of detected clandestine laboratories in Australia are addict-based, the proportion of laboratories classified as other small-scale, medium sized and industrial scale increased in 2012–13. The following provides a snapshot of some significant national precursor/reagent seizures that occurred in 2012–13: 100 litres of benzaldehyde seized in Victoria 76 kilograms of ammonium chloride6 seized in Victoria 60 kilograms of sodium acetate seized in Victoria 34 kilograms of acetic anhydride seized in Victoria 30 kilograms of iodine seized in Victoria 21 kilograms of benzaldehyde seized in Queensland
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15 kilograms of gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) seized in Queensland 4.2 kilograms of pseudoephedrine seized in South Australia 24 litres of hypophosphorous acid seized in South Australia 2 litres of safrole seized in Western Australia.
LOCATION AND CATEGORY
While the proportion of clandestine laboratories detected in residential areas decreased in 2012–13, it remains the prominent location of clandestine laboratories in Australia. In 2012–13, 68.2 per cent of detected clandestine laboratories were located in residential areas, followed by vehicles (9.0 per cent). The proportion of clandestine laboratories detected in commercial/industrial locations increased from 2.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 8.9 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 80).
6
Awaiting analysis.
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FIGURE 80: Location of clandestine laboratory detections, 2012–13
There are four distinct categories of clandestine laboratories: Category A—active (chemicals and equipment in use) Category B—stored/used (equipment or chemicals)7 Category C—stored/unused (equipment or chemicals) Category D—historical site. Category C (stored/unused) remains the most common category for clandestine laboratories detected in Australia, accounting for 50.5 per cent of detections in 2012–13, a decrease from 56.3 per cent in 2011–12. This was followed by Category B (stored/ used), which accounts for 32.4 per cent of detected laboratories. The proportion of Category A (active) detected laboratories increased from 6.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 11.3 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 81).
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7 Laboratories which are fully assembled, but not active at the time of detection.
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FIGURE 81: Category of clandestine laboratory detections, 2012–13
NATIONAL TABLET PRESS SEIZURES
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In 2012–13, there were 19 tablet presses8 seized nationally, compared with 17 seizures in 2011–12. The majority of seizures this reporting period occurred in New South Wales. South Australia reported the detection of 1 encapsulator in 2012–13.
8 Simple and rotary presses.
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NATIONAL IMPACT
While the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border decreased in 2012–13, the number of precursor detections increased and is the highest reported in the last decade. The predominant precursors detected include pseudoephedrine for ATS and safrole for MDMA. In 2012–13, there were increases in the number of tablet presses detected at the border and seized nationally. Detections of tablet presses and tablet press parts at the border increased 40.0 per cent this reporting period, with the number of tablet presses seized nationally increasing 11.8 per cent. Despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally in 2012–13, the 757 clandestine laboratories detected this reporting period is the second highest number on record. The majority of these laboratories were manufacturing ATS (excluding MDMA), using the hypophosphorous method of production. The number of laboratories detected manufacturing MDMA increased from 2 in 2011–12 to 7 in 2012–13. Clandestine laboratories detected in Australia ranged from addict-based through to industrial scale laboratories. While the greatest proportion of laboratories able to be categorised remained addict-based, the proportion attributed to other small-scale, medium sized and industrial scale laboratories increased in 2012–13. Residential areas remain the most common location for clandestine laboratory detections. Of note was the increase in the proportion of laboratories attributed to commercial/industrial locations this reporting period, which increased from 2.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 8.9 per cent in 2012–13.
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REFERENCES
CLAN LABS & PRECURSORS
Africa Report 2013, ‘West Africa, from Transit to production of illicit drugs’, viewed 15 May 2013, <http://www.theafricareport.com/Society-and-Culture/west-africa-fromtransit-to-production-of-illicit-drugs.html>. Asia & Pacific Amphetamine-Type Stimulants Information Centre (APAIC) 2012, Precursors, APAIC, Bangkok, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.apaic.org/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=68&Itemid=83>. Attorney-General’s Department (AGD) 2010, Tablet Press Regulation, AGD, Canberra, viewed 29 October 2013, <http://www.ag.gov.au/CrimeAndCorruption/Drugs/Pages/ default.aspx>. Attorney-General’s Department (AGD) 2011, Clandestine Drug Laboratory Remediation Guidelines, AGD, Canberra, viewed 23 August 2013, <http://www.ag.gov.au/CrimeAndCorruption/Drugs/Documents/ Clandestinedruglaboratoryremediationguidelines.pdf>. Australian Federal Police (AFP) 2012, ACT Policing: Practical guide: Illicit clandestine drug laboratories (clanlabs), AFP, Canberra, viewed 23 August 2013, <http://www.afp.gov.au/ about-the-afp/~/media/afp/pdf/ips-foi-documents/ips/publication-list/AG00067%20 ACT%20Policing%20Practical%20Guide%20on%20Illicit%20Clandestine%20Drug%20 Laboratoires%20Clanlabs%2015JUNE2012.ashx>. Australian Federal Police (AFP) 2013a, Strategies, AFP, Canberra, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.afp.gov.au/policing/drug-crime/strategies.aspx>. Australian Federal Police (AFP) 2013b, ‘Joint operation results in significant offshore disruption’, viewed 13 September 2013, <http://www.afp.gov.au/media-centre/ news/afp/2013/july/media%20release-joint-operation-results-in-significant-offshoredisruption.aspx>. Australian Government (AG) 2012, ComLaw, Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956, AG, Canberra, viewed 26 July 2012, <http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Series/ F1996B03651>. Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) 2013, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, Volume 1, Drug and Chemical Control, March 2013, BINLEA. Daily Times, ‘Fighting drug gangs in the notorious Golden Triangle’ 19 July 2013, viewed 26 July 2013, <http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2013%5C07%5C19%5Cs tory_19-7-2013_pg4_7>.
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European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2011, Drug Profiles: MDMA, EMCDDA, Lisbon, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.emcdda. europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/mdma>. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013, European Drug Report: trends and developments, EMCDDA, Lisbon. International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) 2012, Precursors and chemicals frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, INCB, Vienna, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.incb.org/ documents/PRECURSORS/TECHNICAL_REPORTS/2011/PARTITION/ENGLISH/PR2011E_ ExtentOfLicitTradeAndLatestTrendsInTraffickingPrecursors.pdf>. National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health (NCCEH) 2012, Clandestine amphetamine-derived drug laboratories: remediation guidelines for residential settings, NCCEH, Vancouver, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.ncceh.ca/sites/default/files/ Drug_Lab_Remdiation_Guidelines_Dec_2012.pdf>. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013, UNODC, Vienna. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Global Smart Update March 2013, Volume 9. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013c, Transnational Organized Crime in West Africa: A Threat Assessment, UNODC. Xinhua 2012, ‘Chinese, Myanmar police bust cross-border drug gang’, Xinhua, 16 August 2012, viewed 25 November 2013, <http://english.people.com.cn/90883/7911989.html>.
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INITIATIVES
Key points
The leading drug policy document in Australia is the National Drug Strategy 2010–2015. A number of key amendments were recently made to the Criminal Code Act 1995 to strengthen the serious drug offences framework. The Australian Government is considering options to strengthen existing border controls to prohibit the importation of new psychoactive substances and is working with states and territories to address the domestic manufacture, supply and advertising of these substances.
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INTRODUCTION
This chapter outlines some of the initiatives that reflect the Australian Government’s commitment to countering the threat posed by illicit drugs. These initiatives have been developed by law enforcement, health authorities and other government and non-government agencies. The contribution to this chapter was provided primarily by the Attorney-General’s Department, as the central policy and coordinating element of the Attorney-General’s portfolio. The Attorney-General’s portfolio continues to work with Commonwealth, state and territory agencies to strengthen Commonwealth legislative frameworks and law enforcement mechanisms to combat the illicit drug trade—particularly in light of the links to serious and organised crime. Recent initiatives include amendments to the Commonwealth serious drug offences framework to improve the Commonwealth’s ability to be responsive to new and emerging threats in the illicit drug market. The Commonwealth is pursuing a range of activities to strengthen controls on new psychoactive substances.
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NATIONAL DRUG STRATEGY 2010–2015
The National Drug Strategy 2010–2015 (NDS) is the leading drug policy document for Commonwealth, state and territory governments, as well as the non-government sector. The NDS focuses on building safe and healthy communities by minimising alcohol, tobacco and other drug-related harms among individuals, families and communities. The objective of harm minimisation is maintained through a balanced approach between demand reduction, supply reduction and harm reduction that has underpinned the NDS since its inception in 1985. The NDS continues the key partnership between health and law enforcement, while acknowledging the importance of working with other sectors to address the complex causes and consequences of drug use. The Attorney-General’s Department is a member of the Intergovernmental Committee on Drugs (IGCD), which is comprised of representatives from health and law enforcement agencies across all jurisdictions. The IGCD has responsibility for the implementation of the NDS and includes specialist working groups and committees designed to provide ongoing guidance and expertise to the IGCD relating to specific alcohol, licit and illicit drug issues of interest.
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STRENGTHENING THE SERIOUS DRUG OFFENCES FRAMEWORK
A number of key amendments have recently been made to the Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth) (Criminal Code) to strengthen the serious drug offences framework and ensure it is up to date and effective in combating the illicit drug trade. A number of synthetic substances that pose a serious risk of death or harm if taken were listed as controlled or border controlled drugs and are now subject to the full range of serious drug offences in the Criminal Code. In April 2012, four drugs (benzylpiperazine, ketamine, methcathinone, 4-methylmethcathinone) and one precursor (phenylpropanolamine) were listed indefinitely after being temporarily listed for 12 months. In May 2013, the following amendments were made to Part 9.1 of the Criminal Code: the lists of drugs, plants and precursors were transferred to the Criminal Code Regulations 2002 to provide for quicker listing of substances the emergency determination mechanism was improved by extending the listing period to allow for appropriate analysis and testing of substances the mechanisms for listing new drugs, plants or precursors were refined. Improvements to the serious drug offences framework are made in consultation with key stakeholder agencies such as the Australian Federal Police (AFP), Australian Customs and Border Protection Service, Department of Health and the Australian Crime Commission (ACC).
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NEW PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
New psychoactive substances or ‘synthetic’ drugs mimic the effect of existing illicit drugs, but have slightly different chemical structures that may fall outside existing prohibitions. Often purchased online and sold as ‘legal highs’,1 there are a range of controls already in place to prohibit many of them. CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY BAN On 19 June 2013, the then Commonwealth Assistant Treasurer introduced an interim consumer protection ban under the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (Cth) prohibiting the retail sale of certain psychoactive products and substances nationally. This ban was introduced to fill a gap in coverage in some states and territories where Schedule 92 of the Poisons Standard had not been fully implemented. It followed the introduction of an interim ban that was put in place by the New South Wales Minister for Fair Trading. The national interim ban lapsed on 13 October 2013. As the relevant state and territory drug laws were updated while the interim ban was in place, the Assistant Treasurer determined that a permanent ban was not required.
1 Use of the term ‘legal high’ may not reflect the true legal status of these substances under Australian legislation. 2 Schedule 9 of the Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons lists substances the Therapeutic Goods Administration has assessed as liable to abuse or misuse and which should be prohibited.
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INITIATIVES
STRENGTHENING THE RESPONSE AT THE BORDER Tackling new psychoactive substances requires a national approach. The Australian Government is considering options to strengthen existing border controls to prohibit the importation of these substances. The Commonwealth is also working with the states and territories through the IGCD to develop complementary regimes around the domestic manufacture, supply and advertising of new psychoactive substances.
FORENSIC DRUG INTELLIGENCE
The Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team, formerly the Australian Illicit Drug Data Centre, is a part of the AFP Forensics portfolio. FDI supports the AFP, law enforcement and other partners through the collection, collation and analysis of forensic and scientific information on illicit drugs. The FDI provides specialist forensic advice, scientific and technical intelligence analysis and evidence-based policy development. Two of the projects the FDI team has responsibility for are funded through the Confiscated Assets Account. These are the Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) and the National Drug Precursor Risk Assessment Capability (NDPRAC), both of which contribute to the production of operationally-relevant intelligence and inform evidence-based policy decisions.
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NATIONAL FORENSIC RAPID LAB
The National Forensic Rapid Lab (NFRL) is a recently implemented capability within the AFP Forensics portfolio. The goal of the NFRL is to identify organised, multiple importations of significant quantities of illicit drugs via the international postal system through the collection, analysis and assessment of forensic intelligence. A major component of the NFRL’s mission is the detection and rapid identification of new and novel drugs, including ‘analogues’, which are increasingly being systematically ordered via the internet and distributed using the international postal system. The NFRL provides valuable and actionable operational intelligence to other countries via the AFP’s international network. This enables effective disruption and prosecution activities within those countries, with the aim of preventing the importation of illicit drugs into Australia via the international postal system.
PRECURSOR ADVISORY GROUP
The Precursor Advisory Group (PAG) was established under the National Precursor Control Framework to support the decision-making process under the framework. The PAG is responsible for coordinating risk assessments of the diversion of precursors to illicit drug manufacture and the consequential harms to the community posed by the use of precursors. The PAG also provides recommendations on national controls to mitigate identified risks.
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INITIATIVES
The PAG is chaired by the Attorney-General’s Department. Membership of the PAG includes technical experts from the Commonwealth and state and territory governments. The group also draws advice from various industry representatives through a Precursor Industry Reference Group (PIRG). The PAG directs the NDPRAC to carry out risk assessments on prioritised chemicals and in consultation with the PIRG, uses these assessments to make recommendations to the IGCD for regulatory or other action relating to these chemicals.
ICE PIPES REGULATION – PROHIBITED IMPORT
The ACC has identified amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) as one of the three highest organised crime priorities for Australia. While ATS can be administered through a range of methods, including inhalation, smoking of methylamphetamine in its crystalline form is particularly dangerous due to high purity levels. Ice pipes or devices capable of being used for drawing or inhaling the resulting smoke or fumes from heating methylamphetamine are illegal in most Australian jurisdictions. As ice pipes do not have any legitimate use in industry, they have been controlled as a Prohibited Import under the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 since 10 December 2011. Persons with a legitimate scientific or law enforcement reason to import ice pipes are still able to do so, subject to permission from the Minister for Immigration and Border Protection or an authorised person.
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STATE & TERRITORY LEGISLATION AMENDMENTS & INITIATIVES
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides an overview of recently proposed or implemented legislative and regulatory changes and law enforcement initiatives related to illicit drugs in Australian states and territories. Contributions to this chapter were provided by each state and territory police service. Information contained in this chapter should be used as a guide only. Please refer to the nominated Act or regulation for further detail.
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LEGISLATIVE & REGULATORY AMENDMENTS
NEW SOUTH WALES (NSW)
________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION Drug Misuse and Trafficking Act (DMTA) 1985 Date assented: 27 September 2013
STATE AND TERRITORY
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PURPOSE To amend the DMTA to have 45 new substances added to Schedule 1. The substances listed in Schedule 9 of the Commonwealth Poisons Standard will be adopted into the Poisons and Therapeutic Goods Act (NSW). When new substances that belong to this class are identified, this will be specified in the DMTA Schedule and it will become a prohibited drug. OBJECTIVES The majority of synthetic cannabinoids, cathinone analogues and the NBOMe compounds will become prohibited substances. The definition of ‘analogue’ will be amended not to include the phrase ‘psychotropic properties.’ This will make it easier to prove a substance is an analogue. ________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION New Psychoactive Substances Act Date assented: 24 September 2013 PURPOSE To introduce a new Act to deal specifically with psychoactive substances. OBJECTIVES Effectively this will make it an offence to sell, manufacture and advertise substances with a psychoactive effect. It will also deal with those substances that are marketed as plant food or bath salts. There will be no possession offence attached to this Act.
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NORTHERN TERRITORY (NT)
________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION Misuse of Drugs Amendment Regulations 2012 Date assented: 3 August 2012 PURPOSE The insertion of the definition ‘Indigenous community’ (regulation 6A) into section 4B(1) of the Misuse of Drugs Act. Consequently, the areas that were defined as prescribed areas under section 4 of the Northern Territory National Emergency Response (NTNER) Act 2007, prior to its repeal, are again prescribed areas under the Misuse of Drugs Act. OBJECTIVES The Regulation provides clarity of definition given the repeal of legislation. Individuals within Indigenous communities who initiate and/or aggravate certain offences may face increased penalties.
QUEENSLAND (Qld)
________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION Drugs Misuse Act (DMA) 1986 Date assented: 29 April 2013 PURPOSE To amend the DMA extended definition of a dangerous drug contained in Section 4 ‘Definitions’ and to create a new offence for trafficking in precursor chemicals used in the production of dangerous drugs. OBJECTIVES Amend the definition of ‘dangerous drug’ to overcome the evidentiary difficulties in proving a substance has a substantially similar chemical structure and a substantially similar pharmacological effect to a scheduled dangerous drug (where the substance is new and has not been subjected to study) to include: (c) a thing that: has a chemical structure that is substantially similar to the chemical structure of a thing referred to in paragraph (a)1 or (b)2 has a pharmacological effect that is substantially similar to the pharmacological effect of a thing referred to in paragraph (a) or (b) is intended to have a pharmacological effect that is substantially similar to the pharmacological effect of a thing referred to in paragraph (a) or (b). Additionally, create a new offence of trafficking in precursors (substances used to manufacture dangerous drugs).
1 2 A thing specified in the Drugs Misuse Regulation 1987, schedule 1 or 2 or, where the thing so specified is a plant, any part of the thing. A thing being a salt, derivative or stereo-isomer of a thing referred to in paragraph (a) or any salt of such a derivative or stereo-isomer.
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________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION Drugs Misuse Regulations (DMR) 1987 Date assented: 5 April 2013 PURPOSE Addition of 33 substances as dangerous drugs. OBJECTIVES Addition of one compound into Schedule 1 of the DMR: paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA). Addition of 33 compounds into Schedule 2 of the DMR: n-(1-adamantyl)-1-pentyl-indazole-3-carboxamide (APINACA or AKB48) alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (alpha-PVP) 2-aminoindane 6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB)
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butyl-3-(2-methoxybenzoyl)indole (RCS-4(C4) 2-methoxy isomer) [3-(3-carbamoylphenyl)phenyl] n-cyclohexylcarbamate (URB-597) cyclohexyl [1,1’-biphenyl]-3-ylcarbamate (URB-602) desoxypipradrol (2-DPMP) 1,3-dimethylamylamine (DMAA or methylhexanamine) 1-(5-fluoropentyl)-3-(1-adamantylamido)indole (STS-135) (1-(5-fluoropentyl)-indol-3-yl)-(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl) methanone (XLR-11; 5-fluoro UR-144) 1-(5-fluoropentyl)-3-(4-methyl-1-naphthoyl)indole (5-fluoro JWH-122) 5-hydroxy tryptophan (5-HTP) 4-hydroxy-n-methyl-n-ethyltryptamine (4-HO-MET) methiopropamine methoxetamine n-(2-methoxybenzyl)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine (25B-NBOMe) n-(2-methoxybenzyl)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-chlorophenethylamine (25C-NBOMe) n-(2-methoxybenzyl)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenethylamine (25I-NBOMe) 5-methoxy-n,n-diallyltryptamine (5-MeO-DALT) 5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI)
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3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) 4-methylethylcathinone (4-MEC) 1-[(n-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl]-3-(1-adamantoyl)indole (AM-1248) 1-[(n-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl]-3-(2-iodobenzoyl)indole (AM-2233) 1-[(n-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl]-3-(4-methyl-1-naphthoyl)indole (MAM-1220) 1-[(n-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl]-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (AM-1220) naphthylpyrovalerone (naphyrone) pentyl-3-(1-adamantoyl)indole (AB-001) pentylindol-3-yl)-(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl)methanone (UR-144) pentyl-3-(2-methoxybenzoyl)indole (RCS-4 (2-methoxy isomer)) phenazepam.
TASMANIA (Tas)
________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION Misuse of Drugs Order 2012 Date assented: 1 October 2012 PURPOSE The Order enabled the addition of synthetic cannabinoid drug classes and other new substances to the Controlled Drug list of the Misuse of Drugs Act 2001. OBJECTIVES To increase the utility of the Act to deal with new psychoactive substances.
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WESTERN AUSTRALIA (WA)
________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION Misuse of Drugs Amendment Act 2011 Date assented: 30 January 2013 PURPOSE To amend the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 to change the definition of drug paraphernalia and to create a number of new offences concerning the sale and display for sale of drug paraphernalia. OBJECTIVES Drug paraphernalia is now defined as: a) anything made or modified to be used in connection with manufacturing or preparing a prohibited drug or a prohibited plant: for administration to a person for smoking, inhaling or ingesting by a person to be burned or heated so its smoke or fumes can be smoked or inhaled by a person.
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b) anything made or modified to be used by a person: to administer a prohibited drug or a prohibited plant to a person to smoke, inhale or ingest a prohibited drug or prohibited plant to smoke or inhale the smoke or fumes resulting from burning or heating a prohibited drug or prohibited plant.
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AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY (ACT)
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Early Intervention and Diversion Program (Alcohol Diversion for Young People) and the Illicit Drug Diversion Program DURATION 2010–2012 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The Australian Capital Territory Policing Early Intervention and Diversion program is designed to provide early incentives for drug offenders to deal with their drug problems. The main people who can benefit from this program are young offenders who have no prior involvement with the courts. Young drug offenders who qualify for the program have the opportunity of being referred to a variety of education and treatment options. It is a partnership approach between health, police and non-government agencies adhering to the principles of the National Drug Strategy 2010–2015.
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NEW SOUTH WALES (NSW)
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE End User Declarations (EUD) DURATION 2010–2013 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES An electronic system should be developed in order to facilitate the input and retrieval of this data. The New South Wales Police Drug Squad has made a submission to create such a system and there is currently a study funded by the National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund (NDLERF) looking at the feasibility of such a system. Price Waterhouse Coopers has finished their scoping study and presented their results.
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NEW SOUTH WALES (NSW) cont.
NDLERF has accepted and endorsed the scoping study. The study has been adopted by the Australia New Zealand Policing Advisory Agency Crime Forum and has now been endorsed by the Strategic Issues Group (CrimTrac) and Senior Officers Group on Organised Crime. The Investigations Coordinator Chemical Operations (New South Wales Police Force) will chair the EUD Working Group and with the Attorney General’s Department will identify and formalise other jurisdictional members of the working group. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Pharmaceutical misuse DURATION 2010–2013 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The New South Wales Police Force (NSWPF) are currently involved in a range of external committees that are looking at pharmaceutical misuse including the Intergovernmental Committee on Drugs (IGCD), New South Wales Expert Advisory Group on Drugs and the New South Wales Illicit Drug and Alcohol Monitoring Group. The IGCD commenced the National Pharmaceutical Drugs Misuse Strategy in 2010. The aim of the strategy is to reduce the diversion and misuse of pharmaceuticals and associated harms. The NSWPF have contributed to the consultation process for the Strategy through participation in the New South Wales consultation forum and through the provision of research into the illicit pharmaceuticals market conducted by the Drug and Alcohol Coordination (DAC). Some of the key issues for law enforcement agencies include accurate police data collection, information sharing between state and federal police and health bodies, sharing and development of best practice strategies in relation to prosecutions and health initiatives, a review of relevant jurisdictional laws and regulations, clear delineation of regulator roles, responsibility and liaison channels, a real-time national on-line prescription system and education programs and resources for all stakeholders. The NSWPF is committed to pursuing operational and policy responses to these issues through an internal working party consisting of DAC, the Drug Squad and Local Area Command members. This working party will facilitate change within the NSWPF and through membership to external bodies including the IGCD.
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NORTHERN TERRITORY (NT)
____________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Northern Territory Early Intervention Pilot Program (NTEIPP) DURATION 2010–2013 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The NTEIPP aims to facilitate partnerships with police, community service organisations and agencies, with a view to better engage with youth. Facilitating an interventionist approach enables youth to engage positively with community based police and other organisations and be provided with opportunity for referral and brief interventions. The improved relationships developed with youths through use of the NTEIPP have fostered a connection to health and other social services. This positive interaction with young people facilitates the intervention and referral process. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Northern Territory Illicit Drug Pre Court Diversion Program (IDPCDP) DURATION Ongoing-current MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The Northern Territory IDPCDP model enables police to divert first time drug offenders (both juvenile and adults) in possession of less than a trafficable quantity of an illicit drug. These offenders may be given the opportunity to participate in assessment, education, counselling and/or treatment to expiate the offence. Non-compliance in assessment or intervention results in the offender being prosecuted through the court system. This program utilises and enhances service provision, provided by both Government and non-government organisations, to maximise the opportunity for users of illicit drugs and licit drugs (used illicitly) to enter assessment, education, counselling and/or treatment. It establishes a framework whereby users may, through the admission of guilt, be diverted by police to assessment, education, counselling and/or treatment as an alternative to receiving a criminal penalty.
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QUEENSLAND (QLD)
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Clandestine Laboratory Awareness Workshops—CLAWS project DURATION 2012–2013 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The aim of this project was to educate real estate professionals state-wide, with a view of increasing awareness to identify the presence of a clandestine laboratory and thereby minimising the risk of harm to the community, whilst ensuring property security and integrity. The project also aimed to educate the Department of Communities in relation to clandestine laboratory investigation. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Operation Greensmoke (synthetic drug awareness) DURATION 2013
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MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The aim of this project was to educate police, industries (such as the mining sector) and the community throughout metropolitan and regional Queensland about the new and emerging drugs such as synthetic cannabis and ‘bath salts’. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE National Drug Commander’s Forum DURATION 2013 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The Queensland State Drug Squad (SDS) hosted the 2013 National Drug Commander’s Forum which was held on 13 November 2013 in Cairns. The theme of the forum was ‘Bridging the Borders’ and focused on developing strategies to enhance crossjurisdictional cooperation in drug related investigations involving police and other law enforcement agencies throughout Australia. Commanders of drug units are required to address a variety of shifting organisational and governmental priorities with a limited amount of resources, whilst remaining cognisant of the need to maintain the guidelines set by national and state drug policies. The National Drug Commander’s Forum provided an opportunity to address the recurring issues of cross-border operations, use of proceeds of crime funds for operations, unexplained wealth and other topics where jurisdictional differences impede the progress of operational outcomes.
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Representatives from a national, state and territory police and other law enforcement and partner agencies attended the forum which included the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation, the United States Drug Enforcement Administration, the New Zealand Police, Netherlands Police, the Australian Crime Commission, the Australian Customs & Border Protection Service, the Crime and Misconduct Commission and the Australian Sport Anti-Doping Agency. The forum and seminar was made possible thanks to the ongoing support of the Queensland Police Service State Crime Command, the Drug and Alcohol Coordination Unit and the Australian Crime Commission.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA (SA)
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE South Australian Alcohol and Other Drug Strategy 2011–2016 – Annual Report on Progress DURATION November 2011–2012 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The first progress report of the 2011–2016 Strategy was prepared by Drug and Alcohol Services South Australia, with input from lead agencies, including South Australia Police, through the South Australian Alcohol and Other Drug Strategy Steering Group. The first year of the strategy delivered significant progress. Of 60 priority actions, 56 are on track or complete, 4 require additional effort and there are none behind schedule or not expected to be met. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Naloxone Distribution Pilot Program DURATION November 2012–May 2014 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES An 18-month Naloxone Distribution Pilot Program implemented by Drug and Alcohol Services South Australia is the first of its kind in South Australia. It is overseen by an advisory group comprised of representatives from police, ambulance, clinical services, SA Voice for Intravenous Education, SA Sex Industry Network and the Expanding Naloxone Availability in ACT committee. The pilot program aims to: increase availability of naloxone to people who inject opioids increase the capacity of people who inject opioids and potential overdose witnesses to effectively respond to an opioid overdose reduce brain injury and fatalities caused by opioid overdoses. By June 2013, overall parameters and methodology were being reassessed due to difficulties achieving recruitment targets despite augmentation strategies.
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SOUTH AUSTRALIA (SA) cont.
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE South Australia Police Illicit Drug Strategy 2012–2016 DURATION 2012–16 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES In September 2012, the South Australia Police Illicit Drug Strategy 2012–2016 was launched as a succinct document that emphasises every action counts when addressing the complexities of illicit drug use and related crime. It is overseen by a management group of senior executives and the managers of relevant specialist units. With emergent technological advances and exponential growth of online purchasing, innovation is required to effectively address internet use for purchasing and distribution of illicit drugs, their clandestine manufacture and the importation of analogue and synthetic drugs. Police officers have a vital role for increasing illicit drug detections and positively influencing community attitudes towards illicit drugs by focusing activities on the four priority areas of the Strategy: enforcement partnerships and community engagement capacity building intelligence analysis and research.
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TASMANIA (Tas)
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Illicit Drug Diversion Initiative (IDDI) DURATION 2000–ongoing In 2011, the IDDI became a program for adults only. MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The IDDI is an early intervention program for minor drug offenders, where cannabis and other illicit drugs are involved, including the illicit use of pharmaceuticals. IDDI operates under an agreement between the Department of Police and Emergency Management and the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS).
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The IDDI seeks to divert minor drug offenders away from the criminal justice system. An offender may be issued with a caution or a diversion notice. A diversion notice requires that the individual make contact with the Alcohol Drug Service (ADS), DHHS. The ADS provides assessment, counselling and treatment to assist minor drug offenders to address their drug use issues. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Tasmanian Psychostimulants Action Plan 2007–2013 DURATION 2007–2013 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The Tasmanian Psychostimulants Action Plan 2007–2013 was developed by the Inter Agency Working Group on Drugs (IAWGD) and was launched in 2007. The IAWGD is a group that has representation from a range of government departments and non-government organisations. The IAWGD is also responsible for implementation, monitoring and reporting against the Plan. The objectives of the Tasmanian Psychostimulants Action Plan 2007–2013 are to: reduce the supply and availability of illicit drugs and precursors work with the dance party industry to develop guidelines for safer environments build resilience in young people develop information resources for young people, the community, police and health professionals provide timely and appropriate intervention and linking of people to health services. The Plan supports the objectives of the Tasmanian Drug Strategy 2005–2012. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Court Mandated Diversion (CMD) DURATION Ongoing-current MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES CMD provides Magistrates with an option to divert eligible offenders into treatment for their drug use through either the bail or sentencing process. CMD is administered by the Department of Justice. The primary goal of the CMD program is to break the drug-crime cycle by involving offenders in treatment and rehabilitation programs. It increases offender access to drug, alcohol, and other welfare services, in order to break their cycle of contact with the criminal justice system.
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TASMANIA (Tas) CONT.
________________________________________________________________________ Other principal goals of the CMD project are to: provide offenders with an opportunity to acknowledge and address offending behaviour caused by drug abuse, thereby improving physical and psychological well being help eligible offenders to reduce and abstain from illicit drug use reduce drug-related offending behaviour improve offenders’ relationships with family and friends improve offenders’ possibility of gaining or retaining employment provide offenders with the tools to recognise and prevent relapse into substance abuse and criminal behaviour develop a shared approach to and a commitment to a ‘joint’ service delivery system between Government and the non-government sector.
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VICTORIA (Vic)
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Illicit Drug Diversion Initiative DURATION Ongoing-current MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The Drug Diversion and Cannabis Cautioning programs enable police to refer illicit drug users to timely health interventions. The Cannabis Cautioning program involves providing a cautioning notice for simple use/possess cannabis offences to offenders who meet the police criteria. An optional education session for offenders will be offered in conjunction with the caution. The Drug Diversion program involves offering a diversion to a person detained for use or possession of an illicit drug other than cannabis on the condition that they undertake a clinical drug assessment and enter any prescribed drug treatment. The offender must meet police criteria and agree to the diversion and will be provided with a drug assessment appointment time.
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STATISTICS
INTRODUCTION
The Australian Crime Commission (ACC) uses the National Illicit Drug Reporting Format (NIDRF) system to process seizure, arrest and purity data for the Illicit Drug Data Report (IDDR). This allows for more accurate analysis of law enforcement data and assists in moving towards nationally standardised data holdings. The ACC acknowledges the assistance of police statisticians and information managers in this process.
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CountinG methodoLoGy
The following methodology was used to develop a count of arrests by drug type: where a person has been charged with multiple consumer or provider offences for a particular type of drug, that person is counted once only as a consumer or provider of that drug where consumer and provider charges for a particular drug type have been laid, the provider charge takes precedence and the person is counted only as a provider of that drug a person who has been charged in relation to multiple drug types is counted as a consumer or provider for each drug type a person is counted on each separate occasion that they are charged.
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Data SOURCES
Arrest and seizure data
The following agencies provided arrest and seizure data: Australian Federal Police Australian Federal Police, ACT Policing New South Wales Police Force Northern Territory Police Queensland Police Service South Australia Police Tasmania Police Victoria Police Western Australia Police.
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Drug purity data
The following agencies and organisations provided drug purity data: Australian Federal Police Australian Federal Police, ACT Policing ChemCentre Forensic Science South Australia Forensic Science Service Tasmania New South Wales Health, Mental Health and Drug and Alcohol Office New South Wales Forensic and Analytical Science Service Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services Victoria Police. The purity tables only represent purity figures for seizures of that drug type that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. The number of ‘cases’ in the purity level tables reflects the number of individual samples analysed (items), as distinct from the number of seizures/cases (which may have multiple items).
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Drug purity figures for Victoria, Queensland, and the Australian Capital Territory represent the purity level of drugs seized by police during the relevant quarter. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity level of drugs received at the laboratory during the relevant quarter. Specifically, the ChemCentre in Western Australia and Forensic Science South Australia do not analyse all seizures less than 2 grams. As a result, the purity table will underestimate the number of samples tested. The time between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratories can vary from a few days to several months and, in isolated cases, years. The purity table represents those seizures analysed during the financial year 2012–13, not necessarily all seizures made during that period. The New South Wales Drugs Laboratory tests for purity levels on cases larger than the traffickable level: being 3 grams for amphetamine, methylamphetamine, heroin, cocaine, 0.75 grams for phenethylamines and 15 discrete dosage units (ddu) for lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). For each case, purity testing is carried out on each drug type over the traffickable quantity. Additionally, the laboratory will only test a limited number of samples per case. The laboratory also tests purity levels on controlled operations for the New South Wales Police Force, including undercover units, which are greater than 100 milligrams. In South Australia, very low levels of drugs (less than 0.1%) were excluded from analysis. Tasmania Police do not conduct purity determinations on exhibits unless it is specifically requested by the investigator and he/she has a good reason for doing so. Tasmania Police also do not conduct purity determinations on less than 0.5 grams. Legislation in Tasmania does not take into account the purity of the exhibit, so there are very few instances where purity determinations are of great value and hence not worth the significant effort required to determine the purity. Drug seizures are not routinely tested for purity in the Northern Territory, unless specifically requested. The Misuse of Drugs Act (NT) provides for all of the preparation or mixture to be deemed as if all of the substance (preparation or mixture) is comprised of the dangerous drug found, irrespective of purity. ACT Policing only tests for purity on seizures that are larger than the traffickable amount. All samples lodged by ACT Policing with the ACT Government Analytical Laboratory are tested, but not all are tested for purity.
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Drug price data
Data on prices for illicit drugs were collected from each of the police jurisdictions and are based on information supplied by covert police units and police informants. Unless otherwise stated, police price information has been used.
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Limitations of the data
Overview
Despite limitations in the current data set, the ACC’s IDDR, provides the best collection of arrest and seizure statistics available in Australia. The NIDRF data processing system has enabled the ACC to improve statistical quality and reliability.
STATISTICS
Datasets
Since the development and implementation of the NIDRF processing system, limitations with the administrative datasets used to compile the statistics have decreased. However, the following factors should be considered when using the data to develop assessments or conclusions: a lack of uniformity across all states and territories in the recording and storing of data on illicit drug arrests and seizures ongoing problems with quality control, resulting in the absence of essential information from some records differences in applying a uniform counting and data extraction methodology across all jurisdictions differences in definitions of consumer and provider offences across and within jurisdictions over time differences in the way drugs and offences may be coded insufficient drug identification an inability to identify seizures resulting from joint operations, for example, those involving the AFP and a state or territory agency.
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Drug identification and coding
Not all illicit drugs seized by law enforcement are scientifically analysed to establish the precise nature of the drug. In some cases, only seizures of a predetermined weight or those that are the subject of a ‘not guilty’ plea are analysed. In some instances, an initial field test may be carried out to provide an indication as to the seized drug, but all other seizures are recorded at the discretion of the investigating officer and without further qualification.
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Historically, a number of jurisdictional data systems did not differentiate between amphetamine‑type stimulants (ATS) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). This has restricted the ACC’s ability to monitor and report on national trends in MDMA seizures and arrests. Similar problems continue to exist with a range of other drugs, including ketamine and gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), and in some jurisdictions seizures of these drugs are recorded as ‘other drugs’. Monitoring and reporting on national trends of these drugs is therefore limited.
Recording and storage methods
The lack of consistency between law enforcement agencies in recording illicit drug arrests and seizures presents difficulties when data is aggregated and compared. Disparities exist in the level of detail recorded for each offence, the methods used to quantify the seizures, the way offence and seizure data is extracted, and the way counting rules and extraction programs are applied.
Quality control
Missing, incomplete and non-specific information relating to drug seizures makes it impossible to calculate precisely the total quantity of each drug type seized. As a result it is difficult to analyse trends on a comparative basis across a number of years. This has been a particularly pertinent issue since the 2001–02 report, as the NIDRF system allows for increased scrutiny of large seizures that may not have been queried in the past.
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Consumers and providers
Offenders are classified as consumers or providers in order to differentiate between people who have been apprehended for trading in, as opposed to using, illicit drugs. Those charged with supply-type offences (importation, trafficking, selling, cultivation and manufacture) are classified as providers. Those charged with user-type offences (possessing or administering drugs for their own use) are classified as consumers. In some cases, the jurisdictions allocate consumer and provider codes, and in others, the ACC applies the codes based on the information on the type of offence committed. Further, there are some differences in the methodologies jurisdictions use for applying consumer and provider codes. In some states and territories, the quantity of the drug involved determines whether an offence is regarded as a consumer or a provider offence. Additionally, the threshold quantity that determines whether a person is to be charged as a provider varies over time, both within and between states and territories. Offender data supplied may exclude law enforcement actions that are the subject of ongoing investigations.
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Detection data
Border detection data supplied may exclude detections that are the subject of ongoing investigations.
Seizure data
The seizure data presented in Table 49 includes only those seizures for which a valid drug weight was recorded. Consequently, it undercounts both the number of seizures and the amount of drug seized for all drug types. Seizure data for ATS, cannabis and other drugs are most likely to be affected by the variety of measurement methods and these figures should be treated with caution when making comparisons between jurisdictions or over time. This table includes seizures by the Australian Federal Police and state and territory police jurisdictions. Seizure data supplied may exclude seizures that are the subject of ongoing investigations.
Drug Use Monitoring in Australia (DUMA) program
The DUMA program is an ongoing data collection system capturing information on approximately 4 000 police detainees per year across nine locations throughout Australia. There are two core components: a self-report survey and voluntary urinalysis. The self-report survey details a range of criminal justice, demographic, drug use and drug market participation information, while the voluntary urinalysis serves as an important objective method for corroborating self-reported drug use. Not all detainees who respond to the self-report survey agree to urinalysis testing, although the response rate is high. During 2012–13, data on approximately 2 000 police detainees was collected. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflects data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only, with urine collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012.
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JurisdictionaL Issues
The comparability of law enforcement data across states and territories is problematic. For the information of agencies and individuals wishing to interpret the data, specific issues regarding jurisdictional data have been identified by the ACC and the relevant jurisdiction. These issues have been summarised and are represented below.
STATISTICS
New South Wales
The New South Wales (NSW) Police Force provided the ACC with offender and seizure data. The NSW Health, Mental Health and Drug and Alcohol Office, provided the drug purity data.
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Prior to 2005–06, NSW Police Force data was extracted directly from the mainframe recording system (COPS). Since 2005–06, data has been extracted from COPS using a data warehousing application ‘Enterprise Data Warehouse’. Tests to verify the process of data extraction have been undertaken and the NSW Police Force is confident that the retrieval process is comparable with previous extracts from COPS.
Victoria
Victoria Police provided the ACC with offender, seizure and drug purity data. Drug quantities and weights reported are estimates only and are not validated by forensic analysis. In 2004–05, Victoria Police rewrote its data extraction program and improved the data quality checks. Further data quality processes have been implemented to improve the data. The Victorian clandestine laboratory detections figure was taken from the record of attendances by forensic analysts at suspected laboratories and validated by the Clandestine Laboratory Squad.
Queensland
The Queensland Police Service provided the ACC with offender and seizure data. Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services provided purity data. During the 2006–07 reporting period, the Queensland Police Service changed administrative systems. As a result, caution should be exercised in comparing data.
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South Australia
South Australia Police provided the ACC with offender and seizure data, but did not include this data for offenders participating in its Drug Diversion Program. Forensic Science South Australia provided the purity data.
Western Australia
Western Australia Police provided the ACC with seizure and offender data. ChemCentre provided the purity data. Legislation changes for cannabis offences in Western Australia took effect from 1 August 2011 following amendments to the Misuse of Drugs Act. The Cannabis Infringement Notice (CIN) was replaced by a Cannabis Intervention Requirement (CIR) which changes the way police should respond when dealing with a person in possession of cannabis. From 1 August 2011, any person who does not have a criminal history and is found to have 10 grams or less of cannabis will be offered 28 days to complete a Cannabis Intervention Session after which no charges will follow. People with previous cannabis related convictions are ineligible for this option. Participation in a Cannabis Intervention Session is offered once to adult offenders, but twice to juveniles aged between 14 and 17 years, so that subsequent offending would result in charges being brought directly. Western Australia Police introduced a new incident recording system in 2002–03, which changed the method for recording drug seizures. For this reason, care should be exercised when comparing data across years.
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Tasmania
Tasmania Police provided the ACC with offender and seizure data. Forensic Science Service Tasmania provided the purity data. It is important to note that the reported figures may differ from those reported in the Tasmania Police Annual Report and other publications due to the differing counting rules applied.
Northern Territory
Northern Territory Police provided the ACC with seizure and offender data. Northern Territory Forensic Laboratory was unable to provide purity data for this report. Data collection methods in the Northern Territory have been audited since the 2010–11 report. The change in data collection methodology has resulted in the provision of more detailed and accurate data for 2012–13. Seizure data for the Northern Territory relates to suspected drug type only. The number of Drug Infringement Notices (DINs) may differ to those extracted from the Integrated Justice Information System.
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Kava seizures in the Northern Territory may constitute a significant proportion of the number and weight of other and unknown NEC seizures within a given reporting period. Individual kava coding was not available for processing seizures in the Northern Territory for the majority of the 2012–13 reporting period. As such, care should be taken when interpreting these results. In the Northern Territory, it is often difficult to obtain accurate date of birth and address details from offenders; however, this lack of detail does not invalidate the data.
Australian Capital Territory
ACT Policing provided seizure and offender data. ACT Policing provided the purity data for inclusion in this report from analysis results provided by the ACT Government Analytical Laboratory. Data is comparable with figures in the IDDR from 2002–03 onwards. As reported by ACT Policing, Simple Cannabis Offence Notices (SCONs) data may not be a true representation of the number of SCONs issued for the period as offenders may be subsequently summonsed for non-payment and will therefore be included in consumer and provider arrests data.
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Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (Customs and Border Protection)
Detections of illicit drugs by Customs and Border Protection are handed to the Australian Federal Police (AFP) for investigation purposes, safe storage and destruction. Border detections are recorded on ‘Druglan’, which is updated with confirmed seizure weight data from the AFP. At present, there is no provision for an automatic update of accurate weights to Druglan. Data relating to the same border detections held by the AFP and Druglan will differ slightly. This is because only unconfirmed seizure weights are initially recorded. Customs and Border Protection detection figures are subject to change and reflect available data at time of extraction. As such, figures published in the IDDR may differ from those published in other reports, including Customs and Border Protection Annual Reports. For operational reasons, the format of data presented in the IDDR may vary from year to year. From 2010–11, Customs and Border Protection was unable to provide importation data to populate country of embarkation charts for inclusion in the report. From 2011–12, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and steroid border detection data are reported as a combined figure.
Australian Federal Police (AFP)
The AFP provided national offender, seizure and purity data. This data was compiled in conjunction with the AFP’s Forensic Drug Intelligence team. Seizures resulting from joint operations with Customs and Border Protection are represented within AFP figures in Tables 49. Totals may differ from those published earlier in the AFP Annual Report 2012–13 due to the data extraction being based on more recent data and on the AFP using different drug grouping categories to the ACC.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
STATISTICS
EXPLANATORY NOTES
The following explanatory notes relate to terms used in this report.
STATISTICS
Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS)
Unless otherwise specified, ‘amphetamine-type stimulants’ (ATS) include amphetamine, methylamphetamine and phenethylamines.
Arrest
‘Arrest’ incorporates recorded law enforcement action against a person for suspected unlawful involvement in illicit drugs. It incorporates enforcement action by way of arrest, summons, diversion program, cannabis expiation notice (South Australia), simple cannabis offence notice (Australian Capital Territory), drug infringement notice (Northern Territory), and ‘notice to appear’ (Queensland). Some charges may have been subsequently dropped or the defendant may have been found not guilty.
227
Cannabis
‘Cannabis’ includes cannabis plant, leaf, resin, oil, seed and all other forms.
Categories for Clandestine laboratories
In 2011–12 and 2012–13, jurisdictions were asked to distinguish detected clandestine laboratories into the following four categories, taken from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Annual Report Questionnaire that is used to inform the World Drug Report. Addict-based labs (kitchen labs). Only basic equipment and simple procedures are used. Typically, those operating in such laboratories have a limited or non-existent knowledge of chemistry and simply follow instructions. Usually, there are no significant stores of precursors and the amount of drugs or other substances manufactured is for personal use. A typical manufacture cycle for amphetamine-type stimulants would yield less than 50 grams of the substance. Other small scale labs. People operating in these laboratories have advanced chemical knowledge; more complex amphetamine-type stimulants may be manufactured. Laboratories may be of similar size to ‘addict-based labs’ but frequently employ nonimprovised equipment. They may also include experimental laboratories. The amount manufactured is typically for personal use or for a limited number of close associates. Typical manufacture cycle for ATS would yield less than 500 grams of the substance.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
STATISTICS
Medium sized labs. Use commercially available standard equipment and glassware (in some cases, custom-made equipment). They are not very mobile, making it possible to recover precursor chemicals and equipment in many cases (production estimates are the most viable and reliable). The amount manufactured at such sites is primarily for illicit economic gain. A typical manufacture cycle for ATS would yield between 0.5 to 50 kilograms. Industrial scale labs. Laboratories use oversized equipment and glassware that is either custom-made or purchased from industrial processing sources. Such industrial operations produce significant amounts of ATS in very short periods of time, only limited by access to precursors, reagents and consumables in adequate quantities and the logistics and manpower to handle large amounts of drugs or chemicals and process them into the next step. A typical manufacture cycle for ATS would yield 50 kilograms or more.
Cocaine
‘Cocaine’ includes cocaine, coca leaf and coca paste.
Detection
228
In the context of the border environment, the term ‘detection’ refers to the identification of illicit drugs by the Customs and Border Protection.
Embarkation point
‘Embarkation point’ describes the origin of the transport stage of importations. Embarkation is affected by air and sea transport connection patterns and the location of transport hubs, and may not necessarily reflect the true origin of drugs. Australia may appear as an embarkation country due to an export detection. In some instances, it may relate to detections on air passengers travelling domestically on an international flight.
Hallucinogens
‘Hallucinogens’ includes tryptamines such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin-containing mushrooms.
Heroin and other opioids
‘Heroin and other opioids’ include opioid analgesics such as heroin, methadone and pethidine and opiate analgesics including codeine, morphine and opium.
Other drugs
‘Other drugs’ include anabolic agents and selected hormones, tryptamines, anaesthetics, pharmaceuticals and drugs not elsewhere classified. Current reporting processes do not enable detailed identification of these drugs.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
STATISTICS
Phenethylamines
Phenethylamines include 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, commonly known as ‘ecstasy’), 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), dimethoxyamphetamine (DMA) and paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA).
Seizure
‘Seizure’ is the confiscation by a law enforcement agency of a quantity of an illicit drug or a regulated drug being used or possessed unlawfully, whether or not an arrest is made in conjunction with that confiscation. The amount of drug seized may be recorded by weight, volume or as a unit count—for example, number of tablets, plants or bags. The method of estimating the amount of drug seized varies between and within jurisdictions. For example, seizures of amphetamine in tablet form may be weighed or counted. Similarly, seizures of cannabis plants may be weighed, counted or measured.
Steroids
‘Steroids’ include anabolic and androgenic steroids such as testosterone, nandrolone and stanazolol.
229
Symbols and abbreviations
The following symbols and abbreviations are used in the tables: na nec no. r % – not available not elsewhere classified number revised figure per cent zero, or rounded to zero.
Figures that have been rounded may not add to totals.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
STATISTICS
UNDER EMBARGO
230
ARREST TABLES
Consumer Total 3 507 4 353 3 545 2 203 0 2 776 0 336 323 0 77 0 17 120 1 128 1 488 582 387 356 97 82 167 8 454 7 097 3 656 1 000 1 536 2 633 318 356 187 134 70 17 19 431 22 312 6 024 16 516 3 311 20 094 3 845 Male Female Not known 6 32 14 0 44 38 17 0 0 0 0 0 151 0 7 4 0 0 15 0 0 12 0 0 0 38 Provider Totala Total 23 945 19 859 28 350 4 656 8 677 11 125 1 463 1 844 769 521 426 114 101 749 Not known 6 25 10 0 44 23 17 0 20 0 0 0 145 83 062 14 009 3 073 114 0 0 349 67 10 521 0 0 478 232 79 1 508 278 58 1 463 0 0 8 349 2 148 613 8 677 0 0 1 831 1 763 440 24 805 2 903 638 15 501 3 649 697 19 466 2 969 538 Total Male Female Not known
TABLE 39: All drugs: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012 –13
State/territory 3 136 2 611 5 386 406 1 536 2 020 318 298 108 134 60 17 16 030
Male
Female
NSW
16 324
Vic
12 865
Qld
19 409
SA
1 425
SA CENsb
7 097
WA
6 306
WA CIRsc
1 128
Tas
1 210
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
NT
350
NT DINs
d
387
ACT
289
ACT SCONse
97
Total
66 887
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status and gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. b. Cannabis Expiation Notices. c. Cannabis Intervention Requirements. d. Drug Infringement Notices. e. Simple Cannabis Offence Notices. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
UNDER EMBARGO
UNDER EMBARGO
Consumer Male 4 777 5 691 3 849 976 2 173 98 144 95 17 803 27 25 10 4 377 692 336 1 091 1 068 3 1 0 5 0 0 0 9 1 128 0 Female Not known Provider Totala Total 5 905 6 762 4 941 1 312 2 870 125 169 105 22 189 Not known 0 2 1 0 3 0 0 0 6 16 595 4 509 950 3 5 462 81 23 1 0 24 113 49 7 0 56 82 35 8 0 43 2 024 667 177 2 846 610 537 148 0 685 4 281 545 115 0 660 4 993 1 511 257 1 1 769 4 411 1 142 237 0 1 379 Total Male Female Not known Total
TABLE 40: Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS): consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012 –13
State/territory 863 811 976 185 515 19 18 9 3 396
Male
Female
NSW
3 548
Vic
4 180
Qld
3 304
SA
425
WA
1 506
Tas
63
NT
95
ACT
72
Total
13 193
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 41: Cannabis: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012–13
Consumer 0 4 3 0 0 7 0 38 67 0 27 0 6 601 0 3 0 1 398 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 Provider Total 1 420 1 537 2 034 1 329 0 1 193 0 241 229 0 30 0 8 013 Not known 6 19 6 0 44 13 17 0 0 0 0 0 105 53 829 114 247 521 299 162 1 097 203 1 463 0 4 165 923 263 8 677 0 0 1 037 1 092 237 16 331 1 671 360 6 768 1 280 253 13 110 1 243 177 Total Male Female Not known
Totala Male 12 639 6 931 14 560 1 970 7 097 4 119 1 128 1 092 384 387 227 97 50 631 Female 2 151 1 351 3 796 408 1 536 1 219 318 246 144 134 50 17 11 370 Not known 6 23 9 0 44 20 17 0 0 0 0 0 119 Total 14 796 8 305 18 365 2 378 8 677 5 358 1 463 1 338 528 521 277 114 62 120
State/territory 1 933 1 098 3 436 169 1 536 956 318 208 77 134 47 17 9 929
Male
Female
NSW
11 171
Vic
5 651
Qld
12 889
SA
868
SA CENsb
7 097
WA
3 196
WA CIRs
c
1 128
Tas
889
NT
222
NT DINs
d
387
ACT
200
ACT SCONse
97
Total
43 795
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status and gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components.
b. Cannabis Expiation Notices. c. Cannabis Intervention Requirements. d. Drug Infringement Notices. e. Simple Cannabis Offence Notices. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
231
STATISTICS
UNDER EMBARGO
Provider Male 480 982 225 70 95 13 2 14 1 881 5 1 6 580 59 41 66 234 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 168 0 Female Not known Totala Total 648 1 217 291 111 155 18 3 20 2 463 Not known Total 375 902 249 27 94 14 3 14 1 678 572 203 1 776 4 2 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 4 41 19 1 61 52 32 0 84 32 10 0 42 249 66 0 315 192 72 0 264 Male Female Total 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Not known
TABLE 42: Heroin and other opioids: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012 –13
232
Consumer
State/territory 93 56 9 40 3 1 4
Male
Female
NSW
282
Vic
733
168
Qld
193
SA
18
WA
54
Tas
11
NT
2
ACT
10
Total
1 303
374
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
Provider Not known 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 32 0 0 0 0 Totala Total 181 80 36 25 46 1 0 11 380 Male 613 209 189 25 76 1 0 13 1 126 Female 81 26 22 5 15 1 0 4 154 Not known 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 Total 694 235 213 30 91 2 0 17 1 282 Not known Total 510 155 177 5 45 1 0 6 899 348 7 0 1 40 6 22 3 35 1 74 6 169 12 Male Female 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 68 20 21 2 9 1 0 0 121
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 43: Cocaine: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012–13
Consumer
State/territory
Male
Female
NSW
442
Vic
135
Qld
154
SA
3
WA
36
Tas
0
NT
0
ACT
6
Total
776
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
UNDER EMBARGO
UNDER EMBARGO
Provider Not known Total 11 12 76 1 30 7 5 6 148 597 6 12 13 0 2 0 63 85 16 7 1 350 42 85 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 39 0 0 Male Female 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Not known Totala Total 39 88 392 8 101 13 14 6 661 Not known Total 26 76 316 5 71 6 9 0 509 133 15 6 0 5 0 7 0 24 6 1 0 68 8 11 1 11 0 Male Female 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
TABLE 44: Steroids: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012 –13
Consumer
State/territory 0 1 34 1 10 0 2 0 48
Male
Female
NSW
26
Vic
74
Qld
282
SA
4
WA
61
Tas
6
NT
7
ACT
0
Total
460
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 45: Hallucinogens: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012 –13
Provider Not known Total 122 60 171 5 80 0 3 1 442 94 0 1 3 0 0 0 25 23 8 8 3 24 7 8 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 27 5 0 Male Female 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Not known Total 32 10 32 11 31 3 1 0 120 Male 137 55 168 11 90 3 4 1 469
Consumer
Totala Female 20 15 34 5 21 0 0 0 95 Not known 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Total 157 70 203 16 111 3 4 1 565
State/territory 14 13 27 2 13 0 0 0 69
Male
Female
NSW
108
Vic
47
Qld
144
SA
3
WA
67
Tas
0
NT
3
ACT
1
Total
373
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
233
STATISTICS
UNDER EMBARGO
Consumer Not known 0 4 1 0 12 77 15 0 2 792 0 0 0 17 Provider Totala Total 1 706 3 182 3 945 801 2 439 345 51 0 12 469 Not known 0 2 1 0 7 0 0 0 10 9 090 1 752 450 7 2 209 9 660 0 0 0 0 0 0 31 15 5 0 20 36 308 27 10 0 37 268 1 870 430 134 5 569 1 816 611 142 51 17 0 68 597 204 3 280 528 137 0 665 2 971 973 2 547 516 112 2 630 2 563 615 912 185 35 0 220 1 409 297 Total Male Female Not known Total Male Female
TABLE 46: Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified (nec): consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012 –13
234
State/territory 165 500 836 38 477 67 10 0 2 093
Male
Female
NSW
747
Vic
2 045
Qld
2 443
SA
104
WA
1 386
Tas
241
NT
21
ACT
0
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
Consumer 2008–09 11 778 47 804 1 783 553 158 270 5 574 67 920 68 776 69 731 6 588 6 544 7 893 76 165 366 283 366 221 277 389 841 575 714 1 884 1 706 1 800 1 678 899 509 442 9 090 83 042 48 883 50 845 52 413 53 829 2009–10 9 993 2010–11 9 501 2011–12 12 590 2012–13 16 595 2008–09 4 629 7 722 903 289 44 99 1 644 15 330 2009–10 3 921 8 123 860 400 67 144 2 109 15 624 Provider 2010–11 3 334 7 694 838 264 68 89 1 838 14 125 2011–12 4 216 8 548 907 280 118 117 2 153 16 339 2012–13 5 462 8 013 776 380 148 120 2 209 17 108
Total
6 987
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 47: All arrests: consumer and provider arrests, by drug type, 2008 –09 to 2012–13
Drug type
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Cannabis
Heroin and other opioids
Cocaine
Steroids
Hallucinogens
Other and unknown nec
Total
Note: Excludes arrests where consumer/provider information was not recorded.
