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Introduction

Urban areas, roads, pathways, houses and buildings, are made to be hard impervious surfaces. Man-made materials that keep us dry (and therefore healthy), help us to get around and make a living. Usually there would be no complaints about this understandably we seem to need urban areas, streets, motorways, suburbs, cities etc... we can walk (or drive) to the nearest park, woods or beach for relief from built up areas and relax, safe in knowledge that there will always be a place to go to get out of our seemingly unnatural environment that we have built for ourselves. So why change it? Firstly it can be said that we could improve our mental health or state of mind if our living space was ‘greened up’ also issues surrounding better access to fresh air would do our physical bodies a lot of good. Maybe we could even get something to eat on the way to work if there were more fruit trees in the less polluted areas. But there is another big reason why we should be turning more of our hard landscapes into greener areas and that is rain. The most complained about type of weather. Rain. The most sought after weather in places where people have to wait for a rainy season to be able to eat, is in all seasons year round in Western Europe, especially in the u.k and the republic of Ireland. Many people in the poorer countries survive on less than 10 litres a day whilst in the u.k and Ireland almost that amount is used when we flush the toilet. Heavy rain can cause big problems and has done in the u.k and Ireland. Floods are becoming more and more frequent in these islands and the ever expanding towns and cities are a big factor in this. There are two main reasons for this, one is climate change the other is the loss of natural ecosystems due to agriculture and urbanisation. Climate change in the west is predicted to affect us with more rain. The 2007 report from the intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) suggests that in the future extreme rainfall is likely to increase in winter but even more daunting is the prospect that predictions for summer rainfall are uncertain Urbanisation brought with it the urban drainage system and this was an improvement on having none at all until quite recently with regards to some places in Ireland and the u.k. The subject matter in this project will be storm water runoff in urban areas although it takes place everywhere agriculture plays a big part in the pollution of rivers and the speeding up of storm water run off in

that drains are placed to ‘get rid of’ water straight in to the nearest down hill slope or river. This project will only touch on this a little.

Traditional urban drainage problems
In developed areas such as housing estates and car parks, the surface of the ground is levelled, paved and impervious as was previously said. Traditional drainage systems are designed to take water from the area in which the rain fell and dispose of it into a bigger body of water such as a river, lake or the sea as fast as possible. This approach has a number of harmful and potentially harmful effects; 1. If the final outlet pipe gets covered by the river, sea etc... In heavy rains when the river is high (especially when due to storm water flowing into the river or lake from further up river) the pipe will `back up’ causing a flooded street and lots of tax payers money down the drain to solve the problem. 2. This method causes flooding downstream and sudden rises in flow rates and water levels in water courses. 3. Surface water runoff can contain contaminants such as oil, organic matter, and toxic chemicals. Also farm pollution which can contain high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus which creates algal blooms. It can contain further human waste if the illegal operation of connecting sewerage pipes to drainage pipes. Agricultural run-off is the main reason for increasing B.O.D (biological oxygen demand) in rivers and streams etc… put simply bacteria feed on the nutrients washed into the river such as nitrogen, this is a natural process until there is too much nutrient content in the river or lake. The result is that the bacteria also need oxygen and the more bacteria in the water the less oxygen for other life forms. This creates a deficit of oxygen in the stream and is known as the biological oxygen demand. Cumulatively resulting in poor quality water in rivers streams and lakes affecting biodiversity and amenity value. Farmers are, or should be, encouraged to have a ten metre buffer zone between the farm and the river to let plants such as