UNDER EMBARGO
UNDER EMBARGO
2008–09 % 16.4 67.1 3.2 1.5 0.4 0.6 10.9 100 84 757 100 93 148 8 972 10.6 10 605 11.4 100 373 0.4 484 0.5 365 0.4 511 0.5 839 1.0 995 1.1 2 551 3.0 2 714 2.9 58 760 69.3 61 011 65.5 62 120 2 463 1 282 661 565 12 469 101 749 12 897 15.2 16 828 18.1 22 189 No. % No. % No. 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13 % 21.8 61.1 2.4 1.3 0.6 0.6 12.3 100 No. 16 452 55 638 2 693 848 214 369 7 659 83 873 100 85 252 9.1 9 263 0.4 512 0.3 314 1.0 1 244 3.2 2 767 66.3 57 170 19.6 13 982 % No.
TABLE 48: All arrests: number and proportion, by drug type, 2008 –09 to 2012–13
Drug Type
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Cannabis
Heroin and other opioids
Cocaine
Steroids
Hallucinogens
Other and unknown nec
Total
Note: Includes arrests where consumer/provider information was not recorded.
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
235
STATISTICS
SEIZURE TABLES
NSW Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT Total
UNDER EMBARGO
236
TABLE 49: Seizures: drug type, by state and territory, 2012 –13
Amphetamine-type stimulants State police Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) AFP Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) 1 450 1 032 796 972 818 083 272 23 796 14 31 078 348 65 703 1 2 6 4 082 0 0 3 900 34 257 332 22 281 4 232 8 985 240 5 197 344 2 950 183 738
7 125 1 305 075
17 806 2 412 279 3 250 4 041 457
1 637 3 098 713
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
3 761 5 316 279 295 4 218 268 2 778 6 39 814 7 851 4 19 17 741 810 499 364 733 242 9 480 20 590 2 792 244 683 1 638 177 625 47 895 763 200 371 3 2 52 482 9 299 075 1 699 44 938 262 29 136 721 37 545 58 26 617 9 127 438 1 1 059 9 764 217 2 062 185 1 380 39 798 164 173 0 0 0 0 3 2 5 6 146 46 243 0 0 1 375 42 203 209 502 277
Cannabis State police Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) AFP Seizures (no.) Weight (gms)
15 943 1 795 786
Heroin State police Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) AFP Seizures (no.) Weight (gms)
127 340 253
Other opioids State police Seizures (no.) 23 3 8 0 3 17 0 5 59 Weight (gms) 45 2 339 0 3 244 0 15 648 AFP 0 Seizures (no.) 25 10 8 0 1 0 0 44 0 Weight (gms) 3 778 1 670 46 0 5 0 0 5 499 Note: Includes only those seizures for which a drug weight was recorded. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police. Totals may differ from those reported in jurisdictional annual reports due to the different counting rules applied.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
UNDER EMBARGO
NSW Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT Total
TABLE 49 (continued): Seizures: drug type, by state and territory, 2012 –13
927 49 952
0 0
Cocaine State police Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) AFP Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) 61 1 276 237 10 848 79 3 142 4 1 110 95 2 117 0 0 0 0 174 1 361 17 674 104 104 0 0 1 0 13 982
1 297 54 349 870 1 002 221
455 985 004
140 5 423
0 0
46 4 066
0 0
10 22
0 0
13 812
41 1 280
0 0
Steroids State police Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) AFP Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) 17 597 18 2 677 11 552 31 3 373 3 80 0 0 1 4
250 11 603 81 7 283
145 1 760 54 684 34 227 2 5 0 0 11 338
18 297
18 273
2 32
25 26
2 31 0 0
6 1 1 1
1 0
0 0
Hallucinogens State police Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) AFP Seizures (no.) Weight (gms)
217 2 420 102 1 255
Other and unknown drugs nec State police Seizures (no.) 2 302 305 1 107 25 1 455 157 204 28 5 583 Weight (gms) 260 468 85 719 450 845 11 639 10 070 1 606 519 412 1 444 1 341 203 AFP Seizures (no.) 820 358 151 7 249 1 7 1 1 594 Weight (gms) 394 582 285 959 36 072 2 287 80 453 201 59 303 0 858 857 Note: Includes only those seizures for which a drug weight was recorded. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police. Totals may differ from those reported in jurisdictional annual reports due to the different counting rules applied.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
237
STATISTICS
TABLE 50: Amphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
October–December 2012 Cases (no.) – 2 2 1 1 2 28.3 56.1 42.2 28.3 56.1 28.3 28.3 56.1 56.1 – 1 1 – 15.5 15.5 – 15.5 15.5 – 15.5 15.5 1 15 16 – 6.5 6.5 – 2.5 2.5 – 10.5 10.5 – 1 1 – 9.0 9.0 – 9.0 9.0 – 9.0 9.0 3 17 20 10.5 12.5 11.0 28.3 56.1 55.2 Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Max (%) Cases (no.) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Purity Median Min nnnn (%) (%) 7.0 1.0 1.0 28.3 15.5 15.5 January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Max (%) – 15.5 15.5 – 81.7 81.7 – 1 1 – 70.1 70.1 – 70.1 70.1 – 70.1 70.1 3 11 14 10.5 14.5 12.7 7.0 6.5 6.5 11.5 66.5 66.5 Cases (no.) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%)
PURITY TABLES
Max (%) 11.5 66.5 66.5 28.3 81.7 81.7
UNDER EMBARGO
238
July–September 2012
Cases (no.)
Purity Median Min (%) (%)
– 3 3
– 9.0 9.0
– 1.0 1.0
– 12 12
– 56.8 56.8
– 31.6 31.6
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
10.6 83.2 83.2 21.1 81.5 81.5 – – – – – – – – – – – – 3 4 7 14.5 57.9 57.9 0.7 27.8 0.7 60.6 62.6 62.6 – 2 2 – 39.6 39.6 11 2 13 10.6 9.1 10.6 1.0 5.9 1.0 71.8 12.4 71.8 6 1 7 44.8 79.9 49.6 8.8 79.9 8.8 77.3 79.9 79.9 – – – – – – – – – – 0.2 0.2 – – – – 79.0 79.0 22 4 26 4 8 12 10.6 46.1 11.1 17.8 57.9 42.8 0.6 5.9 0.6 0.7 0.2 0.2 77.3 83.2 83.2 60.6 81.5 81.5 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 – 13.7 13.7 – 13.7 13.7 – 13.7 13.7 4 2 6 14.0 13.9 14.0 0.1 13.9 0.1 36.0 14.0 36.0 15 2 17 2.2 2.8 2.2 0.1 2.1 0.1 55.7 3.6 55.7 12 11 23 – – – 9.0 3.4 4.0 – – – 1.0 0.4 0.4 – – – 13.9 25.5 25.5 – – – 31 15 46 – 1 1 2.5 3.5 3.2 – 13.7 13.7 0.1 0.4 0.1 – 13.7 13.7 55.7 25.5 55.7 – 13.7 13.7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 5 25 30 7.5 6.8 7.0 1.7 0.2 0.2 9.0 73.5 73.5 – 1 1 – 46.9 46.9 – – – – 46.9 46.9 – – – – 46.9 46.9 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 5 26 31 – – – 7.5 6.9 7.0 – – – 1.7 0.2 0.2 – – – 9.0 73.5 73.5 – – –
5 1 6
1.2 83.2 3.8
0.6 83.2 0.6
1 2 3
21.1 41.9 21.1
21.1 2.3 2.3
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
State/territory NSW State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Vic State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Qld State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total SA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all amphetamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of amphetamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of amphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 50 (continued): Amphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Max (%) Cases (no.) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%) January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Max (%) Cases (no.) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%) Cases (no.)
UNDER EMBARGO
July–September 2012
CCases (no.)
Purity Median Min (%) (%)
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– 1 1
– 0.3 0.3
– 0.3 0.3
– 0.3 0.3
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– 1 1
– 9.0 9.0
– 9.0 9.0
– 9.0 9.0
– 2 2
– 4.6 4.6 – – –
– 0.3 0.3 – – –
– 9.0 9.0 – – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – –
– – –
na na na – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
– – –
– – –
State/territory WA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Tas State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total NT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total ACT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total 73.7 79.0 79.0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 2 – 57.4 57.4 – 53.9 53.9 – 60.9 60.9 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 3 3 6 – – – 73.3 60.9 71.2 – – – – – –
3 1 4
73.3 79.0 73.5
69.1 79.0 69.1
69.1 53.9 53.9 – – –
73.7 79.0 79.0 – – –
– – –
– – –
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all amphetamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of amphetamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of amphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
239
STATISTICS
TABLE 51: Methylamphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Purity Purity January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%)
UNDER EMBARGO
240
July–September 2012
Purity
State/territory NSW 83.5 85.5 85.5 79.3 80.1 80.1 29 77.7 31.0 80.0 35 77.3 0.3 80.3 24 78.7 5.0 80.3 1 28 78.3 77.6 78.3 31.0 78.3 80.0 3 32 76.1 77.3 74.7 0.3 79.0 80.3 1 23 75.9 78.7 75.9 5.0 75.9 80.3 10 114 124 98 66.7 1.0 84.0 68 70.2 1.0 82.5 83 72.5 1.0 89.0 403 54 61.2 1.0 83.5 55 72.0 1.0 82.5 48 69.0 4.0 89.0 276 65.2 68.0 77.0 77.6 77.6 44 72.2 2.0 84.0 13 51.0 1.5 81.0 35 73.5 1.0 89.0 127 71.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 69.6 0.3 0.3
Cases (no.)
Median (%)
Min (%)
State police <=2 gms
35
68.5
2.0
89.0 89.0 89.0 79.3 80.3 80.3
>2 gms
119
60.0
1.0
Total AFP
154
61.5
1.0
<=2 gms >2 gms
5 31
77.1 76.6
69.6 0.8
Total Vic 98.2 95.8 98.2 25.3 79.5 79.5 6 7 79.3 79.0 77.4 52.5 80.3 80.3 20 25 78.4 78.4 54.3 38.3 80.3 80.3 17 17 1 52.5 52.5 52.5 5 44.7 38.3 77.2 – – 77.6 77.6 453 75.2 0.3 100.0 176 74.5 0.2 95.9 91 78.8 0.7 – 9.4 9.4 357 96 75.2 75.0 0.8 0.3 98.5 100.0 127 49 69.5 82.2 0.2 0.2 95.9 94.3 55 36 80.8 75.2 0.7 0.8 97.0 93.8 97.0 – 80.3 80.3
36
77.0
0.8
State police 950 324 1274 7 53 60 76.6 75.3 76.1 44.7 78.4 78.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 25.3 3.1 3.1 98.5 100.0 100.0 77.2 80.3 80.3
<=2 gms >2 gms
411 143
79.8 73.8
0.4 0.2
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
79.8 76.5 79.8 66.2 76.0 76.0 4 71.0 33.9 79.3 5 77.0 4 71.0 33.9 79.3 2 79.8 79.7 3.2 – – – – 3 4.1 3.2 77.0 80.0 80.0 122 337 56.7 52.8 0.1 0.1 76.3 77.3 120 406 56.2 54.7 0.4 0.1 76.7 77.6 215 51.6 0.1 77.3 286 54.0 0.1 77.6 275 159 434 – 2 2 44.8 48.6 45.7 – 78.7 78.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 – 77.7 77.7 76.9 75.8 76.9 – 79.8 79.8 1173 590 1763 4 12 16 52.1 53.0 52.6 35.1 76.8 71.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 3.2 33.9 3.2 79.8 76.7 79.8 77.0 80.0 80.0 80.5 79.4 80.5 – 76.8 76.8 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 104 154 50.2 53.1 0.1 0.1 79.6 79.6 80 121 50 60.2 0.1 79.5 41 68.6 54.1 56.8 – 28.7 28.7 0.9 0.1 0.1 – 28.7 28.7 80.2 79.2 80.2 – 28.7 28.7 10 38 48 – 3 3 69.4 52.2 52.9 – 79.1 79.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 – 77.1 77.1 80.0 80.7 80.7 – 79.9 79.9 168 279 447 – 7 7 61.3 51.8 54.6 – 76.8 76.8 0.1 0.1 0.1 – 28.7 28.7 80.5 80.7 80.7 – 79.9 79.9
Total
554
78.0
0.2
AFP <=2 gms
1
25.3
25.3
>2 gms Total Qld
10 11
72.0 71.6
3.1 3.1
State police
<=2 gms
397
61.6
0.1
>2 gms Total
189 586
51.7 57.0
0.2 0.1
AFP <=2 gms
1
66.2
66.2
>2 gms
4
60.0
52.4
Total SA
5
63.9
52.4
State police <=2 gms
67
57.8
0.1
>2 gms Total
57 124
52.0 53.2
0.1 0.1
AFP
<=2 gms >2 gms
– 3
– 52.7
– 51.1
Total
3
52.7
51.1
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all methylamphetamine seizures —only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of methylamphetamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of methylamphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 51 (continued): Methylamphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Cases Median Min Max (no.) (%) (%) (%) Cases (no.) Max (%) January–March 2013 Purity Cases Median Min Max (no.) (%) (%) (%) April–June 2013 Purity Median Min (%) (%) Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Cases Median Min Max (no.) (%) (%) (%)
UNDER EMBARGO
July–September 2012 Purity Cases Median Min Max (no.) (%) (%) (%)
51 139 190 – 80.3 80.3 – 7 7 – 78.0 78.0 – 65.6 65.6 – 80.3 80.3 1 4 5 79.9 69.4 79.0 79.9 1.1 1.1 79.9 79.9 79.9 – 5 5 – 79.0 79.0 – 51.9 51.9 – 79.9 79.9 1 21 22 79.9 79.0 79.0
29.0 54.0 49.0
0.8 – –
76.0 87.0 87.0
121 159 280
53.0 43.0 50.0
– – –
81.0 85.0 85.0
44 175 219
31.0 53.0 50.0
0.1 0.1 0.1
80.0 88.0 88.0
21 125 146
38.0 53.0 51.0
– 0.2 –
80.0 89.0 89.0
237 598 835
48.0 51.0 50.0
– – – 79.9 1.1 1.1
81.0 89.0 89.0 79.9 80.3 80.3
– 5 5
– 80.0 80.0
– 78.8 78.8
– 2 2 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– 6.2 6.2
– 5.7 5.7
– 6.8 6.8
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
1 4 5
64.0 65.1 64.1
64.0 60.3 60.3
64.0 77.6 77.6
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
1 6 7 – – –
64.0 62.2 64.0 – – –
64.0 5.7 5.7 – – –
64.0 77.6 77.6 – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
na na na – – – 1 – 1 54.0 – 54.0 54.0 – 54.0 54.0 – 54.0 – – – – – – – – – – – –
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na – 2 2
na na na – 78.5 78.5
na na na – 76.8 76.8
na na na – 80.3 80.3
na na na 1 2 3
na na na 54.0 78.5 76.8
na na na 54.0 76.8 54.0
na na na 54.0 80.3 80.3
– – –
– – –
– – –
State/territory WA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Tas State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total NT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total ACT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all methylamphetamine seizures —only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of methylamphetamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of methylamphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
241
STATISTICS
TABLE 52: Phenethylamines purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
October–December 2012 Purity Cases Median Min Max Max (%) (no.) (%) (%) (%) (no.) (%) (%) (%) Cases Max (no.) (%) (%) January–March 2013 Purity Cases Median Min April–June 2013 Purity Median Min Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Cases Median Min Max
UNDER EMBARGO
242
July–September 2012 Purity Cases Median Min Max
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
33 70 103 52.5 79.1 79.1 – 5 5 – 28.9 28.9 – 3.8 3.8 – 35.4 35.4 6 15 21 63.6 57.0 57.0 44.4 28.4 28.4 79.1 88.9 88.9 1 – 1 47.4 – 47.4 47.4 – 47.4 47.4 – 47.4 15 24 39 47.4 49.0 48.7
21.5 19.5 19.5
2.5 1.0 1.0
86.5 83.0 86.5
25 56 81
23.0 21.5 21.5
7.0 1.5 1.5
83.0 90.5 90.5
21 36 57
16.5 15.7 16.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
84.5 71.5 84.5
8 8 16
13.0 15.7 14.2
1.0 4.5 1.0
20.0 23.5 23.5
87 170 257
19.5 19.5 19.5
1.0 1.0 1.0 2.2 3.8 2.2
86.5 90.5 90.5 79.1 88.9 88.9
8 4 12
36.9 44.1 40.0
2.2 18.8 2.2
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
87.3 39.2 87.3 15.4 79.4 79.4 – 2 2 – 40.9 40.9 – 40.7 40.7 – 41.1 41.1 17 15 32 41.5 48.1 45.8 0.5 37.4 0.5 85.1 79.6 85.1 – 3 3 – 48.1 48.1 – 36.8 36.8 – 82.0 82.0 127 25 152 20.6 19.5 20.2 1.8 11.6 1.8 90.0 89.9 90.0 62 7 69 22.6 25.0 23.0 8.4 10.9 8.4 82.5 28.0 82.5 5 – 5 18.3 – 18.3 11.6 – 11.6 28.9 – 28.9 275 55 330 18 27 45 19.8 18.7 19.6 41.0 48.1 45.3 1.8 5.5 1.8 0.5 13.8 0.5 90.0 89.9 90.0 85.1 82.0 85.1 72.3 56.1 72.3 – 58.7 58.7 – 1 1 – 79.1 79.1 – 79.1 79.1 – 79.1 79.1 1 – 1 12.0 – 12.0 12.0 – 12.0 12.0 – 12.0 – 1 1 40 48 88 14.6 14.2 14.3 0.5 0.1 0.1 71.2 64.0 71.2 56 56 112 17.9 16.1 16.7 0.1 1.8 0.1 74.1 71.8 74.1 44 21 65 16.6 10.4 15.2 – 79.8 79.8 0.8 0.4 0.4 – 79.8 79.8 72.1 59.9 72.1 – 79.8 79.8 217 218 435 1 3 4 16.3 13.3 15.1 12.0 79.1 68.9 0.1 0.1 0.1 12.0 58.7 12.0 74.1 71.8 74.1 12.0 79.8 79.8 25.4 78.7 78.7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 37 39 51.4 17.3 18.7 23.2 1.0 1.0 79.6 22.9 79.6 5 31 36 15.7 13.6 13.6 0.1 2.4 0.1 – – – 29.4 52.3 52.3 – – – 11 61 72 – – – 11.0 13.5 12.9 – – – 9.3 1.0 1.0 – – – 15.5 59.0 59.0 – – – 24 207 231 – – – 14.2 14.3 14.3 – – – 0.1 1.0 0.1 – – – 79.6 78.7 79.6 – – –
81 23 104
16.5 17.3 16.7
6.3 5.5 5.5
1 7 8
15.4 58.9 50.8
15.4 13.8 13.8
77 93 170
15.7 10.2 13.9
0.4 0.2 0.2
– 1 1
– 58.7 58.7
– 58.7 58.7
State/territory NSW State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Vic State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Qld State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total SA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total
6 78 84
21.0 14.4 14.5
13.0 3.6 3.6
– – –
– – –
– – –
Note: Phenethylamines include MDA, MDEA, MDMA, Mescaline, PMA, DMA and Phenethylamines not elsewhere classified (n.e.c). Figures do not represent the purity levels of all phenethylamines seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of phenethylamines received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of phenethylamines seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 52 (continued): Phenethylamines purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Cases Median Min Max Cases (no.) 5 34 39 – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 2 82.3 47.2 64.7 21.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 10.0 10.0 83.0 88.0 88.0 42 124 166 22.0 21.0 21.0 0.9 0.8 0.8 82.3 47.2 47.2 (%) (%) (%) (no.) (%) (%) (%) 83.0 88.0 88.0 82.3 47.2 82.3 Max (%) 22.0 19.0 21.0 – – – – – – – – – 0.9 0.8 0.8 30.0 32.0 32.0 (%) January–March 2013 Purity Cases Median Min Max April–June 2013 Purity Median Min Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Cases Median Min Max
UNDER EMBARGO
July–September 2012 Purity Cases Median Min Max
(no.) 54.0 36.0 54.0 82.3 – 82.3 – 1 1 – 47.2 47.2 – 47.2 47.2 – 47.2 47.2 – – – 4 20 24 31.5 29.0 29.0 26.0 12.0 12.0 39.0 35.0 39.0 25 51 76
(%)
(%)
(%)
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(no.)
(%)
8 19 27
26.0 22.0 24.0
8.0 14.0 8.0
1 – 1
82.3 – 82.3
82.3 – 82.3
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
na na na – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
State/territory WA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Tas State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total NT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total ACT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 – 82.7 82.7 – 82.7 82.7 – – – – 82.7 82.7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 – – – – 82.7 82.7 – – – – 82.7 82.7 – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– 82.7 82.7 – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
Note: Phenethylamines include MDA, MDEA, MDMA, Mescaline, PMA, DMA and Phenethylamines not elsewhere classified (n.e.c). Figures do not represent the purity levels of all phenethylamines seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of phenethylamines received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of phenethylamines seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
243
STATISTICS
TABLE 53: Heroin purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Purity Purity January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%)
UNDER EMBARGO
244
July–September 2012
Purity
State/territory NSW 65.5 69.5 69.5 79.7 74.2 79.7 9 59.8 39.9 72.3 14 67.7 38.0 72.3 5 60.6 44.8 70.5 – 9 – 59.8 – 39.9 – 72.3 1 13 63.2 68.2 63.2 38.0 63.2 72.3 – 5 – 60.6 – 44.8 – 70.5 3 42 45 37 20.5 8.0 56.5 15 24.5 11.0 69.0 23 26.5 20.5 61.0 134 12 21.5 13.0 56.5 14 24.0 11.0 69.0 6 25.7 21.0 44.5 54 23.2 72.1 67.8 68.2 25 19.0 8.0 39.0 1 55.0 55.5 55.5 17 26.5 20.5 61.0 80 22.0 26.2 8.0 11.0 8.0 63.2 38.0 38.0
Cases (no.)
Median (%)
Min (%)
State police <=2 gms
37
22.0
15.5
65.5 69.5 69.5 79.7 74.2 79.7
>2 gms
22
40.5
12.5
Total AFP
59
22.5
12.5
<=2 gms >2 gms
2 15
75.9 68.9
72.1 58.3
Total Vic 76.5 72.0 76.5 – 74.3 74.3 6 6 56.3 56.3 39.3 39.3 66.2 66.2 12 12 69.3 69.3 13.2 13.2 75.1 75.1 4 4 – – – – – – – – – – 46.8 46.8 97 14.2 0.8 84.1 55 15.0 7.6 77.8 8 13.8 10.2 – 33.1 33.1 82 15 14.1 15.2 0.8 11.2 84.1 82.1 37 18 14.4 15.4 7.6 9.9 77.8 73.4 8 – 13.8 – 10.2 – 18.7 – 18.7 – 60.8 60.8
17
69.1
58.3
State police 258 59 317 – 28 28 14.0 15.2 14.1 – 66.1 66.1 0.8 9.1 0.8 – 13.2 13.2 84.1 82.1 84.1 – 75.1 75.1
<=2 gms >2 gms
131 26
13.6 14.7
3.9 9.1
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
18.5 35.7 35.7 – – – 1 61.9 61.9 61.9 1 53.2 1 61.9 61.9 61.9 1 53.2 53.2 53.2 – – – – – – – – 53.2 53.2 18 51 21.4 20.7 1.9 0.9 69.7 71.2 9 17 19.7 19.7 13.3 0.6 68.3 68.3 33 20.0 0.9 71.2 8 20.5 0.6 65.7 29 8 37 – 2 2 16.4 18.1 16.6 – 48.0 48.0 0.8 9.9 0.8 – 24.6 24.6 62.4 20.9 62.4 – 71.4 71.4 93 46 139 – 4 4 16.8 19.2 17.2 – 57.5 57.5 0.6 1.9 0.6 – 24.6 24.6 71.2 69.7 71.2 – 71.4 71.4 29.2 47.6 47.6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 14 36 23.1 23.3 14.5 7.3 26.4 27.7 7 10 22 24.0 7.3 27.7 3 24.1 17.7 18.0 – 69.2 69.2 7.4 6.3 6.3 – 69.2 69.2 24.4 20.1 24.4 – 69.2 69.2 13 11 24 – – – 19.9 19.2 19.7 – – – 5.3 0.8 0.8 – – – 26.2 29.2 29.2 – – – 53 49 102 – 1 1 21.0 23.2 22.1 – 69.2 69.2 5.3 0.1 0.1 – 69.2 69.2 29.2 47.6 47.6 – 69.2 69.2
Total
157
13.7
3.9
AFP <=2 gms
–
–
–
>2 gms Total Qld
6 6
68.4 68.4
67.7 67.7
State police
<=2 gms
23
13.0
2.2
>2 gms Total
11 34
14.0 13.3
12.2 2.2
AFP <=2 gms
–
–
–
>2 gms
–
–
–
Total SA
–
–
–
State police <=2 gms
15
21.8
14.6
>2 gms Total
17 32
25.7 23.8
0.1 0.1
AFP
<=2 gms >2 gms
– –
– –
– –
Total
–
–
–
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all heroin seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of heroin received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of heroin seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 53 (continued): Heroin purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
October–December 2012 Cases (no.) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Max (%) Cases (no.) Max (%) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Purity Median Min (%) (%) January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Max (%) Cases (no.) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%)
UNDER EMBARGO
July–September 2012
Cases (no.)
Purity Median Min (%) (%)
1 16 17 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 2 – 52.0 52.0 – 41.6 41.6 – 62.4 62.4 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 2 – 52.0 52.0
24.0 29.5 29.0
24.0 25.0 24.0
24.0 53.0 53.0
2 3 5
7.0 38.0 36.0
7.0 36.0 7.0
7.0 54.0 54.0
– 5 5
– 41.0 41.0
– 23.0 23.0
– 76.0 76.0
12 2 14
24.0 56.5 26.0
4.0 49.0 4.0
59.0 64.0 64.0
15 26 41
23.0 38.0 30.0
4.0 23.0 4.0 – 41.6 41.6
59.0 76.0 76.0 – 62.4 62.4
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
na na na – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na – 5 5
na na na – 59.5 59.5
na na na – 55.1 55.1
na na na – 59.9 59.9
na na na – 5 5
na na na – 59.5 59.5
na na na – 55.1 55.1
na na na – 59.9 59.9
– – –
– – –
– – –
State/territory WA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Tas State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total NT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total ACT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all heroin seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of heroin received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of heroin seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police .
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
245
STATISTICS
TABLE 54: Cocaine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Purity Purity January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%)
UNDER EMBARGO
246
July–September 2012
Purity
State/territory NSW 69.5 73.5 73.5 85.1 82.4 85.1 15 61.1 24.0 75.7 13 66.4 51.7 79.0 9 58.4 49.0 78.0 61 1 14 47.5 61.8 47.5 24.0 47.5 75.7 4 9 68.4 62.9 66.4 51.7 76.5 79.0 2 7 77.6 57.5 77.3 49.0 78.0 61.6 14 47 27 54.0 23.5 74.5 18 56.2 5.0 78.5 17 55.5 17.5 72.5 92 53.2 68.4 61.6 65.4 21 57.5 23.5 74.5 17 55.5 5.0 78.5 7 59.5 17.5 70.5 67 57.0 6 51.7 32.5 72.0 1 68.5 68.5 68.5 10 49.5 44.5 72.5 25 49.5 22.0 5.0 5.0 47.5 23.1 23.1
Cases (no.)
Median (%)
Min (%)
State police <=2 gms
8
44.2
22.0
72.5 78.5 78.5 85.1 82.4 85.1
>2 gms
22
55.2
27.5
Total AFP
30
50.0
22.0
<=2 gms >2 gms
7 17
66.3 66.8
49.0 23.1
Total Vic 86.0 73.1 86.0 – 78.8 78.8 6 7 51.3 50.4 41.0 39.8 80.2 80.2 3 4 65.5 65.7 59.3 59.3 67.4 67.4 1 1 45.7 45.7 1 39.8 39.8 39.8 1 66.0 66.0 66.0 – – – 45.7 45.7 43 39.4 7.8 92.2 24 51.9 25.2 74.6 10 48.8 21.5 31 12 34.9 56.4 7.8 32.7 92.2 74.0 17 7 45.2 66.1 25.2 31.6 74.6 73.8 5 5 48.6 48.9 28.4 21.5 67.0 69.8 69.8 – 45.7 45.7
24
66.6
23.1
State police 70 43 113 2 13 15 40.5 52.0 46.4 52.9 59.3 59.3 7.8 4.5 4.5 39.8 41.0 39.8 92.2 74.0 92.2 66.0 80.2 80.2
<=2 gms >2 gms
17 19
46.4 51.7
8.0 4.5
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
72.2 72.1 72.2 – 80.2 80.2 1 30.4 30.4 30.4 3 61.1 46.4 1 30.4 30.4 30.4 1 66.0 66.0 – – – – 2 53.7 46.4 61.1 66.0 66.0 24 47 59.8 55.3 0.1 0.1 79.6 84.5 26 55 35.1 25.1 13.2 7.1 63.2 63.2 23 49.7 1.9 84.5 29 21.1 7.1 61.8 21 13 34 – 5 5 46.0 27.2 36.5 – 81.6 81.6 1.5 13.3 1.5 – 10.1 10.1 65.5 71.8 71.8 – 82.3 82.3 102 76 178 2 9 11 24.2 36.2 27.8 53.7 66.0 65.5 1.5 0.1 0.1 46.4 10.1 10.1 84.5 79.6 84.5 61.1 82.3 82.3 53.9 65.6 65.6 – 60.8 60.8 1 65.0 65.0 65.0 – 1 – 65.0 – 65.0 – 65.0 – – – 30 36 51.3 39.5 15.3 13.5 81.8 81.8 6 6 6 33.6 13.5 71.5 – – 42.3 42.3 – – – – 0.1 0.1 – – – – 55.1 55.1 – – – 2 26 28 – – – 51.7 57.6 57.5 – – – 47.2 25.6 25.6 – – – 56.1 79.0 79.0 – – – 11 67 78 – 4 4 34.5 57.3 56.6 – 56.6 56.6 9.9 0.1 0.1 – 50.0 50.0 71.5 81.8 81.8 – 65.0 65.0
Total
36
49.9
4.5
AFP <=2 gms
–
–
–
>2 gms Total Qld
3 3
69.8 69.8
60.3 60.3
State police
<=2 gms
29
15.9
7.1
>2 gms Total
13 42
24.8 20.0
13.8 7.1
AFP <=2 gms
–
–
–
>2 gms
2
72.8
65.5
Total SA
2
72.8
65.5
State police <=2 gms
3
30.0
9.9
>2 gms Total
5 8
44.2 42.3
13.8 9.9
AFP
<=2 gms >2 gms
– 3
– 52.5
– 50.0
Total
3
52.5
50.0
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all cocaine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of cocaine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of cocaine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 54 (continued): Cocaine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Min (%) (%) (no.) (%) (%) (%) (no.) (%) (%) (%) (no.) (%) (%) Max Cases Median Min Max Cases Median Min Max Cases Median Min Max (%) Purity Purity January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Max (%) (no.) Cases Media n (%)
UNDER EMBARGO
July–September 2012
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
(no.)
(%)
(%)
7 11 18 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 – 39.5 39.5 – 39.5 39.5 – 39.5 39.5 – 2 2 – 40.6 40.6 – 10.7 10.7 – 70.6 70.6 – 3 3 – 39.5 39.5
35.0 32.0 32.5
9.0 10.0 9.0
68.0 47.0 68.0
– 6 6
– 24.0 24.0
– 21.0 21.0
– 70.0 70.0
2 5 7
59.0 52.0 56.0
56.0 35.0 35.0
62.0 80.0 80.0
– 4 4
– 47.5 47.5
– 6.0 6.0
– 59.0 59.0
9 26 35
36.0 35.5 36.0
9.0 6.0 6.0 – 10.7 10.7
68.0 80.0 80.0 – 70.6 70.6
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
na na na – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
State/territory WA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Tas State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total NT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total ACT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total – 55.7 55.7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 4 4 – – – – 39.6 39.6 – – – – 31.8 31.8 – – –
– 4 4
– 39.6 39.6
– 31.8 31.8
– 55.7 55.7 – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all cocaine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of cocaine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of cocaine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police .
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
247
STATISTICS
UNDER EMBARGO
248
PRICE TABLES
NSW na na na na na na na na na na 3 500–5 000 na na na 40 000 80 000–120 000 na na na na na na na na 3 000–4 000 na na 12 500 na na na 8 000 na na 4 000–5 000 na na 1 000 na na na na 500 600–1 100 na 2 200–3 000 800–900 na na na na na na na na na na 150–400 180–500 na 600 300 600–800 na na 1 500 na na na na na na na na na na na na 30–40 50–150 na 100 50 100 Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT na na na na na na na na na na na na
TABLE 55: Amphetamine prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
Weight
1 street deal (0.1 gram)
0.7 gram
1 weight gram
2 grams 3 grams
8 ball (3.5 grams; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
1/4 ounce
1 vial (1/2 ounce)
1 ounce (street deal)
1 ounce
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
NSW Vic 30 25–35 20–25 15–20 10–20 7–18 8–20 15–25 10–15 10–13 na 20–35 na 20–50 15–25 Qld SA 20–50 15–25 10–20 9–15 8–13 WA 15 na na na na Tas 35 30 25–28 na na NT 30–50 35 30 20 20 ACT 30–35 20a na 7–10b na
1 pound
1 kilogram
TABLE 56: MDMA prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
Weight
1 tablet/capsule
2–24 tablets/capsules (per tab)
25–99 tablets/capsules (per tab)
100–999 tablets/capsules (per tab)
1000+ tablets/capsules (per tab)
a. 10+ (tablet/capsule). b. 100 + (bulk tablets).
UNDER EMBARGO
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 57: Methylamphetamine prices by state and territory, 2012 –13 ($)
NSW 50–150 na 500–1 000 na na 750–1 700 5 800–8 000 na na 10 000–15 000 70 000–120 000 na na na na na na na na na na
10 000–12 000
Weight 50–150 250–500 400–900 na na 2 000 2 800 na na 11 500–13 000 120 000 280 000–320 000 na na na na na na na na 3 000 2 000 na na na 1 700 na na na na na 5 000 na na na 16 000–19 000 na na na na 750–1 000 na na na 1 200–1 600 80 na na na na 100 na na 80–100 200
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT 50–100 na 400–700 na na 1 700–1 800 na na na 8 000–10 000 na na
Crystal form (‘ice’)
1 street deal (0.1 gram)
0.7 gram
1 weight gram
2 grams
3 grams
8 ball (3.5 gram; i.e. 1/8 ounce) na na
1 000–2 000
1/4 ounce
1 150–2 800
1 vial (1/2 ounce)
1 ounce (street deal)
1 ounce
7 000–13 500
1 pound
95 000–120 000
1 kilogram
200 000–260 000
Non-crystal form 50–100 120–150 70–250 200–350 na 250–500 na na na 3 500–5 000 40 000–60 000 100 000–120 000 na 45 000–90 000 na 3 000–4 000 na 2 000 na 1 000 na 600–800 600–1 100 na na na 1 200–3 200 6 000–8 000 5 500–14 000 na na na na na na na 150–400 180–500 600–900 na na na 30–40 50–150 100 na na na na na na na na na na na na 50–80 na 300 na na 800–900 na na na 4 000–5 000 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 50 na na na na 1 200 na na na na na na
Powder/paste/base
1 street deal (0.1 gram)
0.7 gram
1 weight gram
2 grams
3 grams
8 ball (3.5 gram; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
1/4 ounce
1 vial (1/2 ounce)
1 ounce (street deal)
1 ounce
1 500–4 000
1 pound
23 000–40 000
1 kilogram
70 000–110 000
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
249
STATISTICS
UNDER EMBARGO
NSW Vic Qld SAa WA Tas NT ACT
250
TABLE 58: Cannabis prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
na na na na na 12–25 na na 250–400 2 500–4 000 na 1 000–2 000 25–30 150 250 450 4 000 8 000 3 000 15–25 50–90 na 130–280 2 200–4 000 na 2 500 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 25 80 150 200–300 3 500 7 000 na na na na na na na na
20–30 200 350–450 2 500–4 000 5 000–8 000
15–25 na 200 na na
na na na na na
25 na 350 4 200 na
na na na na na
na na na na na
na na na na na na na na na na na na
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
na na na na na 12–25 na 300–400 3 500–5 000 na 2 000–5 000 40–50 50 na na 25–50 50 na na 25–30 250 450 4 000 8 000 3 000 25–50 na 300–450 2 800–5 000 6 000 3 200–5 000 25 na 250–300 2 500–3 000 na na na na na na na na na na 20–30 200 350–450 2 500–4 000 5 000–8 000 15–25 na na na na na na na na na na na na 4 200 na na na na na na 25 150 300 4 500 8 500–9 000 na na na na na na na na 30–50 na 400–450 5 000–6 000 na na na na na na na na na 20–25 150 250–300 3 100–3 500 na 4 000–5 000 na na
Weight Bush Leaf Deal (1 gram approx.) 1/2 bag (14 grams) Ounce bag (28 grams) 1 pound 1 kilogram Head Deal (1 gram approx.) 1/4 bag (7 grams) 1/2 bag (14 grams) Ounce bag (28 grams) 1 pound 1 kilogram 1 mature plant Hydroponic Leaf Deal (1 gram approx.) 1/2 bag (14 grams) Ounce bag (28 grams) 1 pound 1 kilogram Head Deal (1 gram approx.) 1/2 bag (14 grams) Ounce bag (28 grams) 1 pound 1 kilogram 1 mature plant Resin Deal (1 gram approx.) Oil Cap/vial
a. South Australia Police has not provided prices for cannabis ‘leaf’ as this is believed to no longer have a market in South Australia—only ‘head’ is sold.
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 59: Heroin prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
NSW 35–70 50–150 na 140–300 200–300 220–600 1 000–2 000 na na 6 400–8 600 na 95 000–180 000 na na na na na na na na na na na na 90 000–120 000 na na 7 000–8 000 na na na na 8 500–16 000 na 7 000–9 000 12 500 na na na na na na 3 500 na 3 500–4 000 na na 5 000 na na na na 1 700b 800–1 200 900–1 200 1 900–2 000 na 300a na 400–600 800–1 000 na na 500 400 na na na na na na na na na na na na na 200 250 na 400–500 na na na 100 200 na na na 50 50 100 50–100 na na na na na na na 50 Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT na na 60–100 150 na 300–380 550–1 050 na na 6 500–7 500 na na na na na
UNDER EMBARGO
Weight
Half point (0.05 gram)
1 taste/cap (0.1–0.3 gram)
1/4 gram
1/2 weight (0.4–0.6 gram)
1 street weight (0.6–0.8 gram)
1 gram
8 ball (3.5 grams; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
10 gram bag
1/2 ounce
1 ounce
1/2 Asian catti (350 grams)
90 000–120 000
12.5 ounce block
1 pound
Asian catti (700 grams)
160 000–210 000
1 kilogram
280 000–295 000
TABLE 60: Cocaine prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
NSW na 300–400 3 000–4 000 9 200–12 000 na 180 000–220 000 200 000–240 000 na 6 000–7 000 na 300–400 700–800 na na na 50 na Vic Qld SA 50–80 250–400 na 5 500–9 500 na
Weight
WA na 750 5 000 10 000 na
Tas na 350 na 7 000–9 500 na
NT 100 1 000 na na na
ACT na 250–350 na na na
1 cap
1 gram
1/4 ounce (7 grams)
1 ounce (28 grams)
1 pound (0.45 kilograms)
1 kilogram
220 000–250 000
na 320 000–360 000
na
na
na
a. Street purity. b. Higher purity.
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
251
STATISTICS
TABLE 61: Other drugs prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
NSW na na na na na na na na 5 na na na 100–200 na na na na na na 1 na na 60 100 2 000 1 na na na 65 na na na na na na na 30–45 60–100 15–50 10–20 20–50 na 400 na na 40 na na na na na na na na 1 na na 60 100 2 800 na na 25 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 60 100 na na na 60 100 na na na na na 5–10 4–8 10–20 na na 100–200 na 2 000–3 000 na 4–5 na na na na na 5 000 na 5–10 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 25–50 150–200 na na na na na na na na na na 50 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 80–100 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 10–25 na na na 800 na na na na na 30–50 25 na na na 10–20 na na na na 25 na na na na Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT na na na na na na na na 20–25 na na na na na na na na na na na na 20b na na na na na na na na na na na na na 10–25 2–5 na na na na 50–180 100–200 3–8 15–25 50–80 na na na 2 200–4 000 15 000–17 000 na na na 1 na 10–100 na na na na 20–100 na na na na na na na na
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
252
Other drugs LSD 1–9 tabs (ddua) 10–100 tabs (ddu) 101–999 tabs (ddu) 1000+ tabs (ddu) 1 x 20 millilitre vial Ketamine Tablet Powder (1 gram) Vial (5–10 millilitres) GHB/GBL 1–1.5 millilitres 4–5 millilitres (fish) 10–15 millilitres 50 millilitres 100 millilitres Bulk 1 litre 25 litres GHB Serve/4 milligrams Vial 8 serves/32 milligrams Opioid pharmaceuticals Per milligram Per tablet Oxycontin (per tablet) Oxycontin (60 milligram tablet) Oxycontin (100 milligram tablet) Oxycontin (1 box) MS Contin 1 milligram Per tablet 60 milligram tablet 100 milligram tablet Kapanol (per tablet) Buprenorphine (2 milligram tablet)) Buprenorphine (8 milligram tablet)) Fentanyl (1 microgram tablet) Fentanyl (1 x 100 microgram patch) Morphine (per tablet)
a. Discrete dosage units (ddu). b. Weight equals 20 milligrams.
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 61 (continued): Other drugs prices by state and territory, 2012 –13 ($)
NSW na 15–25 na na na na na na na na na 5–10 na na na na na na na 150 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 350 na na na na na na na na na na Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT na 5 na na na na na na na na na 4–200 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 20a
UNDER EMBARGO
na 100 na na na na na 1 500–2 000 na na 400 na na na na na na na na na na na na 20–50 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 20–50 na na na na na na na na 20–50 na na na na na na 0.50–1 40–100 400 na na na na 1 000 na 1 200–3 000 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 25 000 50–250 na na na na 80 na na 4 000–5 000 na na na na na na
25 000
na
na
na
na 50 na na na na na na na na na 30 na 30 na na na na na na na na
na 100 na na na na na na na na na na na 30–50 na na na na na na na na
na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na
Other drugs Benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals Per milligram Per tablet Bromazepam (per tablet) Clonazepam (per tablet) Flunitrazepam (per tablet) Nitrazepan (per tablet) Diazepam (per tablet) Oxazepam (per tablet) Temazepam (per tablet) Xanax (bottle 50 tablets) Precursors Ephedrine 1 kilogram Pseudoephedrine Box Per milligram 100 x boxes Ounce 1 kilogram (pure) Hypophosphorous Acid 50 millilitres 1 litre Iodine 1 gram 100 grams 1 kilogram Analogues 4MMC per tablet/capsule 4MMC (1 milligram) MDPV 1 tablet/capsule 2–24 tablets/capsules (per tablet) 25–99 tablets/capsules (per tablet) 100–999 tablets/capsules (per tablet) 1000+ tablets/capsules (per tablet) Point Milligram Ounce N-Benzylpiperazine (BZP) 1 tablet
a. Per tablet.
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
253
STATISTICS
TABLE 61 (continued): Other drugs prices by state and territory, 2012 –13 ($)
NSW na na na na na na na na na na na na 15 na na na na na na na na 25 175a na na na na na na na na 20–35 50–95 100–140 150–240 400 na na na na na na 60 na na na na 60 na na na 25 na na na na Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT na 50–70 140 na na na na na
UNDER EMBARGO
254
Other drugs
Synthetic cannabinoids 1.5 grams 3 grams 7 grams 14 grams Ounce Other Methadone 30 millilitres Sildenafil (per tablet) Dimethyltripamine (DMT) per milligram Performance and Image Enhancing Drugs na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 3 160 na na na na 240 1 400 3 600 8 000 na na na na na na na na na na na na na 180 1 400 2 600 5 500 220 na na na na na 200 1 800 220–250 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 180 na na na 230 300 na na na na na 230 1 900 3 600 8 000 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 120–200 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na
na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
Testosterone enanthate 200 milligrams 1 x 10 millilitre vial 10 x 10 millilitre vial 20 x 10 millilitre vial 50 x 10 millilitre vial Deca-durabolin 200 milligrams 1 x 10 millilitre vial Stanozolol 25 milligram/millilitre 40 millilitre vial Sustanon 250 (blend of 4 testosterone compounds) 1 x 10 millilitre vial 10 x 10 millilitre vial Testosterone propionate 100mg 1 x 10 millilitre vial 10 x 10 millilitre vial 20 x 10 millilitre vial 50 x 10 millilitre vial Primoteston 300 milligrams/millilitres 1 x 10 millilitres Trenbolone Acetate 100mg 1 x 10 millilitre vial 10 x 10 millilitre vial 20 x 10 millilitre vial 50 x 10 millilitre vial Clenbuterol 0.04 milligram tablet 30 millilitres
a. Per gram.
UNDER EMBARGO
Introduction
NOTES
255
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
256
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
© COMMONWEaLtH Of auStRaLIa 2014
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION
Correspondence should be addressed to: Chief Executive Officer Australian Crime Commission PO Box 1936 Canberra City ACT 2601 Telephone: 02 6243 6666 (from within Australia) 61 2 6243 6666 (international) Facsimile: 02 6243 6687 (from within Australia) 61 2 6243 6687 (international) Published April 2014 The data contained in this report is produced by the Australian Crime Commission (ACC) with the endorsement of the eight police commissioners in Australia and the ACC Board. © Commonwealth of Australia 2014.
All material presented in this publication is provided under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia licence. For the avoidance of doubt, this means this licence only applies to material as set out in this document. The details of the relevant licence conditions are available on the Creative Commons website www.creativecommons.org. Use of the Coat of Arms The terms under which the Coat of Arms can be used are detailed on the It’s an Honour website www.itsanhonour.gov.au. ISSN 2202-3925
Cover artwork depicts crystal methylamphetamine hydrochloride ‘ice’.
2012-13 ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION
Introduction
FOREWORD
Illicit drugs affect every member of the community, at all levels of society. They have a profound and devastating impact on individuals, families, communities, economies and entire countries. In order to respond to the global challenge illicit drugs pose, a detailed understanding of the marketplace is essential. The Australian Crime Commission’s Illicit Drug Data Report (IDDR) is a statistical report which provides a national picture of the illicit drug market. It compiles data from a range of sources into one unique report to inform our understanding and assist in focusing our collective efforts to respond to the issue. Now in its 11th edition, the 2012–13 report paints a picture of a gravely serious issue, with over 19 tonnes of illicit drugs seized nationally in this reporting period alone. National illicit drug seizures and arrests were at record or decade highs for nearly all drug types in this reporting period. While disturbing, the figures also demonstrate the continued vigilance and achievements of law enforcement in combating the illicit drug trade. Organised crime remains an ever-present pillar of the drug trade. Crime groups thrive on the profits generated through the illicit drug market and accordingly continue to be a key focus of our response. Illicit drug use in Australia, and the profits gained from it, is directly linked to
IDDR 2012–13
2
transnational organised crime groups that are implicated in large-scale criminality and corruption overseas. The dangers of illicit drugs and their significant health, anti-social and crimerelated implications are well known. The entrenched and evolving market for the production, distribution and use of methylamphetamine, particularly crystalline methylamphetamine (commonly known as ‘ice’), is currently a national concern. With its relative accessibility, affordability and destructive side-effects, crystal methylamphetamine is emerging as a pandemic akin to the issue of ‘crack’ cocaine in the United States.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
Central to addressing an issue of this scale are holistic responses aimed at reducing demand, supply and harm—the three pillars of the National Drug Strategy. Illicit drugs are not just a law enforcement issue. A broader approach is required, including cooperation, collaboration and participation of a diverse range of sectors. Through this collective approach we can reduce the impact the illicit drug market has on our community. The latest version of the IDDR is more detailed than ever before. For the first time, the report includes forensic profiling data of both border and domestic methylamphetamine and MDMA seizures, as well as profiling data of domestic heroin seizures. The IDDR is an integral part of the arsenal used to combat the threat of illicit drugs including methylamphetamine. The report provides governments, law enforcement agencies, policy makers, academia and interested stakeholders with a robust picture of the Australian illicit drug market. It informs prioritisation and decisionmaking to help to protect Australia against the threat, harm and destruction caused by illicit drugs. The production of this publication is a collective effort and I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to all of our partners—including law enforcement, forensic services, health and
academia—for their vital contributions. Without their continued support and input, it would not be possible to understand the complex and evolving illicit drug market in Australia.
Paul Jevtovic APM Acting Chief Executive Officer Australian Crime Commission
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
CONTENTS
FOREWORD EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABBREVIATIONS INTRODUCTION KEY POINTS 2 6 16 17 19 20
IDDR 2012–13
AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS
Key points Main forms International trends Domestic trends Domestic market indicators National impact References
23
23 24 27 29 39 51 53
4
CANNABIS
Key points Main forms International trends Domestic trends Domestic market indicators National impact References
57
57 58 60 62 65 71 72
HEROIN
Key points Main forms International trends Domestic trends Domestic market indicators National impact References
75
75 76 78 81 88 94 95
COCAINE
Key points Main forms International trends Domestic trends Domestic market indicators National impact References
97
97 98 100 103 109 116 117
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
OTHER DRUGS
Key points Anabolic agents and selected hormones Tryptamines Anaesthetics Pharmaceuticals Drug analogues and new psychoactive substances Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified National impact References
119
119 120 130 137 143 154 161 164 166
CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
Key points Main forms International trends Domestic trends Domestic market indicators National impact References
175
175 176 178 180 185 193 194
5
INITIATIVES
Key points Introduction
197
197 198
STATE AND TERRITORY LEGISLATIVE AMENDMENTS AND INITIATIVES
Introduction Legislative and regulatory amendments State and territory initiatives
203
203 204 209
STATISTICS
Introduction Counting methodology Data sources Limitations of the data Jurisdictional issues Explanatory notes Arrest tables Seizure tables Purity tables Price tables
217
217 218 219 221 224 227 230 236 238 248
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
EXECUTVE SUMMARY
The Australian Crime Commission (ACC) Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13 provides a snapshot of the Australian illicit drug market. The report combines illicit drug data from a variety of sources including law enforcement, health and academia. The Illicit Drug Data Report is the only report of its type in Australia and provides the important evidence base to assist decision makers in the development of strategies to combat the threat posed by illicit drugs. There were numerous record detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. The number of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS excluding MDMA), MDMA, cannabis, cocaine, tryptamine, anaesthetic and performance and image enhancing drug (PIED) detections are the highest on record, with the weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and heroin detections also at a record high. The number of ATS precursor (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border is the highest reported in the last decade.
IDDR 2012–13
6
There were a record number of national illicit drug seizures and arrests reported in 2012–13. A record 86 918 national illicit drug seizures were reported in 2012–13, a 66.4 per cent increase on the 52 231 seizures reported in 2003–04. While the weight of illicit drugs seized nationally decreased from the record 23.8 tonnes seized in 2011–12, the 19.6 tonnes seized this reporting period is the second highest on record and a 75 per cent increase on the weight of illicit drugs seized in 2003–04. The number of national illicit drug arrests has increased 27.2 per cent over the last decade, from 80 020 in 2003–04 to a record 101 749 in 2012–13. Cannabis continues to dominate the Australian illicit drug market, with the number of national cannabis seizures and arrests in 2012–13 the highest reported in the last decade. While cannabis accounts for the majority of national seizures and arrests, ATS continues to increase in prominence in the Australian market, with record national ATS seizures (both number and weight) and arrests reported in 2012–13. A record number of national cocaine seizures and arrests were reported in 2012–13, with the weight of national cocaine and heroin seizures this reporting period the highest reported in the last decade. There were a record number of national steroid seizures and arrests this reporting period. There were a record number of national hallucinogen arrests this reporting period, with the number of national hallucinogen seizures in 2012–13 the highest reported in the last decade. While the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally this reporting period decreased from a record 809 laboratories in 2011–12, the 757 detections is the second highest on record. The majority of clandestine laboratories continue to be detected in residential areas, however there has been an increase in the number of detections in commercial/industrial locations this reporting period.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
Key findings for 2012–13: the number of national illicit drug arrests and seizures are the highest on record the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and the weight of heroin detections at the Australian border are the highest on record the number and weight of national ATS seizures are the highest on record profiling1 of both border and national methylamphetamine seizures indicates the predominance of methylamphetamine manufactured from ephedrine/ pseudoephedrine a record number of cannabis detections were made at the Australian border, with seeds continuing to account for the majority of detections the number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased, with the number of seizures the highest reported in the last decade profiling2 of both border and national heroin seizures indicates South-East Asia as the prominent source region while there was a record number of cocaine detections at the Australian border, the weight detected almost halved profiling3 of cocaine border seizures indicates Colombia is the prominent source country while the weight of national steroid seizures decreased, the number of national seizures and arrests continued to increase and are the highest on record despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally, the number detected is the second highest reported in the last decade. The following charts provide an overview of the Australian illicit drug market in 2012–13.
7
ARRESTS, 2012–13
1 Profiling data is based on calendar years and the first six months of 2013. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
SEIZURES BY NUMBER, 2012–13
SEIZURES BY WEIGHT, 2012–13
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
The following charts provide an overview of changes that have occurred in the illicit drug market in the last decade.
NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG ARRESTS, 2003–04 TO 2012–13
The number of national ATS arrests has increased over the last decade, accounting for 21.8 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 2012–13, second only to cannabis. National cannabis arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national illicit drug arrests, accounting for 61.0 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 2012–13. Over the last decade, national heroin and other opioid arrests have decreased by one-third. National cocaine arrests have accounted for less than 1.5 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in the last decade. A record number of national other and unknown drug arrests this reporting period accounted for 13.5 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 2012–13.
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
NUMBER OF NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, 2003–04 TO 2012–13
Cannabis continues to account for the greatest number of national illicit drug seizures, with the 54 181 cannabis seizures in 2012–13 the highest number reported in the last decade.
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ATS seizure numbers have remained second to cannabis over the last decade, with the record 21 056 ATS seizures reported in 2012–13 accounting for 24.2 per cent of national illicit drug seizures this reporting period. National heroin and other opioid seizures accounted for 1.9 per cent of the number of national illicit drug seizures this reporting period, the lowest proportion reported in the last decade. Over the last decade, the number of national cocaine seizures has increased by 158.3 per cent, from 839 in 2003–04 to a record 2 167 in 2012–13. The 7 828 national other and unknown drug seizures this reporting period is the highest reported in the last decade, accounting for 9.0 per cent of national illicit drug seizures in 2012–13.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
WEIGHT OF NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, 2003–04 TO 2012–13
The weight of national illicit drug seizures has fluctuated over the last decade, ranging between 6.4 tonnes in 2005–06 and 23.8 tonnes in 2011–12. With the exception of 2006–07 and 2011–12, cannabis has accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of national illicit drug seizures, accounting for 47.6 per cent of the weight of national seizures this reporting period. The 1 056 kilograms of cocaine seized nationally in 2012–13 is the highest weight reported in the last decade. The 550 kilograms of heroin and other opioids seized nationally in 2012–13 is the second highest weight reported in the last decade. The weight of national other and unknown drug seizures decreased this reporting period, accounting for 11.3 per cent of the weight of national seizures in 2012–13.
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
The following charts present national illicit drug arrests and seizures reported in 2012–13 by state and territory and drug type.
NUMBER OF ILLICIT DRUG ARRESTS, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL ARRESTS, BY STATE AND TERRITORY, 2012–13
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With the exception of Victoria, over half of all illicit drug arrests in all states and territories related to cannabis. With the exception of Tasmania, the proportion of arrests related to ATS was second only to cannabis in all states and territories. In the Australian Capital Territory, 3.1 per cent of illicit drug arrests were related to cocaine, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13. In Victoria, 6.1 per cent of illicit drug arrests were related to heroin and other opioids, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13. In Western Australia, 21.0 per cent of all illicit drug arrests were related to other and unknown drugs, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
NUMBER OF ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL SEIZURES, BY STATE AND TERRITORY, 2012–13
Cannabis accounts for the greatest proportion of the number of illicit drug seizures in all states and territories this reporting period. All states and territories reported ATS as the second most seized drug in 2012–13. In South Australia, 4.7 per cent of illicit drug seizures related to heroin and other opioids, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13. In New South Wales, cocaine accounted for 4.5 per cent of illicit drug seizures, the highest proportion reported in any state or territory in 2012–13. In New South Wales, 11.3 per cent of illicit drug seizures related to other and unknown drugs, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13.
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
WEIGHT OF ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL WEIGHT, BY STATE AND TERRITORY, 2012–13
14
With the exception of New South Wales, Western Australia and the Northern Territory, cannabis accounts for the greatest proportion of the weight of illicit drug seized in 2012–13. Cannabis continues to account for over 90 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized in South Australia, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory. In New South Wales, ATS accounts for 53.0 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized this reporting period, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13. In New South Wales, cocaine accounts for 12.4 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized this reporting period, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13. In Queensland, heroin and other opioids account for 8.6 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized this reporting period, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13. In the Northern Territory, other and unknown drugs accounted for 75.1 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13.4 In Western Australia, the weight of other and unknown drugs accounted for the greatest proportion of weight of illicit drugs seized in that jurisdiction, accounting for 46.1 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized in 2012–13.
4 In the Northern Territory, illicit kava is trafficked in kilograms amounts and is the primary driver for the considerable weight of seizures reported as other and unknown drugs in 2012–13.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
The following chart provides an overview of self-reported illicit drug use, in the 12 months preceding interview, in an Australian detainee population, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology).
PROPORTION OF THE DETAINEES REPORTING ILLICIT DRUG USE IN THE 12 MONTHS PRECEDING INTERVIEW, 2003–04 TO 2012–13 (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
15
Cannabis remains the most commonly reported illicit drug used by police detainees in the 12 months preceding interview. Following a decrease in 2007–08, reported use has remained relatively stable. Amphetamines remain the second most commonly reported illicit drugs used by police detainees. Reported heroin use in this population has decreased over the last decade, decreasing from over 19 per cent in 2003–04 to 13 per cent in 2012–13. Reported cocaine use in this population has remained relatively stable over the last decade at around 11 per cent.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
AcKnoWLedGements
This report contains data and analysis provided by federal, state and territory police, as well as forensic laboratories and the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service. Police and forensic data managers contributed significantly to improving this report’s data quality. Their expertise and experience, along with their continued support, has been invaluable to the Australian Crime Commission. Key contributors are listed below: Attorney-General’s Department Australian Customs and Border Protection Service Australian Institute of Criminology, Drug Use Monitoring in Australia Program Australian Federal Police Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence
IDDR 2012–13
16
Australian Federal Police, ACT Policing ChemCentre Forensic Science Service Tasmania Forensic Science South Australia New South Wales Health, Mental Health and Drug and Alcohol Office New South Wales Forensic and Analytical Science Service New South Wales Police Force Northern Territory Police Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services Queensland Police Service South Australia Police Tasmania Police Victoria Police Western Australia Police.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
ABBREVIATIONS
AAS ACC ACT AFP ANSPS ASADA ATS BINLEA CBD CEN CIN CIR Anabolic and Androgenic Steroids Australian Crime Commission Australian Capital Territory Australian Federal Police Australian Needle and Syringe Program Survey Australian Sports Anti-Doping Agency Amphetamine-Type Stimulants Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs Cannabidiol Cannabis Expiation Notice Cannabis Infringement Notice Cannabis Intervention Requirement
IDDR 2012–13
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Customs and Australian Customs and Border Protection Service Border Protection DANPS DEA DHEA DIN DUMA Drug Analogues and New Psychoactive Substances Drug Enforcement Administration Dehydroepiandrosterone Drug Infringement Notice Drug Use Monitoring in Australia
EDRS Ecstasy and related Drugs Reporting System ENIPID Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs EPO Erythropoietin FDI FSANZ Forensic Drug Intelligence Food Standards Australia New Zealand
GBL Gamma-butyrolactone GHB Gamma-hydroxybutyrate gms Grams hCG hGH Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin Human Growth Hormone
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
IDDR Illicit Drug Data Report IDRS Illicit Drug Reporting System IGCD Intergovernmental Committee on Drugs INCB International Narcotics Control Board LSD Lysergic Acid Diethylamide MDMA 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine NDS National Drug Strategy NDSHS National Drug Strategy Household Survey NEC Not Elsewhere Classified NFRL National Forensic Rapid Lab NIDRF National Illicit Drug Reporting Format NMI National Measurement Institute NSW New South Wales NT Northern Territory P2P Phenyl-2-propanone
18
PAG Precursor Advisory Group PBS Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme PIEDs Performance and Image Enhancing Drugs Qld Queensland SA South Australia SCON Simple Cannabis Offence Notice SUSMP Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons Tas Tasmania THC Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol UK United Kingdom UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime US United States of America Vic WA WADA 4-MMC Victoria Western Australia World Anti-Doping Authority 4-methylmethcathinone
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
The Illicit Drug Data Report is the only report of its type in Australia, providing governments, law enforcement agencies and interested stakeholders with a national picture of the illicit drug market. This report provides the data necessary to assess current and future illicit drug trends and offers a brief analysis of those trends. The Australian Crime Commission collects data annually from all state and territory police services, the Australian Federal Police, the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service, and state and territory forensic laboratories. The illicit drug data collected and presented in this report for the 2012–13 financial year includes: arrests seizures purity levels profiling data prices. The purpose of this report is to provide statistics and analysis to assist decision makers in developing illicit drug supply and harm reduction strategies. The data also assists the Australian Government to meet national and international reporting obligations. The Australian Crime Commission uses the National Illicit Drug Reporting Format to standardise the data received from each law enforcement agency and other contributing organisations.
IDDR 2012–13
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
IDDR 2012–13
KEY POINTS
AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS
The number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border increased in 2012–13 and are the highest on record. The number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border increased this reporting period, with the 4 139 detections in 2012–13 the highest number on record. Drug profiling data indicates that the majority of analysed methylamphetamine seizures are primarily manufactured from ephedrine/psuedoephedrine. The number and weight of national ATS seizures increased in 2012–13 and are the highest on record.
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The number of national ATS arrests continued to increase, with the 22 189 arrests in 2012–13 the highest on record.
CANNABIS
There were a record 3 629 cannabis detections at the Australian border in 2012–13, with cannabis seeds continuing to account for the majority of detections. The number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased, with the number of seizures the highest reported in the last decade. National cannabis arrests continued to increase, with the 62 120 arrests in 2012–13 the highest number reported in the last decade.
HEROIN
The number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border increased in 2012–13, with the 513.8 kilograms detected the highest on record. Profiling data from 2012 indicates the majority of analysed heroin seizures originated in South-East Asia. The weight of national heroin seizures increased to 544.4 kilograms in 2012–13, the highest weight reported in the last decade. The 2 463 national heroin and other opioid arrests reported in 2012–13 is the lowest number reported since 2007–08.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
KEY POINTS
COCAINE
Although the weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border almost halved in 2012–13, the number of detections more than doubled and is the highest on record. Cocaine profiling data indicates the continued prominence of Colombia as a source country for cocaine seized at the Australian border. There was a record number of national cocaine seizures this reporting period, with the weight of national cocaine seizures the highest reported in the last decade. There was a record 1 282 national cocaine arrests in 2012–13.
IDDR 2012–13
OTHER DRUGS
Over the last decade, the number of performance and image enhancing drugs detected at the Australian border has increased 751.6 per cent, with the 10 356 detections in 2012–13 the highest number on record. The number of national steroid seizures and arrests continued to increase in 2012–13 and are the highest number on record. There was a record 509 tryptamine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. There was a record 277 anaesthetic detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. The 565 national hallucinogen arrests reported in 2012–13 is the highest number on record.
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CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
Despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally, the 757 laboratories detected in 2012–13 is the second highest number in the last decade. The majority of clandestine laboratories continue to be detected in residential areas; however detections in commercial/industrial locations increased in 2012–13. The greatest proportion of laboratories continue to be addict-based; however, the proportion attributed to laboratories of other sizes almost doubled in 2012–13. While the weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border decreased in 2012–13, the number of detections increased and is the highest reported in the last decade.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
IDDR 2012–13
KEY POINTS
INITIATIVES
The leading drug policy document in Australia is the National Drug Strategy 2010–2015. A number of key amendments were recently made to the Criminal Code Act 1995 to strengthen the serious drug offences framework. The Australian Government is considering options to strengthen existing border controls to prohibit the importation of new psychoactive substances and is working with states and territories to address the domestic manufacture, supply and advertising of these substances.
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS
Key points
The number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border increased in 2012–13 and are the highest on record. The number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border increased this reporting period, with the 4 139 detections in 2012–13 the highest number on record. Drug profiling data indicates that the majority of analysed methylamphetamine seizures are primarily manufactured from ephedrine/psuedoephedrine. The number and weight of national ATS seizures increased in 2012–13 and are the highest on record. The number of national ATS arrests continued to increase, with the 22 189 arrests in 2012–13 the highest on record.
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
MAIN FORMS
TABLE 1: ATS used in Australia
Drug type Amphetamine Common names Forms
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) stimulate the central nervous system and speed up messages travelling between the brain and the rest of the body. Made in illegal clandestine laboratories (commonly referred to as ‘clan labs’), ATS pose a serious health risk to users due to their unknown content and purity. Drugs within the ATS group include amphetamine, methylamphetamine and phenethylamines (ADF 2013a; APAIC 2009). A list of common ATS used in Australia is outlined in Table 1.
Speed, whiz, uppers, White, yellow, pink goey, louee, dexies, or brown powder, pep pills paste Dexies, D-amp, dex
Method of administration Oral, intranasal, injection, anala
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Dexamphetamineb (amphetamine dextro isomer in a pharmaceutical preparation)
White, round tablets Oral, intranasal, that can have the injections, anala marking ‘D5’ White, yellow or brown powder, paste, tablets or a red liquid Oral, intranasal, injection, anala
Methylamphetamine (general term, Meth, speed, whiz, frequently ‘cut’ or diluted form of fast, uppers, goey, methylamphetamine hydrochloride salt) louee, Lou Reedc, rabbitc, tailc, pep pills; in paste form can be referred to as base, pure or wax; in liquid form can be referred to as ox blood, leopard’s blood, red speed or liquid red Methylamphetamine hydrochloride (crystalline form - ‘uncut’, undiluted) Small crystal particle size known as ‘crystal’– larger particle sizes known as ‘ice’; other terms include meth, d‑meth, glass, crystal, batu, shabu (from the Philippines)
Crystalline— resembles crushed ice, particle size variable
Smoking, intranasal, injection
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Drug type 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)
Common names
Forms
XTC, X, ecstasy, Tablet, powder, Adam, M&M, eccy, capsule, E, go, Scooby snacks, geltab (rare) hug, beans Eve Tablet
Method of administration Oral, intranasal, smoking, injecting
3,4- methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA)
Oral
3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) Love bug, crystal, P, window pane N-methyl-1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2butanamine (MBDB) Paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA)d Eden
Tablet
Oral
Tablet
Oral
Death, Dr Death, Mitsubishi double PMMA
Tablet, powder
Oral, intranasal, injecting (rare) Oral
Paramethoxymethylamphetamine (PMMA)
Tablet
4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine Nexus, 2-CB, bromo, Tablet (Nexus), TWOs blotting paper, powder 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (DOB) 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine (DOM) 4-methylthioamphetamine (4-MTA) DOB, 4-bromo-DMA, Tablet, blotting bromo paper DOM, STP Tablet, blotting paper Tablet
Oral, intranasal
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Oral
Oral
Flatliner, golden eagle
Oral
a. In tablet form, the drug can be inserted into the anus or the vagina to avoid irritation to the user’s stomach, which commonly occurs when taken orally (also known as ‘shafting’ or ‘shelving’). b. Dexamphetamine (also known as dextroamphetamine sulphate) is sold in tablet form in Australia for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy, in accordance with state and territory laws. It is also used illicitly. c. Terminology noted in Queensland. d. PMA has stimulant and hallucinogenic properties.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
The most common forms of amphetamine are powder and tablets or capsules. Methylamphetamine has four common forms—tablet, crystal, base (also referred to as paste) and powder (also referred to as speed)—with powder the most common form used in Australia. Crystal methylamphetamine, often referred to as ‘ice’, is a highly purified form that is crystalline in appearance.1 Ice is generally heated and the vapours inhaled. It may also be injected after being dissolved in water (ADF 2013b; AIC 2011). Due to slight structural differences, methylamphetamine produces a stronger nervous system response than amphetamine. Short-term effects of amphetamine and methylamphetamine use may include sweating, headaches, insomnia, anxiety and paranoia. High doses can result in blurred vision, hallucinations, tremors and stroke. Long-term use may result in severe dental problems, reduced immunity, high blood pressure, depression, impaired memory and concentration, deficits in motor skills, aggressive or violent behaviour, anxiety, cardiovascular problems and kidney failure (ADF 2013b; CAMH 2012; Jenner 2012). Phenethylamines refer to a class of substances with psychoactive and stimulant effects which include 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4‑methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and other similar substances. This report focuses on MDMA, which has a chemical structure similar to that of amphetamine. MDMA is a synthetic stimulant and is commonly referred to as ‘ecstasy’2 (EMCDDA 2013; NIDA 2012). MDMA is most commonly sold in tablet form, featuring a characteristic impression or logo. Other forms include capsule, powder and crystal. MDMA is most commonly ingested, although it can also be snorted, inhaled or injected. Drugs purported to be MDMA may contain other substituted amphetamine derivatives, such as MDEA, MDA or a combination of synthetic hallucinogens and stimulants. As such, health risks associated with MDMA use are increased as the effects of tablets sold as MDMA are unpredictable and vary due to the unknown content (DoHA 2010; EMCDDA 2013; NIDA 2012). Having stimulant and hallucinogenic effects, MDMA has a wide-range of physical and psychological health impacts. Short-term effects of MDMA use may include anxiety, panic attacks, increased blood pressure and convulsions. Long-term use may lead to long-lasting confusion, depression and memory and cognitive impairment (DoHA 2010; NSW Health 2012).
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1
While the crystal form of methylamphetamine is typically of higher purity, appearance alone is not a reliable indicator of purity as purity levels may be influenced by a number of factors, including the adulterants used. 2 Ecstasy refers to tablets sold as MDMA, but which may contain a range of other substances and little to no MDMA.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Amphetamine-type stimulants
InternationaL trends
The ATS market continues to evolve and grow. Globally, it remains the second most widely used illicit drug after cannabis. In 2012, the World Customs Organization reported an increase in border detections of ATS in North America, Western Europe and the Middle East, with large quantities also detected in the Asia-Pacific region. During 2012, customs agencies reported a global increase in the number and weight of methylamphetamine and MDMA detections. The largest methylamphetamine border detections by weight were reported by customs agencies in Asia-Pacific, Western Europe and North America (WCO 2013). Several South-East Asian countries have entrenched synthetic drug markets, with a number of them reporting the ongoing detection of ATS clandestine laboratories. In 2013, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reported that methylamphetamine seizures in East and South-East Asia reached record levels in 2012. In Indonesia alone, the methylamphetamine market reportedly generates approximately US$1 billion in revenue each year (UNODC 2013b; UNODC 2013c). According to UNODC reporting, in December 2012 the Indonesian National Police intercepted a Malaysian-led drug trafficking organisation and seized over 250 kilograms of crystalline methylamphetamine with an estimated market value of US$39 million (UNODC 2013b). The size of the ATS market in South-East Asia makes it an attractive target for international organised crime groups. West African and Iranian crime groups are active in moving ATS into South-East Asia, supplying significant quantities of methylamphetamine and MDMA, both for domestic consumption and transhipment to other international markets. According to open source reporting, Chinese and West African drug traffickers are using Cambodian international airports to move illicit drugs out of Cambodia (Phnom Penh Post 2013a). In August 2012, Cambodian Police seized more than 1 kilogram of MDMA and approximately 85 000 tablets of methylamphetamine that were being trafficked through Cambodia to Thailand (Phnom Penh Post 2013b).
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Iran is a growing source of methylamphetamine destined for both domestic and international markets. Iran-based methylamphetamine trafficking networks have become leading domestic market suppliers, in addition to supplying user markets across the Middle East and Asia-Pacific region. The Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) reported that while Iranian seizures of opium and heroin have remained stable, seizures of methylamphetamine are increasing, with 2012 figures reportedly increasing elevenfold from 2008 to 2011 (BINLEA 2013a). North America remains both a transit and a source region for methylamphetamine. According to open source reporting, in July 2012 Canada’s Ontario Police detected three drug laboratories and seized 120 kilograms of methylamphetamine, 110 483 methylamphetamine tablets, 14 kilograms of methylamphetamine powder and CA$81 000 cash representing one of the largest drug seizures in Canadian history (Criger 2013). According to BINLEA reporting, Mexico continues to produce large quantities of methylamphetamine, with an increasing number of clandestine laboratories detected. In 2012, the Government of Mexico seized over 30 tonnes of methylamphetamine and dismantled 267 methylamphetamine laboratories, compared with 227 in 2011 (BINLEA 2013b). According to open source reporting, the Mexican Navy seized 614 kilograms of methylamphetamine and 72 203 psychotropic tablets in operations targeting organised crime groups between 1 December 2012 and 31 July 2013 (Mexico City Milenio 2013). Mexico remains the primary source for methylamphetamine in the United States of America (US), with media reporting indicating that more than 80 per cent of the methylamphetamine seized in the US is manufactured in Mexico (Replogle 2013).
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Domestic trends
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service continues to detect amphetamine and methylamphetamine at the border. Apart from a number of large detections in sea cargo, the majority of detections in 2012–13 were in the postal stream, for amounts ranging from less than 1 gram to 9 kilograms. In 2012–13, both the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border increased and are the highest on record (see Figure 1). The number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections increased 85.6 per cent this reporting period, from 1 077 in 2011–12 to 1 999 in 2012–13. The total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections increased by 515.8 per cent, from 347.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 2 138.5 kilograms in 2012–13. FIGURE 1: Number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Amphetamine-type stimulants
29
The increase in the weight of detected ATS (excluding MDMA) in 2012–13 is largely due to 3 large detections in sea cargo, which have a combined weight of 1 254.8 kilograms. By comparison, the top 3 detections during 2011–12 had a combined weight of 187.2 kilograms. Of the 1 999 detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) in 2012–13, 112 were over 1 kilogram (5.6 per cent). These detections were predominantly of crystal methylamphetamine and methylamphetamine liquid.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
The number of MDMA detections increased by 329.4 per cent this reporting period, from 964 in 2011–12 to 4 139 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. The total weight of MDMA detections increased by 1 143.3 per cent, from 12.0 kilograms in 2011–12 to 149.2 kilograms in 2012–13, the largest weight detected since 2007–08 (see Figure 2). FIGURE 2: Number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
30
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) in 2012–13 include: 585 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected in February 2013, declared as metabisulphite, via sea cargo from China to Sydney 363.8 kilograms3 of liquid methylamphetamine detected in April 2013, suspended in 96 bottles of carpet cleaning products, via sea cargo from China to Melbourne 306 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected in July 2012, concealed in 3 200 terracotta pots, via sea cargo from Thailand to Sydney 75 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected in May 2013, concealed in sofas and chairs, via sea cargo from China to Sydney 72.9 kilograms4 of liquid methylamphetamine detected in May 2013, concealed and suspended in shampoo and conditioner, via sea cargo from China to Sydney. The 5 detections listed above have a combined weight of 1 402.7 kilograms and account for 65.1 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
3 The final weight of the liquid seizure is in kilograms as it represents the drugs’ final weight after being extracted from the suspension liquid and dried. 4 Ibid.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Significant border detections of MDMA in 2012–13 include: 117 kilograms of MDMA detected in January 2013, extracted from a suspension in olive oil, via sea cargo from Spain to Sydney 397 grams of MDMA powder detected in May 2013, concealed between the pages of a magazine, via air cargo from Germany to Brisbane 268 grams of MDMA tablets detected in September 2012, concealed in candles, via international mail from Germany to Sydney 265 grams of MDMA crystals detected in April 2013, concealed in an external hard disc, via international mail from Germany to Sydney. The 4 detections listed above have a combined weight of 117.9 kilograms and account for 79 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
IMPORTATION METHODS
The postal stream continues to account for the majority of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections by number, accounting for 86.1 per cent of detections in 2012–13 (see Figure 3). Detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) in parcel post this reporting period were in crystal and powder form. FIGURE 3: Number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
31
Two sea cargo detections made between February and April 2013 accounted for approximately 44 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected this reporting period. Despite being the prominent method of importation by number, the weight of parcel post detections remains low, accounting for 5.9 per cent of the weight of detections in 2012–13 (see Figure 4).
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 4: Weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
32
Over the last decade, parcel post has accounted for over 80 per cent of the number of MDMA border detections. In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 99.9 per cent of the number of MDMA detections at the Australian border, the highest percentage reported in the last decade (see Figure 5). FIGURE 5: Number of MDMA detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
MDMA parcel post detections weighed an average of 0.76 grams this reporting period, with the number of importations through this stream accounting for 21.1 per cent of the weight of border detections in 2012–13. Sea cargo detections accounted for 78.4 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detected at the border this reporting period. A single detection of MDMA this reporting period weighed 117 kilograms and accounted for 78.4 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detected at the Australian border in 2012–13 (see Figure 6). FIGURE 6: Weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
33
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 49 countries were identified as embarkation points for ATS (excluding MDMA) detected at the Australian border, compared with 112 countries in 2011–12. China was the most significant embarkation point by weight this reporting period, accounting for 8 detections in the sea cargo stream, weighing a total of 1 224.6 kilograms. Prominent embarkation points by number and weight in 2012–13 were Thailand (43 detections, weighing a total of 313.9 kilograms), Hong Kong (96 detections, weighing a total of 224.1 kilograms) and Canada (520 detections, weighing a total of 74.3 kilograms). The combined total of these 3 embarkation points accounted for 42.5 per cent of the total number and 88.7 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. In 2012–13, a total of 33 countries were identified as embarkation points for MDMA detected at the Australian border, compared with 13 countries in 2011–12. By number, the Netherlands was the prominent embarkation point for MDMA, with 2 017 detections. By weight, Spain was the prominent embarkation point for MDMA detections at the Australian border, with 117 kilograms in 2012–13. Of the 33 embarkation points for MDMA in 2012–13, only 6 countries reported a total detection weight of more than 1 kilogram. These were Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, the United Kingdom, Belgium and Canada. These 6 embarkation points accounted for 96.3 per cent of the total number and 98.3 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border in 2012–13.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
DRUG PROFILING
The Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team operates a forensic drug profiling capability through the National Measurement Institute which enables the identification of the synthetic route of synthesis for samples of methylamphetamine and MDMA submitted from seizures made at the Australian border. The capability also allows for comparisons within and between seizures to identify distinct batches of drugs or potentially demonstrate links between groups involved in illicit drug manufacture or trafficking. However, only certain drug types are examined and not every seizure of drugs is analysed or profiled.5 Between 2010 and 2013, analysed samples of methylamphetamine seized at the border have been primarily manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine (Eph/PSE). During 2012, 721 samples of methylamphetamine were submitted from 126 seizures, representing a total bulk weight of 1 172 kilograms. This is significantly higher than the 507 samples submitted from 99 seizures in 2011, which had a total bulk weight of 681 kilograms. This trend has continued, with the 99 seizures submitted for analysis in the first six months of 2013 representing a total bulk weight of 1 640 kilograms of methylamphetamine. In 2011, phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) was used in the production of approximately 236 kilograms (62.8 per cent) of the drug. In 2010, Eph/PSE was used in the production of approximately 83 kilograms (48.5 per cent) of the total bulk weight, while P2P was used in the production of approximately 3 kilograms (1.8 per cent) (see Table 2 and 3). TABLE 2: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine samples as a proportion of analysed AFP border seizures classified by precursor, 2010–-June 2013
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010 Synthetic Route Eph/PSE % 74.6 71.8 56.8 80.4 P2P % 25.4 19.1 13.6 5.9 Mixed/Unclassified % – 9.1 29.6 13.7
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Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
TABLE 3: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine samples as a proportion of total bulk weight of analysed AFP border seizures, 2010–June 2013
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010 Synthetic Route Eph/PSE % 83.8 72.2 35.6 48.5 P2P % 16.2 8.0 62.8 1.8 Mixed/Unclassified % – – 1.6 49.7
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
5
For all reporting years, the data represents a snapshot across the applicable reporting period. These figures cannot reflect seizures that have not been submitted for forensic examination due to prioritisation of law enforcement resources or those that have passed through the border undetected. Certain seizures/samples, such as those containing swabs or trace material, have been omitted from the analysis as they are not amenable to chemical profiling.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
The Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project extends the routine drug profiling capabilities of law enforcement from seizures at the border to also include state and territory seizures involving heroin, methylamphetamine, MDMA, and more recently cocaine.6 This enables detection of similarities between supply routes into different jurisdictions; links between different criminal groups; as well as comparison of trends between jurisdictions, including importations seized and profiled from the border. The period between 2010 and 2013, saw methylamphetamine ENIPID samples primarily manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine (Eph/PSE) using phosphorus/iodine (P/I) routes, with quantities also made through the Emde method, reductive amination or Leuckart reaction using P2P. In 2011, 2012 and 2013, approximately 68 per cent, 86 per cent and 55 per cent respectively of profiled ENIPID samples contained methylamphetamine manufactured from Eph/PSE, with approximately 3 per cent, 5 per cent and 17 per cent respectively made through the reductive amination or Leuckart reaction, using P2P. This prevalence is also reflected in the number of seizures involving the respective precursors. This data suggests that domestically seized samples are slowly moving away from Eph/PSE based methods and towards those using P2P. This increase was also reflected in the number of cases involving P2P based routes (see Table 4 and 5). TABLE 4: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional samples, classified by precursor, 2011–2013
Synthetic Route Year Jurisdiction NSW NT 2013 TAS VIC WA Total ACT NSW 2012 NT TAS WA Total NSW 2011 NT TAS WA Total Eph/PSE % 36.4 3.0 2.5 – 13.3 55.2 4.7 38.2 7.9 0.6 34.4 85.8 13.7 5.7 2.4 46.0 67.8 P2P % 5.9 – 0.5 0.5 9.9 16.8 – 0.6 – – 4.4 5.0 0.9 0.5 – 1.9 3.3 Mixed/ Unclassified % 8.8 1.0 – – 18.2 28.0 – 6.2 0.3 – 2.7 9.2 2.4 – – 26.5 28.9 Total % 51.1 4.0 3.0 0.5 41.4 100 4.7 45.0 8.2 0.6 41.5 100 17.0 6.2 2.4 74.4 100
35
Note: This data set represents a total of 754 methylamphetamine samples. Due to a lack of available data, 60 samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
6 Profiling of cocaine samples under the ENIPID project commenced in late 2013 and therefore falls outside the reporting period.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
TABLE 5: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional cases, classified by precursor, 2011–2013
Synthetic Route Year Jurisdiction NSW NT 2013 TAS VIC WA Total ACT NSW 2012 NT TAS WA Total NSW 2011 NT TAS WA Total Eph/PSE % 44.7 3.5 2.7 – 6.1 57.0 3.5 41.3 11.4 1.0 26.8 84.0 13.5 8.1 4.5 32.4 58.5 P2P % 6.1 – – 0.9 3.5 10.5 – 0.5 – – 5.0 5.5 1.8 1.0 – 2.7 5.5 Mixed/ Unclassified % 12.3 1.8 0.9 – 17.5 32.5 – 5.5 0.5 – 4.5 10.5 4.5 – – 31.5 36.0 Total % 63.1 5.3 3.6 0.9 27.1 100 3.5 47.3 11.9 1.0 36.3 100 19.8 9.1 4.5 66.6 100
36
Note: This data set represents a total of 754 methylamphetamine samples (426 cases). Due to a lack of available data, 60 samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
Of the 2010 and 2011 MDMA AFP border seizures amenable to profiling, the dominant synthetic route of manufacture was observed to be the reductive amination – borohydride method, however, due to the relatively small number of seizures during these periods (15 in both 2010 and 2011) there are limitations to how far this data can be extrapolated with respect to the broader market. Throughout 2012 and the first six months of 2013, a significant increase in the number of MDMA seizures was observed, which also corresponded with a shift towards MDMA manufactured through the reductive amination – platinum hydrogenation method (see Table 6).
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
TABLE 6: Synthetic route of manufacture of AFP MDMA border seizure samples as a proportion of analysed seizures, 2010–June 2013
Reductive Amination
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010
Unclassified %
Borohydride %
Platinum Hydrogenation %
Aluminium Amalgam %
Mixed/ Unclassified %
9.7 14.0 – –
9.7 8.0 58.3 66.7
67.7 70.0 16.7 22.2
– – 8.3 –
12.9 8.0 16.6 11.1
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
MDMA produced via the reductive amination – borohydride method comprised the highest proportion of the bulk weight profiled from 2010 to 2012. In 2012, 3 seizures all produced by this method accounted for approximately 96 per cent of the total bulk weight profiled for the period. The 2013 reporting period saw the largest seizure of MDMA since 2007, weighing approximately 117 kilograms. While profiling data on this seizure was not available at the time of writing, of the seizures that were profiled in the first six months of 2013, the reductive amination – platinum hydrogenation method was used to manufacture the highest proportion of the total bulk weight, a shift from previous reporting periods (see Table 7). TABLE 7: Synthetic route of manufacture of AFP MDMA border seizure samples as a proportion of analysed bulk weight, 2010–June 2013
Reductive Amination
37
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010
Unclassified %
Borohydride %
Platinum Hydrogenation %
Aluminium Amalgam %
Mixed/ Unclassified %
3.2 0.9 – –
1.9 96.7 70.6 99.9
94.9 2.4 26.6 0.1
– – 2.0 –
– – 0.8 <0.1
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
MDMA produced via reductive amination – platinum hydrogenation was the most common synthetic route observed in ENIPID samples between 2011 and June 2013. This is the reverse of what was observed at the border during 2011, however the number of samples from both the ENIPID project and the border was quite small, therefore the extent to which these represent trends in the broader market may be limited. While MDMA produced via the reductive amination—aluminium amalgam method has only been observed in two border samples in 2011, this method has been observed consistently—although in low proportions—throughout ENIPID MDMA samples (see Table 8 and 9).
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
TABLE 8: Synthetic route of manufacture of MDMA ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional samples, 2011–June 2013
Reductive Amination Year Jan–Jun 2013 Total ACT 2012 NSW NT WA Total NSW 2011 Total NT WA Jurisdiction NSW NT WA Unclassified % 14.6 2.4 2.4 19.4 – 10.7 – 5.4 16.1 15.4 15.4 – 30.8 Aluminium Amalgam % 12.2 – – 12.2 2.7 14.7 – – 17.4 – – 30.8 30.8 Borohydride % – – 26.8 26.8 1.3 16.0 1.3 9.3 27.9 – – 7.6 7.6 Platinum Hydrogenation % 36.6 – 5.0 41.6 1.3 24.0 1.3 12.0 38.6 15.4 15.4 – 30.8 Total % 63.4 2.4 34.2 100 5.3 65.4 2.6 26.7 100 30.8 30.8 38.4 100
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Note: This data set represents a total of 129 MDMA samples. Due to a lack of available data, 37 samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
TABLE 9: Synthetic route of manufacture of MDMA ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional cases, 2011–June 2013
Reductive Amination Year Jan–Jun 2013 Total ACT 2012 NSW NT WA Total NSW 2011 Total NT WA Jurisdiction NSW NT WA Unclassified % 16.7 3.3 3.3 23.3 – 9.6 – 1.9 11.5 25.0 – – 25.0 Aluminium Amalgam % 13.3 – – 13.3 1.9 13.5 – – 15.4 – – 12.5 12.5 Borohydride % – – 13.3 13.3 – 15.4 1.9 9.6 26.9 – – 12.5 12.5 Platinum Hydrogenation % 40.1 – 6.7 46.8 – 21.2 1.9 11.6 34.7 25.0 12.5 – 37.5 Mixed % 3.3 – – 3.3 1.9 9.6 – – 11.5 – 12.5 – 12.5 Total % 73.4 3.3 23.3 100 3.8 69.3 3.8 23.1 100 50.0 25.0 25.0 100
Note: This data set represents a total of 129 MDMA samples (90 cases). Due to a lack of available data, 37 samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
See the Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter for information regarding the route of ATS manufacture identified in detected domestic clandestine laboratories.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Domestic marKet indicators
Of the 757 clandestine laboratories detected in 2012–13, the majority were identified as producing ATS (excluding MDMA). The number of MDMA laboratories detected this reporting period increased, from 2 in 2011–12 to 7 in 2012–13 (see Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter). According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 7.0 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using amphetamine/ methylamphetamine at least once in their lifetime. In the same 2010 survey, 2.1 per cent reported recent7 amphetamine/methylamphetamine use (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting the recent8 use of any form of methylamphetamine increased, from 66 per cent in 2011 to 68 per cent in 2012. Recent methylamphetamine users within this regular injecting drug user population reported using methylamphetamine a median of 22 days in the six months preceding interview, the highest reported since 2007. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of methylamphetamine decreased to 66 per cent, with the reported median days of methylamphetamine use in the six months preceding interview increasing to 24 days. Within this user population, the proportion of respondents reporting recent crystal methylamphetamine use increased, from 45 per cent in 2011 to 54 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent crystal methylamphetamine use increased to 55 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting the recent use of methylamphetamine powder (speed) decreased, from 44 per cent in 2011 to 40 per cent in 2012, with early findings of the 2013 study indicating this has decreased to 34 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting the recent use of base decreased from 21 per cent in 2011 to 18 per cent in 2012. Early findings of the 2013 study indicate this has decreased to 13 per cent (see Figure 7) (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
Amphetamine-type stimulants
39
7 In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview. 8 The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in the six months preceding interview.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 7: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent use of speed, base and crystal/ice compared to median days of use of any form of methylamphetamine, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
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In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents reporting methylamphetamine as their drug of choice increased, from 20 per cent in 2011 to 21 per cent in 2012. For any form of methylamphetamine, injection (65 per cent) was the most common method of administration, followed by smoking at 19 per cent and swallowing at 8 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2013). The prevalence of ecstasy use in the regular injecting drug user population decreased, from 14 per cent in 2011 to 12 per cent in 2012. Swallowing was the most common method of administration reported within this user population (Stafford & Burns 2013).9 In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of one or more forms of methylamphetamine increased, from 60 per cent in 2011 to 61 per cent in 2012, the highest reported since 2008. Powder (speed) remains the most common form of methylamphetamine used, followed by crystal and base. For any form of methylamphetamine, swallowing (76 per cent) was the most common method of administration, followed by smoking at 46 per cent and snorting at 28 per cent. Recent users of any form of methylamphetamine within this drug user population reported using methylamphetamine a median of 6 days in the six months preceding interview, which has remained stable since 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of any form of methylamphetamine decreased to 50 per cent, with the reported median days of methylamphetamine use in the six months preceding interview decreasing to 4 days (see Figure 8) (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
9 The IDRS is not designed to monitor trends in ecstasy and related drug use as the frequency and prevalence of use in people who inject drugs is low.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 8: Proportion of a regular ecstasy user population reporting the recent use of speed, base and crystal/ice compared to median days of use of any form of methylamphetamine, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
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In the regular ecstasy user population, the proportion of respondents reporting methylamphetamine powder as their drug of choice decreased, from 5 per cent in 2011 to 4 per cent in 2012, followed by crystal methylamphetamine at 3 per cent and base at <1 per cent. In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents who reported ecstasy as their drug of choice increased, from 27 per cent in 2011 to 32 per cent in 2012, however it remains lower than the 52 per cent reported in 2003. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents who reported ecstasy as their drug of choice increased to 33 per cent in 2013, the third lowest percentage reported in the last decade10 (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). Tablets remain the most common form of ecstasy used by the regular ecstasy user population. The proportion of users reporting tablets as the most common form of ecstasy used in the six months preceding interview decreased, from 97 per cent in 2011 to 95 per cent in 2012. The proportion of respondents reporting the use of ecstasy powder decreased from 26 per cent in 2011 to 25 per cent in 2012, while the reported use of ecstasy capsules remained stable at 53 per cent in 2012 (Black et al. 2008; Dunn et al. 2007; Sindicich et al. 2009; Sindicich & Burns 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013).
10 In response to the difficulties experienced by smaller states and territories in recruiting regular ecstasy users, the recruitment criteria was broadened in 2012 to include recent use of any psychostimulants. As such, caution should be exercised when comparing to previous reporting periods.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey and voluntary urinalysis. The self-report survey is based on the combined reporting of amphetamine and methylamphetamine use in the 12 months preceding interview and is referred to as amphetamines use. In 2012–13, the proportion of detainees testing positive11 for amphetamine12 increased from 24.9 per cent in 2011–12 to 27.3 per cent in 2012–13, the highest reported since 2006–07, but lower than figures reported between 2003–04 and 2006–07. The proportion of detainees testing positive for methylamphetamine also increased, from 23.4 per cent in 2011–12 to 25.9 per cent in 2012–13.13 The proportion of detainees testing positive for amphetamines is higher than the proportion of detainees testing positive for heroin, cocaine, opiates, benzodiazepines and MDMA. Drug Use Monitoring in Australia (DUMA) statistics indicate a high proportion of detainees testing positive for amphetamines over the past decade, with the self-reported use of amphetamines increasing from 37.4 per cent in 2011–12 to 39.7 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 9). FIGURE 9: National proportion of detainees testing positivea for amphetamine/ methylamphetamine compared with self-reported use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
42
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
In regards to MDMA use, the proportion of detainees testing positive for MDMA increased, from 0.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 1.36 per cent in 2012–13, the highest percentage reported since 2008–09. Self-reported use of MDMA increased from 11.06 per cent in 2011–12 to 13.39 per cent in 2012–13, the highest percentage reported since 2009–10 (see Figure 10).
11 Amphetamines and their metabolites can be detected in urine on average 2 to 14 days after use (Makkai 2000). 12 Results for all amphetamine types including MDMA, methylamphetamine. 13 It should be noted that following administration, methylamphetamine is metabolised into amphetamine, which could account for the high proportion of positive amphetamine results in urine testing.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 10: National proportion of detainees testing positivea for MDMA compared with self-reported use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
a. Urine was collected in one site only during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflects data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
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PRICE
Nationally, the price of a gram of amphetamine remained stable in 2012–13, ranging between $150 and $800. The Northern Territory reported the highest price for a gram of amphetamine this reporting period, which ranged between $600 and $800. In Australia, the price for non-crystal methylamphetamine is generally lower than crystal methylamphetamine. There has been no change in the national price range for a gram of non-crystal methylamphetamine, which ranged between $70 and $900 in 2012–13. New South Wales and Victoria were the only two states to report the price of a kilogram of non-crystal methylamphetamine this reporting period. The prices remained stable compared to the previous reporting period in these two states, in New South Wales the price ranged between $70 000 and $110 000, and in Victoria the price ranged between $100 000 and $120 000. Nationally, the price for a gram of crystal methylamphetamine in 2011–12 ranged between $300 and $2 000, compared with between $400 and $1 600 in 2012–13. The Northern Territory reported the highest price for a gram of crystal methylamphetamine this reporting period, ranging between $1 200 and $1 600. New South Wales and Victoria were the only two states to report the price for one kilogram of crystal methylamphetamine. The prices remained relatively stable, ranging between $200 000 and $320 000 in 2012–13, compared with $200 000 and $330 000 in 2011–12.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Nationally, the price range for a single MDMA tablet remained relatively stable, ranging between $20 and $50. New South Wales and Queensland reported the greatest price range for a single tablet, which ranged between $20 and $50 this reporting period.
PURITY
Figure 11 illustrates the annual median purity of amphetamine14 over the last decade. Since 2003–04, the median purity of analysed amphetamine samples has fluctuated greatly, ranging between 0.4 per cent and 45.2 per cent. In 2012–13, the annual median purity ranged between 3.2 per cent in Queensland and 71.2 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory. New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia all reported a decrease in annual median purity this reporting period. FIGURE 11: Annual median purity of amphetamine samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Figure 12 illustrates the median purity of analysed amphetamine samples on a quarterly basis in 2012–13. This reporting period, the quarterly median purity of amphetamine ranged from 0.3 per cent in Western Australia to 73.5 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory.
14 Amphetamine is a manufacturing by-product of some commonly used methods of methylamphetamine production. This can result in two separate purity figures for a single drug sample—one as methylamphetamine with considerable purity and another as amphetamine of low purity.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 12: Quarterly median purity of amphetamine samples, 2012–13
Figure 13 illustrates the annual median purity of methylamphetamine over the last decade. Since 2003–04, the median purity of analysed methylamphetamine samples has ranged from 4.4 per cent to 76.1 per cent. In 2012–13, every state and territory reported an increase in the median purity of methylamphetamine. Victoria reported the highest annual median purity of 76.1 per cent this reporting period, the highest median purity reported in the last decade. FIGURE 13: Annual median purity of methylamphetamine samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Figure 14 illustrates the median purity of analysed methylamphetamine samples on a quarterly basis in 2012–13. During this reporting period, the median purity of methylamphetamine samples ranged from 6.2 per cent in Tasmania to 78.8 per cent in Victoria. Tasmania reported the greatest fluctuation in quarterly median purity this reporting period, ranging from a low of 6.2 per cent in the third quarter of 2012 to 64.1 per cent in the first quarter of 2013. FIGURE 14: Quarterly median purity of methylamphetamine samples, 2012–13
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Figure 15 illustrates the annual median purity of phenethylamine samples over the last decade, the majority of which relate to MDMA. Since 2003–04, the annual median purity of analysed phenethylamine samples ranged from 6.8 per cent to 82.7 per cent. In 2012–13, the annual median purity of phenethylamine samples ranged from 14.3 per cent in South Australia to 82.7 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory. Although minimal, Queensland and South Australia reported a decrease in the median purity of phenethylamine samples in 2012–13.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 15: Annual median purity of phenethylamine samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Figure 16 illustrates the median purity of analysed phenethylamine samples on a quarterly basis during 2012–13, the majority of which relate to MDMA. During this reporting period, the median purity of phenethylamine samples ranged from 12.9 per cent in South Australia to 82.7 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory. FIGURE 16: Quarterly median purity of phenethylamine samples, 2012–13
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AVAILABILITY
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of methylamphetamine powder (speed), 89 per cent reported methylamphetamine as being easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from 80 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has decreased to 84 per cent. In the same study, 79 per cent of respondents reported base as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from 74 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate that this has increased to 80 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting ice as easy or very easy to obtain increased from 83 per cent in 2011 to 84 per cent in 2012, with early findings from the 2013 study indicating that this has increased to 88 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2013). In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of methylamphetamine powder (speed), 75 per cent reported powder as being easy or very easy to obtain, a decrease from the 87 per cent reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has increased to 78 per cent. In the same 2012 study, 68 per cent of respondents reported base as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from 61 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has increased to 95 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting ice as easy or very easy to obtain increased from 86 per cent in 2011 to 90 per cent in 2012, with early findings from the 2013 study indicating this has decreased to 88 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). In the same 2012 study, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of ecstasy, 89 per cent reported ecstasy as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from the 78 per cent reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has decreased to 86 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).15
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SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
Since 2009–10, both the number and weight of national ATS seizures have continued to increase, with the number and weight of national ATS seizures in 2012–13 the highest on record (see Figure 17).
15 In response to the difficulties experienced by smaller states and territories in recruiting regular ecstasy users, the recruitment criteria was broadened in 2012 to include recent use of any psychostimulants. As such, caution should be exercised when comparing to previous reporting periods.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
FIGURE 17: National ATS seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
The number of national ATS seizures increased by 38.6 per cent this reporting period, from 15 191 in 2011–12 to 21 056 in 2012–13. The weight of national ATS seizures increased by 310.4 per cent, from 1 572.6 kilograms in 2011–12 to 6 453.7 kilograms in 2012–13. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number and weight of national ATS seizures, accounting for 41.6 per cent and 68.2 per cent respectively in 2012–13. Victoria reported the greatest percentage increase in the number of ATS seizures this reporting period, while New South Wales reported the greatest percentage increase in the weight of ATS seized (see Table 10). TABLE 10: Number, weight and percentage change of national ATS seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
ab
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Weight (grams) % change 51.8 73.7 24.5 -35.8 34.7 -6.6 6.7 22.8 38.6 2011–12 882 916 580 063 41 266 14 155 29 578 4 683 19 450 517 1 572 628 2011–12 4 403 788 1 850 879 58 053 53 359 74 688 5 199 7 032 738 6 453 736 % change 398.8 219.1 40.7 277.0 152.5 11.0 -63.8 42.7 310.4 8 762 2 422 4 172 346 4 580 241 350 183
2011–12 5 772 1 394 3 350 539 3 401 258 328 149 15 191
2012–13
New South Wales
21 056
a. The term amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) encompasses drugs included under both the amphetamines and phenethylamines groupings. For further details see the Statistics chapter. b. Includes seizures by state/territory police and the AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
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Figure 18 illustrates the number of national ATS arrests since 2003–04. Over the last decade, ATS arrests have increased 131.3 per cent, from 9 593 in 2003–04 to 22 189 in 2012–13, the highest number of ATS arrests on record. In 2012–13, consumer offences accounted for 75.0 per cent of national ATS arrests. However, South Australia reported more ATS provider than consumer arrests in this reporting period. FIGURE 18: Number of national ATS arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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The number of national ATS arrests increased by 31.9 per cent, from 16 828 in 2011–12 to 22 189 in 2012–13. Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory reported a decrease in ATS arrests, while the Northern Territory reported the greatest percentage increase. Victoria accounted for the greatest number of national ATS arrests, followed by New South Wales and Queensland. These three states account for 79.4 per cent of national ATS arrests in 2012–13 (see Table 11). TABLE 11: Number and percentage change of national ATS arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
ab
2011–12 4 451 4 494 4 188 1 049 2 347 161 14 124 16 828
2012–13 5 905 6 762 4 941 1 312 2 870 125 169 105 22 189
% change 32.7 50.5 18.0 25.1 22.3 -22.4 1 107.1 -15.3 31.9
New South Wales
a. The term amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) encompasses drugs included under both the amphetamines and phenethylamines groupings. For further details see the Statistics chapter. b. The arrest data for each state and territory includes Australian Federal Police data.
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Amphetamine-type stimulants
NATIONAL IMPACT
During the past decade, the Australian drug market has seen a shift towards the use of synthetic substances such as ATS. Historically, the domestic methylamphetamine market has primarily been supplied by domestic manufacture, facilitated by the domestic diversion and importation of precursor chemicals. In addition to domestic production, the Australian ATS market is supplemented to an unknown extent by the importation of finished product. Between 2010 and 2013, analysed samples of methylamphetamine seized at the border have been primarily manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine. Over this period, there has been an increase in the proportion of samples identified as being manufactured from phenyl-2-propanone (P2P). The predominance of methylamphetamine manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine and an increase in the samples manufactured from phenyl-2-propanone is also reflected in methylamphetamine profiled as part of the ENIPID project. Between 2010 and 2013, analysed samples of MDMA seized at the border have indicated a shift from MDMA manufactured through the borohydride method towards MDMA manufactured using the platinum hydrogenation method. MDMA samples profiled as part of the ENIPID project since 2011 indicate the ongoing prominence of MDMA manufactured using the platinum hydrogenation method. Due to the relatively small number of seizures during these periods (particularly in 2010 and 2011) there are limitations to how far this data can be extrapolated with respect to the broader market. In 2012–13, while the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors detected at the Australian border continued to increase, the weight of related detections decreased. Despite this decrease, over 1.7 tonnes of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors were detected at the Australian border this reporting period, the majority of which related to pseudoephedrine and ephedrine detections. There were 12 detections of MDMA precursors at the Australian border in 2012–13, the highest number of detections reported in the last decade. Of these, 7 related to safrole detections, which accounted for almost 100 per cent of the total weight of MDMA precursors detected at the Australian border this reporting period (see Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter). In 2012–13, both the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border increased and are the highest on record. The number of detections increased from 1 077 in 2011–12 to 1 999 in 2012–13, while the weight increased 515.8 per cent, from 347.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 2 138.5 kilograms in 2012–13. Parcel post continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, while sea cargo accounted for the greatest
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Amphetamine-type stimulants
proportion of the weight of detections this reporting period. The number of embarkation points identified for ATS (excluding MDMA) decreased by 56.3 per cent this reporting period, from 112 countries 2011–12 to 49 countries in 2012–13. In 2012–13, Canada was the prominent embarkation point for ATS (excluding MDMA) detections by number, while China was the prominent embarkation point by weight. In 2012–13, both the number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border increased, with the number of detections the highest on record. While the weight of MDMA border detections also increased, from 12 kilograms in 2011–12 to 149.2 kilograms in 2012–13, it remains low compared to weights detected earlier in the decade. Parcel post continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of MDMA detections at the Australian border, while sea cargo accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of detections this reporting period. The number of embarkation points identified for MDMA increased by 153.8 per cent this reporting period, from 13 countries 2011–12 to 33 countries in 2012–13. The Netherlands was the prominent embarkation point by number for MDMA detections at the Australian border in 2012–13, while Spain was the prominent embarkation point by weight. Of the 757 clandestine laboratories detected nationally this reporting period, 544 were producing ATS (excluding MDMA), a decrease from the 552 laboratories detected in 2011–12. While the number of laboratories identified as producing MDMA increased, from 2 in 2011–12 to 7 in 2012–13, it remains lower than the 16 detected in 2010–11 (see Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter). ATS remain the second most widely used illicit drug in Australia and continue to account for a significant proportion of illicit drug seizures and arrests. Both the number and weight of national ATS seizures increased in 2012–13 and are the highest on record. The number of national ATS seizures increased, from 15 191 in 2011–12 to 21 056 in 2012–13, while the weight of ATS seized increased from 1 572.6 kilograms in 2011–12 to 6 453.7 kilograms in 2012–13. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national seizures, accounting for 41.6 per cent of the number and 68.2 per cent of the weight of seizures this reporting period. The number of national ATS arrests continued to increase in 2012–13, with the 22 189 arrests this reporting period the highest number on record. New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland continue to account for the greatest proportion of national ATS arrests, accounting for 79.4 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. Consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national ATS arrests, however, in 2012–13 South Australia reported more ATS provider arrests than consumer arrests.
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Amphetamine-type stimulants
Amphetamine-type stimulants
references
Asia & Pacific Amphetamine-Type Stimulants Information Centre (APAIC) 2009, ATS information, APAIC, Bangkok, viewed 19 August 2013, <http://www.apaic.org/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92&Itemid=63>. Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2013a, Drug information: drug facts: amphetamines, ADF, Melbourne, viewed 19 August 2013, <http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/ amphetamines>. Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2013b, Drug information: drug facts: ice, ADF, Melbourne, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/ice>. Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC) 2011, Amphetamines, AIC, Canberra, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.aic.gov.au/crime_types/drugs_alcohol/drug_types/ amphetamines.html>. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011, ‘2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey report’, Drug statistics, no. 25, Cat. no. PHE 145, AIHW, Canberra. Black, E, Dunn, M, Degenhardt, L, Campbell, G, George, J, Kinner, S, Mathews, A, Quinn, B, Roxburgh, A, Urbancic-Kenny, A and White, N 2008, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2007: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trends Series no. 10, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales. Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) 2013a, 2013 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, Country reports: Honduras through Mexico, BINLEA, US Department of State, Washington, <http://www.state.gov/j/inl/rls/ nrcrpt/2013/vol1/204050.htm>. Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) 2013b, ‘International Narcotics Control Strategy Report’, Drug and Chemical Control, vol. 1, BINLEA, US Department of State, Washington, <http://www.state.gov/documents/ organization/204265.pdf>.
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Amphetamine-type stimulants
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH) 2012, Amphetamines, CAMH, Toronto, viewed 2 August 2013, <http://www.camh.ca/en/hospital/health_information/a_z_ mental_health_and_addiction_information/Amphetamines/Pages/default.aspx>. Criger E 2013, ‘$5M meth bust said to be Ontario’s largest ever’, Ontario City News, 9 May 2013, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.citynews.ca/2013/09/05/5m-methbust-said-to-be-ontarios-largest-ever/#ad-image-0>. Department of Health and Ageing (DoHA) 2010, National Drugs Campaign: ecstasy, DoHA, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.drugs.health.gov.au/internet/drugs/ publishing.nsf/content/ecstasy>. Dunn, M, Degenhardt, LJ, Campbell, G, George, J, Johnston, J, Kinner, S, Matthews, A, Newman, J, and White, N 2007, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2006: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)’, Monograph no. 61, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013, Drug Profiles: methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or ‘Ecstasy’), EMCDDA, Lisbon, viewed 2 August 2013, <http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/ mdma>. Jenner, L 2012, ‘Ups and downs: physical and mental health consequences of amphetamine-type stimulant use’, ed. S Allsop and N Lee, Perspectives on amphetaminetype stimulants, IP Communications, Melbourne. Mexico City Milenio, Mexican navy spearhead fight on crime, 3 September 2013, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.milenio.com/>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends Conference: Highs and lows of contemporary drugs in Australia: emerging psychoactive substances, pharmaceutical opioids and other drugs, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney. National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2012, Drug facts: MDMA (Ecstasy), NIDA, Maryland, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/ mdma-ecstasy>. New South Wales Government, Health (NSW Health) 2012, druginfo@your library, NSW Health, viewed 22 August 2013, <http://www.druginfo.sl.nsw.gov.au/drugs/list/ methamphetamines.html>.
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Phnom Penh Post 2013a, Drugs use on rise in Kingdom, 27 June 2013, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/drug-use-rise-kingdom>. Phnom Penh Post 2013b, Busted general faces possible life sentence, 29 August 2012, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/busted-generalfaces-possible-life-sentence>. Replogle J 2013, PBS News hour Online, San Diego cracks down on Mexican meth, seizures expected to surpass 2012 records, 6 August 2013, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/2013/08/san-diego-biggest-entry-point-formexican-meth.html>. Sindicich, N, Burns, L, George, J, Kong, F, Mathews, A, Rainsford, C, Rowe, P, Scott,L & White, N 2009, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2008: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 28, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2010, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2009: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 46, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2011, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2010: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 64, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2012, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2011: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 82, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2012: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trends Series, no. 100, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 13 August 2013, <http://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/ default/files/ndarc/resources/EDRS%202012%20national%20report%20FINAL.pdf>. Stafford J & Burns LA, 2013, ‘Australian Drug Trends 2012: Findings from the Illicit Drugs Reporting System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trends Series no. 91, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, viewed 20 August 2013, <http://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/resource/illicit-drug-reporting-systemidrs-national-report-2012>.
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United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, Patterns and trends of amphetamine-type stimulants and other drugs: challenges for Asia and the Pacific 2013, A report from the Global SMART Programme, UNODC, Vienna, viewed 14 November 2013, <http://www.unodc.org/documents/southeastasiaandpacific//Publications/2013/ ats-2013/2013_Regional_ATS_Report_web.pdf>. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Global Smart Update March 2013, vol. 9, UNODC, Vienna. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013c, ‘Methamphetamine fuelling crime, public health concerns’, viewed 2 September 2013, UNODC, Vienna. <http://www. apaic.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=153&Itemid=2>. World Customs Organization, (WCO) 2013, Illicit trade report 2012, WCO, Brussels.
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CANNABIS
Key points
There were a record 3 629 cannabis detections at the Australian border in 2012–13, with cannabis seeds continuing to account for the majority of detections. The number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased, with the number of seizures the highest reported in the last decade. National cannabis arrests continued to increase, with the 62 120 arrests in 2012–13 the highest number reported in the last decade.
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CANNABIS
MAIN FORMS
Cannabis is derived from the Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica plants—two species of plants within the Cannabis genus1—and globally remains the most widely produced and used illicit drug. Cannabis is grown outdoors in many regions of the world and is increasingly cultivated by means of indoor hydroponic technology. Cannabis plants are grouped into two categories: hemp and marijuana. Hemp is low in psychoactive components with the roots, stalks and stems providing raw materials for products including skin care and clothing. Marijuana—commonly referred to as cannabis—is a plant high in psychoactive components and is an illicit drug (NCPIC 2011; UNODC 2013a). There are over 500 chemical compounds in the Cannabis sativa plant, including over 70 unique compounds—referred to as cannabinoids2—some of which produce psychoactive effects (McLaren et al. 2008). The main psychoactive component of the cannabis plant is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is generally concentrated in the flowering heads of the plant. Cannabidiol (CBD), which is also present in cannabis, is an antipsychotic and is believed to have a balancing effect with THC, reducing symptomatic effects like anxiety and paranoia (Bhattacharyya et al. 2010; Hall & Swift 2000; NCPIC 2011; Zuardi et al. 2012). There are three main forms of cannabis: herb, resin and oil. Cannabis herb refers to the dried flowering heads and leaves of the cannabis plant and is the least potent of all the cannabis products. Cannabis resin (hashish) is produced from the compressed resin glands of the cannabis plant. Cannabis oil—the most potent cannabis product in terms of THC content—is a thick oily substance extracted from cannabis resin. The main forms of cannabis and methods of administration are outlined in Table 12 (NCPIC 2011; UNODC 2006).
CANNABIS
58
1 The third species of plant within the Cannabis genus, Cannabis ruderalis, is rarely grown for illicit use due to its low THC content. 2 Drug analogues and new psychoactive substances that are categorised as synthetic cannabinoids are discussed in the Other Drugs chapter.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
CANNABIS
TABLE 12: Main forms of cannabis
Form Herbal cannabis Description The leaves and flowering heads Properties Low levels of THC Method of administration Smoked as a rolled cigarette or inhaled through a water pipe or ‘bong’ Crumbled and smoked in a pipe or bong, rolled into a cigarette with cannabis leaf or tobacco, or cooked with food and eaten, most notably as ‘hash cookies’ Small amounts applied to cannabis or tobacco cigarettes; can also be heated and the vapour inhaled
Cannabis resin (hashish)
Made from the resinous material of the cannabis plant, dried and compressed into balls, blocks or sheets; colour ranges from light brown to dark green to black Viscous oil extracted using a solvent such as acetone, isopropanol or methanol; colour ranges from amber to dark brown
Medium levels of THC
Cannabis oil
High levels of THC
Due to the range of effects cannabis can produce, it may be categorised as a stimulant, depressant or hallucinogen. As a result, cannabis users may experience a sense of euphoria and relaxation, loss of inhibition and mood changes. Short-term effects of cannabis use may include bloodshot eyes, drowsiness, anxiety and paranoia. Long-term effects of cannabis use may include decreased memory and learning abilities, a distorted sense of space and time and an increased risk of respiratory disease (NCPIC 2011). Several mental health disorders have been linked to cannabis use, such as anxiety and depression. In some cases, cannabis use may cause psychosis—having beliefs that are not based on reality (delusions) or seeing or hearing things that are not there (hallucinations). Cannabis use may also exacerbate existing psychotic conditions, such as schizophrenia. Studies have shown that the use of cannabis at a young age and heavy use of cannabis are associated with up to six times the risk of developing schizophrenia in people with a genetic vulnerability (NCPIC 2012). The relationship between cannabis use and other illicit drug use is complex. Cannabis has been identified as a potential ‘gateway’ drug to other illicit drugs. This concept is based on the premise that users, particularly adolescents, may use cannabis as their first illicit drug; with cannabis seen as a predictor for progression from licit drugs (such as alcohol), to illicit drugs such as heroin, cocaine and/or MDMA (NCPIC 2009).
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CANNABIS
InternationaL trends
The 2013 World Drug Report indicates there was only a small increase in the global number of cannabis users. Cannabis herb is cultivated in its main user markets in the Americas and Europe, with localised cultivation generally supplying domestic markets. In 2012, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) of the United States of America (US) announced that cannabis cultivation in the US decreased 42 per cent from 2011, which followed a 35 per cent decrease from 2010 (Armentano 2013). The eradication of indoor and outdoor cannabis plants continues across all regions. Eradication programs and adverse environmental factors are impacting on established large scale cultivation areas. In 2011, Mexico and Morocco reported the largest area of cannabis plants eradicated, at 13 430 hectares and 8 000 hectares respectively. The US, Philippines and Tajikistan reported the highest number of outdoor plants eradicated during 2011, while the Netherlands, US and Belgium reported the highest number of indoor plants eradicated (UNODC 2013a). In Europe, the annual consumption of both herbal cannabis and cannabis resin is estimated at 2 500 tonnes (EMCDDA 2013). Decreased seizures of cannabis resin were offset by increased seizures of cannabis herb, which represented over half of all cannabis seizures in Europe (EMCDDA 2013). According to media reports, Italian police seized 20 tonnes of cannabis with an estimated street value of £250 million in a vessel off the Sicilian coast in April 2013. The shipment originated from Morocco and was found on an Egyptian registered vessel with a Syrian crew (Pisa 2013). In the Americas, Mexico is the largest cultivator of herbal cannabis, primarily supplying the increasing US market. In the US and Mexico, seizures were higher for herbal cannabis than cannabis resin. North America accounted for 69 per cent of global cannabis herb seizures in 2011. Latin America and the Caribbean region reported the second highest number of cannabis herb seizures in 2011—with Bolivia, Colombia and Paraguay reporting increases of more than 100 per cent from previous years (UNODC 2013a).
CANNABIS
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CANNABIS
Morocco remains the major source country for cannabis resin products, predominantly supplying Western and Central European markets. Cannabis resin is trafficked into Europe via maritime and air streams, predominantly through Spain due to its proximity to Morocco3 (EMCDDA 2013). Afghani cannabis resin production continues to fluctuate in response to official monitoring and eradication measures combined with seasonal crop harvest yields (UNODC 2013a). In 2012, the commercial cultivation of cannabis in Afghanistan was reported at 10 000 hectares, a decrease from 12 000 hectares reported in 2011. Despite this, the potential production of cannabis resin was reported at 1 400 tonnes, an increase from 1 300 tonnes reported in 2011 (UNODC 2013b). According to media reports, Algerian authorities seized 157 tonnes of cannabis resin in 2012, compared to 53 tonnes in 2011 (Global Post 2013). In Afghanistan, there are links between opium poppy cultivation and cannabis cultivation, as the majority of farmers who cultivate opium poppy in the winter cultivate cannabis in summer (UNODC 2013a).
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outdoor cannabis crop
3 In 2011, Spain accounted for 34 per cent of global cannabis resin seizures, followed by Pakistan (18 per cent) and Morocco (12 per cent).
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CANNABIS
DOMESTIC trends
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
In 2012–13, the number of cannabis detections at the Australian border increased by 36.4 per cent, from 2 660 in 2011–12 to 3 629 in 2012–13, and is the highest on record. The weight of cannabis border detections has fluctuated over the last decade, from 5.0 kilograms in 2004–05 to 709.0 kilograms in 2003–04. In 2012–13, the weight of cannabis detections increased by 26.5 per cent, from 17.0 kilograms in 2011–12 to 21.5 kilograms4 in 2012–13 (see Figure 19). FIGURE 19: Number and weight of cannabis detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)5
CANNABIS
62
Cannabis seeds continue to be the most common form of cannabis detected at the Australian border, accounting for 89.2 per cent of the number of cannabis detections in 2012–13.
4 Note that 9 cannabis border detections weighing a total of 10.7 kilograms were seized in ‘Hemp Force’, a food product—protein supplement—containing hemp and manufactured in the US. Excluding these hemp products, there were 3 620 cannabis border detections in 2012–13, weighing a total of 10.8 kilograms. 5 Cannabis statistics for 2012–13 have been skewed by a number of food products containing hemp from the US. Food products containing hemp have no traces of THC, but due to the wording of current Australian legislation, any product containing hemp that can be ingested is prohibited because it comes from the cannabis plant. This consideration is currently under review by Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ).
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
CANNABIS
In this reporting period, only 4 cannabis detections weighed over 1 kilogram. These 4 detections had a combined weight of 10.3 kilograms and account for 47.9 per cent of the total weight of cannabis detected in 2012–13. Of these, 2 detections were hemp products, weighing a total of 7.17 kilograms. The remaining 2 detections were of cannabis seed and leaf, weighing 1.85 kilograms and 1.33 kilograms respectively.
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections6 of cannabis in 2012–13 include: 1.85 kilograms of cannabis seed detected in May 2013, via parcel post from Iran to Sydney 1.33 kilograms of cannabis leaf detected in May 2013, via parcel post from Canada to Sydney 0.33 kilograms of cannabis buds and leaf detected in January 2013, via parcel post from the Netherlands to Melbourne. The 3 detections listed above have a combined weight of 3.51 kilograms and account for 32.5 per cent of the total weight of cannabis (excluding hemp products) detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
IMPORTATION METHODS
The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of cannabis border detections. In 2012–13, the postal stream accounted for 98.8 per cent of detections (see Figure 20). FIGURE 20: Number of cannabis detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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6 These detections exclude hemp products, such as Hemp Force.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
CANNABIS
In this reporting period, parcel post accounted for 51.2 per cent of the weight of cannabis detected at the Australian border, followed by air cargo at 38.1 per cent (see Figure 21). FIGURE 21: Weight of cannabis detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 43 countries were identified as embarkation points for cannabis detected at the Australian border, compared with 32 countries in 2011–12. The United Kingdom (UK) accounted for 59.5 per cent of the number of cannabis detections in 2012–13, with 2 159 detections. Iran, Canada, South Africa and the Netherlands all had a total detection weight in excess of 1 kilogram. The total number of detections from these countries accounted for 24.4 per cent of cannabis detections in 2012–13. In terms of weight, the prominent embarkation points for cannabis (excluding hemp) detections at the Australian border this reporting period were Iran and Canada. The combined total of these 2 embarkation points accounted for 43.1 per cent of the total weight of cannabis border detections in 2012–13.
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CANNABIS
Domestic marKet indicators
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 35.4 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using cannabis at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey, 10.3 per cent reported recent7 cannabis use, the first increase reported since 1998 (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent8 cannabis use decreased from 79 per cent in 2011 to 76 per cent in 2012. Recent cannabis users within this regular injecting drug user population reported using cannabis a median of 160 days in the six months preceding interview, the lowest reported figure in the last decade. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent cannabis use has decreased to 72 per cent, however, the reported median days of cannabis use in the six months preceding interview increased to 170 days (see Figure 22) (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). FIGURE 22: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent cannabis use and median days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
CANNABIS
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a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary. 7 In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview. 8 The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in the six months preceding interview.
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CANNABIS
In the same 2012 study, cannabis herb was the most common form of cannabis used by recent users (hydroponic 70 per cent, bush 39 per cent9), followed by cannabis resin at 7 per cent and cannabis oil at 5 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2013). In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent cannabis use decreased from 85 per cent in 2011 to 82 per cent in 2012. Recent cannabis users within this regular ecstasy user population reported using cannabis a median of 60 days in the six months preceding interview, an increase from the 48 days reported in 2011. Although this is the highest reported figure in the last decade, it remains substantially lower than that reported by regular injecting drug users. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent cannabis use has increased to 86 per cent, while the reported median days of cannabis use in the six months preceding interview decreased to 48 days (see Figure 23) (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). FIGURE 23: Proportion of a regular ecstasy user population reporting recent cannabis use and median days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
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a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey10 and voluntary urinalysis. Over the last decade, the proportion of detainees testing positive for cannabis has decreased, from 58.0 per cent in 2003–04 to 49.0 per cent in 2012–13. Self-reported use of cannabis has also decreased, from 65.4 per cent in 2003–04 to 55.6 per cent in 2012–13. More recently, the proportion of detainees testing positive for cannabis use increased from 47.9 per cent in 2011–12 to 49.0 per cent in 2012–13, while self-reported use of cannabis decreased from 57.2 per cent in 2011–12 to 55.6 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 24).
9 The distinction between hydroponic and bush cannabis is based on the respondents’ views and is not supported by any scientific analysis. 10 The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months preceding interview.
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CANNABIS
FIGURE 24: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for cannabis compared with self-reported use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
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The number of cannabis oil extraction laboratories detected in Australia remains low. Between 2007–08 and 2011–12, there were 3 detections in each reporting period. In 2012–13, there were 2 cannabis oil extraction laboratories detected, one each in New South Wales and South Australia (see Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter).
PRICE
Nationally, cannabis prices remained relatively stable in 2012–13. The price of a gram of hydroponic cannabis head in 2012–13 ranged between $12 and $50. The price of an ounce11 of hydroponic cannabis head ranged between $250 and $450, while the price for a single mature hydroponic cannabis plant ranged between $2 000 and $5 000.
AVAILABILITY
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of hydroponic cannabis, 92 per cent reported hydroponic cannabis as being easy or very easy to obtain, a decrease from the 94 per cent reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate a slight increase to 93 per cent (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
11 An ounce equates to approximately 28 grams.
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CANNABIS
According to a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of hydroponic cannabis, 95 per cent reported hydroponic cannabis as being easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from the 93 per cent reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate a small decrease to 90 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
The number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased this reporting period, with the number of seizures the highest reported in the last decade. The weight of national seizures was the second highest reported in the last decade. In 2012–13, the number of national cannabis seizures increased by 4.6 per cent, from 51 823 in 2011–12 to 54 181 in 2012–13. The weight of national cannabis seizures increased by 27.1 per cent, from 7 349.2 kilograms in 2011–12 to 9 344.0 kilograms in 2012–13 (see Figure 25). FIGURE 25: National cannabis seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Queensland continues to account for the greatest number of national cannabis seizures, followed by New South Wales. Since 2007–08, Victoria has accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of national cannabis seizures, accounting for 56.9 per cent of the weight of national seizures this reporting period. In 2012–13, the Australian Capital Territory reported the greatest percentage increase in the number of cannabis seizures, while Victoria reported the greatest percentage increase in seizure weight (see Table 13).
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CANNABIS
TABLE 13: Number, weight and percentage change of national cannabis seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
Weight (grams) % change 6.3 5.7 -1.5 -24.0 20.7 2.2 -22.9 47.3 4.6 2011–12 1 247 137 3 142 626 808 353 1 001 215 295 008 205 103 238 224 411 587 7 349 253 2012–13 1 824 922 5 320 497 813 277 733 281 28 441 244 702 178 520 200 373 9 344 013 % change 46.3 69.3 0.6 -26.8 -90.4 19.3 -25.1 -51.3 27.1
2011–12 15 247 3 836 18 286 487 8 526 2 736 2 185 520 51 823
2012–13 16 205 4 056 18 009 370 10 294 2 796 1 685 766 54 181
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
Cannabis continues to account for the greatest proportion of illicit drug arrests in Australia. The number of national cannabis arrests increased by 1.8 per cent, from 61 011 in 2011–12 to 62 120 in 2012–13, and is the highest reported in the last decade. Consumer arrests accounted for 86.7 per cent of all cannabis related arrests in 2012–13 (see Figure 26). FIGURE 26: Number of national cannabis arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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CANNABIS
In the last decade, Queensland has accounted for the greatest proportion of national cannabis arrests. In 2012–13, Queensland and New South Wales accounted for 53.4 per cent of national cannabis arrests (see Table 14). TABLE 14: Number and percentage change of national cannabis arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia South Australia (CENs) Western Australia Western Australia (CINs/CIRs)c Tasmania Northern Territory Northern Territory (DINs)
d b a
2011–12 14 004 7 916 17 733 2 544 8 878 5 421 1 177 1 659 617 703 265 94 61 011
2012–13 14 796 8 305 18 365 2 378 8 677 5 358 1 463 1 338 528 521 277 114 62 120
% change 5.7 4.9 3.6 -6.5 -2.3 -1.2 24.3 -19.3 -14.4 -25.9 4.5 21.3 1.8
New South Wales
Australian Capital Territory
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Australian Capital Territory (SCONs)e Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data. b. Cannabis Expiation Notices. c. Cannabis Infringement Notices and Cannabis Intervention Requirements. Due to legislative changes effective in Western Australia as of 1 August 2011, CINs were replaced by CIRs. The data contained in Table 14 combines figures for CINs and CIRs for 2011–12. Please see ‘Jurisdictional Issues’ in the Statistics chapter for further information. d. Drug Infringement Notices. e. Simple Cannabis Offence Notices.
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CANNABIS
NATIONAL IMPACT
Cannabis remains the dominant illicit drug in Australia in terms of arrests, seizures and use. Due to abundant domestic cultivation, with the exception of cannabis resin, oil and seeds, the trafficking of cannabis to Australia is unnecessary or unprofitable and remains relatively low. In 2012–13, the number and weight of cannabis detections at the Australian border increased, with a record 3 629 detections this reporting period. Despite this, the weight of cannabis detected at the Australian border remains low. In 2012–13, the postal stream accounted for 98.8 per cent of cannabis detections by number and 51.2 per cent by weight. Cannabis seed importations continue to account for the majority of detections, accounting for 89.2 per cent of the number of cannabis border detections in 2012–13. The number of embarkation points identified for cannabis increased 34.4 per cent, from 32 countries in 2011–12, to 43 countries in 2012–13. By number, the UK was the primary embarkation point this reporting period. In terms of weight, the prominent embarkation points were Iran and Canada. There were 2 cannabis oil extraction laboratories detected in Australia in 2012–13, a decrease from the 3 laboratories detected in each reporting period since 2007–08. Both the number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased in 2012–13. The number of national cannabis seizures increased from 51 823 in 2011–12, to 54 181 in 2012–13, with the weight of national cannabis seizures increasing from 7 349.2 kilograms in 2011–12 to 9 344.0 kilograms in 2012–13. Cannabis arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national illicit drug arrests, with the 62 120 cannabis arrests in 2012–13 the highest number reported in the last decade.
cannabis
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CANNABIS
references
Armentano, P 2013, ‘DEA: Marijuana Plant Seizures Decline to Lowest Levels in Nearly a Decade’, NORML, Washington DC, 9 September 2013, viewed 17 October 2013, <http://blog.norml.org/2013/09/09/dea-marijuana-plant-seizures-decline-to-lowestlevels-in-nearly-a-decade/>. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011, ‘2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey report’, Drug Statistics Series, no. 25, Cat. No. PHE 145, AIHW, Canberra. Bhattacharyya, S, Morrison, P, Fusar-Poli, P, Martin-Santos, R, Borgwardt, S, Winton-Brown, T, Nosarti, C, O’ Carroll, CM, Seal, M, Allen, P, Mehta, M, Stone, J, Tunstall, N, Giampietro, V, Kapur, S, Murray, RM, Zuardi, AW, Crippa, JA, Atakan, Z & McGuire, PK 2010, ‘Opposite effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on human brain function and psychopathology’, Neuropsychopharmacology, vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 764–74, US.
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European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013, European Drug Report 2013: Trends and Developments, EMCDDA, Lisbon. Global Post 2013, Algeria drug seizures skyrocket in 2012, Global Post, viewed 14 November 2013, <http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130305/algeriadrug-seizures-skyrocket-2012>. Hall, W and Swift, W 2000, ‘The THC content of cannabis in Australia: evidence and implications’, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 503–508, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, Melbourne. McLaren, J, Swift, W, Dillon, P & Allsop, S 2008, ‘Cannabis potency and contamination: a review of the literature’, Addiction, vol. 103, no.7, pp. 1100–1109, Abingdon. National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) 2009, Polydrug use among cannabis users, NCPIC, Sydney, viewed 28 August 2013, <http://ncpic.org.au/ncpic/ publications/aic-bulletins/article/polydrug-use-among-cannabis-users>. National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) 2011, What is cannabis: fact sheet, NCPIC, Sydney, viewed 19 August 2013, <http://ncpic.org.au/workforce/ alcohol-and-other-drug-workers/cannabis-information/factsheets/article/what-iscannabis>.
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CANNABIS
National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) 2012, Cannabis and mental health: fact sheet, NCPIC, Sydney, viewed 19 August 2013, <http://ncpic.org.au/ ncpic/publications/factsheets/article/cannabis-and-mental-health>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends Conference—Highs and lows of contemporary drugs in Australia: Emerging Psychoactive Substances, pharmaceutical opioids and other drugs, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Pisa, N 2013, ‘Marijuana haul off Italy ‘biggest ever at sea’, Sky News, London, 18 April 2013, viewed 17 October 2013, <http://news.sky.com/story/1080009/marijuana-hauloff-italy-biggest-ever-at-sea>. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 100, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Stafford, J & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 91, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2006, ‘Review of the world cannabis situation’, Bulletin on Narcotics, vol. LVIII, nos. 1 & 2, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Afghanistan: survey of commercial cannabis cultivation and production 2012, UNODC, New York. Zuardi, AW, Crippa, JA, Hallak, JE, Bhattacharyya, S, Atakan , Z, Matin-Santos, R, McGuire, PK, Guimaraes, FS 2012, A critical review of the antipsychotic effects of cannabidiol: 30 years of a translational investigation, Current Pharmaceutical Design, vol. 18, no. 32, pp. 5131-40, viewed 14 November 2013, <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/22716160>.
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CANNABIS
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CANNABIS
HEROIN
Key points
The number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border increased in 2012–13, with the 513.8 kilograms detected the highest on record. Profiling data from 2012 indicates the majority of analysed heroin seizures originated in South-East Asia. The weight of national heroin seizures increased to 544.4 kilograms in 2012–13, the highest weight reported in the last decade. The 2 463 national heroin and other opioid arrests reported in 2012–13 is the lowest number reported since 2007–08.
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HEROIN
main forms
Heroin (diacetylmorphine) belongs to the opioid class and is synthesised from morphine, an organic derivative of the opium poppy. In its purest form, raw opium is the dried milky juice (latex) extracted from the unripe seed pods of opium poppy plants (Papaver somniferum). The three primary regions producing illicit opium are South-West Asia (‘Golden Crescent’1), South-East Asia (‘Golden Triangle’2) and Latin America (primarily Mexico) (UNODC 1998; UNODC 2013a). The extraction of morphine from opium involves a number of filtration processes to capture unwanted residues and to obtain the desired clean filtrate solution. Chemicals used in this process include calcium hydroxide, ammonium chloride and hydrochloric acid. As the solution cools, morphine hydrochloride salt precipitates, which produces heroin of a higher purity than if morphine base is used to produce heroin. The synthesis of heroin base from morphine involves using acetic anhydride, sodium carbonate and collecting the heroin base by filtration. Further purification processes are required to produce the heroin hydrochloride salt (street heroin) (UNODC 1998). The colour and appearance of heroin is not a definitive or reliable indicator of origin or purity. There are four main grades of heroin, which have different utility and desirability in the Australian market. These are: No. 4 grade heroin, which is a product of high purity that is easily dissolved and usually injected. It is the most common grade in developed countries. No. 3 grade heroin, which is less refined and granular in appearance. Considered unsuitable for injection, it is most commonly heated and the vapours inhaled. No. 2 and No.1 grade heroin refers to heroin base, which is its form prior to conversion to a hydrochloride salt. No.1 and No. 2 grade heroin are not commonly encountered in Australia (Booth 1998).
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1 The ‘Golden Crescent’ encompasses large areas of Afghanistan and parts of Pakistan. 2 The ‘Golden Triangle’ comprises the border regions of Burma, Thailand and Laos.
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HEROIN
The two most common forms of heroin found in Australia are powder and rock, which are usually white or off-white in colour. Unrefined heroin base is rarely found in Australia, with ‘homebake’ heroin being a crude form of heroin made from codeine (AIC 2011; Dunn 2012). While heroin is most commonly injected, it can also be smoked, snorted/sniffed or added to cannabis or tobacco. In Australia, the most common method of administration is intravenous injection. The second most common practice is inhaling the fumes, which is referred to as ‘chasing the dragon’ (ADF 2013). Heroin produces a ‘rush’ minutes after administration, which may lead to a state of relaxation and contentment. Heroin is a central nervous system depressant which slows brain functions, in particular those related to respiration and blood pressure, and affects users’ perceptions of pain and reward. Short-term effects of heroin use may include drowsiness, dry mouth, nausea and vomiting. Long-term effects of heroin use may include liver, heart and lung problems, skin abscesses, memory impairment and depression. Psychological and physical dependence are also associated with long-term heroin use. Dependent heroin users may develop a tolerance and need higher doses to achieve the desired effect. Heroin overdoses are often the result of suppressed respiration (AIC 2011; DoHA 2013; NSW Health 2011).
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opium poppy field
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HEROIN
internationaL trends
The global use of heroin remains stable, with some market shifts noted. According to the 2013 World Drug Report, South-West and Central Asia, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and North America reported a high prevalence of heroin use. Additionally, there is an emerging trend related to the increased trafficking and non-medical use of prescription or synthetic opioids, which mimic the effects of heroin. Conversely, in Western and Central Europe, the heroin market continued to decline in 2012 in terms of reported use and availability (UNODC 2013a). Opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan reached a record high in 2013. According to the 2013 Afghanistan Opium Survey, the area under cultivation amounted to 209 000 hectares, compared to the earlier record in 2007 of 193 000 hectares. This represents a 36 per cent increase compared to the 154 000 hectares in 2012. Opium production in Afghanistan also increased, from 3 700 tonnes in 2012 to 5 500 tonnes in 2013. The survey reported that opium poppy eradication in 2013 totalled 7 348 hectares, a 24 per cent decrease compared to the 9 672 hectares in 2012. In 2013, two provinces that had previously been declared poppy-free—Faryab and Balkh in Northern Afghanistan—were again identified as cultivating opium. Based on 2012 opium poppy cultivation figures, Afghanistan accounted for 74 per cent of global opium cultivation (UNODC 2013a; UNODC 2013b). In 2012, an estimated 300 to 500 heroin production laboratories capable of producing 380 to 400 tonnes of heroin were operating in Afghanistan. Heroin is trafficked out of Afghanistan using a complex network of routes and intermediary countries. The ‘Northern route’ accounts for approximately 30 per cent of opium/heroin trafficked out of Afghanistan via Iran and Pakistan, then westwards through Iran and Turkey into Europe, or overland into Russia or China. The ‘Southern route’ uses overland routes through Pakistan before shipments are consigned to Africa and South-East Asia via maritime routes. From Asian ports, heroin is trafficked predominately by land routes to China (Jane’s 2012).
HEROIN
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HEROIN
Burma remains the second highest opium producing country in the world, producing approximately a third of that produced by Afghanistan. Despite Burma reporting the second highest ever figure for opium poppy eradication in 2013 at 12 288 hectares, opium poppy cultivation increased for the seventh consecutive year to an estimated 57 800 hectares—the greatest reported figure since 2003. The related potential opium production was estimated to be 870 tonnes, representing a 26 per cent increase compared to 2012. In 2013, the UNODC assessed that poppy cultivation in Laos was estimated to be 3 900 hectares, a decrease from 6 800 hectares in 2012. Opium production also decreased from 41 tonnes in 2012 to 23 tonnes in 2013, but the UNODC noted that these figures reported for Laos were not comparable for technical reasons3 (UNODC 2013c). In Burma, heroin manufacturing laboratories continue to be predominantly located in the Shan State, which borders China, Laos and Thailand. Opium harvested in the Lao-VietnamChina border region is trafficked to Burma for production into heroin. Burma currently supplies two-thirds of the Chinese heroin market, with Afghanistan supplying the remaining third. Heroin seizures in several South-East Asian and Oceanic countries indicate trafficking through these countries continues to supply the established markets in Australia and New Zealand, as well as the rapidly expanding Chinese market. Heroin produced in Afghanistan may also be supplementing this market, with couriers trafficking into regional countries such as Malaysia and Thailand (Jane’s 2013; UNODC 2013d). In Europe, indicators suggest a downward trend in both use and availability of heroin. In 2012, some European countries reported that over the last decade heroin has been displaced from the market by other opioid drugs. Other countries have experienced more recent market shortages, generally followed by a partial recovery. The majority of heroin found in Europe is thought to be manufactured in Afghanistan or, to a lesser extent, in neighbouring Iran or Pakistan (EMCDDA 2013). Two trafficking routes exist for transporting heroin to Europe. Historically, the more important of these has been the ‘Balkan Route’, running west through Turkey, into Balkan countries (Bulgaria, Romania or Albania) and on to Central, Southern and Western Europe. A more recent trafficking route is the ‘Northern’ or ‘Silk Route’, which heads north to Russia, via the former Soviet republics of Central Asia. However, the situation now appears to have become more diverse, with heroin shipments from Iran and Pakistan entering Europe by air or sea, either directly or transiting through West and East African countries. In 2012, heroin seizures continued to decrease in Europe, notably in the amount of heroin trafficked through the established Balkan land route. This may be as a result of law enforcement activity targeting established trafficking routes (EMCDDA 2013; UNODC 2013a).
3 The UNODC reports that the estimate for Laos in 2013 (3 900 hectares) is not comparable with the much higher figure (6 800 hectares) estimated in 2012. The 2013 UNODC Southeast Asia Opium Production Survey took place in late February 2013, about two weeks later than in 2012. The report assessed that some poppy fields were no longer identifiable as they were already harvested. Further, the UNODC identified that in 2013 most images of poppy fields were digitised using very high resolution satellite imagery, whereas in 2012 this was true only for some poppy fields and the resolution of the imagery was lower. The UNODC identifies that research on illicit crop surveys in other countries demonstrated that using higher resolution imagery leads to more accurate, but often lower area estimates. The combination of both factors may have led to the low 2013 poppy estimate and tonnage for Laos (UNODC 2013d).
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HEROIN
Unlike Europe, according to the Drug Enforcement Administration National Drug Threat Assessment Summary 2013, the availability of heroin in the United States of America (US) increased in 2012. This is likely due to the high levels of heroin production in Mexico, with Mexican traffickers expanding into white powder heroin markets in the east and mid-west US. Law enforcement and treatment officials throughout the US are also reporting that many prescription opioid users have turned to heroin as a cheaper and/or more easily obtained alternative to prescription drugs (DEA 2013). All countries in the Americas, except Canada, are supplied by heroin produced in the region. According to Government reports, the Canadian heroin market is supplied by heroin originating in Asia, mainly Afghanistan. Mexico and Colombia remain the highest opium producing countries supplying the US heroin market (UNODC 2013a). In Africa, large increases in the weight of heroin seizures have been observed since 2009—especially in East Africa. The 2013 World Drug Report indicates that the amount of heroin seized in East, West and Central Africa remains small compared with those in other regions, but has increased over five-fold from 2009. This report also identifies that a vast majority of these seizures occurred across maritime trafficking routes,4 which the report suggests points to increased maritime trafficking of Afghan opiates towards Africa. Additionally, West and Central Africa reported increased trafficking of heroin, with East Africa emerging as a transit route for heroin from Afghanistan to European markets (UNODC 2013a). Although Afghanistan remains the world’s largest opium producer, over the last decade the potential production of opium in the three major source regions in the world has fluctuated. In 2013, the potential production of opium in Burma and Laos was 893 metric tonnes, the highest combined weight reported for those countries in the last decade (see Figure 27). FIGURE 27: Potential production of opium, 2004 to 2013 (Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime)
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4 The 2013 World Drug Report describes these seizures as occurring at sea borders, ports or on the open sea.
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HEROIN
domestic trends
AUSTRALIAN BORDER DETECTIONS
In 2012–13, the number of heroin detections at the Australian border increased by 32.4 per cent, from 179 in 2011–12 to 237 in 2012–13. The total weight of heroin detections increased by 100.6 per cent, from 256.1 kilograms in 2011–12 to 513.8 kilograms in 2012–13, the highest weight on record (see Figure 28). The increase in the weight of heroin detected in 2012–13 is primarily due to a single 252 kilogram sea cargo detection. FIGURE 28: Number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
heroin
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In this reporting period, 204 of the 237 heroin detections at the Australian border weighed less than 1 kilogram, accounting for 86.1 per cent of the total number of heroin detections in 2012–13. The 33 heroin detections weighing more than 1 kilogram totalled 486.7 kilograms and accounted for 94.7 per cent of the total weight of heroin detections in 2012–13.
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections of heroin in 2012–13 include: 252 kilograms of heroin detected in July 2012, concealed in terracotta pots, via sea cargo from Thailand to Sydney 69 kilograms of heroin detected in June 2013, concealed inside the rotors of water pump electric motors, via sea cargo from Taiwan to Brisbane
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
HEROIN
58.5 kilograms of heroin detected in November 2012, concealed inside the base of two timber altars, via sea cargo from Vietnam to Brisbane 12 kilograms of heroin detected in May 2013, concealed within an air passenger’s suitcases, from Thailand to Sydney 10 kilograms of heroin detected in September 2012, concealed in the sides of four cartons that contained calendars, via air cargo from Vietnam to Sydney. The 5 detections listed above have a combined weight of 401.5 kilograms and account for 78.1 per cent of the total weight of heroin detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
IMPORTATION METHODS
In 2012–13, parcel post was the most commonly detected method of importation by number, accounting for 69.6 per cent of heroin detections. This was followed by air passenger/crew, which accounted for 16.0 per cent (see Figure 29). FIGURE 29: Number of heroin detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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While only 3 detections of heroin were in the sea cargo stream in 2012–13, they accounted for 73.9 per cent of the total weight of heroin detected at the Australian border. In 2012–13, air passenger/crew accounted for 17.4 per cent of heroin detections by weight (see Figure 30).
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
HEROIN
FIGURE 30: Weight of heroin detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 25 countries were identified as embarkation points for heroin detected at the Australian border, compared with 19 countries in 2011–12. By number, the Netherlands, Vietnam and Thailand were the primary embarkation points this reporting period. In terms of weight, the primary embarkation points were Thailand, Vietnam, Taiwan and Malaysia. Of the 25 embarkation points, 13 had a total heroin detection weight of over one kilogram. Figure 31 illustrates the key source countries and embarkation points for heroin detections by weight at the Australian border in 2012–13.
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HEROIN
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
Top 10 embarkation points by weight: Thailand Vietnam Taiwan Malaysia Singapore Madagascar India Belgium Tanzania Bangladesh
FIGURE 31: Key source countries and embarkation points for heroin detections, by weight, at the Australian border, 2012–13
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Key source country
Embarkation country
HEROIN
DRUG PROFILING
The Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team operates a forensic drug profiling capability through the National Measurement Institute which enables the identification of regions of origin and manufacturing trends for samples of heroin submitted from seizures made at the Australian border. The capability also allows for comparisons within and between seizures to identify distinct batches of drugs or potentially demonstrate links between groups involved in illicit drug manufacture or trafficking. However, only certain drug types are examined and not every seizure of drugs is analysed or profiled.5 The figures presented in Table 15 reflect border seizures made by law enforcement which are amenable to chemical profiling. The results for 2012 and the first six months of 2013 are significant due to the prevalence of South-East Asia heroin amongst those border seizures. Previous years have seen notable fluctuation between the contribution attributed to the two sources, and this high proportion comes despite the reported dominance of South-West Asia in global opium cultivation. Ongoing monitoring of this breakdown can enable inferences to be drawn about the relative importance of the two regions to the Australian market. The proportion of analysed heroin border seizures, by number, originating from South-East Asia increased from 49.0 per cent in 2011 to 70.7 per cent in 2012. This proportion continued to increase in the first six months of 2013 to 81.3 per cent. Conversely, the proportion of analysed border seizures originating from South-West Asia decreased, from 51.0 per cent in 2011 to 25.9 per cent in 2012. This proportion continued to decrease in the first six months of 2013 to 18.7 per cent (see Table 15).
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5 In examining profiling data, it should be noted that it relates to seizures investigated by the AFP between 2005 to June 2013, and from which samples were submitted to the National Measurement Institute for routine analysis and profiling. Improvements in information technology have brought about changes to how the data is collated and presented, and for this reason, care should be taken in comparing figures before 2010 to more recent data. For all reporting years, the data represents a snapshot across the applicable reporting period. These figures cannot reflect seizures that have not been submitted for forensic examination due to prioritisation of law enforcement resources or those that have passed through the border undetected. Certain seizures/samples, such as those containing swabs or trace material, have been omitted from the analysis as they are not amenable to chemical profiling. It is difficult to extrapolate the impact of any observed trends on drugs reaching consumers i.e. street level seizures in Australia. The AFP is collecting samples of heroin from selected state and territory jurisdictions for chemical profiling as part of the Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project.
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TABLE 15: Geographical origin of heroin samples as a proportion of analysed AFP border seizures, 2008–June 2013
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 South-East Asia % 81.3 70.7 49.0 63.8 53.9 44.1 South-West Asia % 18.7 25.9 51.0 27.5 42.6 44.1 Unclassified % – 3.4 – 5.8 3.4 11.8 South-East Asia & Unclassified % – – – – – – South-West Asia & Unclassified % – – – 2.9 – –
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
The shift in the prominent source region for analysed heroin border seizures in 2011 is also reflected in the proportion of analysed seizures by total bulk weight (see Table 16). Five large seizures accounted for approximately 88 per cent of the total bulk weight (359.6 kilograms) of heroin seized in 2012, all of which were chemically profiled to be of South-East Asia origin. During the January to June 2013 period, 3 seizures chemically profiled to be of South-East Asia origin accounted for approximately 60 per cent of the total bulk weight of seized heroin (126.3 kilograms).
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The proportion of analysed heroin border seizures by total bulk weight originating from South-East Asia increased from 39.4 per cent in 2011 to 90.4 per cent in 2012. This proportion has continued to increase to 93.6 per cent in the first six months of 2013. Conversely, the proportion of analysed border seizures originating from South-West Asia decreased from 60.6 per cent in 2011 to 1.2 per cent in 2012. Figures reported in the first six months of 2013 continue to be low at 6.4 per cent (see Table 16). TABLE 16: Geographical origin of heroin samples as a proportion of total bulk weight of analysed AFP border seizures, 2005–June 20136
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 South-East Asia % 93.6 90.4 39.4 93.3 48.2 26.0 47.9 70.1 78.9 South-West Asia % 6.4 1.2 60.6 5.8 40.9 66.3 50.6 27.4 18.0 Unclassified % – 8.4 – 0.9 10.9 7.7 1.5 2.7 3.1
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
The Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project extends the routine drug profiling capabilities of law enforcement from seizures at the border to also include state and territory seizures involving heroin, methylamphetamine, MDMA,
6 Of note, analysed seizures in 2010 and 2011 were influenced by single large seizures from South-East Asia and South-West Asia respectively. The significant influence of these 2 seizures on the profiling data demonstrates that strategic assessments of the market must be made with caution.
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and more recently cocaine.7 This enables detection of similarities between supply routes into different jurisdictions; links between different criminal groups; as well as comparison of trends between jurisdictions, including importations seized and profiled from the border. ENIPID profiling data obtained between 2011 and 2013 shows heroin samples originating predominately from South-East Asia. While exact proportions vary from year-to-year and are subject to a range of variables, the predominating trend of South-East Asia heroin has remained consistent in terms of both samples and cases. As with border figures, the market appears to be fed through South-East Asia and South-West Asia sources, with no confirmed detections of South American heroin among ENIPID samples (see Table 17 and 18). TABLE 17: Geographical origin of heroin ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional samples, 2011–June 2013
Geographical Origin Year Jan–Jun 2013 Total ACT 2012 Total 2011 Total NSW WA NSW WA Jurisdiction NSW WA South-East Asia % 50.0 16.7 66.7 8.5 55.3 2.1 65.9 9.8 82.3 92.1 South-West Asia % – 25.0 25.0 – 12.8 8.5 21.3 2.0 – 2.0 Mixed/ Unclassified % 8.3 – 8.3 – 12.8 – 12.8 3.9 2.0 5.9 Total % 58.3 41.7 100 8.5 80.9 10.6 100 15.7 84.3 100
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Note: This data set represents a total of 110 heroin samples. Due to a lack of available data, 14 samples were classified based on sample collection date in place of sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
TABLE 18: Geographical origin of heroin ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional cases, 2011–June 2013
Geographical Origin Year Jan–Jun 2013 Total ACT 2012 Total 2011 Total NSW WA NSW WA Jurisdiction NSW WA South-East Asia % 60.0 20.0 80.0 9.4 46.9 3.1 59.4 18.8 56.3 75.1 South-West Asia % – 10.0 10.0 – 12.5 9.4 21.9 6.2 – 6.2 Mixed/ Unclassified % 10.0 – 10.0 – 18.7 – 18.7 12.5 6.2 18.7 Total % 70.0 30.0 100 9.4 78.1 12.5 100 37.5 62.5 100
Note: This heroin data set represents a total of 58 cases. Due to a lack of available data, 14 samples were classified based on sample collection date in place of sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013. 7 Profiling of cocaine samples under the ENIPID project commenced in late 2013 and therefore falls outside the reporting period.
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domestic marKet indicators
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 1.4 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using heroin at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey, 0.2 per cent reported recent8 heroin use (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent9 heroin use decreased from 62 per cent in 2011 to 60 per cent in 2012. Recent heroin users within this regular injecting drug user population reported using heroin a median of 72 days in the six months preceding interview, which has remained stable since 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of recent heroin use remained stable at 60 per cent, with the reported median days of heroin use in the six months preceding interview decreasing to 60 days (see Figure 32) (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). FIGURE 32: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent heroin use and median days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
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a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
8 In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview. 9 The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in the six months preceding interview.
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According to the 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, 54 per cent of respondents reported heroin as their drug of choice. Forms of heroin used were white/ off-white powder or rock (93 per cent) and brown powder or rock (48 per cent). There continues to be minimal reporting of home-bake heroin use, with injection the most common reported method of administration. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting heroin as their drug of choice decreased to 53 percent (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent heroin use decreased from 7 per cent in 2011 to 5 per cent in 2012. Recent heroin users within this regular ecstasy user population reported using heroin a median of 5 days in the six months preceding interview, a decrease from the 12 days reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent heroin use remains relatively stable at 4 per cent.10 Injection (80 per cent) was the most common reported method of administration, followed by smoking at 23 per cent, snorting at 13 per cent and swallowing at 3 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey11 and voluntary urinalysis. The proportion of detainees testing positive for heroin has decreased from 13.7 per cent in 2003–04 to 9.9 per cent in 2012–13. Self-reported use of heroin decreased from 19.6 per cent in 2003–04 to 13.4 per cent in 2012–13. More recently, the proportion of detainees testing positive for heroin use remained relatively stable between 2011–12 and 2012–13 at around 10 per cent, while self-reported heroin use decreased from 14.3 per cent in 2011–12 to 13.4 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 33). FIGURE 33: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for heroin compared with self-reported use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
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a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
10 Early findings from the 2013 EDRS for reported median days of heroin use were not available. 11 The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months preceding interview.
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PRICE
Nationally, the price for a gram of heroin in 2012–13 ranged between $220 and $1 000. The price for an 8-ball12 of heroin ranged between $550 and $2 000.13 The price for an ounce of heroin in Victoria, South Australia, and Western Australia was higher than prices reported in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory.
PURITY
Figure 34 illustrates the annual median purity of heroin in Australia since 2003–04. During the last decade, the median purity of analysed heroin samples ranged between 12.2 per cent and 51.0 per cent. In 2012–13, the annual median purity of heroin ranged between 14.1 per cent in Victoria to 30.0 per cent in Western Australia. Of note, since 2009–10, Western Australia has continued to report the highest annual median purity for heroin. In 2012–13, South Australia was the only jurisdiction to record an increase in annual median purity. FIGURE 34: Annual median purity of heroin samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Figure 35 illustrates the median purity of analysed heroin samples on a quarterly basis in 2012–13. The quarterly median purity of heroin ranged from 13.3 per cent in Queensland to 41.0 per cent in Western Australia. Of note, Western Australia reported the highest median purity for analysed heroin samples for three of the four quarters in this reporting period.
12 An 8-ball equates to 3.5 grams. 13 This high price is attributed to the reported price of an 8-ball of heroin in Western Australia, which ranged between $1 900 and $2 000 in 2012–13.
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FIGURE 35: Quarterly median purity of heroin samples, 2012–13
AVAILABILITY
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of heroin, 87 per cent reported heroin as being easy or very easy to obtain. This remains consistent with figures reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this figure has remained relatively stable, with 85 per cent of respondents reporting heroin as easy or very easy to obtain (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
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SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
In 2012–13, the number of national heroin seizures decreased by 9.9 per cent, from 1 758 in 2011–12, to 1 584 in 2012–13. Despite this decrease, the number of heroin seizures this reporting period is the third highest reported in the last decade. The weight of national heroin seizures increased by 40.2 per cent, from 388.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 544.4 kilograms in 2012–13 and is the highest reported in the last decade (see Figure 36).
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FIGURE 36: National heroin seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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New South Wales continued to account for the greatest proportion of national heroin seizures this reporting period, accounting for 53.5 per cent of the number of national seizures and 69.4 per cent of the weight of national seizures. In 2012–13, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory reported increases in the number of heroin seizures. New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, the Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory all reported increases in the weight of heroin seizures this reporting period, with Queensland and the Northern Territory reporting significant percentage increases compared to 2011–12 (see Table 19). TABLE 19: Number, weight and percentage change of national heroin seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
Weight (grams) % change -0.1 -23.2 -14.5 -31.0 -24.8 -100.0 166.7 48.4 -9.9 2011–12 283 653 100 662 989 1 489 1 548 1 8 46 388 396 2012–13 377 798 28 679 128 818 1 857 937 0 6 148 243 544 480 % change 33.2 -71.5 12 925.1 24.7 -39.5 -100.0 76 750.0 428.3 40.2 848 275 194 40 173 0 8 46 1 584
2011–12 849 358 227 58 230 2 3 31 1 758
2012–13
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
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Over the last decade, the number of national heroin and other opioid arrests has decreased 33.3 per cent, from 3 691 in 2003–04 to 2 463 in 2012–13. In this reporting period, national heroin and other opioids arrests decreased by 9.2 per cent, from 2 714 in 2011–12 to 2 463 in 2012–13. Consumer arrests accounted for 68.1 per cent of national heroin and other opioid arrests this reporting period, with South Australia reporting more heroin and other opioid provider arrests than consumer arrests (see Figure 37). FIGURE 37: Number of national heroin and other opioid arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Victoria has accounted for the greatest proportion of national heroin and other opioids arrests over the last decade, accounting for 49.4 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. South Australia, Tasmania and the Northern Territory all reported increases in the number of heroin and other opioid arrests this reporting period. In 2012–13, related arrests in New South Wales and Victoria accounted for 75.7 per cent of national heroin and other opioids arrests (see Table 20). TABLE 20: Number and percentage change of national heroin and other opioid arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests State/Territorya New South Wales Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
2011–12 668 1 425 314 85 180 13 1 28 2 714
2012–13 648 1 217 291 111 155 18 3 20 2 463
% change -3.0 -14.6 -7.3 30.6 -13.9 38.5 200.0 -28.6 -9.2
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NATIONAL IMPACT
In 2013, opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan reached a record high, with the estimated illicit opium production in Afghanistan increasing by 49 per cent compared with 2011. Afghanistan remains the largest producer of illicit opium in the world, accounting for 75 per cent of global illicit production in 2012. South-East and South-West Asia remain the key source regions for heroin seized at the Australian border. In 2012, the majority of heroin profiled was sourced from South-East Asia, with increases in the proportion of analysed border seizures of South-East Asian origin, for both number and total bulk weight. This trend has continued in the first six months of 2013. The predominance of heroin of South-East Asian origin is also reflected in heroin profiled as part of the ENIPID project. In 2012–13, both the number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border increased, with the weight the highest on record. Parcel post continues to account for the highest proportion of the number of heroin detections at the Australian border, while sea cargo accounted for the highest proportion of the weight of detected heroin this reporting period. In 2012–13, the number of countries identified as embarkation points for heroin detected at the Australian border increased by 31.6 per cent, from 19 countries in 2011–12 to 25 countries in 2012–13. By number, the Netherlands, Vietnam and Thailand were the primary embarkation points this reporting period. In terms of weight, Thailand, Vietnam and Malaysia continue to be prominent heroin embarkation points. The number of national heroin seizures decreased from 1 758 in 2011–12, to 1 584 in 2012–13. Despite this decrease, heroin seizures in this reporting period were the third highest reported in the last decade. The weight of national heroin seizures increased from 388.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 544.4 kilograms in 2012–13, and is the highest reported in the last decade. New South Wales continued to account for the greatest proportion of both the number and weight of national heroin seizures this reporting period, with Queensland and the Northern Territory reporting significant percentage increases in the weight of heroin seized compared with 2011–12. In 2012–13, heroin and other opioid arrests decreased, with the 2 463 arrests the lowest number reported since 2007–08. Victoria continued to account for the greatest proportion of national heroin and other opioids arrests this reporting period. While heroin and other opioid consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national arrests, in 2012–13, South Australia reported more heroin and other opioid provider arrests than consumer arrests.
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REFERENCES
Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2013, DrugInfo: heroin facts, ADF, viewed 21 August 2013, <http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/heroin>. Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC) 2011, Heroin, viewed 28 August 2013, <http://www.aic.gov.au/crime_types/drugs_alcohol/drug_types/heroin.html>. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011, ‘2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey report’, Drug Statistics Series, no. 25, Cat. No. PHE 145, AIHW, Canberra. Booth, M 1998, Opium: a history, St. Martins Press, New York. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) 2013, National Drug Threat Assessment Summary 2013, US Department of Justice, Washington DC, viewed 29 November 2013, <http://www.justice.gov/dea/resource-center/DIR-017-13%20NDTA%20Summary%20 final.pdf>. Department of Health and Ageing (DoHA) 2013, ‘Heroin or diacetylmorphine’, National Drugs Campaign, DoHA, viewed 21 August 2013, <http://www.health.gov.au/internet/ drugs/publishing.nsf/content/Heroin/$file/Heroin%20or%20diacetylmorphine.pdf>. Dunn, M 2012, ‘A quick guide to drugs and alcohol’, a druginfo@your library, State Library of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 21 August 2013, <http://www.druginfo. sl.nsw.gov.au/drugs/list/heroin.html pdf>. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013, European Drug Report 2013: Trends and Developments, EMCDDA, Lisbon. Jane’s 2012, ‘Serious and Organised Crime, Northern Exposure: Afghan heroin trafficking through Central Asia’, Jane’s Intelligence Review – July 2012, IHS Jane’s, Northampton. Jane’s 2013, ‘Serious and Organised Crime, Orient excess: Drug production in Myanmar’, Jane’s Intelligence Review – August 2013, IHS Jane’s, Northampton. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends Conference—Highs and lows of contemporary drugs in Australia: Emerging Psychoactive Substances, pharmaceutical opioids and other drugs, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney. New South Wales Government, Health (NSW Health) 2011, Factsheet: heroin, NSW Government, Health, viewed 21 August 2013, <http://www0.health.nsw.gov.au/ factsheets/drugandalcohol/heroin.html>.
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Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 100, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Stafford, J & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 91, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 1998, Recommended methods for testing opium, morphine and heroin: manual for use by national drug testing laboratories, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Afghanistan: Opium Survey 2013, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013c, Southeast Asia Opium Survey 2013, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013d, Transnational Organised Crime in East Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment, UNODC, New York.
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COCAINE
Key points
Although the weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border almost halved in 2012–13, the number of detections more than doubled and is the highest on record. Cocaine profiling data indicates the continued prominence of Colombia as a source country for cocaine seized at the Australian border. There was a record number of national cocaine seizures this reporting period, with the weight of national cocaine seizures the highest reported in the last decade. There was a record 1 282 national cocaine arrests in 2012–13.
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main forms
Cocaine (benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is the principle psychoactive alkaloid of the coca plant.1 The genus Erythroxylum has over 200 known species, of which at least 17 contain the alkaloid cocaine. The two main species cultivated for the production of cocaine are Erythroxylum Coca (E. Coca) and Erythroxylum Novogranatense (E. Novagranatense) E. Coca has the highest cocaine content of the two species and is cultivated along the eastern slopes of Bolivia and Peru. Erythroxylum Novogranatense is cultivated in Colombia and countries in Central America (Freye & Levy 2009). The extraction and production of cocaine hydrochloride from coca leaves involves a number of chemical processes that occur in three stages—obtaining coca paste from coca leaf, refining coca paste to cocaine base and converting cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride. Chemicals commonly used during this process include sulfuric acid, ammonium hydroxide, potassium permanganate, acetone and hydrochloric acid (Freye & Levy 2009). The most common form of cocaine available in Australia is powdered hydrochloride salt which can be snorted, rubbed into the gums or dissolved in water and injected. Another form of cocaine is base—or ‘crack’2—usually rock crystal in appearance, which is heated to produce vapours that are inhaled. Crack cocaine is not commonly encountered in Australia (NIDA 2013). Cocaine is a strong central nervous stimulant that increases levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Dopamine is associated with functions responsible for reward, motivation and the experience of pleasure. It is the increase in dopamine levels that cause cocaine’s characteristic ‘high’ and associated feelings of euphoria, confidence and energy (NIDA 2013). The intensity and duration of the cocaine high is influenced by the method of administration. Injecting or smoking cocaine delivers the drug rapidly into the bloodstream, producing a quicker and stronger, but shorter-lasting high than snorting. The effects from injecting or smoking cocaine may last 5 to 10 minutes, while the effects from snorting may last 15 to 30 minutes. In order to sustain effects, users may administer the drug in a ‘binge-pattern’.3 This practice can easily lead to addiction, a chronic relapsing disease caused by changes in the brain and may be characterised by uncontrollable drug-seeking (NIDA 2013).
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1 The coca plant is grown predominately along the Andean Ridge in South America. 2 The term crack refers to the crackling sound produced by the rock as it is heated. 3 The term ‘binge-pattern’ refers to taking the drug repeatedly within a relatively short period of time, at increasingly higher doses.
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Short-term effects of cocaine use may include increased heart rate, nausea, tremors and hallucinations. Long-term effects of cocaine use may include convulsions, kidney failure, respiratory problems and increased risk of stroke. When cocaine is used in conjunction with alcohol, the liver converts the combination into a third substance known as cocaethylene, which may lead to liver failure or heart attack (DoHA 2010; DRS 2011).
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coca plant field
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INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
According to the 2013 World Drug Report, the global cocaine market has declined in recent years. This assessment was informed by figures relating to the cultivation of coca bush, cocaine manufacture, cocaine seizures and cocaine user estimates in the major consumer countries. This is reflected in the situation in North America, where the cocaine market declined significantly over the period 2006 to 2012 and, to a lesser extent in Western and Central Europe, where the cocaine market appears to have stabilised following many years of growth.4 In contrast, over the last decade the prevalence of cocaine use appears to have increased in several regions with large populations, notably South America and to a lesser extent in Africa and Asia (UNODC 2013a).
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South America continues to dominate global coca cultivation. Despite this, Colombia, Bolivia and Peru all reported a decrease in coca cultivation in 2012 compared with 2011. Colombia reported the largest decrease in coca cultivation since crop monitoring began in 2001, decreasing from 64 000 hectares in 2011 to 48 000 hectares in 2012 (UNODC 2013b). Coca cultivation in Bolivia decreased from 27 200 hectares in 2011 to 25 300 hectares in 2012, with coca cultivation in Peru decreasing from 62 500 hectares in 2011 to 60 400 hectares in 2012 (UNODC 2013c; UNODC 2013d). Colombia reported a decrease in the area of coca bush eradicated, decreasing from 34 170 hectares in 2011 to 30 486 hectares in 2012, while Bolivia and Peru reported increases. In Bolivia, 11 044 hectares was eradicated in 2012 compared with 10 500 in 2011 and in Peru, 14 234 hectares was eradicated in 2012 compared with 10 290 in 2011 (UNODC 2013b; UNODC 2013c; UNODC 2013d). Colombian cocaine continues to be trafficked through Ecuador, Mexico and other South American countries to North American markets. Shipments consigned to West and Central Africa or European markets use maritime transit hubs in Brazil and Ecuador. According to media reporting, in May 2013 the Aeronaval National Service of Panama reported a seizure of 2 717 kilograms of cocaine in the Guna Yala shire, Panama, as part of Operation Santisima Trinidad (Xinhua 2013).
4
Despite 40 per cent decreases in the North American and European cocaine user markets, they continue to account for almost half of the global cocaine user market (BINLEA 2013).
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The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) reports that organised criminal groups are diversifying their trafficking techniques and routes. Cocaine continues to be trafficked into Europe via the traditional entry countries of Spain and Portugal, or through maritime shipping routes into the major ports of Belgium, the Netherlands and other West European countries. In 2012, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece and Baltic States reported increases in the weight of cocaine seizures at sea ports (EMCDDA 2013). The United States of America (US) continues to engage in regional capacity building and counter-narcotics initiatives with national authorities in Mexico, West Africa and the Caribbean. The US Customs and Border Protection regularly patrol areas in the West Caribbean and East Pacific. According to media reporting, during 1 October 2011 to 30 September 2012, these patrols detected 59 tonnes of cocaine worth an estimated US$8.8 billion. In a single month, they intercepted cocaine shipments estimated to be worth US$527 million (McLaughlin 2013). Among drug markets with potential for growth in the prevalence of cocaine use, the 2013 World Drug Report indicates that East and South-East Asia present the greatest risk of expansion (UNODC 2013a). According to media reporting, in July 2012 Hong Kong officials acting on US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) information seized 649 kilograms of cocaine with an estimated street value of US$98 million, concealed in a shipping container arriving from Guayaquil, Ecuador (CNN 2012). The Philippines has also seized large quantities of cocaine in recent years and Thailand—a country with a large consumer market for stimulants—identified the Philippines among the transit countries for cocaine reaching Thailand (UNODC 2013a). Since 2007, West Africa has been an important transhipment hub for cocaine trafficked from South America to Europe. West African nationals remain prominent traffickers and are involved with organised networks trafficking cocaine to various destinations. The availability of cocaine in West Africa and along the land trafficking routes may have also contributed to an increase in cocaine use in West and North Africa (UNODC 2013a). In the South Pacific, ongoing joint law enforcement operations involving the Australian Federal Police, Australian Customs and Border Protection Service, US DEA and various island-nation police services continue to target criminal groups using the region as a transit route or staging area for the trafficking of illegal substances. In November 2012, more than 200 kilograms of cocaine with an estimated street value of up to $116 million was located concealed in the hull of a 13 metre yacht off the Tongan coast. The yacht had been monitored by an international police taskforce since departing from Ecuador in August 2012. The monitoring was part of a combined international operation targeting organised criminal groups using the South Pacific to traffic drugs into the region (AFP 2012).
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Since 2005, the potential quantity of cocaine produced in Colombia has continued to decrease in each subsequent reporting period. In 2012, the potential quantity of cocaine produced in Colombia was reported at 309 tonnes, a decrease from the 345 tonnes reported in 2011 (see Figure 38) (UNODC 2013a). FIGURE 38: Potential production of cocaine, 2003 to 2012 (Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime)
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a. Due to the ongoing review of conversion factors, estimated production figures for Peru and Bolivia are not available beyond 2008.
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DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
The number of detections of cocaine at the Australian border has continued to increase since 2009–10. In 2012–13, the number of cocaine detections at the Australian border increased by 104.6 per cent, from 979 in 2011–12 to 2 003 in 2012–13 and is the highest number on record. The total weight of cocaine detected this reporting period decreased by 49.1 per cent, from 785.7 kilograms in 2011–12 to 399.6 kilograms in 2012–13 (see Figure 39). FIGURE 39: Number and weight of cocaine detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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Of note, 98.3 per cent of cocaine detections this reporting period weighed less than 1 kilogram. In 2012–13, 33 cocaine detections weighed over 1 kilogram. These 33 detections had a combined total weight of 363.6 kilograms and account for 90.9 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected in 2012–13.
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections of cocaine in 2012–13 include: 144.4 kilograms of cocaine detected in October 2012, suspended in four pallets of 250 cases of wine, via sea cargo from Chile to Sydney 138 kilograms of cocaine detected in September 2012, suspended in 900 cases of wine, via sea cargo from Chile to Sydney
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7.8 kilograms of cocaine detected in June 2013, via an air passenger’s suitcase from Peru to Sydney 6.9 kilograms of cocaine detected in December 2012, concealed within a granite water fountain, via air cargo from Canada to Sydney 6 kilograms of cocaine detected in December 2012, via sea cargo from Canada to Sydney.5 The 5 detections listed above have a combined weight of 303.1 kilograms and account for 75.8 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
IMPORTATION METHODS
Since 2000–01, the postal stream has accounted for over 70 per cent of the number of cocaine border detections. In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 94.1 per cent of detections, by number (see Figure 40). FIGURE 40: Number of cocaine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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In this reporting period, 3 sea cargo detections with a combined weight of 288.4 kilograms accounted for 72.2 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border. Air cargo accounted for 11.3 per cent and air passenger/crew accounted for 10.3 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected in 2012–13 (see Figure 41).
5 This border detection also included 40 kilograms of methylamphetamine concealed in table tops.
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FIGURE 41: Weight of cocaine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 56 countries were identified as embarkation points for cocaine detected at the Australian border, compared with 39 countries in 2011–12. The Netherlands accounted for the greatest number of cocaine detections this reporting period—with 682 detections—with Canada and Germany other prominent embarkation points. In terms of weight, the prominent embarkation point was Chile, which included 2 sea cargo detections with a combined weight of 282.4 kilograms. Chile was followed by Canada and the US. Figure 42 illustrates the key source countries and embarkation points for cocaine detections by weight at the Australian border in 2012–13.
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Top 10 embarkation points by weight: Chile Canada United States of America Argentina Peru Colombia Brazil Hong Kong Austria Costa Rica
FIGURE 42: Key source countries and embarkation points for cocaine detections, by weight, at the Australian border, 2012–13
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Key source country
Embarkation country
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DRUG PROFILING
The Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team operates forensic drug profiling capability through the National Measurement Institute which enables the identification of regions of origin and manufacturing trends for cocaine samples seized at the Australian border. The capability also allows for comparisons within and between seizures to identify distinct batches of drugs or potentially demonstrate links between groups involved in illicit drug manufacture or trafficking. However, only certain drug types are examined and not every seizure of drugs is analysed or profiled.6 The figures in Table 21 and Table 22 represent recent cocaine profiling results for border seizures, identifying the geographic origin of the coca-leaf used in the production of the drug. It should be noted that ‘unclassified’ figures include samples that are currently undergoing profiling, as well as samples for which a geographic origin could not be determined through existing profiling techniques. The presence of ‘mixed’ seizures highlights the existence of shipments where more than one type of cocaine was present (for example, cocaine of ‘Colombian’ and ‘Peruvian’ origin within a single shipment). The proportion of analysed cocaine border seizures, by number, with Colombian leaf-origin remained stable between 2011 and 2012, while the proportion identified as Peruvian leaf-origin decreased from 35.3 per cent in 2011 to 29.1 per cent in 2012. In the first six months of 2013, the proportion of seizures with Colombian leaf-origin increased to 70.8 per cent, while seizures of Peruvian leaf-origin continued to decrease to 25.0 per cent (see Table 21). TABLE 21: Geographical origin of coca leaf used to produce cocaine as a proportion of analysed AFP border seizures, 2007–June 2013
Year Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 Colombian % 70.8 53.3 55.9 55.2 44.9 67.3 61.7 Peruvian % 25.0 29.1 35.3 30.2 32.7 28.6 23.3 Bolivian % – – – 1.0 2.0 – 1.7 Mixed % 4.2 5.9 5.9 6.3 10.2 – 9.9 Unclassified % – 9.7 2.9 7.3 10.2 4.1 3.4
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Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
6 In examining profiling data, it should be noted that it relates to seizures investigated by the AFP between 2005 and June 2013 and from which samples were submitted to the National Measurement Institute for routine analysis and profiling. Improvements in information technology have brought about changes to how the data is collated and presented, and for this reason, care should be taken in comparing figures before 2010 to more recent data. For all reporting years, the data represents a snapshot across the applicable reporting period. These figures cannot reflect seizures that have not been submitted for forensic examination due to prioritisation of law enforcement resources, or those that have passed through the border undetected. Certain seizures/samples, such as those containing swabs or trace material, have been omitted from the analysis as they are not amenable to chemical profiling. It is difficult to extrapolate the impact of any observed trends on drugs reaching consumers i.e. street level seizures in Australia. For this reason, as of 2014, samples are also being sought from significant domestic seizures.
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The data in Table 22 is based on the same analytical samples used as the basis for Table 21, but is organised in terms of the total bulk weight of seizures rather than number. Four large seizures contributed approximately 83 per cent of the total bulk weight (978.9 kilograms) of cocaine seized and chemically profiled in 2012. Available profiling data on 3 of these seizures indicates that they were manufactured from Peruvian coca leaves, and the other large seizure from Colombian coca leaves. The vast majority of Peruvian cocaine seized in 2012 consisted of 2 large seizures, which were in liquid form (545.1 kilograms). In the first six months of 2013, 4 seizures accounted for 59 per cent of the total bulk weight (11 kilograms) seized and profiled in that period. In terms of total bulk weight, the proportion of analysed cocaine border seizures of Colombian leaf-origin decreased from 51.3 per cent in 2011 to 23.7 per cent in 2012. Conversely, the proportion of analysed border seizures of Peruvian leaf-origin increased from 44.2 per cent in 2011 to 74.3 per cent in 2012. This trend reversed in the first six months of 2013, with the proportion of analysed seizures with Colombian leaf-origin being more prominent (see Table 22). TABLE 22: Geographical origin of coca leaf used to produce cocaine as a proportion of total bulk weight of analysed AFP border seizures, 2007–June 2013
Year Colombian % 75.9 23.7 51.3 96.3 91.3 95.1 86.3 Peruvian % 24.1 74.3 44.2 3.2 6.8 4.7 10.6 Bolivian % – – – <0.1 <0.1 – 0.4 Mixed % – 1.3 4.4 – – – – Unclassified % – 0.7 0.1 0.4 1.9 0.2 2.7
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Jan–Jun 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
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DOMESTIC marKet indicators
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 7.3 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using cocaine at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey, 2.1 per cent reported recent7 cocaine use, the highest proportion ever reported in this survey for recent cocaine use (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent8 cocaine use decreased from 17 per cent in 2011 to 15 per cent in 2012, the lowest proportion reported in the last decade. Reported recent use of cocaine remained most common among participants in New South Wales (44 per cent), with the proportion of recent users in the majority of other states and territories remaining below the national figure of 15 per cent. Recent cocaine users within this regular injecting drug user population reported using cocaine a median of 3 days in the six months preceding interview in 2012, the lowest reported figure in the last decade. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of recent cocaine users has increased to 16 per cent, with the reported median days of cocaine use in the six months preceding interview remaining stable at 3 days (see Figure 43) (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). FIGURE 43: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent cocaine use and median days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
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a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
7 In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview. 8 The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in the six months preceding interview.
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In the same 2012 study, 3 per cent of respondents reported cocaine as their drug of choice. Powder remains the most commonly used form of cocaine (78 per cent) among recent users, with only minimal reporting of crack cocaine use. The most common method of administration was injection (12 per cent) followed by snorting (4 per cent). Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting cocaine as their drug of choice decreased to 2 per cent (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent cocaine use decreased from 46 per cent in 2011 to 40 per cent in 2012. New South Wales and Victoria accounted for the greatest proportion of recent cocaine users in 2012. Recent cocaine users within this regular ecstasy user population reported using cocaine a median of 3 days in the six months preceding interview, an increase from the 2 days reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of recent cocaine users has decreased to 36 per cent, with the reported median days of cocaine use in the six months preceding interview decreasing to 2 days (see Figure 44) (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). FIGURE 44: Proportion of a regular ecstasy user population reporting recent cocaine use and median days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
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a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
The proportion of respondents reporting cocaine as their drug of choice remained relatively stable in 2012 at 13 per cent. The most common form of administration was snorting at 97 per cent, followed by swallowing at 31 per cent. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting cocaine as their drug of choice decreased to 6 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
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Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey9 and voluntary urinalysis. Over the last decade, the proportion of detainees testing positive for cocaine has fluctuated, from a low of 0.7 per cent in 2003–04 to a high of 2.2 per cent in 2008–09. More recently, the proportion of detainees testing positive for cocaine use decreased from 1.5 per cent in 2011–12 to 1.1 per cent in 2012–13. Self-reported use of cocaine has remained relatively stable since 2004–05, ranging from 10.2 per cent in 2007–08 to 12.8 per cent in 2008–09. Self-reported use of cocaine increased from 10.6 per cent in 2011–12 to 11.2 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 45). FIGURE 45: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for cocaine compared with self-reported use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
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a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
PRICE
Nationally, the price of a gram of cocaine in 2012–13 ranged between $250 and $1 000. The price of a gram of cocaine in New South Wales has remained relatively stable since 2009–10 and ranged between $250 and $400 in 2012–13. The price for a gram of cocaine in the Northern Territory doubled this reporting period, increasing from $500 in 2011–12 to $1 000 in 2012–13. Nationally, the price range of a kilogram of cocaine increased this reporting period, from between $190 000 and $300 000 in 2011–12, to between $180 000 and $360 000 in 2012–13.
9 The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months preceding interview.
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PURITY
Figure 46 illustrates ongoing fluctuations in the annual median purity of cocaine over the last decade. Since 2003–04, the annual median purity of analysed cocaine samples has ranged between 3.0 per cent and 64.3 per cent. In 2012–13, the annual median purity ranged between 27.8 per cent in Queensland and 56.6 per cent in South Australia. Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory reported a decrease in the annual median purity of cocaine this reporting period. FIGURE 46: Annual median purity of cocaine samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Figure 47 illustrates the median purity of analysed cocaine samples on a quarterly basis for 2012–13. During the reporting period, the median purity of cocaine ranged between 20.0 per cent in Queensland and 57.5 per cent in South Australia. Queensland reported the greatest fluctuation in median cocaine purity during the reporting period, ranging between 20.0 per cent in the third quarter of 2012 and 55.3 per cent in the fourth quarter of 2012.
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FIGURE 47: Quarterly median purity of cocaine samples, 2012–13
AVAILABILITY
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, only small numbers of respondents were able to comment on the availability of cocaine in jurisdictions other than New South Wales, therefore any assessment should be made with caution. Of those respondents who commented on the availability of cocaine, 65 per cent described cocaine as easy or very easy to obtain, a decrease from 68 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate an increase in availability, with 70 per cent of respondents reporting cocaine as easy or very easy to obtain (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). According to a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of cocaine, 49 per cent reported cocaine as being easy or very easy to obtain. This remains consistent with figures reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate an increase in availability, with 58 per cent of respondents reporting cocaine as easy or very easy to obtain (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
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SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
In 2012–13, both the number and weight of national cocaine seizures increased. The number of national cocaine seizures is the highest on record, while the weight of seizures is the highest reported in the last decade. The number of national cocaine seizures has increased by 158.3 per cent over the last decade, from 839 in 2003–04 to 2 167 in 2012–13. The weight of national cocaine seizures has increased 783.4 per cent over the last decade, from 119.6 kilograms in 2003–04 to 1 056.5 kilograms in 2012–13 (see Figure 48).
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FIGURE 48: National cocaine seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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The number of national cocaine seizures increased by 62.2 per cent this reporting period, from 1 336 in 2011–12 to 2 167 in 2012–13. The weight of cocaine seized nationally increased by 10.5 per cent this reporting period, from 956.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 1 056.5 kilograms in 2012–13. Over the last decade, New South Wales has accounted for the highest proportion of the number of national cocaine seizures, accounting for 63.8 per cent of the national total in 2012–13. In this reporting period, while Western Australia reported the greatest percentage increase in the number of cocaine seizures, New South Wales accounted for 98.0 per cent of the weight of cocaine seized nationally in 2012–13 (see Table 23). TABLE 23: Number, weight and percentage change of national cocaine seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
Weight (grams) % change 54.2 86.3 48.0 75.0 215.9 -100.0 -75.0 -43.5 62.2 2011–12 189 974 470 157 294 763 837 325 64 2 216 956 338 2012–13 1 034 956 12 124 4 503 1 784 2 221 0 0 982 1 056 570 % change 444.8 -97.4 -98.5 113.1 583.4 -100.0 -100.0 354.6 10.5 1 382 298 253 21 199 0 1 13 2 167
2011–12 896 160 171 12 63 7 4 23 1 336
2012–13
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
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Figure 49 illustrates the number of national cocaine arrests since 2003–04. Over the last decade, cocaine arrests have increased by 290.9 per cent, from 328 in 2003–04 to 1 282 in 2012–13, the highest number of cocaine arrests on record. In 2012–13, consumer arrests accounted for 70.1 per cent of national cocaine arrests. However, South Australia, Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory all reported more cocaine provider than consumer arrests in this reporting period. FIGURE 49: Number of national cocaine arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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In 2012–13, the number of national cocaine arrests increased by 28.8 per cent, from 995 in 2011–12 to 1 282 in 2012–13. The Northern Territory was the only state or territory to report a decrease in cocaine arrests in 2012–13. While Western Australia reported the highest percentage increase in arrests this reporting period, New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national cocaine arrests, followed by Victoria and Queensland (see Table 24). TABLE 24: Number and percentage change of national cocaine arrests, 2011–12 to 2012–13
Arrests State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
a
2011–12 554 187 182 15 42 2 3 10 995
2012–13 694 235 213 30 91 2 0 17 1 282
% change 25.3 25.7 17.0 100.0 116.7 0.0 -100.0 70.0 28.8
New South Wales
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NationaL impact
South America continues to dominate global coca production. Despite this, in 2012 Colombia, Bolivia and Peru all reported decreases in coca cultivation. In 2012, the area under coca crop cultivation in Peru was greater than that of Colombia—reported to be 60 400 hectares and 48 000 hectares respectively. While profiling data for 2012 indicates that border seizures with Peruvian leaf-origin accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of analysed seizures, similar to previous years, profiling data for the first six months of 2013 identified Colombia as the predominant country of origin, by both number and weight, for analysed samples. There were a record 2 003 cocaine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. However, the weight of cocaine detected decreased, from 785.7 kilograms in 2011–12 to 399.6 kilograms in 2012–13. The number of embarkation points identified for cocaine increased 43.6 per cent this reporting period, from 39 countries in 2011–12 to 56 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account for the greatest proportion of cocaine border detections by number. Sea cargo accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of cocaine detected this reporting period, with 2 large sea cargo detections accounting for 70.7 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border. Both the number and weight of national cocaine seizures increased in 2012–13, with the number of seizures the highest on record and the weight of seizures the highest reported in the last decade. The number of national cocaine seizures increased from 1 336 in 2011–12 to 2 167 in 2012–13. The weight of national cocaine seizures increased from 956.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 1 056.5 kilograms in 2012–13. The weight of cocaine seized in Victoria and Queensland decreased significantly in 2012–13, with New South Wales accounting for 63.8 per cent of the number and 98.0 per cent of the weight of national cocaine seizures this reporting period. In 2012–13, the number of national cocaine arrests increased to 1 282 and is the highest number on record. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national cocaine arrests, with 694 arrests in 2012–13. All states and territories reported an increase in the number of cocaine arrests this reporting period, with the exception of the Northern Territory which decreased and Tasmania, which remained stable. Cocaine consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national cocaine arrests, however in 2012–13, South Australia, Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory reported more cocaine provider arrests than consumer arrests.
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References
Australian Federal Police (AFP) 2012, ‘Media Release: Joint South Pacific law enforcement operation results in huge cocaine haul’, AFP/ACBPS, 16 November 2012, viewed 23 October 2013, <http://www.afp.gov.au/media-centre/news/afp/2012/ november/media-release-joint-south-pacific-law-enforcement-operation-results-inhuge-cocaine-haul.aspx>. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011, ‘2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey report’, Drug Statistics Series, no. 25, Cat. No. PHE 145, AIHW, Canberra. Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) 2013, ‘International Narcotics Control Strategy Report Volume 1’, Drug and Chemical Control, March 2013, BINLEA, US Department of State, Washington. CNN 2012, ‘Official: Hong Kong drug operation hauls $98 million worth of cocaine’, CNN, 8 July 2012, viewed 17 October 2013, <http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/07/world/asia/ hong-kong-drug-seizure/>. Department of Health and Ageing (DoHA) 2010, National Drugs Campaign: problems using cocaine, DoHA, Canberra, viewed 22 August 2013, <http://www.drugs.health.gov. au/internet/drugs/publishing.nsf/content/cocaine4>. Drug Rehab Services (DRS) 2011, Cocaethylene: the danger of cocaine and alcohol, DRS, Canada, viewed 30 August 2013, <http://www.drugrehab.ca/cocaethylene-the-dangerof-cocaine-and-alcohol.html>. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013, European Drug Report 2013: Trends and Developments, EMCDDA, Lisbon. Freye, E & Levy, JV 2009, Pharmacology and abuse of cocaine, amphetamines, ecstasy and related designer drugs, Springer, Heidelberg, viewed 22 August 2013, <http://issuu. com/hospitalemfoco/docs/pharmacology_abuse_drugs>. McLaughlin, E 2013, ‘$527 million in cocaine intercepted en route to U.S’, CNN, 1 June 2013, viewed 17 October 2013, <http://edition.cnn.com/2013/05/30/justice/massivecbp-cocaine-seizure/index.html>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends Conference—Highs and lows of contemporary drugs in Australia: Emerging Psychoactive Substances, pharmaceutical opioids and other drugs, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney.
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National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2013, Drugfacts: cocaine, NIDA, National Institute of Health, Maryland, viewed 22 August 2013, <http://www.drugabuse.gov/ publications/drugfacts/cocaine>. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 100, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Stafford, J & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 91, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Colombia: coca cultivation survey 2012, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013c, Plurinational State of Bolivia: coca monitoring 2012, UNODC, New York. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013d, Peru: monitoring of coca crops in 2012, UNODC, New York.
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Xinhua 2013, ‘Biggest drug seizure accomplished in Panama’, People’s Daily Online, 29 May 2013, viewed 17 October 2013, <http://english.peopledaily.com. cn/90777/8261797.html>.
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OTHER DRUGS
Key points
Over the last decade, the number of performance and image enhancing drugs detected at the Australian border has increased 751.6 per cent, with the 10 356 detections in 2012–13 the highest number on record. The number of national steroid seizures and arrests continued to increase in 2012–13 and are the highest number on record. There was a record 509 tryptamine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. There was a record 277 anaesthetic detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. The 565 national hallucinogen arrests reported in 2012–13 is the highest number on record.
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ANABOLIC AGENTS AND OTHER SELECTED HORMONES
Other drugs and substances—collectively referred to in this report as ‘other drugs’— are being increasingly recognised as part of Australia’s illicit drug market. This chapter focuses on the main drugs and substances in this category: anabolic agents and other selected hormones, tryptamines, anaesthetics, pharmaceuticals, drug analogues and new psychoactive substances and other drugs not elsewhere classified.
Other drugs
MAIN FORMS
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Anabolic agents and selected hormones are commonly referred to as performance and image enhancing drugs (PIEDs). The Australian Standard Classification of Drugs of Concern distinguishes four classes of substances as anabolic agents and selected hormones: anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) beta-2-agonists other anabolic agents and selected hormones peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues (ABS 2011). ANABOLIC-ANDROGENIC STEROIDS (AAS), BETA-2-AgonistS AND OTHER ANABOLIC AGENTS and SELECTED HORMONES AAS, commonly referred to as steroids, are synthetic variants of the male sex hormone testosterone. ‘Anabolic’ refers to the muscle-building effects of the drug, while ‘androgenic’ refers to their masculinising effects. AAS may be derived from natural sources, but can also be synthetically manufactured for therapeutic use in human and veterinary treatment. AAS are used in the treatment of diseases that reduce lean muscle mass, including cancer and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and conditions of steroid deficiency, such as delayed puberty. In addition to use in treatment, AAS are also used to enhance image and sports performance (NIDA 2012). The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) categorises anabolic agents as either AAS or other anabolic agents. Both AAS and other anabolic agents are prohibited substances under the World Anti-Doping Code 2013 Prohibited List (WADA 2012).
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AAS are commonly administered by injection, orally, or via cream, gel or skin patches. Side effects of AAS use may include extreme mood swings, mania, depression, paranoia, delusions, impaired judgement, organ damage—including cardiovascular damage—high blood pressure and blood clots. Male-specific effects of use may include shrinkage of the testicles, reduced sperm-count or infertility, development of breasts and increased risk of prostate cancer. Female-specific effects of use may include the growth of facial hair, menstrual problems and baldness (Ip et al. 2012; NIDA 2012). The use of beta-2-agonists is prohibited under the World Anti-Doping Code 2013 Prohibited List, with the exception of specific asthma treatments and related doses administered via inhalation. Beta-2-agonists in aerosol form are commonly used in the treatment of asthma to relax muscles in the airway. However, when taken into the bloodstream, they may have anabolic effects. Beta-2-agonists, such as clenbuterol, may be used either alone or in conjunction with other substances to promote muscle definition and growth (anabolic effect) and decrease body fat (catabolic effect). The most frequently reported side effects associated with the use of beta-2-agonists include increased body temperature, nausea, headaches, insomnia, tremors and cardiovascular conditions. The misuse of beta-2-agonists may also lead to muscle cramps, palpitations and nervousness (NDARC 2005; NDARC 2006; USADA 2013; WADA 2012). AAS and other anabolic agents commonly used in Australia are outlined in Table 25. TABLE 25: AAS and other anabolic agents commonly used in Australia
Drug name AAS – Anabolic Potential effects Used to increase muscle mass through increased retention of protein Used to increase muscle mass by increasing male sex hormone levels Brand name Deca-durabolin, Anadrol-50, Oxandrin Depo-testosterone, Sustanon, Androil Testocaps Bricanyl, Ventolin, Spiropent (clenbuterol) and Ventipulmin (clenbuterol) Forms Ampoule, vial, prepacked syringe, tablet Vial, ampoule, prepacked syringe, capsule Ampoule, rotacap, inhaler, nebuliser, tablet
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AAS – Androgenic
Beta-2-agonists (including Commonly used to treat clenbuterol) asthma, however when taken into the bloodstream increase muscle mass by mimicking the effects of adrenaline and non-adrenaline
PEPTIDE HORMONES, MIMETICS AND ANALOGUES While AAS remain widely used, the PIEDs market has evolved to include an everexpanding range of substances which manipulate the body’s hormonal system. These substances, which include peptide hormones, mimetics1 and analogues, may provide similar effects to AAS and are considered by users to be new generation PIEDs.
1
Substances that are chemically different, but which mimic the pharmacological effects of a particular substance.
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Hormones are vital for the effective functioning of the human body and are naturally produced. Synthetic mimetics and analogues of these naturally occurring hormones have been developed to assist in the treatment of a number of medical conditions, with some diverted for non-medical use as a consequence of their performance enhancing effects. While peptides can be used on their own to promote muscle growth, these substances are also used in combination with anabolic steroids to maintain muscle gains. Peptide hormones which have potential performance enhancing properties are listed in the World Anti-Doping Code 2013. These include erythropoietin (EPO), human growth hormone (hGH), insulin-like growth factors (IGF-1), gonadotrophins (such as luteinising hormone [LH] and human chorionic gonadotrophin [hCG]), insulins and other growth factors affecting muscle, tendon or ligament proteins (ASADA 2013).2 EPO is a synthetic hormone, which stimulates bone marrow to produce more red blood cells and increases oxygen-absorption, thereby improving endurance and increasing metabolism and muscular healing. Side effects of EPO use may include increased risk of thrombosis in the heart, lungs and/or brain. Users of hCG may seek to decrease their body fat and improve brain activity. The use of hCG may boost natural testosterone production after a long AAS-cycle and may serve as a masking agent to avoid testing positive to other substances. Side effects of hCG use may include gynaecomastia, depression, irritability and headaches. Side effects of hGH use may include increases in the size of the jaw, chin, fingers, hands, toes, feet, nose, cheekbone and internal organs (NADA 2012; NDS 2006; NSW Health 2013; USADA 2013). Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues are generally administered via injection, nasal spray or orally. Despite potentially serious side effects, individuals continue the non-medical use of both natural and synthetic hormones. Side effects of hormone use vary and may be particular to the hormone used. For example, effects of EPO use may include increased blood pressure, convulsions, influenza-like symptoms, skin reactions, thrombosis, heart attack and stroke. Effects of hGH use may include low blood sugar, fluid retention, inadequate thyroid function, heart damage, impotence, premature ageing and death. Effects of hCG use may include over-stimulation of the hormonal system, acne, tiredness, mood changes, fluid retention, hair loss, enlargement of the prostate, heart disease, liver disease and infertility (Kanayama & Pope 2012; NDS 2006; Stenman 2009; UNODC 2013a). Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues commonly used in Australia are listed in Table 26.
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2
For a substance or method to be prohibited, it must meet at least two of the following three conditions: potential to enhance or does enhance performance in sport, potential to risk the athlete’s health and/or the World Anti-Doping Agency has determined that the substance or method violates the spirit of sport (ASADA 2013).
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TABLE 26: Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues commonly used in Australia
Drug name Erythropoietin (EPO) Potential effects Brand name Forms Ampoule, pre-packed syringe Vial, ampoule Increases endurance and Eprex, Aranesp recovery from anaerobic exercise Used to manage the side effects of AAS use such as gynaecomastiaa and shrinking testicles Used to increase muscle size and strength APL, Pregnyl, Profasi, Novarel, Repronex
Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)
Human growth hormone (hGH)
Norditropin, Norditropin Penset, vial, auto SimpleXx, Genotropin, injector cartridge Humatrope, Saizen, Scitropi NovoRapid, Apidra, Humalog, Hypurin Neutral, Actrapid, Humulin R, Protaphane, NovoMix 30 Clomid, Bravelle Vial, penset, pre-packed syringe
Insulin
Used because of the perception that it contributes to increased muscle bulkb Used to overcome the side effects of AAS use or as a masking agent
Pituitary and synthetic gonadotrophins Insulin-like growth factor Corticotrophins
Ampoule, tablet
Used to increase muscle Increlex bulk and reduce body fat Used because of its antiinflammatory properties and for mood elevating effects Used to manage the side effects of AAS use such as gynaecomastiaa Synacthen Depot
Vial Ampoule
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Anti-oesterones
Nolvadex
Tablet
a. The development of breast-like tissue in males. b. There is no scientific evidence of this.
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
There is no regulation on the production and trafficking of PIEDs in some parts of the world. Pharmaceuticals diverted from the licit market to the illicit market, combined with the growing number of unregulated online pharmacies, continue to ensure direct supply and unlimited access to PIEDs (Paoli 2012). International open source reports indicate that countries such as China, India, Pakistan, Thailand and some Eastern European countries are primary source countries for PIEDs, with numerous production sites and well-established trafficking routes. According to open source reporting, China and India are the fastest growing suppliers of PIEDs to the international market (ACMD 2010; SMH 2012). In 2012, the European Journal of Crime reported that networks of producers and traders—which includes athletes’ support personnel and representatives of national sport federations and governing bodies—may supply PIEDs to some athletes and noncompetitive users, such as fitness centres and dietary supplements shops (Paoli 2012).
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The global PIEDs market is supplied by a range of methods, including legal and illegal importation and domestic diversion from the legitimate market (Marcley et al. 2013). Due to the varying legal status of PIEDs internationally, producers can manufacture and stockpile PIEDs in countries where they are unregulated and utilise online websites to reach the global market (Paoli 2012). In the United States of America (US), anabolic steroids are primarily imported illegally, but are also diverted from legitimate sources, either through theft or inappropriate prescribing (US DEA 2011). Increased intelligence sharing and collaboration between international law enforcement agencies and other government bodies will continue to support WADA in their efforts to detect and deter the use of PIEDs by professional athletes (ADF 2013a; Paoli 2012; WADA 2012).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service continues to disrupt the movement of PIEDs3 into Australia. The number of PIEDs detected at the Australian border has continued to increase since 2004–05. The total number of PIEDs detected at the Australian border increased by 18.7 per cent this reporting period, from 8 726 in 2011–12 to 10 356 in 2012–13, with the 10 356 detections the highest number on record (see Figure 50). In this reporting period, there were 1 054 detections of clenbuterol, a common beta-2-agonist. FIGURE 50: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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3 PIEDs detected by the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service includes the following: anabol, dianabol, androstenedione, norandrostenedione, chronic gonadotrophins, clomiphenes, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), prasterone, erythropoietin, GH releasing hormones, somatorelines, methandienone, methandrostenelone, nandrolone, oxymetholone, stanozolol, hGH, somatropin/s and testosterone.
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Despite a 42.2 per cent decrease in the number of steroid detections this reporting period, from 6 126 in 2011–12 to 3 543 in 2012–13, the 3 543 steroid detections in 2012–13 is the third highest number reported in the last decade. Hormone detections increased 162.0 per cent, from 2 600 in 2011–12 to 6 813 in 2012–13, the highest number reported in the last decade (see Figure 51). FIGURE 51: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections, by category, at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–134 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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IMPORTATION METHODS Similar to previous reporting periods, parcel post was the most commonly detected method of importation by number, accounting for 88.2 per cent of PIED detections at the Australian border in 2012–13 (see Figure 52). There were 973 detections of clenbuterol this reporting period, which were primarily detected in the postal stream.
4
From 2011–12, DHEA detections have been incorporated into steroid detection numbers. All the data contained in Figure 51 has been updated to reflect this change to enable direct comparison across the decade.
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FIGURE 52: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
EMBARKATION POINTS
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In 2012–13, a total of 70 countries were identified as embarkation points for PIEDs detected at the Australian border, compared with 63 in 2011–12. The prominent embarkation points for PIEDs this reporting period were the US, China and Thailand, accounting for 62.9 per cent of the total number of PIED detections in 2012–13. Other major embarkation points this reporting period include Hong Kong, United Kingdom (UK), Canada, India, Turkey, Greece and Moldova. There were a total of 24 embarkation points identified for clenbuterol in 2012–13.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 0.1 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported recent5 non-medical steroid use (AIHW 2011). According to the Australian Needle and Syringe Program Survey (ANSPS), the prevalence of respondents reporting PIEDs as the drug last injected increased, from 5 per cent in 2011 to 7 per cent in 2012. In 2012, of the respondents who recently initiated6 injecting drug use, 55 per cent reported PIEDs as the last drug injected. Among males who were new initiates to injecting, the proportion of those reporting PIEDs as the last drug injected increased, from 53 per cent in 2011 to 68 per cent in 2012. Reported figures of use specific to the states and territories varied, with the prevalence of injecting PIEDs increasing in New South Wales and Queensland. In those states, prevalence increased from 2 per cent in 2008 to 12 per cent in 2012 and from 1 per cent in 2008 to 11 per cent in 2012 respectively. The reported prevalence of injecting PIEDs was stable at 2 per cent or less in all other states and territories (Iversen and Maher 2013).
5 In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview. 6 Less than 3 years since first injection.
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In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting steroid use at some stage in their lifetime decreased, from 8 per cent in 2011 to 6 per cent in 2012. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent7 use remained stable at 2 per cent. In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting steroid use at some stage in their lifetime decreased, from 4 per cent in 2011 to 2 per cent. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent steroid use also decreased, from 2 per cent in 2011 to 1 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of recent steroid users has decreased to less than 1 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). PRICE National law enforcement data on the price of PIEDs is limited. In 2012–13, the price for a single 10 millilitre vial of testosterone ranged between $120 and $250, with a per vial price of between $140 and $190 for 10 vials reported in Queensland. Prices reported per vial in Queensland for larger quantities ranged between $130 and $180 for 20 vials and between $110 and $160 for 50 vials. In 2012–13, the price for a 10 millilitre vial of anabolic steroids ranged between $230 and $300, with a per vial price of $140 for 10 vials reported in Queensland. Prices reported per vial in Queensland for larger quantities were $180 for 20 vials and $160 for 50 vials. AVAILABILITY Access to PIEDs is facilitated by purchases on the internet. According to the 2010 NDSHS, 1.0 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older was offered or had the opportunity to use steroids in the 12 months preceding interview, compared to 1.3 per cent in 2007. The 20–29-year-old age group reported the highest proportion at 2.0 per cent (AIHW 2011). SEIZURES AND ARRESTS In 2012–13, the number of national steroid seizures increased by 59.1 per cent, from 208 in 2011–12 to 331 in 2012–13, with the 331 seizures this reporting period the highest number on record. While the weight of national steroid seizures decreased 44.2 per cent this reporting period, from 33.7 kilograms in 2011–12 to 18.8 kilograms in 2012–13, it is the second highest weight reported in the last decade (see Figure 53).
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7 The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in the six months preceding interview.
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FIGURE 53: National steroid seizures, by number and weight 2003–04 to 2012–13
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New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national steroid seizures, accounting for 47.4 per cent of the number and 31.9 per cent of the weight national steroid seizures this reporting period. South Australia reported the highest percentage change in both the number and weight of steroid seizures in 2012–13 (see Table 27). TABLE 27: Number, weight and percentage change of national steroid seizures, 2011–12 to 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
Weight (grams) 2011–12 26 898 5 985 216 31 236 0 315 60 33 741 2012–13 % change 6 020 2 677 4 618 3 373 102 0 816 1 280 18 886 -77.6 -55.3 2 038.0 10 780.6 -56.8 0 159.0 2 033.3 -44.0 157 18 57 31 13 0 14 41 331 9.0 125.0 103.6 3 000.0 160.0 0 16.7 310.0 59.1
2011–12 144 8 28 1 5 0 12 10 208
2012–13 % change
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
National steroid arrests have been increasing since 2005–06. This reporting period, national steroid arrests increased 29.4 per cent, from 511 in 2011–12 to 661 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. Consumer arrests accounted for 77.0 per cent of national steroid arrests this reporting period, with Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory reporting more provider than consumer arrests (see Figure 54).
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FIGURE 54: Number of national steroid arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
In 2012–13, New South Wales, South Australia and the Australian Capital Territory reported a decrease in steroid arrests (see Table 28). Over the last decade, Queensland has continued to account for the highest proportion of national steroid arrests, accounting for 59.3 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. Tasmania reported the greatest percentage increase in steroid arrests this reporting period, however, the number of arrests remains low. TABLE 28: Number and percentage change of national steroid arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests State/Territorya New South Wales Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
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2011–12 41 62 296 10 65 8 11 18 511
2012–13 39 88 392 8 101 13 14 6 661
% change -4.9 41.9 32.4 -20.0 55.4 62.5 27.3 -66.7 29.4
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TRYPTAMINES
MAIN FORMS
Tryptamines are hallucinogenic substances that act upon the central nervous system, distorting mood, thought and perception. Some are found naturally in a variety of flowering plants, leaves, seeds and in spore-forming plants such as psilocybincontaining mushrooms, while others, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and diethyltryptamine, are synthetically manufactured (EMCDDA 2013a; UNODC 2011a). Tryptamine use may cause hallucinations—seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting or touching non-existent objects or existing ones in a distorted way. Other short-term effects of use may include decreased ability to make sensible judgements and recognise common danger, thus making users susceptible to accidents and injury. Long-term use may lead to dissociative experiences—a psychiatric disorder characterised by a reversible amnesia relating to personal identity (AIC 2011; NIDA 2009; UNODC 2013a).
OTHER DRUGS
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The following section will cover the two common tryptamines illicitly used in Australia: lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)—a synthetic drug—and psilocybin, a substance found in various species of mushrooms. LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE (LSD) LSD is manufactured from lysergic acid, which is found in ergot, a fungus that grows on rye and other grains. Often referred to as ‘acid’, LSD is among the most potent moodchanging chemicals, with only a small amount needed to cause visual hallucinations and distortions, known as ‘trips’. LSD is normally produced as a tartrate salt, which is colourless, odourless and water soluble. LSD is available in paper squares, sugar cubes, tablets and liquid form. LSD is most commonly sold on impregnated, single dose squares of blotting paper called tabs. Usually taken orally, other methods of LSD administration include snorting, injecting, smoking and shelving8 (NIDA 2009; Sindicich & Burns 2012). Short-term effects of LSD use may include extreme emotional swings, fear, panic and paranoia. Long-term effects of LSD use may include ‘flashbacks’,9 impaired memory and concentration and increased potential risk of mental illness10 (ADF 2013b).
8 Also known as ‘shafting’, the drug is inserted into the anus or the vagina to avoid irritation to the user’s stomach. 9 Users may experience recurrences of certain aspects of drug experiences, referred to as flashbacks. Flashbacks can persist in some users and lead to a condition known as hallucinogen persisting perceptual disorder. 10 Mental illness may include prolonged psychosis, depression and personality disruption in users with a predisposition to the condition.
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PSILOCYBIN-CONTAINING MUSHROOMS Psilocybin is a chemical with hallucinogenic properties that is found in certain species of mushrooms, often referred to as ‘magic mushrooms’, which affect the central nervous system and alters a person’s mood, thinking and behaviour. Grown in the forests of Victoria, New South Wales and some areas of Queensland and Western Australia, the most commonly consumed varieties of psilocybin-containing mushrooms in Australia are psilocybe cubensis (‘gold tops’), psilocybe subaeruginosa and copelandia cyanescens (‘blue meanies’) and psilocybe semilanceata (‘liberty caps’) (Cunningham 2008; WA DAO 2005). Hallucinogenic mushrooms are available fresh, treated or preserved, or in powder or capsule form. Usually sold as dried mushrooms, they can be eaten raw, brewed as a tea or combined with other foods to mask their bitter taste. The potency of hallucinogenic mushrooms varies and is dependant on species, growing conditions, harvest period and form (EMCDDA 2013a). Visually distinguishing between psilocybin-containing mushrooms and poisonous varieties is difficult. Therefore, accidental consumption of poisonous mushrooms may occur and result in permanent liver damage or death. Short-term effects of psilocybin-containing mushroom use may include drowsiness, paranoia and panic attacks. Long-term effects may include impaired memory and increased risk of mental illness (NDARC 2012; NIDA 2009).
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INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
According to the 2013 United Nations report on the challenge of new psychoactive substances, psilocin, psilocybin, diethyltryptamine hydrochloride (DET), dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and etryptamine are the only tryptamines under international control (listed in Schedule I of the 1971 Convention). While psilocybincontaining mushrooms continue to be harvested, tryptamines are also synthesised to mimic the effects of psilocybin (UNODC 2013a; UNODC 2013b). According to the 2013 European Drug Report, the prevalence of LSD and hallucinogenic mushroom use in Europe has remained relatively low and stable for a number of years (EMCDDA 2013b). According to the 2011 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 23 million people in the US population aged 12 years and older had used LSD in their lifetime (DEA 2013). Key findings on adolescent drug use in the US in 2012 reported that LSD use has decreased considerably and no longer accounts for the greatest proportion of reported hallucinogen use, with increases in the reported use of psilocybin. Of the students in years 8, 10 and 12 involved in the study, the year 12 students reported the highest proportion of hallucinogen use, both within their lifetime and in the past year, with reported use exceeding that reported for other illicit drugs including MDMA, methylamphetamine, cocaine and heroin (Johnston et al. 2013).
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OTHER DRUGS
Internationally, there is limited reporting available on the scale of cultivation of psilocybin-containing mushrooms. According to media reporting, in September 2012, approximately 62 kilograms of psychedelic mushrooms was seized in Ohio. Believed to be the largest mushroom seizure in the state, the seizure had an estimated value of US$3.1 million (Dungjen 2012).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION LSD and psilocybin-containing mushrooms are the most common tryptamines detected at the Australian border. This reporting period the number of tryptamine detections at the Australian border increased by 258.5 per cent, from 142 in 2011–12 to 509 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. Detections in this reporting period include—but is not limited to—344 LSD detections and 123 psilocybin-containing mushroom detections (see Figure 55). FIGURE 55: Number of tryptamine detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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IMPORTATION METHOD The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of tryptamine detections at the Australian border. In 2012–13, of the 509 tryptamine border detections, 505 detections were in the postal stream. Of these, 489 detections weighed less than 100 grams each. All of the psilocybin mushroom detections this reporting period occurred in the postal stream. Of the 344 LSD detections in 2012–13, all but 4 were in the postal stream.
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OTHER DRUGS
EMBARKATION POINTS In 2012–13, a total of 19 countries were identified as embarkation points for tryptamines detected at the Australian border, compared with 8 countries in 2011–12. The Netherlands accounted for 73.9 per cent of the number of tryptamine detections this reporting period. Other major embarkation points in 2012–13 include the US, Spain, the UK, Canada, Germany, Brazil, China, Israel and Poland. Canada accounted for 35.2 per cent of LSD detections in 2012–13, with 121 detections. Of the 123 psilocybin-containing mushroom detections, 63 were from the Netherlands and 38 from Canada, which accounted for 82.1 per cent of psilocybin-containing mushroom detections this reporting period. Other major embarkation points in 2012–13 include the US, Germany, the UK and Israel.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 8.8 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using hallucinogens at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey, 1.4 per cent reported recent use of hallucinogens, the first increase reported since 1998 (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, 65 per cent of respondents reported having used hallucinogens at some stage in their lifetime, which remained consistent with figures reported in 2011. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of hallucinogens decreased, from 8 per cent in 2011 to 6 per cent in 2012. LSD and mushrooms were the most common hallucinogens used (Stafford & Burns 2013). In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting the use of mushrooms at some stage in their lifetime increased marginally, from 70 per cent in 2011 to 71 per cent in 2012. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent LSD use decreased, from 46 per cent in 2011 to 34 per cent in 2012. This is the lowest percentage reported since 2003. The proportion of respondents reporting the recent use of mushrooms also decreased, from 29 per cent in 2011 to 27 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent mushroom use remained unchanged at 27 per cent, while the proportion of respondents reporting recent LSD use increased to 43 per cent. This is the second highest proportion reported since 2003 (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).11
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11 In response to the difficulties experienced by smaller states and territories in recruiting regular ecstasy users, the recruitment criteria was broadened in 2012 to include recent use of any psychostimulant. As such, caution should be exercised when comparing to previous reporting periods.
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PRICE In 2012–13, law enforcement data on the price of psilocybin-containing mushrooms was unavailable. Nationally, the price per tab of LSD ranged between $10 and $50 in 2012–13. In a 2012 study of regular ecstasy users, respondents reported the median price per tab of LSD ranged between $15 and $22.50 nationally. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate a price range of between $15 and $32.50 (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).12 AVAILABILITY According to the 2010 NDSHS, 3.7 per cent of the population had been offered or given the opportunity to use hallucinogens in the 12 months preceding interview. The proportion was higher in the 18–19 year (11.7 per cent) and 20–29 year age groups (11.0 per cent) (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, 65 per cent of respondents reported using hallucinogens in their lifetime, which remained consistent with figures reported in 2011. However, only 6 per cent reported recent use of hallucinogens, a decrease from 8 per cent in 2011. LSD and mushrooms were the most common hallucinogens used (Stafford & Burns 2013).
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In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of LSD in Australia, 63 per cent reported LSD as being easy or very easy to obtain, compared with 73 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate there has been an increase in availability of LSD, with 67 per cent of respondents reporting LSD as easy or very easy to obtain. There are no figures on the availability of psilocybin-containing mushrooms (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). SEIZURES AND ARRESTS In 2012–13, the number of national hallucinogen seizures increased by 11.9 per cent, from 285 in 2011–12 to 319 in 2012–13, the highest number reported in the last decade. The weight of national hallucinogen seizures decreased by 84.7 per cent, from 23.5 kilograms in 2011–12 to 3.6 in 2012–13 and is the lowest weight reported since 2008–09 (see Figure 56).
12 Due to the small numbers of respondents providing price comment in the study (n<10), these findings should be interpreted with caution.
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FIGURE 56: National hallucinogen seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Since 2005–06, New South Wales has accounted for the greatest proportion of national hallucinogen seizures, accounting for 62.4 per cent of the number and 66.5 per cent of the weight of national seizures in 2012–13. New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory reported an increase in the number of hallucinogen seizures this reporting period, while Queensland and Tasmania were the only states or territories to report an increase in seizure weight, increasing from 224 grams in 2011–12 to 278 grams, and 0 grams to 31 grams respectively in 2012–13 (see Table 29). TABLE 29: Number, weight and percentage change of national hallucinogen seizures, 2011–12 to 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
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Weight (grams) 2011–12 7 492 5 338 224 365 10 137 0 2 0 23 558 2012–13 % change 2 444 524 278 32 364 31 2 0 3 675 -67.4 -90.2 24.1 -91.2 -96.4 – 0.0 – -84.4 199 52 20 2 36 2 7 1 319 22.1 26.8 -4.8 -33.3 -28.0 – 0.0 – 11.9
2011–12 163 41 21 3 50 0 7 0 285
2012–13 % change
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
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OTHER DRUGS
Figure 57 illustrates the number of national hallucinogen arrests since 2003–04. Over the last decade, hallucinogen arrests have increased 355.6 per cent, from 124 in 2003–04 to 565 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. In 2012–13, consumer arrests accounted for 78.2 per cent of national hallucinogen arrests. However, South Australia and Tasmania reported more hallucinogen provider than consumer arrests this reporting period. FIGURE 57: Number of national hallucinogen arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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In 2012–13, the number of hallucinogen arrests increased 16.7 per cent, from 484 in 2011–12 to 565 in 2012–13 (see Table 30). Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of national hallucinogen arrests, accounting for 35.9 per cent of national arrests in 2012–13. TABLE 30: Number and percentage change of national hallucinogen arrests, 2011–12 to 2012–13
Arrests State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
a
2011–12 127 56 192 11 91 3 3 1 484
2012–13 157 70 203 16 111 3 4 1 565
% change 23.6 25.0 5.7 45.5 22.0 0.0 33.3 0.0 16.7
New South Wales
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ANAESTHETICS
MAIN FORMS
Originally developed for medical and veterinary use, a number of anaesthetics are diverted for illicit use. The following section will cover ketamine hydrochloride (ketamine) and gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), two common illicitly used anaesthetics. KETAMINE Ketamine hydrochloride, commonly referred to as K, Super K, Special K and Vitamin K, is a white crystalline powder, structurally and pharmacologically similar to phencyclidine (PCP). Used as an anaesthetic by veterinarians and medical professionals, it is used illicitly for its sedative and hallucinogenic effects. Classed as a dissociative anaesthetic, it induces feelings of detachment and ‘out of body experiences’, with higher doses producing full anaesthesia. Ketamine is commonly sold in three forms—powder, tablet and liquid—and is often swallowed, snorted or injected. It can also be combined with other substances, such as cannabis or tobacco and smoked (DEA 2012; NSW Health 2012). Short-term effects of ketamine use may include general aches and pains, poor coordination, amnesia, impaired judgement and disorientation. Long-term effects of ketamine use may include reduced ability to concentrate, personality and mood changes, depression and bladder conditions.13 Use of ketamine in combination with depressant drugs such as alcohol, heroin or tranquillisers, may result in vital organ-failure (ADF 2013c; Curcio 2012; DoHA 2010).
OTHER DRUGS
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GAMMA-HYDROXYBUTYRATE (GHB) AND RELATED SUBSTANCES
GHB—also known as fantasy, grievous bodily harm or GBH, liquid ecstasy and blue nitro—is found naturally in the body in small quantities and may be synthetically produced. First synthesised in 1960, GHB was originally developed as an anaesthetic due to its ability to rapidly permeate the blood–brain barrier and cause sleepiness. GHB acts as a central nervous system depressant, slowing messages travelling between the brain and the rest of the body (ADF 2013d; NSW Health 2006; Roll et al. 2012; WHO 2012). GHB is readily manufactured from its precursors, gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD). Both GBL and 1,4-BD metabolise into GHB in the body and are used as industrial solvents in industrial chemical processes, including the production of polymers. GHB use may promote growth hormone production, as such GHB may be used by some individuals to aid in fat reduction and muscle-building. GHB use may also enhance euphoria and facilitate sexual assault.
13 Ketamine use has been linked to cystitis, which can lead to blood in urine, incontinence, severe pain and kidney failure.
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High doses and regular use of GHB can lead to tolerance and—if discontinued— withdrawal symptoms. Users of stimulants such as amphetamines and ecstasy may use GHB to alleviate the effects of these stimulants. The competing effects of stimulant and depressant drugs may lead to a cycle of dependence (ADF 2013b; WHO 2012). GHB may appear as a colourless or bright blue liquid— which is bitter or salty-tasting—less commonly a crystal powder, and is usually sold in small bottles or vials. GHB is typically administered orally (swallowed) or intravenously (injected) (ADF 2013b; WHO 2012). The effects of GHB use appear to vary greatly according to the amount used, with increased risk of overdose as a consequence of the small dosage units. Effects may include hallucinations, tremors, decreased body temperature, blackouts, memory lapses, seizures, respiratory failure, coma or death. The possible presence of solvents or heavymetal contaminants in GHB also pose additional health risks to users (NSW Health 2006; Roll et al. 2012; WHO 2012). The risk of overdose increases when GHB is mixed with alcohol. Overdose may result in respiratory depression, rapid onset of drowsiness, muscle spasms, movement and speech impairments, memory loss and vomiting (NSW Health 2006).
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
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Global seizures of ketamine remained stable in 2012. According to UNODC reporting, many of the seized tablets sold as 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA, commonly referred to as ‘ecstasy’) in East and South-East Asia contain a variety of other psychoactive substances such as ketamine. According to media reporting, India remains a large manufacturer of ketamine, which is smuggled to the expanding South-East Asia market in liquid, powder and capsule form (Tan 2012). According to a health report the number of users of ‘club drugs’—including ketamine, methylamphetamine, GBL and mephedrone—seeking treatment increased, from 4 656 in 2005–06 to 6 486 in 2011 (NTA 2012). According to UNODC reporting, in New Zealand, GHB/GBL is often sold with methylamphetamine and marketed to assist with the come-down effects related to amphetamine-type-stimulants (ATS) use (UNODC 2012; UNODC 2013c).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION Anaesthetic detections at the Australian border include only GHB, GBL and ketamine detections. In 2012–13, the number of anaesthetics detected at the Australian border increased by 161.3 per cent, from 106 in 2011–12 to 277 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. The total number of GHB and GBL detections increased by 66.0 per cent, from 47 in 2011–12 to 78 in 2012–13, which consisted of 4 GHB detections and 74 GBL detections. The total number of ketamine detections increased 237.3 per cent this reporting period, from 59 in 2011–12 to 199 in 2012–13 (see Figure 58).
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FIGURE 58: Number of anaesthetic detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
IMPORTATION METHODS The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of anaesthetic border detections, accounting for 90.2 per cent of detections in 2012–13 (see Figure 59). FIGURE 59: Number of anaesthetic detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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In 2012–13, 98.5 per cent of the number of ketamine detections at the Australian border occurred in the postal stream. Of these, 99.4 per cent weighed less than 100 grams (see Figure 60). FIGURE 60: Number of ketamine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 68.9 per cent of the number of border detections of GHB and GBL, followed by air cargo with 31.1 per cent (see Figure 61). FIGURE 61: Number of GHB and GBL detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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EMBARKATION POINTS In 2012–13, a total of 21 countries were identified as embarkation points for anaesthetics detected at the Australian border, compared with 17 countries in 2011–12. By number, the primary embarkation point was the UK, which accounted for 32.1 per cent of the number of anaesthetic detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. Other prominent embarkation points by number this reporting period were the Netherlands, Poland, Canada, Germany, Thailand, India, Lithuania, Belgium and Ireland. By number, Poland was the primary embarkation point for GHB and GBL with 21 detections, which accounted for 26.9 per cent of the number of detections. Other major embarkation points identified for GHB and GBL detections this reporting period by number were Thailand, the UK, China, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Singapore and Germany. In 2012–13, a total of 18 countries were identified as embarkation points for ketamine detected at the Australian border, compared with 13 countries in 2011–12. By number, the UK was the primary embarkation point, accounting for 39.2 per cent of ketamine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. Other major embarkation points by number for ketamine detections this reporting period included the Netherlands, Canada, Germany, India, Belgium, Ireland, Spain, Taiwan and the US.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 1.4 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using ketamine at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey, 0.8 per cent reported using GHB at least once in their lifetime. The proportion of the population aged 14 years or older reporting recent use of ketamine and GHB was 0.2 per cent and 0.1 per cent respectively (AIHW 2011). In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting ketamine use in their lifetime decreased, from 42 per cent in 2011 to 39 per cent in 2012. The proportion of respondents reporting recent ketamine use decreased, from 16 per cent in 2011 to 14 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent ketamine use has increased to 19 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013). In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents reporting GHB use in their lifetime decreased from 22 per cent in 2011 to 21 per cent in 2012. In 2012, reported recent GHB use remained low at 7 per cent. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent GHB use has decreased to 6 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
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PRICE Law enforcement price data for ketamine is limited. Consistent with prices reported in 2011–12, the price for a gram of ketamine in New South Wales ranged between $50 and $180 in 2012–13 and between $150 and $200 in Queensland. The price of a single ketamine tablet this reporting period ranged between $25 and $50 in Queensland, with $50 per tablet reported in the Northern Territory. Nationally, the price for 1–1.5 millilitres of GHB/GBL ranged between $3 and $25 in 2012–13, with the price per litre ranging between $2 000 and $5 000. PURITY According to a study of regular ecstasy users, the perceived purity of ketamine is reported as high. In 2012, 6 per cent of respondents were able to comment on the perceived purity of ketamine, of which 60 per cent reported the purity of ketamine as high, compared with 63 per cent in 2011 (Sindicich & Burns 2013).14 AVAILABILITY According to the 2010 NDSHS, 1.1 per cent of the population had been offered or given the opportunity to use ketamine and 1.0 per cent GHB in the 12 months preceding interview. These figures are consistent with those reported in the 2007 survey (AIHW 2011).
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In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, 6 per cent of respondents were able to comment on the availability of ketamine. Of these, 45 per cent reported ketamine as easy to very easy to obtain, a decrease from 52 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has increased to 69 per cent, however, the number of respondents able to comment remains low and findings should be interpreted with caution. In the same 2012 study, 27 respondents were able to comment on the availability of GHB. Of these, 59 per cent reported GHB as easy to very easy to obtain, an increase from 47 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting the availability of GHB as easy to very easy to obtain increased to 75 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
14 As very small numbers (n=27) of the national sample commented on characteristics of the ketamine market, results should be interpreted with caution.
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PHARMACEUTICALS
MAIN FORMS
Produced for legitimate medical use, many pharmaceutical drugs are diverted to the illicit market. The illicit pharmaceutical market encompasses the use of prescription pharmaceuticals that is inconsistent with their intended use or directions—including, but not limited to intentional misuse and overuse (also referred to as non-medical use)—and diversion from the legitimate market. Opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines are the most commonly misused pharmaceuticals in Australia (PHAA 2010; Sweeney 2007). Pharmaceuticals are obtained for illicit personal use through various methods including: family and friends with legitimate access stolen, altered or forged prescriptions feigning symptoms theft from surgeries or pharmacies doctor-shopping15 threatening general practitioners purchases over the internet poor prescription practices, such as prescribing larger than required quantities health practitioners self-prescribing or otherwise misappropriating through their work (ADF 2013e; DCPC 2007). The Australian Government subsidises numerous pharmaceuticals through the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS).16 With the increased availability of pharmaceuticals comes an increase in the potential for their misuse. The use of pharmaceutical drugs for non-medical purposes can have potentially dangerous effects and may lead to addiction, poisoning, disease and death (PHAA 2010). Dependence on the non-medical use of pharmaceuticals may occur following medical treatment for a physical or emotional trauma, or as a consequence of self-medication. Other reasons for the non-medical use of pharmaceuticals include being for the treatment of an underlying drug dependency problem, dealing with withdrawal symptoms, illicit drug substitution and/or for the enhancement of other drugs (AIC 2009). This section will focus on the pharmaceutical drugs most commonly used for non-medical purposes in Australia: benzodiazepines and opioids.
15 ‘Doctor-shopping’ refers to presenting to numerous doctors for the purpose of obtaining multiple prescriptions to deal with non-existent or exaggerated symptoms. 16 The PBS is a federally funded government program which subsidises the cost of a broad range of medicines for most medical conditions and was established to ensure Australians have affordable access to pharmaceutical medicines.
OTHER DRUGS
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BENZODIAZEPINES Benzodiazepines slow the activity of the central nervous system and the messages sent and received by the brain. Most commonly prescribed to relieve insomnia, anxiety and panic attacks, the desired effects of benzodiazepine use include relaxation, calmness and relief from anxiety. The use of benzodiazepines—even when its use is consistent with the intended directions at therapeutic level—may cause a range of harms to the user, such as cognitive impairment, dependence and depression. Benzodiazepines may be misused to ‘come down’ from the effects of stimulants, such as amphetamines or cocaine, to enhance the effects of other depressant drugs, or as a substitute for drugs of choice when they are unavailable (ADF 2013f; Nielsen & Thompson 2008). Benzodiazepines are among the most prescribed drugs in Australia. The most common forms of benzodiazepines are tablets and capsules, which are stamped with their proprietary name. Benzodiazepines can also be injected, which increases injectionrelated harms and mortality (Nielsen & Thompson 2008; PBAC 2007). Use of low to moderate doses of benzodiazepines may lead to confusion, impaired motor coordination, loss of appetite and nausea. Higher doses may result in impaired judgement, difficulty in thinking clearly, memory loss, mood swings and aggressive behaviour. Short-term effects of use may include drowsiness, memory loss and confusion. Long-term effects of benzodiazepine use may include developing a tolerance to the drug, vomiting, panic attacks and paranoia during withdrawal from dependent use. The combined effects of benzodiazepines and other depressant drugs, such as alcohol or heroin, increase the risk of overdose and fatalities (ADF 2013f; AIC 2009; Bradvik et al. 2007; DCPC 2007; Partanen et al. 2009). The main forms of benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals are listed in Table 31. TABLE 31: Main forms of commonly used benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceutical type Alprazolam Trade name Zanax, Alprazolam, Tafil, Farmapram, Asolan, Traxil, Niravam Lexotan Rivotril Valium, Ducene, Antenex, Propam Rohypnol, Hypnodorm Mogadon, Alodorm, Dormican, Nitepam Serepax, Murelax, Alepam, Benzotran Normison, Temaze, Euhypnos Rohies, roofies Moggies Sarahs Footballs, Normies User names Zanies, Zans, Blues, Quad Bars, Totem Poles, Z Bars
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Bromazepam Clonazepam Diazepam Flunitrazepam Nitrazepam Oxazepam Temazepam
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OPIOIDS The term ‘opioids’ describes a class of drugs derived from the opium poppy and includes synthetic substances with similar pain relieving properties. Opioid pharmaceuticals are commonly prescribed for pain management and the treatment of heroin and other opioid addiction. The most common opioids used to treat pain include codeine, morphine and oxycodone. The misuse of opioids may result in tolerance and dependence17 and instances of psychiatric conditions. Indicators of dependence include a strong desire to take the substance, limited control over its use and the need to increase dosage quantities to achieve the desired effect. Opioid withdrawal symptoms may include joint and muscle pain, nausea and vomiting, abdominal cramps and irritability (Degenhardt 2013; SA Health 2011). Available in tablet, capsule and liquid form, side effects of opioid use include drowsiness, nausea and depressed respiration. The injection of opioids may be linked to the transmission of blood-borne viruses, such as hepatitis B and C and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other injection-related infections, such as collapsed veins and abscesses. Opioid overdose is more likely to occur when it is combined with other central nervous system depressants, when the method of administration is injection, or if the user is experiencing a change in tolerance levels. Methadone and buprenorphine are the two main pharmaceuticals used in the treatment of opioid dependence (ADF 2011; ADF 2013e). Common opioid pharmaceuticals are listed in Table 32. TABLE 32: Main forms and effects of commonly used opioid pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceutical type Morphine Trade name MS Contin, Anamorph, Kapanol, Morphalgin Panadine Forte, Codral Forte, Dymadon Forte, Codalgin Forte, Mersyndol Forte Oxycontin, Endone, Wxynorm, Percocet, Roxidcodone, Tylox, Percodan Durogesic, Actiq (lozenge), Fenpatch, Denpax Peth Oxy, Oxies, O.Cs, Oxycottons, Oxy 80s, Hillbilly Heroin, Roxies, Percs User names M, Monkey, Morph, Miss Emma, Dreamer, Hard Stuff, Greys Comments Main component of opium; powerful narcotic analgesic
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Codeine
An extract of opium which is not as strong as morphine
Oxycodone
A semi-synthetic opioid analgesic similar to morphine
Fentanyl
An opioid analgesic more potent than morphine, with a rapid onset and short duration Synthetic narcotic analgesic, similar to morphine but shorter lasting Synthetic narcotic analgesic used in the treatment of opioid dependence; predominantly provided in syrup form to patients Used to treat withdrawal from heroin and employed in maintenance treatment to block the effects of other opioids
Pethidine
Methadone (or Physeptone— tablet form) Buprenorphine Subutex, Temgesic
Meth, Done, Metho
Beup, Mud
17 Drug dependence is defined by the International Classification of Diseases 10th Revision (ICD-10) as the presence of three or more indicators of dependence for at least a month within the previous year (Degenhardt et al. 2013).
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INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
All regions in the world continue to report high levels of the non-medical use of tranquillisers, sedatives and non-prescription pharmaceutical opioids. Poly drug users may use single-use tranquillisers, such as benzodiazepines, to enhance the effects of heroin. According to the UNODC, the non-medical use of codeine-containing cough medicines and suppressants continues unabated (UNODC 2013c). According to US reporting, the non-medical use of prescription drugs is increasing at a greater rate than that of other illicit drugs (Clinton Foundation 2013). The National Drug Intelligence Centre assesses that the non-medical use of controlled prescription and over-the-counter pharmaceutical drugs ranks second only to that of cannabis. Prescription drugs commonly used for non-medical purposes include opioid pain relievers, stimulants for treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and medication for treating anxiety disorders. Across all age groups (14 years and over) within the US, the number of deaths associated with prescription painkillers exceeds that of all other illicit drugs (NIDA 2013). According to the International Narcotic Control Board, Central American countries have reported the non-medical use of pharmaceutical preparations that contain stimulants, as well as of prescription stimulants. East and South-East Asian countries have also reported the trafficking in and non-medical use of prescription drugs and over-the-counter pharmaceutical preparations containing internationally controlled substances of concern. South Africa has reported high levels of non-medical use of prescription drugs (mainly benzodiazepines, analgesics, codeine preparations and sedative-hypnotics) (INCB 2013). The 2011 European School Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs survey found that the lifetime prevalence of non-prescription use of tranquillizers or sedatives among students remained relatively stable between 1995 and 2011, at about 7 to 8 per cent (INCB 2013). Licensed internet pharmacies provide accessible, convenient and private services to consumers. However, there are also illegal internet pharmacies that typically sell a variety of medications, which may pose health and safety risks to the user. These include access to unapproved drugs, legal prescription drugs dispensed without a valid prescription, products that are marketed with fraudulent health claims, or counterfeit pharmaceuticals.
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DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION Prescription pharmaceuticals are primarily imported by individuals without criminal intent. Pharmaceuticals continue to be purchased over the internet due to the anonymity afforded to purchasers without a prescription and the lower cost. Pharmaceutical border detections in 2012–13 include benzodiazepines and opioids. While the number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border decreased by 13.9 per cent this reporting period, from 1 337 in 2011–12 to 1 151 in 2012–13, it is the third highest number on record. The majority of these were benzodiazepines. The number of benzodiazepine detections decreased this reporting period, from 1 298 in 2011–12 to 1 056 in 2012–13. The total number of pharmaceutical opioid detections doubled this reporting period, increasing from 39 in 2011–12 to 79 in 2012–13. Oxycodone was the primary pharmaceutical opioid detected at the Australian border in 2012–13, accounting for 60.7 per cent of the total number of detections. Other pharmaceutical opioids detected this reporting period were morphine, buprenorphine and methadone (see Figure 62). FIGURE 62: Number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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IMPORTATION METHODS The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of pharmaceutical detections. In 2012–13, the postal stream accounted for 57.1 per cent of the number pharmaceutical detections, followed by air passenger/crew at 36.3 per cent (see Figure 63).
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FIGURE 63: Number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
EMBARKATION POINTS
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In 2012–13, a total of 60 countries were identified as embarkation points for pharmaceuticals detected at the Australian border, compared with 55 countries in 2011–12. Thailand was the prominent embarkation point, accounting for 19.5 per cent of the number of pharmaceutical detections in 2012–13. Other major embarkation points this reporting period by number were India, Singapore, Malaysia, the UK, Romania, South Africa, Indonesia, the US and Pakistan. In 2012–13, a total of 58 countries were identified as embarkation points for benzodiazepines detected at the Australian border. Thailand was the prominent embarkation point, accounting for 20.2 per cent of the number of benzodiazepine detections in 2012–13. Pakistan was the prominent embarkation point by number for opioid detections at the Australian border this reporting period, accounting for 13.9 per cent of detections in 2012–13.
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DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 4.2 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported recent non-medical18 use of any pharmaceuticals, the first increase reported since 199819 (AIHW 2011). According to the ANSPS, pharmaceutical opioids (including morphine and oxycodone) were the third most commonly reported class of drug last injected nationally over the period 2008 to 2012. The prevalence of PIEDs injection increased in New South Wales, from 2 per cent in 2008 to 12 per cent in 2012, and in Queensland, from 1 per cent in 2008 to 11 per cent in 2012, and was stable at 2 per cent or less in all other jurisdictions. Consistent with previous years, pharmaceutical opioids were the drug most commonly injected in the Northern Territory (70 per cent) and Tasmania (40 per cent) in 2012. In the same study, methadone was reported as the last drug injected by less than 10 per cent of the ANSPS respondents over the period 2008 to 2012, with a decline in prevalence observed over this period (Iversen 2013). In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of any of benzodiazepine decreased, from 69 per cent in 2011 to 64 per cent 2012, with 62 per cent of respondents reporting swallowing as the main route of administration. In the same study, 50 per cent of respondents reported recent use of any form of illicit benzodiazepine.20 The proportion of respondents reporting recent illicit morphine use decreased, from 39 per cent in 2011 to 38 per cent in 2012 and remained the most commonly injected pharmaceutical opioid (NDARC 2013). The same 2012 study showed variation between states and territories, with the Northern Territory and Tasmania reporting the highest illicit use of morphine—locations where heroin is traditionally reported as being difficult to obtain. In 2012, the proportion of respondents reporting recent illicit use of oxycodone increased, from 32 per cent in 2011 to 35 per cent in 2012. Figure 64 shows the reported recent use of various pharmaceutical drugs in 2012 by a regular injecting drug user population (Stafford & Burns 2013).
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18 The NDSHS relates use for non-medical purposes to ‘ways that induced or enhanced a drug experience, enhanced performance or were for cosmetic purposes’. 19 According to the NDSHS, pharmaceuticals include: pain-killers/analgesics, tranquillisers, steroids, methadone or buprenorphine and/or other opioids. 20 Refers to/includes sublingual administration of buprenorphine (trade name Subutex) and buprenorphine-naloxone (trade name Suboxone).
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FIGURE 64: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent use of illicit pharmaceuticals, by type of pharmaceuticals, 2012 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
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In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting the recent illicit use of benzodiazepines decreased, from 34 per cent in 2011 to 26 per cent. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting the recent illicit use of opiates also decreased, from 14 per cent in 2011 to 9 per cent in 2012. Figure 65 shows the recent reported illicit use of various pharmaceuticals in 2012 by a regular ecstasy drug user population (Sindicich & Burns 2013). FIGURE 65: Proportion of a regular ecstasy drug user population reporting recent use of illicit pharmaceuticals, by type of pharmaceutical, 2012 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
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OTHER DRUGS
Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey and voluntary urinalysis. The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months preceding interview. In contrast to other illicit drugs, the proportion of detainees testing positive for opiates or benzodiazepines exceeds that for self reported use. In 2012–13, the proportion of detainees testing positive21 for benzodiazepine use decreased, from 22.6 per cent in 2011–12 to 20.0 per cent in 2012–13, as did the self-reported use of benzodiazepines, which decreased, from 13.1 per cent in 2011–12 to 12.2 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 66). FIGURE 66: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for benzodiazepines compared with self-reported use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
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a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflects data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
The proportion of detainees testing positive22 for opiate use decreased this reporting period, from 15.0 per cent in 2011–12 to 14.0 per cent in 2012–13. The self-reported use of methadone also decreased, from 9.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 7.8 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 67).23
21 Benzodiazepines and their metabolites can be detected in urine on average 2 to 14 days after administration (Makkai 2000). 22 Opiates and their metabolites can be detected in urine on average 2 to 3 days after administration (Makkai 2000). 23 The self-report DUMA survey does not differentiate between use of opiates and methadone, with the self-report question includes use of ‘illegal morphine/street/methadone/homebake or other illegal opiates’ (AIC 2012–13).
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FIGURE 67: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for opiates compared with self-reported use of methadone, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012. b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
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PRICE Law enforcement price data for pharmaceuticals obtained for non-medical use is limited. In 2012–13, the price for a 60 milligram tablet of Oxycontin was $60. In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the median price for 40 milligrams of oxycodone was $30, an increase from $22.50 in 2011 and ranged between $20 in New South Wales and $40 in Tasmania (Stafford & Burns 2013).24 AVAILABILITY According to a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of illicit oxycodone, 68 per cent reported it as easy or very easy to obtain, compared with 61 per cent in 2011. The proportion of respondents reporting illicit morphine as easy or very easy to obtain in 2012 remained stable at 72 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2012; Stafford & Burns 2013). SEIZURES Following decreases in the number of national other opioid seizures in 2010–11 and 2011–12, the number of seizures increased 24.1 per cent this reporting period, from 83 in 2011–12 to 103 in 2012–13.
24 South Australia, Queensland, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory had small numbers reporting (n<10).
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OTHER DRUGS
Following a spike in the weight of national other opioid seizures in 2010–11, the weight of national other opioid seizures has continued to decrease, from 26.6 kilograms in 2011–12 to 6.1 kilograms in 2012–13 (see Figure 68). FIGURE 68: National other opioid seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Despite reporting a decrease in the number and weight of other opioid seizures in 2012–13, New South Wales continues to account for the majority of national other opioid seizures, accounting for 46.6 per cent of the number and 62.2 per cent of the weight of seizures this reporting period. In 2012–13, Tasmania reported the greatest percentage increase in the number of other opioid seizures, while Queensland reported the greatest percentage increase in weight (see Table 33). TABLE 33: Number, weight and percentage change of national other opioid seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
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Weight (grams) 2011–12 18 004 7 809 5 772 19 0 0 8 26 617 2012–13 % change 3 823 1 672 385 0 8 244 0 15 6 147 -78.8 -78.6 7 600.0 -100.0 -57.9 – 0 87.5 -76.9 48 13 16 0 4 17 0 5 103 14.3 30.0 166.7 -100.0 -42.9 1 600.0 0 -54.5 24.1
2011–12 42 10 6 6 7 1 0 11 83
2012–13 % change
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
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DRUG ANALOGUES & NEW PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
MAIN FORMS
Drug analogues and new25 psychoactive substances (DANPS), is an umbrella term referring to substances that mimic, or are intended to mimic, the effects of illegal drugs and which are marketed as alternatives to controlled drugs. DANPS have been present in Australia and overseas since at least the mid-2000s and are often referred to as novel substances, novel psychotropic substances, emerging psychoactive substances, analogues, mimetics, legal highs, new synthetics, herbal highs or designer drugs (UNODC 2011b; UNODC 2013b). A wide range of DANPS are available to users. According to the UNODC, the number of potential synthetic drug derivatives is technically unlimited. Three United Nations Conventions provide a framework for controlling the production, trade and possession of over 240 psychoactive substances, with the number of DANPS exceeding that of other illicit drugs regulated by these conventions or treaties. These so-called ‘legal highs’26 or mimetics have become the drug of choice for some illicit drug users (EMCDDA 2013b; Lancet 2013; UNODC 2013b). The marketing of DANPS as legal alternatives to controlled substances—including methylamphetamine, MDMA and cannabis—may be interpreted by prospective users as being safe to consume or less harmful than illicit drugs. As many of these substances are novel, there is limited research or knowledge about the short or longterm health consequences of DANPS use, the risk of dependence, possible effects of use in combination with other drugs, or potential fatal dosage levels. Some identified short-term effects associated with DANPS use include dilated pupils, hypertension, hyperventilation, paranoia, agitation, hyperthermia, tremors and seizures (Arnold 2013; UNODC 2013a).
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25 Use of the term ‘new’ does not necessarily refer to a new invention—as many DANPS may have been synthesised years or decades ago—rather that they have recently emerged on the market. 26 Use of the term ’legal high’ may not reflect the true legal status of these substances under Australian legislation.
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Two groups of DANPS that receive considerable public attention are synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones, in particular 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC). This section will cover these two groups in more detail. SYNTHETIC CANNABINOIDS Many synthetic cannabinoids27 were synthesised with the aim of using them in laboratory research as potential treatments for conditions such as nausea and glaucoma, or for their anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. In 2012, the European Union’s Early Warning System (EWS) was notified of 73 new psychoactive substances, of which 30 were synthetic cannabinoids. Synthetic cannabinoids mimic the effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main psychoactive substance in cannabis. While some synthetic cannabinoids share a chemical structure similar to THC, the vast majority identified to date have no structural relationship to THC. With the exception of a small number of substances which have very limited legitimate uses, the vast majority of identified substances have no legitimate industrial, scientific or medicinal application (ADF 2013h; Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013; EMCDDA 2013c; TGA 2011). Synthetic cannabinoids are typically dissolved in a solvent and sprayed onto dried plant material for use. As a consequence of the way in which synthetic cannabinoids are produced, there may be great variation both within and between the finished products. Synthetic cannabinoids are primarily smoked (via a pipe, in a cigarette or joint or blunt, or by using a hookah or water pipe or bong). Administration via vaporisation, in addition to oral and rectal ingestion has also been reported. Synthetic cannabinoids are sold on the internet or in various specialised shops and typically contain 1–3 grams of dried plant matter in a foil sachet, often labelled as a smoking mixture, herbal blend or incense. Synthetic cannabinoids are marketed under various brand names, which include Kronic, Spice, K2 and Northern Lights. Although a number of plant-based ingredients may be listed on the packaging, scientific testing has found that many of these are not actually present (ADF 2013g; Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013; NCPIC 2013; NSW Health 2011). Users of synthetic cannabinoids may experience elevated mood, relaxation and altered perceptions. Short-term effects of synthetic cannabinoid use may include fatigue, headaches, disorientation, hallucinations, tachycardia, hypertension, agitation, panic attacks, anxiety and depression. Long-term effects use may include an increased risk of heart attack (as a consequence of high blood pressure and reduced blood supply to the heart). Synthetic cannabinoids also have carcinogenic potential, which may put users at risk of developing chronic bronchitis and lung cancer, and may precipitate the development of psychosis in patients with a history of mental illness. According to UNODC reporting, several cases of severe toxicity and deaths have been associated with synthetic cannabinoid use (ADF 2013h; Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013; TGA 2011; UNODC 2013a).
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27 Scientifically, these are known as cannabimimetics due to the way the compounds mimic cannabis like behaviour. The commonly used term ‘synthetic cannabinoids’ has been used to avoid confusion and remain consistent with existing public terminology.
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Synthetic cannabinoids form part of the illicit drug market in Australia. Since 2011, some Australian states and territories have introduced new regulations to ban synthetic cannabinoids. From 1 May 2012, nine groups of synthetic cannabinoids were included within Schedule 9 (Prohibited Substance) in the Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons (SUSMP) (Poison Standard) (ADF 2013h, AG 2012).28 On 29 May 2013, the Commonwealth prescribed eight synthetic cannabinoids as border controlled drugs under the Criminal Code Act 1995.29 The list of border controlled drugs is found in the Criminal Code Regulations 2002. 4-MMC (4-METHYLMETHCATHINONE) Developed as an antidepressant, 4-MMC was first synthesised in 1929, however its strong addictive potential stopped it from being used for medical purposes. An illicit drug market for 4-MMC was established in the last decade after it was ‘rediscovered’ in 2003 (Bretteville-Jensen 2013; UNODC 2013a). 4-MMC, also known as mephedrone, is an analogue designed to mimic cathinone, which is a controlled drug. 4-MMC is a central nervous system stimulant, which increases the synaptic30 concentrations of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.31 Common street names for 4-MMC include ‘meph’, ‘meow’, ‘miaowmiaow’, ‘m-cat’, ‘drone’, ‘bubbles’ or ‘kitty cat’. 4-MMC is commonly marketed or mislabelled as bath salts, plant food or hoover freshener (ADF 2013i; Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Wood & Dargan 2012). Powder is the most common form of 4-MMC. It is available in tablet or capsule form. It can be snorted, swallowed, or dissolved for oral/rectal use or intramuscular/intravenous injection. The most common route of administration of 4-MMC is snorting (Sindicich & Burns 2013). Users report that 4-MMC produces a similar experience to amphetamines, MDMA or cocaine. Reported short term effects of 4-MMC use include dilated pupils, tremors or convulsions, insomnia, anxiety, paranoia, hypertension and breathing difficulties. Long-term effects of use may lead to memory deterioration, hallucinations, delusions, erratic behaviour, anxiety, paranoia and depression (Brunt et al. 2011; UNODC 2013a; Winstock et al. 2010).
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28 See the Initiatives chapter for further information. 29 Many synthetic cannabinoids (including the eight added to the border controlled drug list) also appear on the Customs (Prohibited Import) Regulations 1956, and are therefore subject to a range of licensing and permit requirements for import/export of these substances. 30 A synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell (neural or otherwise). 31 Both a hormone and a neurotransmitter.
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INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
DANPS are a global phenomenon, with all regions of the world virtually reporting simultaneous activity related to this market. Over the past few years, there has been unprecedented growth in the number, type and availability of DANPS, however reliable data on the scope and nature of this market is limited to some extent. Between 2005 and 2011, the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) EWS reported one new substance per week, with two-thirds of all reported DANPS either synthetic cannabinoids or synthetic cathinones (EMCDDA 2013b; Forensic Science Review 2013). Studies report numerous sales occur via the internet, with suppliers using the internet to promote their products. Both users and sellers value the impersonal and implied low-risk transaction method stemming from online purchases. The low price of synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones—compared to some other illicit drugs—and the ease of transaction, for both users and sellers, creates potential for market expansion (Forensic Science Review 2013). In Europe, clandestine laboratories producing DANPS sell direct to users via the internet, or through legitimate stores. In order to avoid detection by law enforcement or other regulatory bodies, suppliers may also deceptively label these substances as not for human consumption and market the substances in a variety of packaging, purporting them to be bath salts, plant food, research chemicals or fertiliser (Forensic Science Review 2013). According to the International Narcotics Control Board, many DANPS suppliers are based in China or India, with domestic manufacture also reported by countries in Europe, the Americas and other parts of Asia (INCB 2013). The UNODC reported the number of synthetic cathinones seizures remained stable in 2012 (UNODC 2013b). In June 2013, the US DEA announced a 1 500 kilogram seizure of synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones manufactured in India and China, intended for the US and Australian markets (Knight 2013). The United Arab Emirates seized 126 parcel consignments, totalling 23.5 kilograms of synthetic cannabinoids (Spice) over an eight month period in 2012 (UNODC 2013c). In January 2013, Egypt reported increasing seizures of synthetic cannabinoids (Voodoo) originating in Europe and trafficked through Libya (UNODC 2013c). There is no standard national or international approach to addressing the issue of DANPS. Many countries have adopted broad legislative approaches for controlling DANPS through the use of analogue and generic terms, temporary and emergency procedures and alternative non-drug specific legislation, such as consumer protection legislation. The US has enacted laws to target analogue compounds. Although not making synthetic drugs illegal, Sweden can seize them under the Destruction Act and the UK uses Temporary Drug Class Orders to ban new substances—usually effective within a month—while formal legislative change is enacted (Policing and Practice Journal 2013). In 2013, New Zealand introduced the Psychoactive Substances Act 2013, making it illegal to import, manufacture, sell or supply psychoactive substances without a licence. The burden of proof is now placed on the manufacturers and distributors to prove that their products present low risk for human use before they can be granted a licence (NZG 2013).
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DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER seizures DANPS comprise synthetic cannabinoids, substituted cathinones, analogues of amphetamine type-stimulants, as well as novel and obscure research chemicals. The main characteristic of these drugs is the diversity and large number of substances involved. DANPS are sourced from within large groups of chemical compounds, which complicate their regulation and may enable vendors to evade regulatory mechanisms by adjusting the chemical composition of their products. DANPS are increasingly seized at the Australian border, mainly in air cargo parcels and the international mail stream. Border regulation of DANPS is complex due to many new and emerging substances not being covered under current legislation. Their presumptive identification also poses challenges as current trace detection tools may not currently be calibrated to detect the thousands of drugs which potentially fall under this category. Shipments encountered at the Australian border are either personal use quantities that are purchased online and delivered by mail, or larger shipments intended for resale. Shipments intended for resale comprise either a large number of retail doses, mostly of synthetic cannabinoids, packaged as ready-to-use smoking mixtures, or bulk active agents in kilogram quantities, mainly from China. DANPS have low active dose thresholds such as 3–6 mg for synthetic cannabinoids, and 0.1–0.4 mg for the exceptionally dangerous NBOMe group compounds, which have been associated with fatalities in Australia and other countries. DANPS, which are sold in Australia at low prices per dose, have the potential to generate criminal profits in excess of those obtained from trafficking more established illicit drugs, such as heroin and cocaine, although at present the DANPS market does not compare in size with more traditional illicit drug markets. Although the breadth of new substances appearing on the market is very large, and some appear only sporadically, the Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team, in consultation with the National Measurement Institute (NMI), has identified the following categories of DANPS: amphetamine-type substances cathinone-type substances synthetic cannabinoids tryptamine-type substances others. Among the many different compounds detected and reported since 2006–07, some have been more common than others in terms of the weight of material seized and/or the overall number of seizures. These have included 4-MMC, N,N-dimethylamphetamine (DMA), 1-benzylpiperazine (BZP) and 3-trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP).
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Over the reporting periods, analysis of DANPS has included amphetamine-type substances, novel cathinone-type substances, synthetic cannabinoids, novel tryptamine-type substances, novel 2C-type substances and novel piperazine-type substances. Analysis of border seizures containing DANPS indicates that while the number of seizures decreased in 2012–13, the weight of seizures containing DANPS more than doubled (see Figure 69).32 FIGURE 69: Number and weight of seizures selected for further analysis and found to contain novel substances and drug analogues, 2006–07 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence)
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Since 2008–09, novel cathinone-type substances have accounted for the highest proportion of the number of seizures in this subset. In 2012–13, novel cathinone-type substances accounted for 44.6 per cent of analysed seizures containing novel substances, followed by novel amphetamine-type substances (17.9 per cent), novel 2C-type substances (16.1 per cent), novel piperazine-type substances (10.7 per cent), synthetic cannabinoids (8.9 per cent) and novel tryptamine-type substances (1.8 per cent). Following a spike in the weight of DANPS seized in 2010–1133 and the notable decrease in the weight of DANPS seized in 2011–12, the weight of analysed seizures increased by 139.3 per cent in 2012–13. Novel piperazine-type substances accounted for 41.8 per cent of the weight of novel substance seizures, followed by novel cathinone-type substances (35.1 per cent), novel amphetamine-type substances (19.6 per cent), synthetic cannabinoids (3.4 per cent) and novel tryptamine-type substances (<0.1 per cent).
32 The data in Figure 69 refers only to seizures made by the AFP, examined by AFP crime scene teams, sampled and subsequently confirmed to contain a novel substance by the NMI. Seizure data does not represent all AFP seizures of DANPS during these periods. 33 The spike in the weight of DANPS seized in 2010–11 was due to 3 large seizures containing novel amphetamine-type substances, which accounted for approximately 82 per cent of the weight of novel substances seized in that reporting period.
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DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent 4-MMC use decreased, from 14 per cent in 2011 to 5 per cent in 2012. Swallowing (62 per cent), followed by snorting (48 per cent), were the most common methods of administration, with minimal reporting of injecting. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent use has increased to 6 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of synthetic cannabinoids increased, from 6 per cent in 2011 to 15 per cent of in 2012. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent use has increased to 16 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013). PRICE National law enforcement price data for DANPS, including 4-MMC and synthetic cannabinoids is limited. In 2012–13, the price of a tablet/capsule of 4-MMC in Tasmania the price was $30, with the price in Queensland ranging between $20 and $50. Nationally, the price for 3 grams of synthetic cannabinoids in 2012–13 ranged between $50 and $95.
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DOMESTIC SEIZURES Technical challenges exist for law enforcement agencies in identifying DANPS. Due to the dynamic nature of this market, data systems have limited capacity to accurately record and readily extract seizure and arrest data, with many of these drugs reported as ‘other drugs’. As a result, monitoring and reporting on national trends of these drugs is limited. Since 2007–08, jurisdictions have indicated an increase in the number and weight of DANPS seized. Key categories of seized substances include amphetamine-type substances, cathinone-type substances and synthetic cannabinoids.
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OTHER & UNKNOWN NOT ELSEWHERE CLASSIFIED DRUGS
Data of national other and unknown not elsewhere classified (NEC) drug arrests and seizures capture drugs and substances outside the other specific drug categories contained in the Illicit Drug Data Report. This category covers a range of substances including precursors, anaesthetics, DANPS, pharmaceuticals and drugs not elsewhere classified. Substances in this category are likely to change between reporting periods. Data limitations are further discussed in the Statistics chapter. Over the last decade, the number of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures increased 425.0 per cent, from 1 367 in 2003–04 to 7 177 in 2012–13. By comparison, the weight of seizures has fluctuated over the last decade, increasing 1 089.2 per cent, from 185 kilograms in 2003–04 to 2 200 kilograms in 2012–13. This reporting period the number of other and unknown NEC drug seizures increased 32.9 per cent, from 5 399 in 2011–12 to 7 177 in 2012–13, while the weight of seizures decreased 83.6 per cent, from 13 451.5 kilograms in 2011–12 to 2 200.0 kilograms in 2012–13. The significant decrease in the weight of related seizures between the 2011–12 and 2012–13 reporting periods is a direct consequence of a single 11 tonne seizure of hypophosphorous acid in 2011–12, a reagent chemical used in the manufacture of methylamphetamine (see Figure 70).
OTHER DRUGS
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FIGURE 70: National ‘Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified’ drug seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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New South Wales accounted for the greatest proportion of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures this reporting period, accounting for 43.5 per cent of the number and 29.8 per cent of the weight. Queensland, Western Australia and Northern Territory reported notable increases in the weight of other and unknown NEC drug seizures this reporting period, with their combined seizure weight accounting for 52.6 per cent of the weight of national seizures in 2012–13 (see Table 34). TABLE 34: Number, weight and percentage change of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number State/Territory Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Australian Capital Territory Total
a
Weight (grams) % change 32.4 43.8 5.5 52.4 71.1 19.7 1.0 -3.3 32.9 2011–12 12 687 524 338 274 135 277 15 532 36 484 3 651 233 264 1 585 13 451 591 2011–12 655 050 371 678 486 917 13 926 90 523 1 807 578 715 1 444 2 200 060 % change -94.8 9.9 259.9 -10.3 148.1 -50.5 148.1 -8.9 -83.6 3 122 663 1 258 32 1 704 158 211 29 7 177
2011–12 2 358 461 1 192 21 996 132 209 30 5 399
2012–13
New South Wales
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded. b. Please note that kava seizures in the Northern Territory may constitute a significant proportion of the number and weight of other and unknown NEC seizures within a given reporting period. As such, care should be taken when interpreting these results.
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Over the last decade, the number of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests has increased 47.7 per cent, from 8 444 in 2003–04 to 12 469 in 2012–13, the highest number reported in the last decade. Since 2003–04, consumer arrests have accounted for over 70 per cent of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests, accounting for 72.9 per cent of arrests in this reporting period (see Figure 71). FIGURE 71: Number of national ‘Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified drug arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests, accounting for 31.6 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. This reporting period South Australia reported the highest percentage increase in other and unknown NEC drug arrests (see Table 35). TABLE 35: Number and percentage change of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests State/Territorya New South Wales Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
b
2011–12 1 714 2 417 3 558 154 2 103 477 178 3 10 605
2012–13 1 706 3 182 3 945 801 2 439 345 51 0 12 469
% change -0.5 31.7 10.9 420.1 15.9 -27.7 -71.3 -100.0 17.6
Australian Capital Territory
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
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NATIONAL IMPACT
The other drugs category includes a wide range of drugs and substances. In 2012–13, there was a record 10 356 detections of PIEDs at the Australian border. The number of embarkation points identified for PIED detections increased 11.1 per cent this reporting period, from 63 countries in 2011–12 to 70 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of detected PIEDs, with China and Thailand the prominent embarkation points for the number of PIEDs detected at the Australian border in 2012–13. While the weight of national steroid seizures decreased this reporting period, it is the second highest weight reported in the last decade. In 2012–13, the number of national steroid seizures and arrests increased and are the highest on record. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of both the number and weight of national steroid seizures, while Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of national steroid arrests. While consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national steroid arrests, in 2012–13, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory reported more provider arrests than consumer arrests. There was a record 509 detections of tryptamines at the Australian border in 2012–13, the majority of which relate to LSD detections. The number of embarkation points identified for tryptamines detections increased 137.5 per cent this reporting period, from 8 countries in 2011–12 to 19 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of tryptamine detections, with the Netherlands the prominent embarkation point for tryptamine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. Nationally, the weight of hallucinogen seizures decreased to 3.6 kilograms, the lowest weight reported since 2008–09. Despite this decrease, the number of national hallucinogen seizures continued to increase and is the highest reported in the last decade. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of both the number and weight of national hallucinogen seizures, with Queensland continuing to account for the greatest proportion of national hallucinogen arrests. While consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national hallucinogen arrests, South Australia and Tasmania reported more provider arrests than consumer arrests.
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There was a record 277 detections of anaesthetics at the Australian border in 2012–13, the majority of which relate to ketamine detections. The number of embarkation points identified for anaesthetic detections at the Australian border increased 23.5 per cent, from 17 countries in 2011–12 to 21 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of anaesthetic detections, with the UK the prominent embarkation point by number for anaesthetic detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. While the number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border decreased in 2012–13, it is the third highest number reported in the last decade. The majority of detections this reporting period were benzodiazepines. The number of embarkation points identified for pharmaceuticals detected at the Australian border increased 9 per cent, from 55 countries in 2011–12 to 60 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of pharmaceutical detections. Thailand was the prominent embarkation point for the number of benzodiazepines detected at the Australian border in 2012–13, with Pakistan the prominent embarkation point for the number of opioid detections. The most prevalent DANPS available in the Australian illicit drug market in 2012–13 were novel piperazine-type substances, novel cathinone-type substances, novel amphetaminetype substances and synthetic cannabinoids. While the number of analysed border seizures containing DANPS in 2012–13 decreased 56.3 per cent, the weight of seizures more than doubled. In this reporting period, novel cathinone-type substances accounted for the majority of analysed border seizures by number, while novel piperazine-type substances accounted the greatest proportion of the weight of seizures. The number of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures continued to increase this reporting period, with the 7 177 seizures in 2012–13 the highest number reported in the last decade. The weight of national seizures decreased considerably in 2012–13, a direct consequence of the 11 tonne seizure of hypophosphorous acid in 2011–12. New South Wales accounted for the greatest proportion of the number and weight of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures this reporting period. Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests, with consumer arrests accounting for the greatest proportion of arrests.
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Iversen, J and Maher, L 2013, Australian Needle and Syringe Program National Data Report 2008–2012, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 22 October 2013, <http://www.kirby.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/hiv/resources/ ANSPS_2008_2012%20KI.pdf>. Johnston, L D, O’Malley, P M, Bachman, J G, & Schulenberg, J E 2013, Monitoring the future national results on drug use: 2012 Overview, Key findings on adolescent drug use, Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan. Kanayama, G, Pope, HG Jr 2012, ‘Illicit use of androgens and other hormones: recent advances’, Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity, vol. 19, issue 3, viewed 28 August 2013, <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3337343/>. Knight, B 2013, ‘US authorities announce record global synthetic drug ring bust‘, viewed 29 August 2013, <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-06-27/world27s-biggest-syntheticdrug-bust/4784166>. Lancet 2013, ‘Legal highs and lows–illicit drug use around the world’, Editorial, The Lancet, vol. 382, issue 9886, p. 1, viewed 12 August 2013, <http://www.thelancet.com/ journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(13)61509-3/fulltext>. National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) 2013, Synthetic cannabinoids, NCPIC, Canberra, viewed 12 August 2013, <http://ncpic.org.au/ncpic/ publications/factsheets/article/synthetic-cannabinoids>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2005, ‘Use of performance and image enhancing drugs among men: A review’, NDARC Technical Report No. 232, NDARC, Sydney, viewed 29 July 2013, <http://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/ndarc/ resources/TR.232.pdf>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2006, Performance and image enhancing drugs: clenbuterol, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 30 July 2013, <http://www.nationaldrugstrategy.gov.au/internet/drugstrategy/ publishing.nsf/Content/fs-clenbuterol>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2012, Fact Sheets: Hallucinogens, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 10 September 2013, <http:// ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/ndarc.cms.med.unsw.edu.au/files/ndarc/resources/ Hallucinogens%20Fact%20Sheet%281%29.pdf>. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends Conference: Highs and lows of contemporary drugs in Australia: emerging psychoactive substances, pharmaceutical opioids and other drugs, NDARC, University of New South Wales, Sydney. National Drug Strategy (NDS) 2006, Performance and Image Enhancing Drugs – Erythropoietin (EPO), NDS, Australian Government, Canberra, viewed 2 September 2013, <http://www.nationaldrugstrategy.gov.au/internet/drugstrategy/Publishing.nsf/content/ fs-epo>.
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National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2009, DrugFacts: Hallucinogens - LSD, Peyote, Psilocybin and PCP, NIDA, National Institutes of Health, Maryland, viewed 30 July 2013, <http://www.nida.nih.gov/infofacts/hallucinogens.html>. National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2012, DrugFacts: anabolic steroids, NIDA, National Institutes of Health, Maryland, viewed 29 July 2013, <http://www.drugabuse. gov/publications/drugfacts/anabolic-steroids>. National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2013a, Monitoring the Future: survey, NIDA, January 2013. National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2013b, DrugFacts: prescription and over-thecounter medications, NIDA, viewed 31 October 2013, <http://www.drugabuse.gov/ publications/drugfacts/prescription-over-counter-medications>. National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse (NTA) 2012, News & events, Club drug users warned as new figures show more getting help, NTA, viewed 31 January 2014, <http://www.nta.nhs.uk/Club%20drugs%20report%202012.aspx>. Nationale Anti-Doping Agentur Austria (NADA) 2012, Peptide hormones, growth factors and related substances, NADA, Austria, viewed 12 December 2013, <http://www.nada.at>.
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New South Wales Government, Health (NSW Health) 2006, ‘Factsheet: GHB gamma hydroxy butyrate’, NSW Government Health, viewed 2 August 2013, <http://www0. health.nsw.gov.au/factsheets/drugAndAlcohol/ghb_fs.html>. New South Wales Government, Health (NSW Health) 2011, ‘Factsheet: synthetic cannabinoids’, NSW Government Health, viewed 12 August 2013, <http://www.health. nsw.gov.au/factsheets/drugAndAlcohol/synthetic_cannabis.html>. New South Wales Government, Health (NSW Health) 2012, ‘Factsheet: ketamine’, NSW Government Health, viewed 26 August 2013, <http://www0.health.nsw.gov.au/ factsheets/drugAndAlcohol/ketamine.html>. New South Wales Government, Health (NSW Health) 2013, Anabolic steroids, NSW Health Factsheet, viewed 12 December 2013, <http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/mhdao/ Factsheets/Pages/anabolic.aspx>. New Zealand Government (NZG 2013), New Zealand Legislation, NZG Parliamentary Counsel Office, viewed 21 October 2013, <http://www.legislation.govt.NZ/act/ public/2013>. Nielsen, S & Thompson, N 2008, ‘Prevention of Pharmaceutical Drug Misuse’, Pharmaceuticals, Prevention Research Quarterly: Current evidence evaluated, December 2008, DrugInfo Clearinghouse, Melbourne, viewed 4 October 2013, <http://www. druginfo.adf.org.au/attachments/343_PRQ_08Dec_pharmaceuticals_web.pdf>. Paoli L 2012, Doping and Anti-Doping: Neglected Issues in Criminology, European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, no. 20, pp. 231-238.
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Partanen TA, Vikatmaa P, Tukiainen Tukiainen E, Lepantalo M & Vuola J 2009, ‘Outcome after injections of crushed tablets in intravenous drug abusers in the Helsinki University Central Hospital’, European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, vol. 37, issue 6, pp. 704–11. Pharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee (PBAC) 2007, Australian Statistics on Medicines 2004–05, Department of Health and Ageing, Canberra. Policing and Practice Journal 2013, ‘Bath Salts – Synthetic Cathinones’, May 2013, pp. 30-37. Public Health Association of Australia (PHAA) 2010, Pharmaceutical Drug Misuse Policy, PHAA, viewed 5 August 2013, <http://www.nationaldrugstrategy.gov.au/ internet/drugstrategy/consult.nsf/78290A9B1D15615DCA2577F800069425/$FILE/ Attachment%20E-Pharmaceutical%20Drug%20Misuse%20Policy.pdf>. Roll, JM, Newton, T, Chudzynski, J, Cameron, JM, McPherson, S, Fong, T, Torrington, M 2012, ‘Preference for gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) in current users’, Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, vol. 97, issue 3, viewed 28 August 2013, <http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3372955/>. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2012, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2011: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 82, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2012: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trends Series, no. 100, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 13 August 2013, <http://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/ default/files/ndarc/resources/EDRS%202012%20national%20report%20FINAL.pdf>. South Australia Health, (SA Health) 2011, Drug treatment for opioid dependence, South Australia, Drug and Alcohol Services, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.dassa. sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=132>. Stafford J & Burns LA, 2013, ‘Australian Drug Trends 2012: Findings from the Illicit Drugs Reporting System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trends Series no. 91, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, <http://ndarc. med.unsw.edu.au/resource/illicit-drug-reporting-system-idrs-national-report-2012>. Stenman, UH 2009, ‘Detection of illicit use of growth hormone’, Clinical Chemistry, vol. 55, issue 3, pp. 387–388, Helsinki. Sydney Morning Herald (SMH) 2012, Steroid vacation, viewed 27 November 2013, <http://www.smh.com.au/national/health/steroid-vacation-20120526-1zblt.html>.
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Sweeny, K 2007, ‘Pharmaceutical industry in Australia’, Pharmaceutical Industry Project, Working Paper Series, Working Paper no. 34, Victoria University of Technology, Centre for Strategic Economic Studies, Melbourne, viewed 3 October 2013, <http://www.cfses. com/documents/pharma/34-Pharmaceutical_Industry_Aust_Sweeny.pdf>. Tan, T 2012, ‘Ketamine: from India to Asia Part 1 – Malaysia’, viewed 3 September 2012, <http://www.thecabinchiangmai.com/archive/ketamine-from-india-to-asia>. Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) 2011, Final decisions & reasons for decisions by delegates of the secretary to the Department of Health and Ageing, Department of Health and Ageing, Canberra, viewed 13 August 2013, <http://www.tga.gov.au/pdf/ scheduling/scheduling-decisions-1107-final-a.pdf>. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2011a, Laboratory and Scientific Section Portals. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2011b, NPS – FAQs, viewed 11 October 2013, <http://unodc.org/LSS/Page/NPS/FAQS>. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2012, Global SMART Programme, UNODC, Vienna, viewed 12 December 2013, <http://www.unodc.org/documents/ southeastasiaandpacific/2012/12/ats-2012/section/2012_Regional_ATS_Report_SEA. pdf>. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013, UNODC, Vienna, viewed 6 August 2013, <http://www.unodc.org/unodc/secured/wdr/ wdr2013/World_Drug_Report_2013.pdf>. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Global SMART Programme, The challenge of new psychoactive substances 2013, UNODC, Vienna. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013c, Global Smart Update March 2013, vol. 9, p. 15, UNODC, Vienna. United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) 2013, Effects of steroids, doping and performance-enhancing drugs, USADA, Washington, viewed 12 December 2013, <http://www.usada.org/effects-peds/>. United States Drug and Law Enforcement Agency (US DEA) 2011, Drugs of Abuse: 2011 Edition, US DEA Resource Guide, Washington, viewed 12 December 2013, <http://www. justice.gov/dea/pr/multimedia-library/publications/drug_of_abuse.pdf>. Western Australia Drug and Alcohol Office (WA DAO) 2005, Facts about drugs, WA DAO, Perth, viewed 1 August 2013, <http://www.dao.health.wa.gov.au/ DesktopModules/Bring2mind/DMX/Download.aspx?EntryId=351&Command=Core_ Download&PortalId=0&TabId=211>. Winstock, AR, Mitcheson, LR, Deluca, P, Davey, Z, Corazza, O, Schifano, F 2010, ‘Mephedrone, new kid for the chop?’, Addiction, vol. 106, issue 1, pp. 154–161, viewed 5 September 2013, <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.13600443.2010.03130.x/full>.
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Wood, DM & Dargan, PI 2012, ‘Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone): What is new in our understanding of its use and toxicity’, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, viewed 13 August 2013, <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/S0278584612000929>. World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) 2012, The World Anti-Doping Code: The 2013 prohibited list: International standard, WADA, Montreal, viewed 15 November 2013, <http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/World_Anti-Doping_Program/WADPProhibited-list/2013/WADA-Prohibited-List-2013-EN.pdf>. World Health Organisation (WHO) 2012, ‘Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB): critical review report’, Expert Committee on Drug Dependence—thirty-fifth meeting, 4-8 June 2012, WHO, Tunisia, viewed 29 August 2013, <http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/ quality_safety/4.1GHBcritical_review.pdf>.
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Clandestine laboratories and precursors
Key points
Despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally, the 757 laboratories detected in 2012–13 is the second highest number in the last decade. The majority of clandestine laboratories continue to be detected in residential areas; however detections in commercial/industrial locations increased in 2012–13. The greatest proportion of laboratories continue to be addict-based; however, the proportion attributed to laboratories of other sizes almost doubled in 2012–13. While the weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border decreased in 2012–13, the number of detections increased and is the highest reported in the last decade.
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CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
MAIN FORMS
CLAN LABS & PRECURSORS
Clandestine laboratories produce illegal substances using a variety of chemicals and manufacturing processes. Commonly referred to as ‘clan labs’, clandestine laboratories range from crude, makeshift operations using simple processes to highly sophisticated operations using technically advanced facilities and equipment. Regardless of their level of sophistication or size, clandestine laboratories pose significant risks to the community as a consequence of the corrosive and hazardous nature of the chemicals used (AFP 2012; NCCEH 2012). Drug manufacture carried out in clandestine laboratories may involve any or all of the following processes: Extraction—Raw materials are extracted using chemical solvents to produce a finished illicit drug. Examples of extraction include precursor chemicals extracted from pharmaceutical preparations,1 cannabis oil extracted from cannabis or morphine extracted from opium. Conversion—Raw or unrefined drug products are altered into a more soughtafter product by altering the chemical form. Examples include converting cocaine base into cocaine hydrochloride or methylamphetamine base into crystalline methylamphetamine hydrochloride. Synthesis—Raw materials are combined, and react under specific conditions to create the finished product through various chemical processes. Examples include methylamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, commonly known as ‘ecstasy’) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Tableting—Final products are converted into dosage units. An example is pressing MDMA powder into tablet form. There are three types of substances used in illicit drug manufacture: Precursors—Considered to be the starting materials for illicit drug manufacture. As a result of chemical reactions, the precursor’s molecular structure is modified to produce a specific illicit drug. For example, precursors such as ephedrine and pseudoephedrine can be converted into methylamphetamine. Reagents—Substances used to cause a chemical reaction that modifies the precursor’s molecular structure. For example, when hydriodic acid and red phosphorous are mixed with the precursors ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, the resulting compound is methylamphetamine.
1 Such as pseudoephedrine from cold and flu products.
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Solvents—Added to the chemical mixture to ensure effective mixing by dissolving precursors and reagents, diluting the reaction mixtures, and separating and purifying other chemicals. For example, ethyl ether, methyl ethyl ketone and acetone are used in cocaine production (APAIC 2012; INCB 2012). Globally, amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) are the most common illicit drugs manufactured in clandestine laboratories. In Australia, pseudoephedrine and ephedrine are the most common precursors used in the manufacture of ATS. Safrole, isosafrole, piperonal and 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone (MDP2P)2 are principal precursors used in the manufacture of MDMA (EMCDDA 2011; UNODC 2013a). Many legitimate industrial chemicals are used in the manufacture of illicit drugs. This creates a challenge for government and law enforcement in preventing the diversion of these chemicals from legitimate commerce to illicit drug manufacture. Precursor controls seek to stop the diversion of precursors to illicit markets, while maintaing access to these chemicals by legitimate industry. In 2007, the Australian Government funded the national roll-out of Project STOP, an initiative aimed at reducing the diversion of pharmaceutical products containing pseudoephedrine to the illicit drug manufacturing market. As of 30 June 2013, 79.4 per cent of approved community pharmacies were registered with Project STOP, compared with 79.2 per cent at 30 June 2012. Internationally, cohesive chemical control strategies play a key role in controlling percursors due to the global nature of illicit drug precursor manufacture. The Asian Collaborative Group on Local Precursor Control (ACoG), the South Pacific Precursor Control Forum (SPPCF) and other regional precursor-control capability forums are regional forums which provide Australia with an opportunity to inform and respond to illicit drug trafficking and precursor diversion (AFP 2013a). In March 2012, the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) launched the Precursors Incident Communication System (PICS), aimed at stemming the flow of precursor chemicals diverted from domestic distribution channels. In response to precursor controls, producers of ATS may move to the use of ‘pre-precursors’ or ‘masked precursors’—essential non-controlled chemicals that can be converted into precursor chemicals3 (EMCDDA 2013; INCB 2012; UNODC 2013a).
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2 3
Also known as PMK. For example, alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile (APAAN) can be converted into phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) to manufacture ATS.
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INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
Globally, ATS manufacture has increased and expanded. The 2013 World Drug Report indicates increased manufacture in Europe, Asia, Central America and Africa. During 2012, ATS manufacture continued to expand in Europe, with first-time clandestine laboratory detections in regions of Poland and the Russian Federation (BINLEA 2013; UNODC 2013b). The 2013 World Drug Report indicates that East and South-East Asia are the largest ATS markets internationally, with the ‘Golden Triangle’4 remaining a major ATS production and trafficking hub (UNODC 2013b). According to media reporting, Thai authorities estimate at least 1.4 billion ATS tablets are being produced in the Golden Triangle each year, mainly in the Shan State of Burma (Daily Times 2013). Media sources also report in August 2012 that 347 kilograms of methylamphetamine was seized at an illicit drug production plant in Burma, on the Chinese-Burma border (Xinhua 2012). While the Golden Triangle is the primary region for global ATS production, during 2012–13 the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) reported large scale ATS manufacture in Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. BINLEA also reported the 2012 detection of a dual methylamphetamine/ MDMA clandestine laboratory in Phnom Penh, along with more than 3 000 litres of safrole oil allegedly smuggled from Thailand and pseudoephedrine-based medication from Vietnam (BINLEA 2013). According to BINLEA reporting, clandestine laboratories in Burma’s Shan State are producing large quantities of ATS using precursors sourced from Bangladesh, China, Laos, India, and Thailand. Since 2010, seizures of pseudoephedrine have increased in Burma, with almost 3 tonnes seized in the first nine months of 2012. Additionally, two operations seized 1.8 million and 8.7 million methylamphetamine tablets respectively (BINLEA 2013).
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4 The ‘Golden Triangle’ comprises the border regions of Burma, Thailand and Laos.
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China and India remain the world’s largest licit producers and exporters of precursor chemicals. China and India are targeted as primary source countries for precursor chemicals due to the domestic regulatory framework and proximity to illicit drug manufacturing regions. While China has made legislative and administrative changes to prevent the diversion of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine—the two most common chemicals used to produce methylamphetamine—it remains a major source of these precursors (BINLEA 2013). The BINLEA report indicates that in Mexico, importations of precursor chemicals are increasing, along with methylamphetamine production. Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, which is illegally transported to Mexico, is primarily sourced from China, India and Bangladesh. Following tightened legislative controls on methylamphetamine precursor chemicals, authorities now believe that Mexican producers are importing non-scheduled precursor chemicals to manufacture methylamphetamine using alternative methods (BINLEA 2013). According to the 2013 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, attempted large importations of precursors into Mexico included methylamine, monomethylamine and phenyl acetic acid (PAA). The majority of these precursors were sourced from China, and to a lesser degree, Eastern European and Asian countries. Examples include the Mexican Government’s seizure of 96 237 litres and 34.7 tonnes of PAA, as well as 47.5 tonnes of methylamine in September 2012. Furthermore, in 2012 three major shipments of Chinese origin totalling 262 tonnes of the pre-precursor monomethylamine—used to manufacture ephedrine—were seized in Mexican ports (BINLEA 2013). According to open source reporting, while organised crime groups have traditionally used West Africa as a transit route for cocaine and heroin, they are increasingly trafficking methylamphetamine—which is cheaper, easier and more profitable to produce and transport (Africa Report 2013). The 2013 Threat Assessment of Transnational Organised Crime in West Africa reported that methylamphetamine manufactured in West Africa is primarily trafficked into East Asia, and to a lesser extent South Africa. While the current income from trafficking methylamphetamine to East Asia is high, competition from producers located in the destination markets could limit any long-term market for West-African manufactured methylamphetamine (UNODC 2013c). In April 2013, the Australian Federal Police and the Indonesian National Narcotic Control Board initiated a joint agency operation to target an organised crime syndicate with the potential to import commercial quantities of safrole. As a result of the operation, authorities seized 300 litres of pure safrole in Indonesia. It is alleged that the Indonesian national arrested was responsible for the distribution of an estimated 200 litres of safrole oil per month to persons in Australia, Canada, United States, Holland and New Zealand (AFP 2013b).
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DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
In recognition of ATS being the dominant illicit drug manufactured in Australian clandestine laboratories, border detection data will focus on ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor and MDMA precursor detections. In 2012–13, ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor border detections included ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. MDMA precursor border detections included safrole, piperonal, and 3,4-MDP2P. In the last decade, both the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor border detections have fluctuated. In 2012–13, the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections increased by 11.3 per cent, from 937 in 2011–12 to 1 043 in 2012–13, the highest number of detections in the last decade. While the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections decreased by 2.5 per cent, from 1 744.6 kilograms in 2011–12 to 1 700.4 kilograms in 2012–13, it is the third highest detection weight in the last decade (see Figure 72). FIGURE 72: Number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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In 2012–13, there were 471 ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections weighing more than 1 kilogram each. These detections accounted for 96.7 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor chemical detections, totalling 1 644.5 kilograms.
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CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
Since 2003–04, the number of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border has remained low. The number of MDMA precursor detections increased from 9 in 2011–12 to 12 in 2012–13, the highest number of detections in the last decade. Over the last decade, the quantity of MDMA precursor detections has fluctuated, with the total weight of detections exceeding 1 kilogram in only five reporting periods. In 2012–13, 7.98 kilograms of MDMA precursors were detected at the border. In 2011–12, 240 litres of safrole was detected (see Figure 73). In 2012–13, there were 7 detections of safrole, which accounted for almost 100 per cent of the total weight of MDMA precursor detections. In addition to these 7 detections, there was 1 detection of piperonal and 4 detections of 3,4-MDP2P. FIGURE 73: Number and weight/litresa of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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a. Significant detections of MDMA precursors occur in both litres and kilograms. As this figure reflects two units of measurement, it is necessary to refer to comment on ‘Significant Border Detections’ for individual reporting periods to determine the related unit of measurement.
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors in 2012–13 include: 33 kilograms of pseudoephedrine detected in June 2013, in metal hammock frames, via sea cargo from Vietnam to Sydney 21 kilograms of ephedrine detected in March 2013, in a metal cabinet, via sea cargo from India to Sydney 20.8 kilograms of pseudoephedrine detected in October 2012, concealed in 30 imported cartons of rubber tubing, via sea cargo from China to Sydney 20 kilograms of pseudoephedrine crystals detected in March 2013, concealed within tiles, via air cargo from Hong Kong to Sydney 19 kilograms of ephedrine detected in October 2012, concealed in packets of breadcrumbs and coffee, via the air passenger stream from Vietnam to Sydney.
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CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
The 5 detections listed above have a combined weight of 113.8 kilograms and account for 6.7 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors detected at the Australian border in 2012–13. Significant border detections of MDMA precursors in 2012–13 include: 2 kilograms of safrole detected in March 2013, concealed in bottles of patchouli oil, via air cargo from Indonesia to Perth 2 kilograms of safrole detected in April 2013, concealed in bottles of patchouli oil, via air cargo from Indonesia to Brisbane 1.07 kilograms of safrole detected in June 2013, concealed in patchouli oil, via air cargo from Indonesia to Brisbane. The 3 detections listed above have a combined weight of 5.07 kilograms and account for 63.5 per cent of the total weight of MDMA precursors detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
IMPORTATION METHODS
In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 51.1 per cent of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections by number. This was followed by air cargo, which accounted for 30.8 per cent (see Figure 74). FIGURE 74: Number of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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In terms of weight, the air cargo stream accounted for 53.4 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections during 2012–13, while parcel post accounted for 28.4 per cent (see Figure 75). The largest single ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detection in 2012–13 was a 33 kilogram sea cargo detection.
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FIGURE 75: Weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 50.0 per cent of MDMA precursor detections by number. This was followed by air cargo, which accounted for 41.7 per cent (see Figures 76). FIGURE 76: Number of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
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In terms of weight, the air cargo stream accounted for 86.1 per cent of the total weight of MDMA precursor detections in 2012–13, while parcel post accounted for 12.6 per cent (see Figure 77).
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FIGURE 77: Weight of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
EMBARKATION POINTS
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In 2012–13, 38 embarkation points were identified for ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border, an increase from 36 countries in 2011–12. China was the prominent embarkation point, accounting for 25.1 per cent of the total number and 41.2 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections. In 2012–13, Indonesia was the prominent embarkation point for MDMA precursor detections, accounting for 5 of the 12 detections by number, and the top 3 detections by weight.
TABLET PRESS DETECTIONS
On 1 March 2010, tablet presses became a prohibited import in accordance with the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 (AGD 2010, AG 2012). In 2012–13, there were 28 detections at the Australian border, an increase from the 20 detections in 2011–12. In 2012–13, China was the prominent embarkation point for tablet press detections at the Australian border, followed by Hong Kong and the United Kingdom. Of the 28 detections, 19 were tablet press parts and 9 were whole machines. Of these, 17 were detected in sea cargo, 8 in air cargo and 3 in parcel post. The 17 sea cargo detections consisted of 1 whole tablet press and 16 separate parts detections.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
The number of clandestine laboratory detections is not indicative of production output, which is calculated using a number of variables including size of reaction vessels, amount and type of precursor chemicals used, the skill of people involved and the method of manufacture. Regardless of their size, the residual contamination arising from illicit drugs manufacture presents a serious risk to humans and the environment. In 2011, the Australian Government launched the Clandestine Drug Laboratory Remediation Guidelines in recognition of the hazardous nature of clandestine laboratories (AGD 2011).
CLAN LABS & PRECURSORS
CLANDESTINE LABORATORY DETECTIONS
The number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally has more than doubled over the last decade, increasing from 358 in 2003–04 to 757 in 2012–13. The 6.4 per cent decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected in Australia, from 809 in 2011–12 to 757 in 2012–13, is the first decrease since 2006–07. Despite this decrease, it is still the second highest number of detections on record (see Figure 78). FIGURE 78: National clandestine laboratory detections, 2003–04 to 2012–13
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New South Wales, Victoria and the Northern Territory were the only states and territory to report an increase in the number of clandestine laboratories detected in 2012–13 (see Table 36). Although the number of clandestine laboratories detected in Queensland decreased by 12.9 per cent from 379 in 2011–12 to 330 in 2012–13, it continues to account for the highest proportion of national clandestine laboratory detections. New South Wales reported the greatest percentage increase in clandestine laboratory detections, with the 105 detections in 2012–13 the highest number of detections for that state in the last decade. Clandestine laboratory detections in Victoria increased from 99 in 2011–12 to 113 in 2012–13, the highest number of detections for that state, which also reported 113 detections in 2009–10. While the number of clandestine laboratories detected in Western Australia has continued to decrease since 2010–11, it accounted for the second highest proportion of national clandestine laboratory detections in 2012–13 (see Table 36). TABLE 36: Number of clandestine laboratory detections, by state and territory, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Year 2003–04 2004–05 NSW 61 45 55 49 51 67 82 87 90 105 Vic 20 31 47 72 76 84 113 63 99 113 Qld 189 209 161 132 121 148 297 293 379 330 SA 48 25 50 51 69 65 71 75 58 56 WA 33 44 58 37 30 78 118 171 160 136 Tas 1 3 5 9 2 0 1 11 15 9 NT 6 21 12 1 1 7 12 2 7 8 ACT 0 3 2 5 6 0 0 1 1 0 Total 358 381 390 356 356 449 694 703 809 757
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2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13
SIZE AND PRODUCTION CAPACITY
There is currently no recognised standard, either in Australia or internationally, for measuring the size or production capacity of clandestine laboratories. In 2012–13, state and territory police services were asked to provide an indication of size and production capacity of detected laboratories using categories provided by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime for the World Drug Report. Full definitions for the four categories— addict-based, other small-scale, medium sized and industrial scale—are provided in the Statistics chapter.
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In 2012–13, clandestine laboratories detected in Australia ranged from addict-based laboratories, which typically use only basic equipment and simple procedures to manufacture less than 50 grams per production cycle, through to industrial scale laboratories, using oversized equipment and which typically manufacture 50 kilograms or more per production cycle. During this reporting period, for those able to be categorised, the majority of detected clandestine laboratories were addict-based laboratories.5 However, the proportion of laboratories attributed to other small-scale, medium sized and industrial scale laboratories increased, reflecting increases in the sophistication and/or size of detected laboratories. The proportion of industrial scale laboratories detected nationally increased from 2.7 per cent in 2011–12 to 8.0 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 79). FIGURE 79: Category of detected clandestine laboratories, by size and production capacity, 2012–13
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DRUG TYPES AND METHODS OF PRODUCTION
Clandestine laboratories manufacturing ATS (excluding MDMA) continue to be the most common type of laboratory detected in Australia. In 2012–13, of the laboratories where the drug produced was identified, 68.8 per cent were producing ATS (excluding MDMA). In 2012–13, methylamphetamine was the main drug produced in detected laboratories (see Table 37).
5 This is the second time jurisdictions have provided an indication of the size and production capacity of detected laboratories. Figures were not available for all clandestine laboratories detected.
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TABLE 37: Number of clandestine laboratory detections, by drug production type and state and territory, 2012–13
ATS State/ (excluding Territory MDMA) NSW Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT Total 93 83 183 34 135 8 8 0 544 Chemicals/ Cannabis Glassware/ Homebake oil PSE a Equipment MDMA Heroin extraction extraction GHB/ GBL Onlyb 3 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 7 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 4 3 0 0 3 0 11 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 2 21 2 1 0 0 26
Otherc Unknownd 5 3 4 0 1 0 0 0 13 3 24 137 19 0 0 0 0 183
Totale 105 113 333 82 138 9 11 0 791
a. Pseudoephedrine. b. The seizure of glassware or equipment only is not categorised as a laboratory detection in some jurisdictions. c. ‘Other’ refers to the detection of other illicit drug manufacture. d. ‘Unknown’ includes seized substances which were unable to be identified or are awaiting analysis. e. Total may exceed the number of clandestine laboratory detections due to multiple drug production types being identified at single laboratories.
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The number of ATS (excluding MDMA) laboratory detections decreased this reporting period, from 552 in 2011–12 to 544 in 2012–13. Since 2000–01, Queensland has accounted for the greatest proportion of ATS (excluding MDMA) clandestine laboratory detections, with Western Australia accounting for the second greatest proportion since 2008–09. While the number of clandestine laboratories detected manufacturing MDMA remains low, it increased 250 per cent, from 2 in 2011–12 to 7 in 2012–13. New South Wales has accounted for the greatest proportion of MDMA clandestine laboratory detections since 2004–05. In 2012–13, New South Wales reported 3 MDMA laboratory detections, of which 1 was a dedicated tableting laboratory. Two MDMA laboratories were also detected in both Queensland and South Australia. Since 2009–10, the number of laboratories extracting pseudoephedrine has continued to decrease. The number of laboratories extracting pseudoephedrine decreased from 17 in 2011–12 to 11 in 2012–13. The number of homebake heroin laboratory detections decreased from 3 in 2011–12 to 1 in 2012–13. During this reporting period, 4 clandestine laboratories manufacturing GHB/GBL were detected, a decrease from 6 laboratories in 2011–12. While cannabis oil extraction laboratories continue to be detected in Australia, detection numbers remain low. In 2012–13, 2 cannabis oil extraction laboratories were detected, 1 each in New South Wales and South Australia.
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Clandestine laboratories detected in Australia also manufacture a range of precursors and pre-precursors. In 2012–13, these include but are not limited to, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, hypophosphorous acid, P2P and ammonium chloride. Although the number of clandestine laboratories detected this reporting period decreased, the proportion of laboratories manufacturing ATS (excluding MDMA) attributed to each method of production has remained relatively stable. The hypophosphorous method of production remains the prominent production method identified in Australian clandestine laboratories, followed by the Nazi/Birch method (see Table 38). TABLE 38: Method of ATS (excluding MDMA) production in clandestine laboratory detections, by state and territory, 2012–13
State/ Territory NSW Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT Total Hypophosphorous (Iodine) 81 40 108 26 1 7 1 0 264 Redphosphorus (Hydriotic) 3 1 33 3 4 0 0 0 44 Nazi/Birch (Lithium/ Ammonia) 1 2 0 1 130 0 0 0 134 Phenyl-2Propanone (P2P) 3 10 1 1 0 1 0 0 16
Othera 5 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 7
Totalb 93 53 142 32 135 9 1 0 465
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a. ‘Other’ includes the detection of other ATS (excluding MDMA) production methodologies. b. Total may not equal the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) clandestine laboratory detections as the method of production may not be identified.
In 2012–13, the number of laboratories identified using the hypophosphorous method of manufacture decreased by 25.4 per cent, from 354 in 2011–12 to 264 in 2012–13. Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of detected hypophosphorous clandestine laboratories, followed by New South Wales. The number of clandestine laboratories using the Nazi/Birch method continued to decrease, from 157 in 2011–12 and to 134 in 2012–13. These laboratories continue to be predominantly detected in Western Australia. Detections of the red phosphorous production method decreased from 57 in 2011–12 to 44 in 2012–13. While Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of detected red phosphorous laboratories, the number decreased from 38 in 2011–12 to 33 in 2012–13.
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The number of clandestine laboratories identified as using the P2P method of production has remained stable in the last two reporting periods. This method was identified in 16 laboratories in both 2011–12 and 2012–13. In 2012–13, Victoria accounted for the greatest proportion of P2P laboratories, with 10 detections.
SIGNIFICANT PRECURSOR SEIZURES
While the majority of detected clandestine laboratories in Australia are addict-based, the proportion of laboratories classified as other small-scale, medium sized and industrial scale increased in 2012–13. The following provides a snapshot of some significant national precursor/reagent seizures that occurred in 2012–13: 100 litres of benzaldehyde seized in Victoria 76 kilograms of ammonium chloride6 seized in Victoria 60 kilograms of sodium acetate seized in Victoria 34 kilograms of acetic anhydride seized in Victoria 30 kilograms of iodine seized in Victoria 21 kilograms of benzaldehyde seized in Queensland
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15 kilograms of gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) seized in Queensland 4.2 kilograms of pseudoephedrine seized in South Australia 24 litres of hypophosphorous acid seized in South Australia 2 litres of safrole seized in Western Australia.
LOCATION AND CATEGORY
While the proportion of clandestine laboratories detected in residential areas decreased in 2012–13, it remains the prominent location of clandestine laboratories in Australia. In 2012–13, 68.2 per cent of detected clandestine laboratories were located in residential areas, followed by vehicles (9.0 per cent). The proportion of clandestine laboratories detected in commercial/industrial locations increased from 2.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 8.9 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 80).
6
Awaiting analysis.
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FIGURE 80: Location of clandestine laboratory detections, 2012–13
There are four distinct categories of clandestine laboratories: Category A—active (chemicals and equipment in use) Category B—stored/used (equipment or chemicals)7 Category C—stored/unused (equipment or chemicals) Category D—historical site. Category C (stored/unused) remains the most common category for clandestine laboratories detected in Australia, accounting for 50.5 per cent of detections in 2012–13, a decrease from 56.3 per cent in 2011–12. This was followed by Category B (stored/ used), which accounts for 32.4 per cent of detected laboratories. The proportion of Category A (active) detected laboratories increased from 6.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 11.3 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 81).
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7 Laboratories which are fully assembled, but not active at the time of detection.
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FIGURE 81: Category of clandestine laboratory detections, 2012–13
NATIONAL TABLET PRESS SEIZURES
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In 2012–13, there were 19 tablet presses8 seized nationally, compared with 17 seizures in 2011–12. The majority of seizures this reporting period occurred in New South Wales. South Australia reported the detection of 1 encapsulator in 2012–13.
8 Simple and rotary presses.
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NATIONAL IMPACT
While the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border decreased in 2012–13, the number of precursor detections increased and is the highest reported in the last decade. The predominant precursors detected include pseudoephedrine for ATS and safrole for MDMA. In 2012–13, there were increases in the number of tablet presses detected at the border and seized nationally. Detections of tablet presses and tablet press parts at the border increased 40.0 per cent this reporting period, with the number of tablet presses seized nationally increasing 11.8 per cent. Despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally in 2012–13, the 757 clandestine laboratories detected this reporting period is the second highest number on record. The majority of these laboratories were manufacturing ATS (excluding MDMA), using the hypophosphorous method of production. The number of laboratories detected manufacturing MDMA increased from 2 in 2011–12 to 7 in 2012–13. Clandestine laboratories detected in Australia ranged from addict-based through to industrial scale laboratories. While the greatest proportion of laboratories able to be categorised remained addict-based, the proportion attributed to other small-scale, medium sized and industrial scale laboratories increased in 2012–13. Residential areas remain the most common location for clandestine laboratory detections. Of note was the increase in the proportion of laboratories attributed to commercial/industrial locations this reporting period, which increased from 2.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 8.9 per cent in 2012–13.
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REFERENCES
CLAN LABS & PRECURSORS
Africa Report 2013, ‘West Africa, from Transit to production of illicit drugs’, viewed 15 May 2013, <http://www.theafricareport.com/Society-and-Culture/west-africa-fromtransit-to-production-of-illicit-drugs.html>. Asia & Pacific Amphetamine-Type Stimulants Information Centre (APAIC) 2012, Precursors, APAIC, Bangkok, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.apaic.org/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=68&Itemid=83>. Attorney-General’s Department (AGD) 2010, Tablet Press Regulation, AGD, Canberra, viewed 29 October 2013, <http://www.ag.gov.au/CrimeAndCorruption/Drugs/Pages/ default.aspx>. Attorney-General’s Department (AGD) 2011, Clandestine Drug Laboratory Remediation Guidelines, AGD, Canberra, viewed 23 August 2013, <http://www.ag.gov.au/CrimeAndCorruption/Drugs/Documents/ Clandestinedruglaboratoryremediationguidelines.pdf>. Australian Federal Police (AFP) 2012, ACT Policing: Practical guide: Illicit clandestine drug laboratories (clanlabs), AFP, Canberra, viewed 23 August 2013, <http://www.afp.gov.au/ about-the-afp/~/media/afp/pdf/ips-foi-documents/ips/publication-list/AG00067%20 ACT%20Policing%20Practical%20Guide%20on%20Illicit%20Clandestine%20Drug%20 Laboratoires%20Clanlabs%2015JUNE2012.ashx>. Australian Federal Police (AFP) 2013a, Strategies, AFP, Canberra, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.afp.gov.au/policing/drug-crime/strategies.aspx>. Australian Federal Police (AFP) 2013b, ‘Joint operation results in significant offshore disruption’, viewed 13 September 2013, <http://www.afp.gov.au/media-centre/ news/afp/2013/july/media%20release-joint-operation-results-in-significant-offshoredisruption.aspx>. Australian Government (AG) 2012, ComLaw, Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956, AG, Canberra, viewed 26 July 2012, <http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Series/ F1996B03651>. Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) 2013, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, Volume 1, Drug and Chemical Control, March 2013, BINLEA. Daily Times, ‘Fighting drug gangs in the notorious Golden Triangle’ 19 July 2013, viewed 26 July 2013, <http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2013%5C07%5C19%5Cs tory_19-7-2013_pg4_7>.
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European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2011, Drug Profiles: MDMA, EMCDDA, Lisbon, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.emcdda. europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/mdma>. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013, European Drug Report: trends and developments, EMCDDA, Lisbon. International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) 2012, Precursors and chemicals frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, INCB, Vienna, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.incb.org/ documents/PRECURSORS/TECHNICAL_REPORTS/2011/PARTITION/ENGLISH/PR2011E_ ExtentOfLicitTradeAndLatestTrendsInTraffickingPrecursors.pdf>. National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health (NCCEH) 2012, Clandestine amphetamine-derived drug laboratories: remediation guidelines for residential settings, NCCEH, Vancouver, viewed 3 September 2013, <http://www.ncceh.ca/sites/default/files/ Drug_Lab_Remdiation_Guidelines_Dec_2012.pdf>. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013, UNODC, Vienna. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Global Smart Update March 2013, Volume 9. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013c, Transnational Organized Crime in West Africa: A Threat Assessment, UNODC. Xinhua 2012, ‘Chinese, Myanmar police bust cross-border drug gang’, Xinhua, 16 August 2012, viewed 25 November 2013, <http://english.people.com.cn/90883/7911989.html>.
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INITIATIVES
Key points
The leading drug policy document in Australia is the National Drug Strategy 2010–2015. A number of key amendments were recently made to the Criminal Code Act 1995 to strengthen the serious drug offences framework. The Australian Government is considering options to strengthen existing border controls to prohibit the importation of new psychoactive substances and is working with states and territories to address the domestic manufacture, supply and advertising of these substances.
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INTRODUCTION
This chapter outlines some of the initiatives that reflect the Australian Government’s commitment to countering the threat posed by illicit drugs. These initiatives have been developed by law enforcement, health authorities and other government and non-government agencies. The contribution to this chapter was provided primarily by the Attorney-General’s Department, as the central policy and coordinating element of the Attorney-General’s portfolio. The Attorney-General’s portfolio continues to work with Commonwealth, state and territory agencies to strengthen Commonwealth legislative frameworks and law enforcement mechanisms to combat the illicit drug trade—particularly in light of the links to serious and organised crime. Recent initiatives include amendments to the Commonwealth serious drug offences framework to improve the Commonwealth’s ability to be responsive to new and emerging threats in the illicit drug market. The Commonwealth is pursuing a range of activities to strengthen controls on new psychoactive substances.
INITIATIVES
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NATIONAL DRUG STRATEGY 2010–2015
The National Drug Strategy 2010–2015 (NDS) is the leading drug policy document for Commonwealth, state and territory governments, as well as the non-government sector. The NDS focuses on building safe and healthy communities by minimising alcohol, tobacco and other drug-related harms among individuals, families and communities. The objective of harm minimisation is maintained through a balanced approach between demand reduction, supply reduction and harm reduction that has underpinned the NDS since its inception in 1985. The NDS continues the key partnership between health and law enforcement, while acknowledging the importance of working with other sectors to address the complex causes and consequences of drug use. The Attorney-General’s Department is a member of the Intergovernmental Committee on Drugs (IGCD), which is comprised of representatives from health and law enforcement agencies across all jurisdictions. The IGCD has responsibility for the implementation of the NDS and includes specialist working groups and committees designed to provide ongoing guidance and expertise to the IGCD relating to specific alcohol, licit and illicit drug issues of interest.
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STRENGTHENING THE SERIOUS DRUG OFFENCES FRAMEWORK
A number of key amendments have recently been made to the Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth) (Criminal Code) to strengthen the serious drug offences framework and ensure it is up to date and effective in combating the illicit drug trade. A number of synthetic substances that pose a serious risk of death or harm if taken were listed as controlled or border controlled drugs and are now subject to the full range of serious drug offences in the Criminal Code. In April 2012, four drugs (benzylpiperazine, ketamine, methcathinone, 4-methylmethcathinone) and one precursor (phenylpropanolamine) were listed indefinitely after being temporarily listed for 12 months. In May 2013, the following amendments were made to Part 9.1 of the Criminal Code: the lists of drugs, plants and precursors were transferred to the Criminal Code Regulations 2002 to provide for quicker listing of substances the emergency determination mechanism was improved by extending the listing period to allow for appropriate analysis and testing of substances the mechanisms for listing new drugs, plants or precursors were refined. Improvements to the serious drug offences framework are made in consultation with key stakeholder agencies such as the Australian Federal Police (AFP), Australian Customs and Border Protection Service, Department of Health and the Australian Crime Commission (ACC).
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NEW PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
New psychoactive substances or ‘synthetic’ drugs mimic the effect of existing illicit drugs, but have slightly different chemical structures that may fall outside existing prohibitions. Often purchased online and sold as ‘legal highs’,1 there are a range of controls already in place to prohibit many of them. CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY BAN On 19 June 2013, the then Commonwealth Assistant Treasurer introduced an interim consumer protection ban under the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (Cth) prohibiting the retail sale of certain psychoactive products and substances nationally. This ban was introduced to fill a gap in coverage in some states and territories where Schedule 92 of the Poisons Standard had not been fully implemented. It followed the introduction of an interim ban that was put in place by the New South Wales Minister for Fair Trading. The national interim ban lapsed on 13 October 2013. As the relevant state and territory drug laws were updated while the interim ban was in place, the Assistant Treasurer determined that a permanent ban was not required.
1 Use of the term ‘legal high’ may not reflect the true legal status of these substances under Australian legislation. 2 Schedule 9 of the Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons lists substances the Therapeutic Goods Administration has assessed as liable to abuse or misuse and which should be prohibited.
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INITIATIVES
STRENGTHENING THE RESPONSE AT THE BORDER Tackling new psychoactive substances requires a national approach. The Australian Government is considering options to strengthen existing border controls to prohibit the importation of these substances. The Commonwealth is also working with the states and territories through the IGCD to develop complementary regimes around the domestic manufacture, supply and advertising of new psychoactive substances.
FORENSIC DRUG INTELLIGENCE
The Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team, formerly the Australian Illicit Drug Data Centre, is a part of the AFP Forensics portfolio. FDI supports the AFP, law enforcement and other partners through the collection, collation and analysis of forensic and scientific information on illicit drugs. The FDI provides specialist forensic advice, scientific and technical intelligence analysis and evidence-based policy development. Two of the projects the FDI team has responsibility for are funded through the Confiscated Assets Account. These are the Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) and the National Drug Precursor Risk Assessment Capability (NDPRAC), both of which contribute to the production of operationally-relevant intelligence and inform evidence-based policy decisions.
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NATIONAL FORENSIC RAPID LAB
The National Forensic Rapid Lab (NFRL) is a recently implemented capability within the AFP Forensics portfolio. The goal of the NFRL is to identify organised, multiple importations of significant quantities of illicit drugs via the international postal system through the collection, analysis and assessment of forensic intelligence. A major component of the NFRL’s mission is the detection and rapid identification of new and novel drugs, including ‘analogues’, which are increasingly being systematically ordered via the internet and distributed using the international postal system. The NFRL provides valuable and actionable operational intelligence to other countries via the AFP’s international network. This enables effective disruption and prosecution activities within those countries, with the aim of preventing the importation of illicit drugs into Australia via the international postal system.
PRECURSOR ADVISORY GROUP
The Precursor Advisory Group (PAG) was established under the National Precursor Control Framework to support the decision-making process under the framework. The PAG is responsible for coordinating risk assessments of the diversion of precursors to illicit drug manufacture and the consequential harms to the community posed by the use of precursors. The PAG also provides recommendations on national controls to mitigate identified risks.
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INITIATIVES
The PAG is chaired by the Attorney-General’s Department. Membership of the PAG includes technical experts from the Commonwealth and state and territory governments. The group also draws advice from various industry representatives through a Precursor Industry Reference Group (PIRG). The PAG directs the NDPRAC to carry out risk assessments on prioritised chemicals and in consultation with the PIRG, uses these assessments to make recommendations to the IGCD for regulatory or other action relating to these chemicals.
ICE PIPES REGULATION – PROHIBITED IMPORT
The ACC has identified amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) as one of the three highest organised crime priorities for Australia. While ATS can be administered through a range of methods, including inhalation, smoking of methylamphetamine in its crystalline form is particularly dangerous due to high purity levels. Ice pipes or devices capable of being used for drawing or inhaling the resulting smoke or fumes from heating methylamphetamine are illegal in most Australian jurisdictions. As ice pipes do not have any legitimate use in industry, they have been controlled as a Prohibited Import under the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 since 10 December 2011. Persons with a legitimate scientific or law enforcement reason to import ice pipes are still able to do so, subject to permission from the Minister for Immigration and Border Protection or an authorised person.
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STATE & TERRITORY LEGISLATION AMENDMENTS & INITIATIVES
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides an overview of recently proposed or implemented legislative and regulatory changes and law enforcement initiatives related to illicit drugs in Australian states and territories. Contributions to this chapter were provided by each state and territory police service. Information contained in this chapter should be used as a guide only. Please refer to the nominated Act or regulation for further detail.
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LEGISLATIVE & REGULATORY AMENDMENTS
NEW SOUTH WALES (NSW)
________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION Drug Misuse and Trafficking Act (DMTA) 1985 Date assented: 27 September 2013
STATE AND TERRITORY
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PURPOSE To amend the DMTA to have 45 new substances added to Schedule 1. The substances listed in Schedule 9 of the Commonwealth Poisons Standard will be adopted into the Poisons and Therapeutic Goods Act (NSW). When new substances that belong to this class are identified, this will be specified in the DMTA Schedule and it will become a prohibited drug. OBJECTIVES The majority of synthetic cannabinoids, cathinone analogues and the NBOMe compounds will become prohibited substances. The definition of ‘analogue’ will be amended not to include the phrase ‘psychotropic properties.’ This will make it easier to prove a substance is an analogue. ________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION New Psychoactive Substances Act Date assented: 24 September 2013 PURPOSE To introduce a new Act to deal specifically with psychoactive substances. OBJECTIVES Effectively this will make it an offence to sell, manufacture and advertise substances with a psychoactive effect. It will also deal with those substances that are marketed as plant food or bath salts. There will be no possession offence attached to this Act.
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NORTHERN TERRITORY (NT)
________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION Misuse of Drugs Amendment Regulations 2012 Date assented: 3 August 2012 PURPOSE The insertion of the definition ‘Indigenous community’ (regulation 6A) into section 4B(1) of the Misuse of Drugs Act. Consequently, the areas that were defined as prescribed areas under section 4 of the Northern Territory National Emergency Response (NTNER) Act 2007, prior to its repeal, are again prescribed areas under the Misuse of Drugs Act. OBJECTIVES The Regulation provides clarity of definition given the repeal of legislation. Individuals within Indigenous communities who initiate and/or aggravate certain offences may face increased penalties.
QUEENSLAND (Qld)
________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION Drugs Misuse Act (DMA) 1986 Date assented: 29 April 2013 PURPOSE To amend the DMA extended definition of a dangerous drug contained in Section 4 ‘Definitions’ and to create a new offence for trafficking in precursor chemicals used in the production of dangerous drugs. OBJECTIVES Amend the definition of ‘dangerous drug’ to overcome the evidentiary difficulties in proving a substance has a substantially similar chemical structure and a substantially similar pharmacological effect to a scheduled dangerous drug (where the substance is new and has not been subjected to study) to include: (c) a thing that: has a chemical structure that is substantially similar to the chemical structure of a thing referred to in paragraph (a)1 or (b)2 has a pharmacological effect that is substantially similar to the pharmacological effect of a thing referred to in paragraph (a) or (b) is intended to have a pharmacological effect that is substantially similar to the pharmacological effect of a thing referred to in paragraph (a) or (b). Additionally, create a new offence of trafficking in precursors (substances used to manufacture dangerous drugs).
1 2 A thing specified in the Drugs Misuse Regulation 1987, schedule 1 or 2 or, where the thing so specified is a plant, any part of the thing. A thing being a salt, derivative or stereo-isomer of a thing referred to in paragraph (a) or any salt of such a derivative or stereo-isomer.
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QUEENSLAND (Qld) cont.
________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION Drugs Misuse Regulations (DMR) 1987 Date assented: 5 April 2013 PURPOSE Addition of 33 substances as dangerous drugs. OBJECTIVES Addition of one compound into Schedule 1 of the DMR: paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA). Addition of 33 compounds into Schedule 2 of the DMR: n-(1-adamantyl)-1-pentyl-indazole-3-carboxamide (APINACA or AKB48) alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (alpha-PVP) 2-aminoindane 6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB)
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butyl-3-(2-methoxybenzoyl)indole (RCS-4(C4) 2-methoxy isomer) [3-(3-carbamoylphenyl)phenyl] n-cyclohexylcarbamate (URB-597) cyclohexyl [1,1’-biphenyl]-3-ylcarbamate (URB-602) desoxypipradrol (2-DPMP) 1,3-dimethylamylamine (DMAA or methylhexanamine) 1-(5-fluoropentyl)-3-(1-adamantylamido)indole (STS-135) (1-(5-fluoropentyl)-indol-3-yl)-(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl) methanone (XLR-11; 5-fluoro UR-144) 1-(5-fluoropentyl)-3-(4-methyl-1-naphthoyl)indole (5-fluoro JWH-122) 5-hydroxy tryptophan (5-HTP) 4-hydroxy-n-methyl-n-ethyltryptamine (4-HO-MET) methiopropamine methoxetamine n-(2-methoxybenzyl)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine (25B-NBOMe) n-(2-methoxybenzyl)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-chlorophenethylamine (25C-NBOMe) n-(2-methoxybenzyl)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenethylamine (25I-NBOMe) 5-methoxy-n,n-diallyltryptamine (5-MeO-DALT) 5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI)
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3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) 4-methylethylcathinone (4-MEC) 1-[(n-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl]-3-(1-adamantoyl)indole (AM-1248) 1-[(n-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl]-3-(2-iodobenzoyl)indole (AM-2233) 1-[(n-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl]-3-(4-methyl-1-naphthoyl)indole (MAM-1220) 1-[(n-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl]-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (AM-1220) naphthylpyrovalerone (naphyrone) pentyl-3-(1-adamantoyl)indole (AB-001) pentylindol-3-yl)-(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl)methanone (UR-144) pentyl-3-(2-methoxybenzoyl)indole (RCS-4 (2-methoxy isomer)) phenazepam.
TASMANIA (Tas)
________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION Misuse of Drugs Order 2012 Date assented: 1 October 2012 PURPOSE The Order enabled the addition of synthetic cannabinoid drug classes and other new substances to the Controlled Drug list of the Misuse of Drugs Act 2001. OBJECTIVES To increase the utility of the Act to deal with new psychoactive substances.
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WESTERN AUSTRALIA (WA)
________________________________________________________________________ TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION Misuse of Drugs Amendment Act 2011 Date assented: 30 January 2013 PURPOSE To amend the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 to change the definition of drug paraphernalia and to create a number of new offences concerning the sale and display for sale of drug paraphernalia. OBJECTIVES Drug paraphernalia is now defined as: a) anything made or modified to be used in connection with manufacturing or preparing a prohibited drug or a prohibited plant: for administration to a person for smoking, inhaling or ingesting by a person to be burned or heated so its smoke or fumes can be smoked or inhaled by a person.
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b) anything made or modified to be used by a person: to administer a prohibited drug or a prohibited plant to a person to smoke, inhale or ingest a prohibited drug or prohibited plant to smoke or inhale the smoke or fumes resulting from burning or heating a prohibited drug or prohibited plant.
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AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY (ACT)
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Early Intervention and Diversion Program (Alcohol Diversion for Young People) and the Illicit Drug Diversion Program DURATION 2010–2012 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The Australian Capital Territory Policing Early Intervention and Diversion program is designed to provide early incentives for drug offenders to deal with their drug problems. The main people who can benefit from this program are young offenders who have no prior involvement with the courts. Young drug offenders who qualify for the program have the opportunity of being referred to a variety of education and treatment options. It is a partnership approach between health, police and non-government agencies adhering to the principles of the National Drug Strategy 2010–2015.
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NEW SOUTH WALES (NSW)
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE End User Declarations (EUD) DURATION 2010–2013 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES An electronic system should be developed in order to facilitate the input and retrieval of this data. The New South Wales Police Drug Squad has made a submission to create such a system and there is currently a study funded by the National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund (NDLERF) looking at the feasibility of such a system. Price Waterhouse Coopers has finished their scoping study and presented their results.
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NEW SOUTH WALES (NSW) cont.
NDLERF has accepted and endorsed the scoping study. The study has been adopted by the Australia New Zealand Policing Advisory Agency Crime Forum and has now been endorsed by the Strategic Issues Group (CrimTrac) and Senior Officers Group on Organised Crime. The Investigations Coordinator Chemical Operations (New South Wales Police Force) will chair the EUD Working Group and with the Attorney General’s Department will identify and formalise other jurisdictional members of the working group. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Pharmaceutical misuse DURATION 2010–2013 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The New South Wales Police Force (NSWPF) are currently involved in a range of external committees that are looking at pharmaceutical misuse including the Intergovernmental Committee on Drugs (IGCD), New South Wales Expert Advisory Group on Drugs and the New South Wales Illicit Drug and Alcohol Monitoring Group. The IGCD commenced the National Pharmaceutical Drugs Misuse Strategy in 2010. The aim of the strategy is to reduce the diversion and misuse of pharmaceuticals and associated harms. The NSWPF have contributed to the consultation process for the Strategy through participation in the New South Wales consultation forum and through the provision of research into the illicit pharmaceuticals market conducted by the Drug and Alcohol Coordination (DAC). Some of the key issues for law enforcement agencies include accurate police data collection, information sharing between state and federal police and health bodies, sharing and development of best practice strategies in relation to prosecutions and health initiatives, a review of relevant jurisdictional laws and regulations, clear delineation of regulator roles, responsibility and liaison channels, a real-time national on-line prescription system and education programs and resources for all stakeholders. The NSWPF is committed to pursuing operational and policy responses to these issues through an internal working party consisting of DAC, the Drug Squad and Local Area Command members. This working party will facilitate change within the NSWPF and through membership to external bodies including the IGCD.
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NORTHERN TERRITORY (NT)
____________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Northern Territory Early Intervention Pilot Program (NTEIPP) DURATION 2010–2013 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The NTEIPP aims to facilitate partnerships with police, community service organisations and agencies, with a view to better engage with youth. Facilitating an interventionist approach enables youth to engage positively with community based police and other organisations and be provided with opportunity for referral and brief interventions. The improved relationships developed with youths through use of the NTEIPP have fostered a connection to health and other social services. This positive interaction with young people facilitates the intervention and referral process. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Northern Territory Illicit Drug Pre Court Diversion Program (IDPCDP) DURATION Ongoing-current MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The Northern Territory IDPCDP model enables police to divert first time drug offenders (both juvenile and adults) in possession of less than a trafficable quantity of an illicit drug. These offenders may be given the opportunity to participate in assessment, education, counselling and/or treatment to expiate the offence. Non-compliance in assessment or intervention results in the offender being prosecuted through the court system. This program utilises and enhances service provision, provided by both Government and non-government organisations, to maximise the opportunity for users of illicit drugs and licit drugs (used illicitly) to enter assessment, education, counselling and/or treatment. It establishes a framework whereby users may, through the admission of guilt, be diverted by police to assessment, education, counselling and/or treatment as an alternative to receiving a criminal penalty.
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QUEENSLAND (QLD)
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Clandestine Laboratory Awareness Workshops—CLAWS project DURATION 2012–2013 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The aim of this project was to educate real estate professionals state-wide, with a view of increasing awareness to identify the presence of a clandestine laboratory and thereby minimising the risk of harm to the community, whilst ensuring property security and integrity. The project also aimed to educate the Department of Communities in relation to clandestine laboratory investigation. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Operation Greensmoke (synthetic drug awareness) DURATION 2013
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MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The aim of this project was to educate police, industries (such as the mining sector) and the community throughout metropolitan and regional Queensland about the new and emerging drugs such as synthetic cannabis and ‘bath salts’. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE National Drug Commander’s Forum DURATION 2013 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The Queensland State Drug Squad (SDS) hosted the 2013 National Drug Commander’s Forum which was held on 13 November 2013 in Cairns. The theme of the forum was ‘Bridging the Borders’ and focused on developing strategies to enhance crossjurisdictional cooperation in drug related investigations involving police and other law enforcement agencies throughout Australia. Commanders of drug units are required to address a variety of shifting organisational and governmental priorities with a limited amount of resources, whilst remaining cognisant of the need to maintain the guidelines set by national and state drug policies. The National Drug Commander’s Forum provided an opportunity to address the recurring issues of cross-border operations, use of proceeds of crime funds for operations, unexplained wealth and other topics where jurisdictional differences impede the progress of operational outcomes.
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Representatives from a national, state and territory police and other law enforcement and partner agencies attended the forum which included the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation, the United States Drug Enforcement Administration, the New Zealand Police, Netherlands Police, the Australian Crime Commission, the Australian Customs & Border Protection Service, the Crime and Misconduct Commission and the Australian Sport Anti-Doping Agency. The forum and seminar was made possible thanks to the ongoing support of the Queensland Police Service State Crime Command, the Drug and Alcohol Coordination Unit and the Australian Crime Commission.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA (SA)
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE South Australian Alcohol and Other Drug Strategy 2011–2016 – Annual Report on Progress DURATION November 2011–2012 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The first progress report of the 2011–2016 Strategy was prepared by Drug and Alcohol Services South Australia, with input from lead agencies, including South Australia Police, through the South Australian Alcohol and Other Drug Strategy Steering Group. The first year of the strategy delivered significant progress. Of 60 priority actions, 56 are on track or complete, 4 require additional effort and there are none behind schedule or not expected to be met. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Naloxone Distribution Pilot Program DURATION November 2012–May 2014 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES An 18-month Naloxone Distribution Pilot Program implemented by Drug and Alcohol Services South Australia is the first of its kind in South Australia. It is overseen by an advisory group comprised of representatives from police, ambulance, clinical services, SA Voice for Intravenous Education, SA Sex Industry Network and the Expanding Naloxone Availability in ACT committee. The pilot program aims to: increase availability of naloxone to people who inject opioids increase the capacity of people who inject opioids and potential overdose witnesses to effectively respond to an opioid overdose reduce brain injury and fatalities caused by opioid overdoses. By June 2013, overall parameters and methodology were being reassessed due to difficulties achieving recruitment targets despite augmentation strategies.
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SOUTH AUSTRALIA (SA) cont.
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE South Australia Police Illicit Drug Strategy 2012–2016 DURATION 2012–16 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES In September 2012, the South Australia Police Illicit Drug Strategy 2012–2016 was launched as a succinct document that emphasises every action counts when addressing the complexities of illicit drug use and related crime. It is overseen by a management group of senior executives and the managers of relevant specialist units. With emergent technological advances and exponential growth of online purchasing, innovation is required to effectively address internet use for purchasing and distribution of illicit drugs, their clandestine manufacture and the importation of analogue and synthetic drugs. Police officers have a vital role for increasing illicit drug detections and positively influencing community attitudes towards illicit drugs by focusing activities on the four priority areas of the Strategy: enforcement partnerships and community engagement capacity building intelligence analysis and research.
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TASMANIA (Tas)
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Illicit Drug Diversion Initiative (IDDI) DURATION 2000–ongoing In 2011, the IDDI became a program for adults only. MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The IDDI is an early intervention program for minor drug offenders, where cannabis and other illicit drugs are involved, including the illicit use of pharmaceuticals. IDDI operates under an agreement between the Department of Police and Emergency Management and the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS).
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The IDDI seeks to divert minor drug offenders away from the criminal justice system. An offender may be issued with a caution or a diversion notice. A diversion notice requires that the individual make contact with the Alcohol Drug Service (ADS), DHHS. The ADS provides assessment, counselling and treatment to assist minor drug offenders to address their drug use issues. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Tasmanian Psychostimulants Action Plan 2007–2013 DURATION 2007–2013 MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The Tasmanian Psychostimulants Action Plan 2007–2013 was developed by the Inter Agency Working Group on Drugs (IAWGD) and was launched in 2007. The IAWGD is a group that has representation from a range of government departments and non-government organisations. The IAWGD is also responsible for implementation, monitoring and reporting against the Plan. The objectives of the Tasmanian Psychostimulants Action Plan 2007–2013 are to: reduce the supply and availability of illicit drugs and precursors work with the dance party industry to develop guidelines for safer environments build resilience in young people develop information resources for young people, the community, police and health professionals provide timely and appropriate intervention and linking of people to health services. The Plan supports the objectives of the Tasmanian Drug Strategy 2005–2012. ________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Court Mandated Diversion (CMD) DURATION Ongoing-current MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES CMD provides Magistrates with an option to divert eligible offenders into treatment for their drug use through either the bail or sentencing process. CMD is administered by the Department of Justice. The primary goal of the CMD program is to break the drug-crime cycle by involving offenders in treatment and rehabilitation programs. It increases offender access to drug, alcohol, and other welfare services, in order to break their cycle of contact with the criminal justice system.
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TASMANIA (Tas) CONT.
________________________________________________________________________ Other principal goals of the CMD project are to: provide offenders with an opportunity to acknowledge and address offending behaviour caused by drug abuse, thereby improving physical and psychological well being help eligible offenders to reduce and abstain from illicit drug use reduce drug-related offending behaviour improve offenders’ relationships with family and friends improve offenders’ possibility of gaining or retaining employment provide offenders with the tools to recognise and prevent relapse into substance abuse and criminal behaviour develop a shared approach to and a commitment to a ‘joint’ service delivery system between Government and the non-government sector.
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VICTORIA (Vic)
________________________________________________________________________ INITIATIVE Illicit Drug Diversion Initiative DURATION Ongoing-current MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES The Drug Diversion and Cannabis Cautioning programs enable police to refer illicit drug users to timely health interventions. The Cannabis Cautioning program involves providing a cautioning notice for simple use/possess cannabis offences to offenders who meet the police criteria. An optional education session for offenders will be offered in conjunction with the caution. The Drug Diversion program involves offering a diversion to a person detained for use or possession of an illicit drug other than cannabis on the condition that they undertake a clinical drug assessment and enter any prescribed drug treatment. The offender must meet police criteria and agree to the diversion and will be provided with a drug assessment appointment time.
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STATISTICS
INTRODUCTION
The Australian Crime Commission (ACC) uses the National Illicit Drug Reporting Format (NIDRF) system to process seizure, arrest and purity data for the Illicit Drug Data Report (IDDR). This allows for more accurate analysis of law enforcement data and assists in moving towards nationally standardised data holdings. The ACC acknowledges the assistance of police statisticians and information managers in this process.
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CountinG methodoLoGy
The following methodology was used to develop a count of arrests by drug type: where a person has been charged with multiple consumer or provider offences for a particular type of drug, that person is counted once only as a consumer or provider of that drug where consumer and provider charges for a particular drug type have been laid, the provider charge takes precedence and the person is counted only as a provider of that drug a person who has been charged in relation to multiple drug types is counted as a consumer or provider for each drug type a person is counted on each separate occasion that they are charged.
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Data SOURCES
Arrest and seizure data
The following agencies provided arrest and seizure data: Australian Federal Police Australian Federal Police, ACT Policing New South Wales Police Force Northern Territory Police Queensland Police Service South Australia Police Tasmania Police Victoria Police Western Australia Police.
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Drug purity data
The following agencies and organisations provided drug purity data: Australian Federal Police Australian Federal Police, ACT Policing ChemCentre Forensic Science South Australia Forensic Science Service Tasmania New South Wales Health, Mental Health and Drug and Alcohol Office New South Wales Forensic and Analytical Science Service Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services Victoria Police. The purity tables only represent purity figures for seizures of that drug type that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. The number of ‘cases’ in the purity level tables reflects the number of individual samples analysed (items), as distinct from the number of seizures/cases (which may have multiple items).
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Drug purity figures for Victoria, Queensland, and the Australian Capital Territory represent the purity level of drugs seized by police during the relevant quarter. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity level of drugs received at the laboratory during the relevant quarter. Specifically, the ChemCentre in Western Australia and Forensic Science South Australia do not analyse all seizures less than 2 grams. As a result, the purity table will underestimate the number of samples tested. The time between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratories can vary from a few days to several months and, in isolated cases, years. The purity table represents those seizures analysed during the financial year 2012–13, not necessarily all seizures made during that period. The New South Wales Drugs Laboratory tests for purity levels on cases larger than the traffickable level: being 3 grams for amphetamine, methylamphetamine, heroin, cocaine, 0.75 grams for phenethylamines and 15 discrete dosage units (ddu) for lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). For each case, purity testing is carried out on each drug type over the traffickable quantity. Additionally, the laboratory will only test a limited number of samples per case. The laboratory also tests purity levels on controlled operations for the New South Wales Police Force, including undercover units, which are greater than 100 milligrams. In South Australia, very low levels of drugs (less than 0.1%) were excluded from analysis. Tasmania Police do not conduct purity determinations on exhibits unless it is specifically requested by the investigator and he/she has a good reason for doing so. Tasmania Police also do not conduct purity determinations on less than 0.5 grams. Legislation in Tasmania does not take into account the purity of the exhibit, so there are very few instances where purity determinations are of great value and hence not worth the significant effort required to determine the purity. Drug seizures are not routinely tested for purity in the Northern Territory, unless specifically requested. The Misuse of Drugs Act (NT) provides for all of the preparation or mixture to be deemed as if all of the substance (preparation or mixture) is comprised of the dangerous drug found, irrespective of purity. ACT Policing only tests for purity on seizures that are larger than the traffickable amount. All samples lodged by ACT Policing with the ACT Government Analytical Laboratory are tested, but not all are tested for purity.
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Drug price data
Data on prices for illicit drugs were collected from each of the police jurisdictions and are based on information supplied by covert police units and police informants. Unless otherwise stated, police price information has been used.
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Limitations of the data
Overview
Despite limitations in the current data set, the ACC’s IDDR, provides the best collection of arrest and seizure statistics available in Australia. The NIDRF data processing system has enabled the ACC to improve statistical quality and reliability.
STATISTICS
Datasets
Since the development and implementation of the NIDRF processing system, limitations with the administrative datasets used to compile the statistics have decreased. However, the following factors should be considered when using the data to develop assessments or conclusions: a lack of uniformity across all states and territories in the recording and storing of data on illicit drug arrests and seizures ongoing problems with quality control, resulting in the absence of essential information from some records differences in applying a uniform counting and data extraction methodology across all jurisdictions differences in definitions of consumer and provider offences across and within jurisdictions over time differences in the way drugs and offences may be coded insufficient drug identification an inability to identify seizures resulting from joint operations, for example, those involving the AFP and a state or territory agency.
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Drug identification and coding
Not all illicit drugs seized by law enforcement are scientifically analysed to establish the precise nature of the drug. In some cases, only seizures of a predetermined weight or those that are the subject of a ‘not guilty’ plea are analysed. In some instances, an initial field test may be carried out to provide an indication as to the seized drug, but all other seizures are recorded at the discretion of the investigating officer and without further qualification.
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Historically, a number of jurisdictional data systems did not differentiate between amphetamine‑type stimulants (ATS) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). This has restricted the ACC’s ability to monitor and report on national trends in MDMA seizures and arrests. Similar problems continue to exist with a range of other drugs, including ketamine and gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), and in some jurisdictions seizures of these drugs are recorded as ‘other drugs’. Monitoring and reporting on national trends of these drugs is therefore limited.
Recording and storage methods
The lack of consistency between law enforcement agencies in recording illicit drug arrests and seizures presents difficulties when data is aggregated and compared. Disparities exist in the level of detail recorded for each offence, the methods used to quantify the seizures, the way offence and seizure data is extracted, and the way counting rules and extraction programs are applied.
Quality control
Missing, incomplete and non-specific information relating to drug seizures makes it impossible to calculate precisely the total quantity of each drug type seized. As a result it is difficult to analyse trends on a comparative basis across a number of years. This has been a particularly pertinent issue since the 2001–02 report, as the NIDRF system allows for increased scrutiny of large seizures that may not have been queried in the past.
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Consumers and providers
Offenders are classified as consumers or providers in order to differentiate between people who have been apprehended for trading in, as opposed to using, illicit drugs. Those charged with supply-type offences (importation, trafficking, selling, cultivation and manufacture) are classified as providers. Those charged with user-type offences (possessing or administering drugs for their own use) are classified as consumers. In some cases, the jurisdictions allocate consumer and provider codes, and in others, the ACC applies the codes based on the information on the type of offence committed. Further, there are some differences in the methodologies jurisdictions use for applying consumer and provider codes. In some states and territories, the quantity of the drug involved determines whether an offence is regarded as a consumer or a provider offence. Additionally, the threshold quantity that determines whether a person is to be charged as a provider varies over time, both within and between states and territories. Offender data supplied may exclude law enforcement actions that are the subject of ongoing investigations.
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Detection data
Border detection data supplied may exclude detections that are the subject of ongoing investigations.
Seizure data
The seizure data presented in Table 49 includes only those seizures for which a valid drug weight was recorded. Consequently, it undercounts both the number of seizures and the amount of drug seized for all drug types. Seizure data for ATS, cannabis and other drugs are most likely to be affected by the variety of measurement methods and these figures should be treated with caution when making comparisons between jurisdictions or over time. This table includes seizures by the Australian Federal Police and state and territory police jurisdictions. Seizure data supplied may exclude seizures that are the subject of ongoing investigations.
Drug Use Monitoring in Australia (DUMA) program
The DUMA program is an ongoing data collection system capturing information on approximately 4 000 police detainees per year across nine locations throughout Australia. There are two core components: a self-report survey and voluntary urinalysis. The self-report survey details a range of criminal justice, demographic, drug use and drug market participation information, while the voluntary urinalysis serves as an important objective method for corroborating self-reported drug use. Not all detainees who respond to the self-report survey agree to urinalysis testing, although the response rate is high. During 2012–13, data on approximately 2 000 police detainees was collected. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflects data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only, with urine collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012.
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JurisdictionaL Issues
The comparability of law enforcement data across states and territories is problematic. For the information of agencies and individuals wishing to interpret the data, specific issues regarding jurisdictional data have been identified by the ACC and the relevant jurisdiction. These issues have been summarised and are represented below.
STATISTICS
New South Wales
The New South Wales (NSW) Police Force provided the ACC with offender and seizure data. The NSW Health, Mental Health and Drug and Alcohol Office, provided the drug purity data.
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Prior to 2005–06, NSW Police Force data was extracted directly from the mainframe recording system (COPS). Since 2005–06, data has been extracted from COPS using a data warehousing application ‘Enterprise Data Warehouse’. Tests to verify the process of data extraction have been undertaken and the NSW Police Force is confident that the retrieval process is comparable with previous extracts from COPS.
Victoria
Victoria Police provided the ACC with offender, seizure and drug purity data. Drug quantities and weights reported are estimates only and are not validated by forensic analysis. In 2004–05, Victoria Police rewrote its data extraction program and improved the data quality checks. Further data quality processes have been implemented to improve the data. The Victorian clandestine laboratory detections figure was taken from the record of attendances by forensic analysts at suspected laboratories and validated by the Clandestine Laboratory Squad.
Queensland
The Queensland Police Service provided the ACC with offender and seizure data. Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services provided purity data. During the 2006–07 reporting period, the Queensland Police Service changed administrative systems. As a result, caution should be exercised in comparing data.
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South Australia
South Australia Police provided the ACC with offender and seizure data, but did not include this data for offenders participating in its Drug Diversion Program. Forensic Science South Australia provided the purity data.
Western Australia
Western Australia Police provided the ACC with seizure and offender data. ChemCentre provided the purity data. Legislation changes for cannabis offences in Western Australia took effect from 1 August 2011 following amendments to the Misuse of Drugs Act. The Cannabis Infringement Notice (CIN) was replaced by a Cannabis Intervention Requirement (CIR) which changes the way police should respond when dealing with a person in possession of cannabis. From 1 August 2011, any person who does not have a criminal history and is found to have 10 grams or less of cannabis will be offered 28 days to complete a Cannabis Intervention Session after which no charges will follow. People with previous cannabis related convictions are ineligible for this option. Participation in a Cannabis Intervention Session is offered once to adult offenders, but twice to juveniles aged between 14 and 17 years, so that subsequent offending would result in charges being brought directly. Western Australia Police introduced a new incident recording system in 2002–03, which changed the method for recording drug seizures. For this reason, care should be exercised when comparing data across years.
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Tasmania
Tasmania Police provided the ACC with offender and seizure data. Forensic Science Service Tasmania provided the purity data. It is important to note that the reported figures may differ from those reported in the Tasmania Police Annual Report and other publications due to the differing counting rules applied.
Northern Territory
Northern Territory Police provided the ACC with seizure and offender data. Northern Territory Forensic Laboratory was unable to provide purity data for this report. Data collection methods in the Northern Territory have been audited since the 2010–11 report. The change in data collection methodology has resulted in the provision of more detailed and accurate data for 2012–13. Seizure data for the Northern Territory relates to suspected drug type only. The number of Drug Infringement Notices (DINs) may differ to those extracted from the Integrated Justice Information System.
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Kava seizures in the Northern Territory may constitute a significant proportion of the number and weight of other and unknown NEC seizures within a given reporting period. Individual kava coding was not available for processing seizures in the Northern Territory for the majority of the 2012–13 reporting period. As such, care should be taken when interpreting these results. In the Northern Territory, it is often difficult to obtain accurate date of birth and address details from offenders; however, this lack of detail does not invalidate the data.
Australian Capital Territory
ACT Policing provided seizure and offender data. ACT Policing provided the purity data for inclusion in this report from analysis results provided by the ACT Government Analytical Laboratory. Data is comparable with figures in the IDDR from 2002–03 onwards. As reported by ACT Policing, Simple Cannabis Offence Notices (SCONs) data may not be a true representation of the number of SCONs issued for the period as offenders may be subsequently summonsed for non-payment and will therefore be included in consumer and provider arrests data.
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Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (Customs and Border Protection)
Detections of illicit drugs by Customs and Border Protection are handed to the Australian Federal Police (AFP) for investigation purposes, safe storage and destruction. Border detections are recorded on ‘Druglan’, which is updated with confirmed seizure weight data from the AFP. At present, there is no provision for an automatic update of accurate weights to Druglan. Data relating to the same border detections held by the AFP and Druglan will differ slightly. This is because only unconfirmed seizure weights are initially recorded. Customs and Border Protection detection figures are subject to change and reflect available data at time of extraction. As such, figures published in the IDDR may differ from those published in other reports, including Customs and Border Protection Annual Reports. For operational reasons, the format of data presented in the IDDR may vary from year to year. From 2010–11, Customs and Border Protection was unable to provide importation data to populate country of embarkation charts for inclusion in the report. From 2011–12, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and steroid border detection data are reported as a combined figure.
Australian Federal Police (AFP)
The AFP provided national offender, seizure and purity data. This data was compiled in conjunction with the AFP’s Forensic Drug Intelligence team. Seizures resulting from joint operations with Customs and Border Protection are represented within AFP figures in Tables 49. Totals may differ from those published earlier in the AFP Annual Report 2012–13 due to the data extraction being based on more recent data and on the AFP using different drug grouping categories to the ACC.
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EXPLANATORY NOTES
The following explanatory notes relate to terms used in this report.
STATISTICS
Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS)
Unless otherwise specified, ‘amphetamine-type stimulants’ (ATS) include amphetamine, methylamphetamine and phenethylamines.
Arrest
‘Arrest’ incorporates recorded law enforcement action against a person for suspected unlawful involvement in illicit drugs. It incorporates enforcement action by way of arrest, summons, diversion program, cannabis expiation notice (South Australia), simple cannabis offence notice (Australian Capital Territory), drug infringement notice (Northern Territory), and ‘notice to appear’ (Queensland). Some charges may have been subsequently dropped or the defendant may have been found not guilty.
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Cannabis
‘Cannabis’ includes cannabis plant, leaf, resin, oil, seed and all other forms.
Categories for Clandestine laboratories
In 2011–12 and 2012–13, jurisdictions were asked to distinguish detected clandestine laboratories into the following four categories, taken from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Annual Report Questionnaire that is used to inform the World Drug Report. Addict-based labs (kitchen labs). Only basic equipment and simple procedures are used. Typically, those operating in such laboratories have a limited or non-existent knowledge of chemistry and simply follow instructions. Usually, there are no significant stores of precursors and the amount of drugs or other substances manufactured is for personal use. A typical manufacture cycle for amphetamine-type stimulants would yield less than 50 grams of the substance. Other small scale labs. People operating in these laboratories have advanced chemical knowledge; more complex amphetamine-type stimulants may be manufactured. Laboratories may be of similar size to ‘addict-based labs’ but frequently employ nonimprovised equipment. They may also include experimental laboratories. The amount manufactured is typically for personal use or for a limited number of close associates. Typical manufacture cycle for ATS would yield less than 500 grams of the substance.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
STATISTICS
Medium sized labs. Use commercially available standard equipment and glassware (in some cases, custom-made equipment). They are not very mobile, making it possible to recover precursor chemicals and equipment in many cases (production estimates are the most viable and reliable). The amount manufactured at such sites is primarily for illicit economic gain. A typical manufacture cycle for ATS would yield between 0.5 to 50 kilograms. Industrial scale labs. Laboratories use oversized equipment and glassware that is either custom-made or purchased from industrial processing sources. Such industrial operations produce significant amounts of ATS in very short periods of time, only limited by access to precursors, reagents and consumables in adequate quantities and the logistics and manpower to handle large amounts of drugs or chemicals and process them into the next step. A typical manufacture cycle for ATS would yield 50 kilograms or more.
Cocaine
‘Cocaine’ includes cocaine, coca leaf and coca paste.
Detection
228
In the context of the border environment, the term ‘detection’ refers to the identification of illicit drugs by the Customs and Border Protection.
Embarkation point
‘Embarkation point’ describes the origin of the transport stage of importations. Embarkation is affected by air and sea transport connection patterns and the location of transport hubs, and may not necessarily reflect the true origin of drugs. Australia may appear as an embarkation country due to an export detection. In some instances, it may relate to detections on air passengers travelling domestically on an international flight.
Hallucinogens
‘Hallucinogens’ includes tryptamines such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin-containing mushrooms.
Heroin and other opioids
‘Heroin and other opioids’ include opioid analgesics such as heroin, methadone and pethidine and opiate analgesics including codeine, morphine and opium.
Other drugs
‘Other drugs’ include anabolic agents and selected hormones, tryptamines, anaesthetics, pharmaceuticals and drugs not elsewhere classified. Current reporting processes do not enable detailed identification of these drugs.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
STATISTICS
Phenethylamines
Phenethylamines include 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, commonly known as ‘ecstasy’), 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), dimethoxyamphetamine (DMA) and paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA).
Seizure
‘Seizure’ is the confiscation by a law enforcement agency of a quantity of an illicit drug or a regulated drug being used or possessed unlawfully, whether or not an arrest is made in conjunction with that confiscation. The amount of drug seized may be recorded by weight, volume or as a unit count—for example, number of tablets, plants or bags. The method of estimating the amount of drug seized varies between and within jurisdictions. For example, seizures of amphetamine in tablet form may be weighed or counted. Similarly, seizures of cannabis plants may be weighed, counted or measured.
Steroids
‘Steroids’ include anabolic and androgenic steroids such as testosterone, nandrolone and stanazolol.
229
Symbols and abbreviations
The following symbols and abbreviations are used in the tables: na nec no. r % – not available not elsewhere classified number revised figure per cent zero, or rounded to zero.
Figures that have been rounded may not add to totals.
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
STATISTICS
UNDER EMBARGO
230
ARREST TABLES
Consumer Total 3 507 4 353 3 545 2 203 0 2 776 0 336 323 0 77 0 17 120 1 128 1 488 582 387 356 97 82 167 8 454 7 097 3 656 1 000 1 536 2 633 318 356 187 134 70 17 19 431 22 312 6 024 16 516 3 311 20 094 3 845 Male Female Not known 6 32 14 0 44 38 17 0 0 0 0 0 151 0 7 4 0 0 15 0 0 12 0 0 0 38 Provider Totala Total 23 945 19 859 28 350 4 656 8 677 11 125 1 463 1 844 769 521 426 114 101 749 Not known 6 25 10 0 44 23 17 0 20 0 0 0 145 83 062 14 009 3 073 114 0 0 349 67 10 521 0 0 478 232 79 1 508 278 58 1 463 0 0 8 349 2 148 613 8 677 0 0 1 831 1 763 440 24 805 2 903 638 15 501 3 649 697 19 466 2 969 538 Total Male Female Not known
TABLE 39: All drugs: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012 –13
State/territory 3 136 2 611 5 386 406 1 536 2 020 318 298 108 134 60 17 16 030
Male
Female
NSW
16 324
Vic
12 865
Qld
19 409
SA
1 425
SA CENsb
7 097
WA
6 306
WA CIRsc
1 128
Tas
1 210
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
NT
350
NT DINs
d
387
ACT
289
ACT SCONse
97
Total
66 887
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status and gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. b. Cannabis Expiation Notices. c. Cannabis Intervention Requirements. d. Drug Infringement Notices. e. Simple Cannabis Offence Notices. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
UNDER EMBARGO
UNDER EMBARGO
Consumer Male 4 777 5 691 3 849 976 2 173 98 144 95 17 803 27 25 10 4 377 692 336 1 091 1 068 3 1 0 5 0 0 0 9 1 128 0 Female Not known Provider Totala Total 5 905 6 762 4 941 1 312 2 870 125 169 105 22 189 Not known 0 2 1 0 3 0 0 0 6 16 595 4 509 950 3 5 462 81 23 1 0 24 113 49 7 0 56 82 35 8 0 43 2 024 667 177 2 846 610 537 148 0 685 4 281 545 115 0 660 4 993 1 511 257 1 1 769 4 411 1 142 237 0 1 379 Total Male Female Not known Total
TABLE 40: Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS): consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012 –13
State/territory 863 811 976 185 515 19 18 9 3 396
Male
Female
NSW
3 548
Vic
4 180
Qld
3 304
SA
425
WA
1 506
Tas
63
NT
95
ACT
72
Total
13 193
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 41: Cannabis: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012–13
Consumer 0 4 3 0 0 7 0 38 67 0 27 0 6 601 0 3 0 1 398 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 Provider Total 1 420 1 537 2 034 1 329 0 1 193 0 241 229 0 30 0 8 013 Not known 6 19 6 0 44 13 17 0 0 0 0 0 105 53 829 114 247 521 299 162 1 097 203 1 463 0 4 165 923 263 8 677 0 0 1 037 1 092 237 16 331 1 671 360 6 768 1 280 253 13 110 1 243 177 Total Male Female Not known
Totala Male 12 639 6 931 14 560 1 970 7 097 4 119 1 128 1 092 384 387 227 97 50 631 Female 2 151 1 351 3 796 408 1 536 1 219 318 246 144 134 50 17 11 370 Not known 6 23 9 0 44 20 17 0 0 0 0 0 119 Total 14 796 8 305 18 365 2 378 8 677 5 358 1 463 1 338 528 521 277 114 62 120
State/territory 1 933 1 098 3 436 169 1 536 956 318 208 77 134 47 17 9 929
Male
Female
NSW
11 171
Vic
5 651
Qld
12 889
SA
868
SA CENsb
7 097
WA
3 196
WA CIRs
c
1 128
Tas
889
NT
222
NT DINs
d
387
ACT
200
ACT SCONse
97
Total
43 795
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status and gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components.
b. Cannabis Expiation Notices. c. Cannabis Intervention Requirements. d. Drug Infringement Notices. e. Simple Cannabis Offence Notices. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
231
STATISTICS
UNDER EMBARGO
Provider Male 480 982 225 70 95 13 2 14 1 881 5 1 6 580 59 41 66 234 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 168 0 Female Not known Totala Total 648 1 217 291 111 155 18 3 20 2 463 Not known Total 375 902 249 27 94 14 3 14 1 678 572 203 1 776 4 2 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 4 41 19 1 61 52 32 0 84 32 10 0 42 249 66 0 315 192 72 0 264 Male Female Total 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Not known
TABLE 42: Heroin and other opioids: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012 –13
232
Consumer
State/territory 93 56 9 40 3 1 4
Male
Female
NSW
282
Vic
733
168
Qld
193
SA
18
WA
54
Tas
11
NT
2
ACT
10
Total
1 303
374
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
Provider Not known 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 32 0 0 0 0 Totala Total 181 80 36 25 46 1 0 11 380 Male 613 209 189 25 76 1 0 13 1 126 Female 81 26 22 5 15 1 0 4 154 Not known 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 Total 694 235 213 30 91 2 0 17 1 282 Not known Total 510 155 177 5 45 1 0 6 899 348 7 0 1 40 6 22 3 35 1 74 6 169 12 Male Female 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 68 20 21 2 9 1 0 0 121
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 43: Cocaine: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012–13
Consumer
State/territory
Male
Female
NSW
442
Vic
135
Qld
154
SA
3
WA
36
Tas
0
NT
0
ACT
6
Total
776
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
UNDER EMBARGO
UNDER EMBARGO
Provider Not known Total 11 12 76 1 30 7 5 6 148 597 6 12 13 0 2 0 63 85 16 7 1 350 42 85 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 39 0 0 Male Female 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Not known Totala Total 39 88 392 8 101 13 14 6 661 Not known Total 26 76 316 5 71 6 9 0 509 133 15 6 0 5 0 7 0 24 6 1 0 68 8 11 1 11 0 Male Female 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
TABLE 44: Steroids: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012 –13
Consumer
State/territory 0 1 34 1 10 0 2 0 48
Male
Female
NSW
26
Vic
74
Qld
282
SA
4
WA
61
Tas
6
NT
7
ACT
0
Total
460
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 45: Hallucinogens: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012 –13
Provider Not known Total 122 60 171 5 80 0 3 1 442 94 0 1 3 0 0 0 25 23 8 8 3 24 7 8 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 27 5 0 Male Female 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Not known Total 32 10 32 11 31 3 1 0 120 Male 137 55 168 11 90 3 4 1 469
Consumer
Totala Female 20 15 34 5 21 0 0 0 95 Not known 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Total 157 70 203 16 111 3 4 1 565
State/territory 14 13 27 2 13 0 0 0 69
Male
Female
NSW
108
Vic
47
Qld
144
SA
3
WA
67
Tas
0
NT
3
ACT
1
Total
373
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
233
STATISTICS
UNDER EMBARGO
Consumer Not known 0 4 1 0 12 77 15 0 2 792 0 0 0 17 Provider Totala Total 1 706 3 182 3 945 801 2 439 345 51 0 12 469 Not known 0 2 1 0 7 0 0 0 10 9 090 1 752 450 7 2 209 9 660 0 0 0 0 0 0 31 15 5 0 20 36 308 27 10 0 37 268 1 870 430 134 5 569 1 816 611 142 51 17 0 68 597 204 3 280 528 137 0 665 2 971 973 2 547 516 112 2 630 2 563 615 912 185 35 0 220 1 409 297 Total Male Female Not known Total Male Female
TABLE 46: Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified (nec): consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012 –13
234
State/territory 165 500 836 38 477 67 10 0 2 093
Male
Female
NSW
747
Vic
2 045
Qld
2 443
SA
104
WA
1 386
Tas
241
NT
21
ACT
0
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
Consumer 2008–09 11 778 47 804 1 783 553 158 270 5 574 67 920 68 776 69 731 6 588 6 544 7 893 76 165 366 283 366 221 277 389 841 575 714 1 884 1 706 1 800 1 678 899 509 442 9 090 83 042 48 883 50 845 52 413 53 829 2009–10 9 993 2010–11 9 501 2011–12 12 590 2012–13 16 595 2008–09 4 629 7 722 903 289 44 99 1 644 15 330 2009–10 3 921 8 123 860 400 67 144 2 109 15 624 Provider 2010–11 3 334 7 694 838 264 68 89 1 838 14 125 2011–12 4 216 8 548 907 280 118 117 2 153 16 339 2012–13 5 462 8 013 776 380 148 120 2 209 17 108
Total
6 987
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components. Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 47: All arrests: consumer and provider arrests, by drug type, 2008 –09 to 2012–13
Drug type
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Cannabis
Heroin and other opioids
Cocaine
Steroids
Hallucinogens
Other and unknown nec
Total
Note: Excludes arrests where consumer/provider information was not recorded.
UNDER EMBARGO
UNDER EMBARGO
2008–09 % 16.4 67.1 3.2 1.5 0.4 0.6 10.9 100 84 757 100 93 148 8 972 10.6 10 605 11.4 100 373 0.4 484 0.5 365 0.4 511 0.5 839 1.0 995 1.1 2 551 3.0 2 714 2.9 58 760 69.3 61 011 65.5 62 120 2 463 1 282 661 565 12 469 101 749 12 897 15.2 16 828 18.1 22 189 No. % No. % No. 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13 % 21.8 61.1 2.4 1.3 0.6 0.6 12.3 100 No. 16 452 55 638 2 693 848 214 369 7 659 83 873 100 85 252 9.1 9 263 0.4 512 0.3 314 1.0 1 244 3.2 2 767 66.3 57 170 19.6 13 982 % No.
TABLE 48: All arrests: number and proportion, by drug type, 2008 –09 to 2012–13
Drug Type
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Cannabis
Heroin and other opioids
Cocaine
Steroids
Hallucinogens
Other and unknown nec
Total
Note: Includes arrests where consumer/provider information was not recorded.
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
235
STATISTICS
SEIZURE TABLES
NSW Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT Total
UNDER EMBARGO
236
TABLE 49: Seizures: drug type, by state and territory, 2012 –13
Amphetamine-type stimulants State police Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) AFP Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) 1 450 1 032 796 972 818 083 272 23 796 14 31 078 348 65 703 1 2 6 4 082 0 0 3 900 34 257 332 22 281 4 232 8 985 240 5 197 344 2 950 183 738
7 125 1 305 075
17 806 2 412 279 3 250 4 041 457
1 637 3 098 713
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
3 761 5 316 279 295 4 218 268 2 778 6 39 814 7 851 4 19 17 741 810 499 364 733 242 9 480 20 590 2 792 244 683 1 638 177 625 47 895 763 200 371 3 2 52 482 9 299 075 1 699 44 938 262 29 136 721 37 545 58 26 617 9 127 438 1 1 059 9 764 217 2 062 185 1 380 39 798 164 173 0 0 0 0 3 2 5 6 146 46 243 0 0 1 375 42 203 209 502 277
Cannabis State police Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) AFP Seizures (no.) Weight (gms)
15 943 1 795 786
Heroin State police Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) AFP Seizures (no.) Weight (gms)
127 340 253
Other opioids State police Seizures (no.) 23 3 8 0 3 17 0 5 59 Weight (gms) 45 2 339 0 3 244 0 15 648 AFP 0 Seizures (no.) 25 10 8 0 1 0 0 44 0 Weight (gms) 3 778 1 670 46 0 5 0 0 5 499 Note: Includes only those seizures for which a drug weight was recorded. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police. Totals may differ from those reported in jurisdictional annual reports due to the different counting rules applied.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
UNDER EMBARGO
NSW Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT Total
TABLE 49 (continued): Seizures: drug type, by state and territory, 2012 –13
927 49 952
0 0
Cocaine State police Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) AFP Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) 61 1 276 237 10 848 79 3 142 4 1 110 95 2 117 0 0 0 0 174 1 361 17 674 104 104 0 0 1 0 13 982
1 297 54 349 870 1 002 221
455 985 004
140 5 423
0 0
46 4 066
0 0
10 22
0 0
13 812
41 1 280
0 0
Steroids State police Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) AFP Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) 17 597 18 2 677 11 552 31 3 373 3 80 0 0 1 4
250 11 603 81 7 283
145 1 760 54 684 34 227 2 5 0 0 11 338
18 297
18 273
2 32
25 26
2 31 0 0
6 1 1 1
1 0
0 0
Hallucinogens State police Seizures (no.) Weight (gms) AFP Seizures (no.) Weight (gms)
217 2 420 102 1 255
Other and unknown drugs nec State police Seizures (no.) 2 302 305 1 107 25 1 455 157 204 28 5 583 Weight (gms) 260 468 85 719 450 845 11 639 10 070 1 606 519 412 1 444 1 341 203 AFP Seizures (no.) 820 358 151 7 249 1 7 1 1 594 Weight (gms) 394 582 285 959 36 072 2 287 80 453 201 59 303 0 858 857 Note: Includes only those seizures for which a drug weight was recorded. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police. Totals may differ from those reported in jurisdictional annual reports due to the different counting rules applied.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
237
STATISTICS
TABLE 50: Amphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
October–December 2012 Cases (no.) – 2 2 1 1 2 28.3 56.1 42.2 28.3 56.1 28.3 28.3 56.1 56.1 – 1 1 – 15.5 15.5 – 15.5 15.5 – 15.5 15.5 1 15 16 – 6.5 6.5 – 2.5 2.5 – 10.5 10.5 – 1 1 – 9.0 9.0 – 9.0 9.0 – 9.0 9.0 3 17 20 10.5 12.5 11.0 28.3 56.1 55.2 Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Max (%) Cases (no.) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Purity Median Min nnnn (%) (%) 7.0 1.0 1.0 28.3 15.5 15.5 January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Max (%) – 15.5 15.5 – 81.7 81.7 – 1 1 – 70.1 70.1 – 70.1 70.1 – 70.1 70.1 3 11 14 10.5 14.5 12.7 7.0 6.5 6.5 11.5 66.5 66.5 Cases (no.) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%)
PURITY TABLES
Max (%) 11.5 66.5 66.5 28.3 81.7 81.7
UNDER EMBARGO
238
July–September 2012
Cases (no.)
Purity Median Min (%) (%)
– 3 3
– 9.0 9.0
– 1.0 1.0
– 12 12
– 56.8 56.8
– 31.6 31.6
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
10.6 83.2 83.2 21.1 81.5 81.5 – – – – – – – – – – – – 3 4 7 14.5 57.9 57.9 0.7 27.8 0.7 60.6 62.6 62.6 – 2 2 – 39.6 39.6 11 2 13 10.6 9.1 10.6 1.0 5.9 1.0 71.8 12.4 71.8 6 1 7 44.8 79.9 49.6 8.8 79.9 8.8 77.3 79.9 79.9 – – – – – – – – – – 0.2 0.2 – – – – 79.0 79.0 22 4 26 4 8 12 10.6 46.1 11.1 17.8 57.9 42.8 0.6 5.9 0.6 0.7 0.2 0.2 77.3 83.2 83.2 60.6 81.5 81.5 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 – 13.7 13.7 – 13.7 13.7 – 13.7 13.7 4 2 6 14.0 13.9 14.0 0.1 13.9 0.1 36.0 14.0 36.0 15 2 17 2.2 2.8 2.2 0.1 2.1 0.1 55.7 3.6 55.7 12 11 23 – – – 9.0 3.4 4.0 – – – 1.0 0.4 0.4 – – – 13.9 25.5 25.5 – – – 31 15 46 – 1 1 2.5 3.5 3.2 – 13.7 13.7 0.1 0.4 0.1 – 13.7 13.7 55.7 25.5 55.7 – 13.7 13.7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 5 25 30 7.5 6.8 7.0 1.7 0.2 0.2 9.0 73.5 73.5 – 1 1 – 46.9 46.9 – – – – 46.9 46.9 – – – – 46.9 46.9 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 5 26 31 – – – 7.5 6.9 7.0 – – – 1.7 0.2 0.2 – – – 9.0 73.5 73.5 – – –
5 1 6
1.2 83.2 3.8
0.6 83.2 0.6
1 2 3
21.1 41.9 21.1
21.1 2.3 2.3
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
State/territory NSW State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Vic State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Qld State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total SA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all amphetamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of amphetamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of amphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 50 (continued): Amphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Max (%) Cases (no.) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%) January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Max (%) Cases (no.) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%) Cases (no.)
UNDER EMBARGO
July–September 2012
CCases (no.)
Purity Median Min (%) (%)
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– 1 1
– 0.3 0.3
– 0.3 0.3
– 0.3 0.3
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– 1 1
– 9.0 9.0
– 9.0 9.0
– 9.0 9.0
– 2 2
– 4.6 4.6 – – –
– 0.3 0.3 – – –
– 9.0 9.0 – – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – –
– – –
na na na – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
– – –
– – –
State/territory WA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Tas State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total NT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total ACT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total 73.7 79.0 79.0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 2 – 57.4 57.4 – 53.9 53.9 – 60.9 60.9 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 3 3 6 – – – 73.3 60.9 71.2 – – – – – –
3 1 4
73.3 79.0 73.5
69.1 79.0 69.1
69.1 53.9 53.9 – – –
73.7 79.0 79.0 – – –
– – –
– – –
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all amphetamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of amphetamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of amphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
239
STATISTICS
TABLE 51: Methylamphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Purity Purity January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%)
UNDER EMBARGO
240
July–September 2012
Purity
State/territory NSW 83.5 85.5 85.5 79.3 80.1 80.1 29 77.7 31.0 80.0 35 77.3 0.3 80.3 24 78.7 5.0 80.3 1 28 78.3 77.6 78.3 31.0 78.3 80.0 3 32 76.1 77.3 74.7 0.3 79.0 80.3 1 23 75.9 78.7 75.9 5.0 75.9 80.3 10 114 124 98 66.7 1.0 84.0 68 70.2 1.0 82.5 83 72.5 1.0 89.0 403 54 61.2 1.0 83.5 55 72.0 1.0 82.5 48 69.0 4.0 89.0 276 65.2 68.0 77.0 77.6 77.6 44 72.2 2.0 84.0 13 51.0 1.5 81.0 35 73.5 1.0 89.0 127 71.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 69.6 0.3 0.3
Cases (no.)
Median (%)
Min (%)
State police <=2 gms
35
68.5
2.0
89.0 89.0 89.0 79.3 80.3 80.3
>2 gms
119
60.0
1.0
Total AFP
154
61.5
1.0
<=2 gms >2 gms
5 31
77.1 76.6
69.6 0.8
Total Vic 98.2 95.8 98.2 25.3 79.5 79.5 6 7 79.3 79.0 77.4 52.5 80.3 80.3 20 25 78.4 78.4 54.3 38.3 80.3 80.3 17 17 1 52.5 52.5 52.5 5 44.7 38.3 77.2 – – 77.6 77.6 453 75.2 0.3 100.0 176 74.5 0.2 95.9 91 78.8 0.7 – 9.4 9.4 357 96 75.2 75.0 0.8 0.3 98.5 100.0 127 49 69.5 82.2 0.2 0.2 95.9 94.3 55 36 80.8 75.2 0.7 0.8 97.0 93.8 97.0 – 80.3 80.3
36
77.0
0.8
State police 950 324 1274 7 53 60 76.6 75.3 76.1 44.7 78.4 78.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 25.3 3.1 3.1 98.5 100.0 100.0 77.2 80.3 80.3
<=2 gms >2 gms
411 143
79.8 73.8
0.4 0.2
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
79.8 76.5 79.8 66.2 76.0 76.0 4 71.0 33.9 79.3 5 77.0 4 71.0 33.9 79.3 2 79.8 79.7 3.2 – – – – 3 4.1 3.2 77.0 80.0 80.0 122 337 56.7 52.8 0.1 0.1 76.3 77.3 120 406 56.2 54.7 0.4 0.1 76.7 77.6 215 51.6 0.1 77.3 286 54.0 0.1 77.6 275 159 434 – 2 2 44.8 48.6 45.7 – 78.7 78.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 – 77.7 77.7 76.9 75.8 76.9 – 79.8 79.8 1173 590 1763 4 12 16 52.1 53.0 52.6 35.1 76.8 71.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 3.2 33.9 3.2 79.8 76.7 79.8 77.0 80.0 80.0 80.5 79.4 80.5 – 76.8 76.8 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 104 154 50.2 53.1 0.1 0.1 79.6 79.6 80 121 50 60.2 0.1 79.5 41 68.6 54.1 56.8 – 28.7 28.7 0.9 0.1 0.1 – 28.7 28.7 80.2 79.2 80.2 – 28.7 28.7 10 38 48 – 3 3 69.4 52.2 52.9 – 79.1 79.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 – 77.1 77.1 80.0 80.7 80.7 – 79.9 79.9 168 279 447 – 7 7 61.3 51.8 54.6 – 76.8 76.8 0.1 0.1 0.1 – 28.7 28.7 80.5 80.7 80.7 – 79.9 79.9
Total
554
78.0
0.2
AFP <=2 gms
1
25.3
25.3
>2 gms Total Qld
10 11
72.0 71.6
3.1 3.1
State police
<=2 gms
397
61.6
0.1
>2 gms Total
189 586
51.7 57.0
0.2 0.1
AFP <=2 gms
1
66.2
66.2
>2 gms
4
60.0
52.4
Total SA
5
63.9
52.4
State police <=2 gms
67
57.8
0.1
>2 gms Total
57 124
52.0 53.2
0.1 0.1
AFP
<=2 gms >2 gms
– 3
– 52.7
– 51.1
Total
3
52.7
51.1
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all methylamphetamine seizures —only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of methylamphetamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of methylamphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 51 (continued): Methylamphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Cases Median Min Max (no.) (%) (%) (%) Cases (no.) Max (%) January–March 2013 Purity Cases Median Min Max (no.) (%) (%) (%) April–June 2013 Purity Median Min (%) (%) Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Cases Median Min Max (no.) (%) (%) (%)
UNDER EMBARGO
July–September 2012 Purity Cases Median Min Max (no.) (%) (%) (%)
51 139 190 – 80.3 80.3 – 7 7 – 78.0 78.0 – 65.6 65.6 – 80.3 80.3 1 4 5 79.9 69.4 79.0 79.9 1.1 1.1 79.9 79.9 79.9 – 5 5 – 79.0 79.0 – 51.9 51.9 – 79.9 79.9 1 21 22 79.9 79.0 79.0
29.0 54.0 49.0
0.8 – –
76.0 87.0 87.0
121 159 280
53.0 43.0 50.0
– – –
81.0 85.0 85.0
44 175 219
31.0 53.0 50.0
0.1 0.1 0.1
80.0 88.0 88.0
21 125 146
38.0 53.0 51.0
– 0.2 –
80.0 89.0 89.0
237 598 835
48.0 51.0 50.0
– – – 79.9 1.1 1.1
81.0 89.0 89.0 79.9 80.3 80.3
– 5 5
– 80.0 80.0
– 78.8 78.8
– 2 2 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– 6.2 6.2
– 5.7 5.7
– 6.8 6.8
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
1 4 5
64.0 65.1 64.1
64.0 60.3 60.3
64.0 77.6 77.6
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
1 6 7 – – –
64.0 62.2 64.0 – – –
64.0 5.7 5.7 – – –
64.0 77.6 77.6 – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
na na na – – – 1 – 1 54.0 – 54.0 54.0 – 54.0 54.0 – 54.0 – – – – – – – – – – – –
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na – 2 2
na na na – 78.5 78.5
na na na – 76.8 76.8
na na na – 80.3 80.3
na na na 1 2 3
na na na 54.0 78.5 76.8
na na na 54.0 76.8 54.0
na na na 54.0 80.3 80.3
– – –
– – –
– – –
State/territory WA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Tas State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total NT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total ACT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all methylamphetamine seizures —only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of methylamphetamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of methylamphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
241
STATISTICS
TABLE 52: Phenethylamines purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
October–December 2012 Purity Cases Median Min Max Max (%) (no.) (%) (%) (%) (no.) (%) (%) (%) Cases Max (no.) (%) (%) January–March 2013 Purity Cases Median Min April–June 2013 Purity Median Min Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Cases Median Min Max
UNDER EMBARGO
242
July–September 2012 Purity Cases Median Min Max
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
33 70 103 52.5 79.1 79.1 – 5 5 – 28.9 28.9 – 3.8 3.8 – 35.4 35.4 6 15 21 63.6 57.0 57.0 44.4 28.4 28.4 79.1 88.9 88.9 1 – 1 47.4 – 47.4 47.4 – 47.4 47.4 – 47.4 15 24 39 47.4 49.0 48.7
21.5 19.5 19.5
2.5 1.0 1.0
86.5 83.0 86.5
25 56 81
23.0 21.5 21.5
7.0 1.5 1.5
83.0 90.5 90.5
21 36 57
16.5 15.7 16.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
84.5 71.5 84.5
8 8 16
13.0 15.7 14.2
1.0 4.5 1.0
20.0 23.5 23.5
87 170 257
19.5 19.5 19.5
1.0 1.0 1.0 2.2 3.8 2.2
86.5 90.5 90.5 79.1 88.9 88.9
8 4 12
36.9 44.1 40.0
2.2 18.8 2.2
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
87.3 39.2 87.3 15.4 79.4 79.4 – 2 2 – 40.9 40.9 – 40.7 40.7 – 41.1 41.1 17 15 32 41.5 48.1 45.8 0.5 37.4 0.5 85.1 79.6 85.1 – 3 3 – 48.1 48.1 – 36.8 36.8 – 82.0 82.0 127 25 152 20.6 19.5 20.2 1.8 11.6 1.8 90.0 89.9 90.0 62 7 69 22.6 25.0 23.0 8.4 10.9 8.4 82.5 28.0 82.5 5 – 5 18.3 – 18.3 11.6 – 11.6 28.9 – 28.9 275 55 330 18 27 45 19.8 18.7 19.6 41.0 48.1 45.3 1.8 5.5 1.8 0.5 13.8 0.5 90.0 89.9 90.0 85.1 82.0 85.1 72.3 56.1 72.3 – 58.7 58.7 – 1 1 – 79.1 79.1 – 79.1 79.1 – 79.1 79.1 1 – 1 12.0 – 12.0 12.0 – 12.0 12.0 – 12.0 – 1 1 40 48 88 14.6 14.2 14.3 0.5 0.1 0.1 71.2 64.0 71.2 56 56 112 17.9 16.1 16.7 0.1 1.8 0.1 74.1 71.8 74.1 44 21 65 16.6 10.4 15.2 – 79.8 79.8 0.8 0.4 0.4 – 79.8 79.8 72.1 59.9 72.1 – 79.8 79.8 217 218 435 1 3 4 16.3 13.3 15.1 12.0 79.1 68.9 0.1 0.1 0.1 12.0 58.7 12.0 74.1 71.8 74.1 12.0 79.8 79.8 25.4 78.7 78.7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 37 39 51.4 17.3 18.7 23.2 1.0 1.0 79.6 22.9 79.6 5 31 36 15.7 13.6 13.6 0.1 2.4 0.1 – – – 29.4 52.3 52.3 – – – 11 61 72 – – – 11.0 13.5 12.9 – – – 9.3 1.0 1.0 – – – 15.5 59.0 59.0 – – – 24 207 231 – – – 14.2 14.3 14.3 – – – 0.1 1.0 0.1 – – – 79.6 78.7 79.6 – – –
81 23 104
16.5 17.3 16.7
6.3 5.5 5.5
1 7 8
15.4 58.9 50.8
15.4 13.8 13.8
77 93 170
15.7 10.2 13.9
0.4 0.2 0.2
– 1 1
– 58.7 58.7
– 58.7 58.7
State/territory NSW State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Vic State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Qld State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total SA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total
6 78 84
21.0 14.4 14.5
13.0 3.6 3.6
– – –
– – –
– – –
Note: Phenethylamines include MDA, MDEA, MDMA, Mescaline, PMA, DMA and Phenethylamines not elsewhere classified (n.e.c). Figures do not represent the purity levels of all phenethylamines seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of phenethylamines received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of phenethylamines seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 52 (continued): Phenethylamines purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Cases Median Min Max Cases (no.) 5 34 39 – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 2 82.3 47.2 64.7 21.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 10.0 10.0 83.0 88.0 88.0 42 124 166 22.0 21.0 21.0 0.9 0.8 0.8 82.3 47.2 47.2 (%) (%) (%) (no.) (%) (%) (%) 83.0 88.0 88.0 82.3 47.2 82.3 Max (%) 22.0 19.0 21.0 – – – – – – – – – 0.9 0.8 0.8 30.0 32.0 32.0 (%) January–March 2013 Purity Cases Median Min Max April–June 2013 Purity Median Min Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Cases Median Min Max
UNDER EMBARGO
July–September 2012 Purity Cases Median Min Max
(no.) 54.0 36.0 54.0 82.3 – 82.3 – 1 1 – 47.2 47.2 – 47.2 47.2 – 47.2 47.2 – – – 4 20 24 31.5 29.0 29.0 26.0 12.0 12.0 39.0 35.0 39.0 25 51 76
(%)
(%)
(%)
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(no.)
(%)
8 19 27
26.0 22.0 24.0
8.0 14.0 8.0
1 – 1
82.3 – 82.3
82.3 – 82.3
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
na na na – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
State/territory WA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Tas State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total NT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total ACT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 – 82.7 82.7 – 82.7 82.7 – – – – 82.7 82.7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 – – – – 82.7 82.7 – – – – 82.7 82.7 – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– 82.7 82.7 – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
Note: Phenethylamines include MDA, MDEA, MDMA, Mescaline, PMA, DMA and Phenethylamines not elsewhere classified (n.e.c). Figures do not represent the purity levels of all phenethylamines seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of phenethylamines received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of phenethylamines seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
243
STATISTICS
TABLE 53: Heroin purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Purity Purity January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%)
UNDER EMBARGO
244
July–September 2012
Purity
State/territory NSW 65.5 69.5 69.5 79.7 74.2 79.7 9 59.8 39.9 72.3 14 67.7 38.0 72.3 5 60.6 44.8 70.5 – 9 – 59.8 – 39.9 – 72.3 1 13 63.2 68.2 63.2 38.0 63.2 72.3 – 5 – 60.6 – 44.8 – 70.5 3 42 45 37 20.5 8.0 56.5 15 24.5 11.0 69.0 23 26.5 20.5 61.0 134 12 21.5 13.0 56.5 14 24.0 11.0 69.0 6 25.7 21.0 44.5 54 23.2 72.1 67.8 68.2 25 19.0 8.0 39.0 1 55.0 55.5 55.5 17 26.5 20.5 61.0 80 22.0 26.2 8.0 11.0 8.0 63.2 38.0 38.0
Cases (no.)
Median (%)
Min (%)
State police <=2 gms
37
22.0
15.5
65.5 69.5 69.5 79.7 74.2 79.7
>2 gms
22
40.5
12.5
Total AFP
59
22.5
12.5
<=2 gms >2 gms
2 15
75.9 68.9
72.1 58.3
Total Vic 76.5 72.0 76.5 – 74.3 74.3 6 6 56.3 56.3 39.3 39.3 66.2 66.2 12 12 69.3 69.3 13.2 13.2 75.1 75.1 4 4 – – – – – – – – – – 46.8 46.8 97 14.2 0.8 84.1 55 15.0 7.6 77.8 8 13.8 10.2 – 33.1 33.1 82 15 14.1 15.2 0.8 11.2 84.1 82.1 37 18 14.4 15.4 7.6 9.9 77.8 73.4 8 – 13.8 – 10.2 – 18.7 – 18.7 – 60.8 60.8
17
69.1
58.3
State police 258 59 317 – 28 28 14.0 15.2 14.1 – 66.1 66.1 0.8 9.1 0.8 – 13.2 13.2 84.1 82.1 84.1 – 75.1 75.1
<=2 gms >2 gms
131 26
13.6 14.7
3.9 9.1
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
18.5 35.7 35.7 – – – 1 61.9 61.9 61.9 1 53.2 1 61.9 61.9 61.9 1 53.2 53.2 53.2 – – – – – – – – 53.2 53.2 18 51 21.4 20.7 1.9 0.9 69.7 71.2 9 17 19.7 19.7 13.3 0.6 68.3 68.3 33 20.0 0.9 71.2 8 20.5 0.6 65.7 29 8 37 – 2 2 16.4 18.1 16.6 – 48.0 48.0 0.8 9.9 0.8 – 24.6 24.6 62.4 20.9 62.4 – 71.4 71.4 93 46 139 – 4 4 16.8 19.2 17.2 – 57.5 57.5 0.6 1.9 0.6 – 24.6 24.6 71.2 69.7 71.2 – 71.4 71.4 29.2 47.6 47.6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 14 36 23.1 23.3 14.5 7.3 26.4 27.7 7 10 22 24.0 7.3 27.7 3 24.1 17.7 18.0 – 69.2 69.2 7.4 6.3 6.3 – 69.2 69.2 24.4 20.1 24.4 – 69.2 69.2 13 11 24 – – – 19.9 19.2 19.7 – – – 5.3 0.8 0.8 – – – 26.2 29.2 29.2 – – – 53 49 102 – 1 1 21.0 23.2 22.1 – 69.2 69.2 5.3 0.1 0.1 – 69.2 69.2 29.2 47.6 47.6 – 69.2 69.2
Total
157
13.7
3.9
AFP <=2 gms
–
–
–
>2 gms Total Qld
6 6
68.4 68.4
67.7 67.7
State police
<=2 gms
23
13.0
2.2
>2 gms Total
11 34
14.0 13.3
12.2 2.2
AFP <=2 gms
–
–
–
>2 gms
–
–
–
Total SA
–
–
–
State police <=2 gms
15
21.8
14.6
>2 gms Total
17 32
25.7 23.8
0.1 0.1
AFP
<=2 gms >2 gms
– –
– –
– –
Total
–
–
–
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all heroin seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of heroin received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of heroin seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 53 (continued): Heroin purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
October–December 2012 Cases (no.) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Max (%) Cases (no.) Max (%) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Purity Median Min (%) (%) January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Max (%) Cases (no.) Purity Median Min (%) (%) Max (%)
UNDER EMBARGO
July–September 2012
Cases (no.)
Purity Median Min (%) (%)
1 16 17 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 2 – 52.0 52.0 – 41.6 41.6 – 62.4 62.4 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 2 – 52.0 52.0
24.0 29.5 29.0
24.0 25.0 24.0
24.0 53.0 53.0
2 3 5
7.0 38.0 36.0
7.0 36.0 7.0
7.0 54.0 54.0
– 5 5
– 41.0 41.0
– 23.0 23.0
– 76.0 76.0
12 2 14
24.0 56.5 26.0
4.0 49.0 4.0
59.0 64.0 64.0
15 26 41
23.0 38.0 30.0
4.0 23.0 4.0 – 41.6 41.6
59.0 76.0 76.0 – 62.4 62.4
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
na na na – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na – 5 5
na na na – 59.5 59.5
na na na – 55.1 55.1
na na na – 59.9 59.9
na na na – 5 5
na na na – 59.5 59.5
na na na – 55.1 55.1
na na na – 59.9 59.9
– – –
– – –
– – –
State/territory WA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Tas State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total NT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total ACT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all heroin seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of heroin received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of heroin seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police .
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
245
STATISTICS
TABLE 54: Cocaine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%) Min (%) Max (%) Purity Purity January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Max (%) Cases (no.) Median (%)
UNDER EMBARGO
246
July–September 2012
Purity
State/territory NSW 69.5 73.5 73.5 85.1 82.4 85.1 15 61.1 24.0 75.7 13 66.4 51.7 79.0 9 58.4 49.0 78.0 61 1 14 47.5 61.8 47.5 24.0 47.5 75.7 4 9 68.4 62.9 66.4 51.7 76.5 79.0 2 7 77.6 57.5 77.3 49.0 78.0 61.6 14 47 27 54.0 23.5 74.5 18 56.2 5.0 78.5 17 55.5 17.5 72.5 92 53.2 68.4 61.6 65.4 21 57.5 23.5 74.5 17 55.5 5.0 78.5 7 59.5 17.5 70.5 67 57.0 6 51.7 32.5 72.0 1 68.5 68.5 68.5 10 49.5 44.5 72.5 25 49.5 22.0 5.0 5.0 47.5 23.1 23.1
Cases (no.)
Median (%)
Min (%)
State police <=2 gms
8
44.2
22.0
72.5 78.5 78.5 85.1 82.4 85.1
>2 gms
22
55.2
27.5
Total AFP
30
50.0
22.0
<=2 gms >2 gms
7 17
66.3 66.8
49.0 23.1
Total Vic 86.0 73.1 86.0 – 78.8 78.8 6 7 51.3 50.4 41.0 39.8 80.2 80.2 3 4 65.5 65.7 59.3 59.3 67.4 67.4 1 1 45.7 45.7 1 39.8 39.8 39.8 1 66.0 66.0 66.0 – – – 45.7 45.7 43 39.4 7.8 92.2 24 51.9 25.2 74.6 10 48.8 21.5 31 12 34.9 56.4 7.8 32.7 92.2 74.0 17 7 45.2 66.1 25.2 31.6 74.6 73.8 5 5 48.6 48.9 28.4 21.5 67.0 69.8 69.8 – 45.7 45.7
24
66.6
23.1
State police 70 43 113 2 13 15 40.5 52.0 46.4 52.9 59.3 59.3 7.8 4.5 4.5 39.8 41.0 39.8 92.2 74.0 92.2 66.0 80.2 80.2
<=2 gms >2 gms
17 19
46.4 51.7
8.0 4.5
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
72.2 72.1 72.2 – 80.2 80.2 1 30.4 30.4 30.4 3 61.1 46.4 1 30.4 30.4 30.4 1 66.0 66.0 – – – – 2 53.7 46.4 61.1 66.0 66.0 24 47 59.8 55.3 0.1 0.1 79.6 84.5 26 55 35.1 25.1 13.2 7.1 63.2 63.2 23 49.7 1.9 84.5 29 21.1 7.1 61.8 21 13 34 – 5 5 46.0 27.2 36.5 – 81.6 81.6 1.5 13.3 1.5 – 10.1 10.1 65.5 71.8 71.8 – 82.3 82.3 102 76 178 2 9 11 24.2 36.2 27.8 53.7 66.0 65.5 1.5 0.1 0.1 46.4 10.1 10.1 84.5 79.6 84.5 61.1 82.3 82.3 53.9 65.6 65.6 – 60.8 60.8 1 65.0 65.0 65.0 – 1 – 65.0 – 65.0 – 65.0 – – – 30 36 51.3 39.5 15.3 13.5 81.8 81.8 6 6 6 33.6 13.5 71.5 – – 42.3 42.3 – – – – 0.1 0.1 – – – – 55.1 55.1 – – – 2 26 28 – – – 51.7 57.6 57.5 – – – 47.2 25.6 25.6 – – – 56.1 79.0 79.0 – – – 11 67 78 – 4 4 34.5 57.3 56.6 – 56.6 56.6 9.9 0.1 0.1 – 50.0 50.0 71.5 81.8 81.8 – 65.0 65.0
Total
36
49.9
4.5
AFP <=2 gms
–
–
–
>2 gms Total Qld
3 3
69.8 69.8
60.3 60.3
State police
<=2 gms
29
15.9
7.1
>2 gms Total
13 42
24.8 20.0
13.8 7.1
AFP <=2 gms
–
–
–
>2 gms
2
72.8
65.5
Total SA
2
72.8
65.5
State police <=2 gms
3
30.0
9.9
>2 gms Total
5 8
44.2 42.3
13.8 9.9
AFP
<=2 gms >2 gms
– 3
– 52.5
– 50.0
Total
3
52.5
50.0
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all cocaine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of cocaine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of cocaine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 54 (continued): Cocaine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012 –13
October–December 2012 Purity Min (%) (%) (no.) (%) (%) (%) (no.) (%) (%) (%) (no.) (%) (%) Max Cases Median Min Max Cases Median Min Max Cases Median Min Max (%) Purity Purity January–March 2013 April–June 2013 Total July 2012–June 2013 Purity Max (%) (no.) Cases Media n (%)
UNDER EMBARGO
July–September 2012
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
(no.)
(%)
(%)
7 11 18 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 – 39.5 39.5 – 39.5 39.5 – 39.5 39.5 – 2 2 – 40.6 40.6 – 10.7 10.7 – 70.6 70.6 – 3 3 – 39.5 39.5
35.0 32.0 32.5
9.0 10.0 9.0
68.0 47.0 68.0
– 6 6
– 24.0 24.0
– 21.0 21.0
– 70.0 70.0
2 5 7
59.0 52.0 56.0
56.0 35.0 35.0
62.0 80.0 80.0
– 4 4
– 47.5 47.5
– 6.0 6.0
– 59.0 59.0
9 26 35
36.0 35.5 36.0
9.0 6.0 6.0 – 10.7 10.7
68.0 80.0 80.0 – 70.6 70.6
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – – – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
na na na – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
na na na – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
State/territory WA State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total Tas State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total NT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total ACT State police <=2 gms >2 gms Total AFP <=2 gms >2 gms Total – 55.7 55.7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 4 4 – – – – 39.6 39.6 – – – – 31.8 31.8 – – –
– 4 4
– 39.6 39.6
– 31.8 31.8
– 55.7 55.7 – – –
– – –
– – –
– – –
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all cocaine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of cocaine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of cocaine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police .
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
247
STATISTICS
UNDER EMBARGO
248
PRICE TABLES
NSW na na na na na na na na na na 3 500–5 000 na na na 40 000 80 000–120 000 na na na na na na na na 3 000–4 000 na na 12 500 na na na 8 000 na na 4 000–5 000 na na 1 000 na na na na 500 600–1 100 na 2 200–3 000 800–900 na na na na na na na na na na 150–400 180–500 na 600 300 600–800 na na 1 500 na na na na na na na na na na na na 30–40 50–150 na 100 50 100 Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT na na na na na na na na na na na na
TABLE 55: Amphetamine prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
Weight
1 street deal (0.1 gram)
0.7 gram
1 weight gram
2 grams 3 grams
8 ball (3.5 grams; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
1/4 ounce
1 vial (1/2 ounce)
1 ounce (street deal)
1 ounce
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
NSW Vic 30 25–35 20–25 15–20 10–20 7–18 8–20 15–25 10–15 10–13 na 20–35 na 20–50 15–25 Qld SA 20–50 15–25 10–20 9–15 8–13 WA 15 na na na na Tas 35 30 25–28 na na NT 30–50 35 30 20 20 ACT 30–35 20a na 7–10b na
1 pound
1 kilogram
TABLE 56: MDMA prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
Weight
1 tablet/capsule
2–24 tablets/capsules (per tab)
25–99 tablets/capsules (per tab)
100–999 tablets/capsules (per tab)
1000+ tablets/capsules (per tab)
a. 10+ (tablet/capsule). b. 100 + (bulk tablets).
UNDER EMBARGO
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 57: Methylamphetamine prices by state and territory, 2012 –13 ($)
NSW 50–150 na 500–1 000 na na 750–1 700 5 800–8 000 na na 10 000–15 000 70 000–120 000 na na na na na na na na na na
10 000–12 000
Weight 50–150 250–500 400–900 na na 2 000 2 800 na na 11 500–13 000 120 000 280 000–320 000 na na na na na na na na 3 000 2 000 na na na 1 700 na na na na na 5 000 na na na 16 000–19 000 na na na na 750–1 000 na na na 1 200–1 600 80 na na na na 100 na na 80–100 200
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT 50–100 na 400–700 na na 1 700–1 800 na na na 8 000–10 000 na na
Crystal form (‘ice’)
1 street deal (0.1 gram)
0.7 gram
1 weight gram
2 grams
3 grams
8 ball (3.5 gram; i.e. 1/8 ounce) na na
1 000–2 000
1/4 ounce
1 150–2 800
1 vial (1/2 ounce)
1 ounce (street deal)
1 ounce
7 000–13 500
1 pound
95 000–120 000
1 kilogram
200 000–260 000
Non-crystal form 50–100 120–150 70–250 200–350 na 250–500 na na na 3 500–5 000 40 000–60 000 100 000–120 000 na 45 000–90 000 na 3 000–4 000 na 2 000 na 1 000 na 600–800 600–1 100 na na na 1 200–3 200 6 000–8 000 5 500–14 000 na na na na na na na 150–400 180–500 600–900 na na na 30–40 50–150 100 na na na na na na na na na na na na 50–80 na 300 na na 800–900 na na na 4 000–5 000 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 50 na na na na 1 200 na na na na na na
Powder/paste/base
1 street deal (0.1 gram)
0.7 gram
1 weight gram
2 grams
3 grams
8 ball (3.5 gram; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
1/4 ounce
1 vial (1/2 ounce)
1 ounce (street deal)
1 ounce
1 500–4 000
1 pound
23 000–40 000
1 kilogram
70 000–110 000
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
249
STATISTICS
UNDER EMBARGO
NSW Vic Qld SAa WA Tas NT ACT
250
TABLE 58: Cannabis prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
na na na na na 12–25 na na 250–400 2 500–4 000 na 1 000–2 000 25–30 150 250 450 4 000 8 000 3 000 15–25 50–90 na 130–280 2 200–4 000 na 2 500 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 25 80 150 200–300 3 500 7 000 na na na na na na na na
20–30 200 350–450 2 500–4 000 5 000–8 000
15–25 na 200 na na
na na na na na
25 na 350 4 200 na
na na na na na
na na na na na
na na na na na na na na na na na na
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
na na na na na 12–25 na 300–400 3 500–5 000 na 2 000–5 000 40–50 50 na na 25–50 50 na na 25–30 250 450 4 000 8 000 3 000 25–50 na 300–450 2 800–5 000 6 000 3 200–5 000 25 na 250–300 2 500–3 000 na na na na na na na na na na 20–30 200 350–450 2 500–4 000 5 000–8 000 15–25 na na na na na na na na na na na na 4 200 na na na na na na 25 150 300 4 500 8 500–9 000 na na na na na na na na 30–50 na 400–450 5 000–6 000 na na na na na na na na na 20–25 150 250–300 3 100–3 500 na 4 000–5 000 na na
Weight Bush Leaf Deal (1 gram approx.) 1/2 bag (14 grams) Ounce bag (28 grams) 1 pound 1 kilogram Head Deal (1 gram approx.) 1/4 bag (7 grams) 1/2 bag (14 grams) Ounce bag (28 grams) 1 pound 1 kilogram 1 mature plant Hydroponic Leaf Deal (1 gram approx.) 1/2 bag (14 grams) Ounce bag (28 grams) 1 pound 1 kilogram Head Deal (1 gram approx.) 1/2 bag (14 grams) Ounce bag (28 grams) 1 pound 1 kilogram 1 mature plant Resin Deal (1 gram approx.) Oil Cap/vial
a. South Australia Police has not provided prices for cannabis ‘leaf’ as this is believed to no longer have a market in South Australia—only ‘head’ is sold.
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 59: Heroin prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
NSW 35–70 50–150 na 140–300 200–300 220–600 1 000–2 000 na na 6 400–8 600 na 95 000–180 000 na na na na na na na na na na na na 90 000–120 000 na na 7 000–8 000 na na na na 8 500–16 000 na 7 000–9 000 12 500 na na na na na na 3 500 na 3 500–4 000 na na 5 000 na na na na 1 700b 800–1 200 900–1 200 1 900–2 000 na 300a na 400–600 800–1 000 na na 500 400 na na na na na na na na na na na na na 200 250 na 400–500 na na na 100 200 na na na 50 50 100 50–100 na na na na na na na 50 Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT na na 60–100 150 na 300–380 550–1 050 na na 6 500–7 500 na na na na na
UNDER EMBARGO
Weight
Half point (0.05 gram)
1 taste/cap (0.1–0.3 gram)
1/4 gram
1/2 weight (0.4–0.6 gram)
1 street weight (0.6–0.8 gram)
1 gram
8 ball (3.5 grams; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
10 gram bag
1/2 ounce
1 ounce
1/2 Asian catti (350 grams)
90 000–120 000
12.5 ounce block
1 pound
Asian catti (700 grams)
160 000–210 000
1 kilogram
280 000–295 000
TABLE 60: Cocaine prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
NSW na 300–400 3 000–4 000 9 200–12 000 na 180 000–220 000 200 000–240 000 na 6 000–7 000 na 300–400 700–800 na na na 50 na Vic Qld SA 50–80 250–400 na 5 500–9 500 na
Weight
WA na 750 5 000 10 000 na
Tas na 350 na 7 000–9 500 na
NT 100 1 000 na na na
ACT na 250–350 na na na
1 cap
1 gram
1/4 ounce (7 grams)
1 ounce (28 grams)
1 pound (0.45 kilograms)
1 kilogram
220 000–250 000
na 320 000–360 000
na
na
na
a. Street purity. b. Higher purity.
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
251
STATISTICS
TABLE 61: Other drugs prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
NSW na na na na na na na na 5 na na na 100–200 na na na na na na 1 na na 60 100 2 000 1 na na na 65 na na na na na na na 30–45 60–100 15–50 10–20 20–50 na 400 na na 40 na na na na na na na na 1 na na 60 100 2 800 na na 25 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 60 100 na na na 60 100 na na na na na 5–10 4–8 10–20 na na 100–200 na 2 000–3 000 na 4–5 na na na na na 5 000 na 5–10 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 25–50 150–200 na na na na na na na na na na 50 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 80–100 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 10–25 na na na 800 na na na na na 30–50 25 na na na 10–20 na na na na 25 na na na na Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT na na na na na na na na 20–25 na na na na na na na na na na na na 20b na na na na na na na na na na na na na 10–25 2–5 na na na na 50–180 100–200 3–8 15–25 50–80 na na na 2 200–4 000 15 000–17 000 na na na 1 na 10–100 na na na na 20–100 na na na na na na na na
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
252
Other drugs LSD 1–9 tabs (ddua) 10–100 tabs (ddu) 101–999 tabs (ddu) 1000+ tabs (ddu) 1 x 20 millilitre vial Ketamine Tablet Powder (1 gram) Vial (5–10 millilitres) GHB/GBL 1–1.5 millilitres 4–5 millilitres (fish) 10–15 millilitres 50 millilitres 100 millilitres Bulk 1 litre 25 litres GHB Serve/4 milligrams Vial 8 serves/32 milligrams Opioid pharmaceuticals Per milligram Per tablet Oxycontin (per tablet) Oxycontin (60 milligram tablet) Oxycontin (100 milligram tablet) Oxycontin (1 box) MS Contin 1 milligram Per tablet 60 milligram tablet 100 milligram tablet Kapanol (per tablet) Buprenorphine (2 milligram tablet)) Buprenorphine (8 milligram tablet)) Fentanyl (1 microgram tablet) Fentanyl (1 x 100 microgram patch) Morphine (per tablet)
a. Discrete dosage units (ddu). b. Weight equals 20 milligrams.
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 61 (continued): Other drugs prices by state and territory, 2012 –13 ($)
NSW na 15–25 na na na na na na na na na 5–10 na na na na na na na 150 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 350 na na na na na na na na na na Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT na 5 na na na na na na na na na 4–200 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 20a
UNDER EMBARGO
na 100 na na na na na 1 500–2 000 na na 400 na na na na na na na na na na na na 20–50 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 20–50 na na na na na na na na 20–50 na na na na na na 0.50–1 40–100 400 na na na na 1 000 na 1 200–3 000 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 25 000 50–250 na na na na 80 na na 4 000–5 000 na na na na na na
25 000
na
na
na
na 50 na na na na na na na na na 30 na 30 na na na na na na na na
na 100 na na na na na na na na na na na 30–50 na na na na na na na na
na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na
Other drugs Benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals Per milligram Per tablet Bromazepam (per tablet) Clonazepam (per tablet) Flunitrazepam (per tablet) Nitrazepan (per tablet) Diazepam (per tablet) Oxazepam (per tablet) Temazepam (per tablet) Xanax (bottle 50 tablets) Precursors Ephedrine 1 kilogram Pseudoephedrine Box Per milligram 100 x boxes Ounce 1 kilogram (pure) Hypophosphorous Acid 50 millilitres 1 litre Iodine 1 gram 100 grams 1 kilogram Analogues 4MMC per tablet/capsule 4MMC (1 milligram) MDPV 1 tablet/capsule 2–24 tablets/capsules (per tablet) 25–99 tablets/capsules (per tablet) 100–999 tablets/capsules (per tablet) 1000+ tablets/capsules (per tablet) Point Milligram Ounce N-Benzylpiperazine (BZP) 1 tablet
a. Per tablet.
UNDER EMBARGO
STATISTICS
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
253
STATISTICS
TABLE 61 (continued): Other drugs prices by state and territory, 2012 –13 ($)
NSW na na na na na na na na na na na na 15 na na na na na na na na 25 175a na na na na na na na na 20–35 50–95 100–140 150–240 400 na na na na na na 60 na na na na 60 na na na 25 na na na na Vic Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT na 50–70 140 na na na na na
UNDER EMBARGO
254
Other drugs
Synthetic cannabinoids 1.5 grams 3 grams 7 grams 14 grams Ounce Other Methadone 30 millilitres Sildenafil (per tablet) Dimethyltripamine (DMT) per milligram Performance and Image Enhancing Drugs na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 3 160 na na na na 240 1 400 3 600 8 000 na na na na na na na na na na na na na 180 1 400 2 600 5 500 220 na na na na na 200 1 800 220–250 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 180 na na na 230 300 na na na na na 230 1 900 3 600 8 000 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na 120–200 na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na
na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na na
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION—ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 2012–13
Testosterone enanthate 200 milligrams 1 x 10 millilitre vial 10 x 10 millilitre vial 20 x 10 millilitre vial 50 x 10 millilitre vial Deca-durabolin 200 milligrams 1 x 10 millilitre vial Stanozolol 25 milligram/millilitre 40 millilitre vial Sustanon 250 (blend of 4 testosterone compounds) 1 x 10 millilitre vial 10 x 10 millilitre vial Testosterone propionate 100mg 1 x 10 millilitre vial 10 x 10 millilitre vial 20 x 10 millilitre vial 50 x 10 millilitre vial Primoteston 300 milligrams/millilitres 1 x 10 millilitres Trenbolone Acetate 100mg 1 x 10 millilitre vial 10 x 10 millilitre vial 20 x 10 millilitre vial 50 x 10 millilitre vial Clenbuterol 0.04 milligram tablet 30 millilitres
a. Per gram.
UNDER EMBARGO
Introduction
NOTES
255
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
Introduction
256
Australian Crime Commission—Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
© COMMONWEaLtH Of auStRaLIa 2014
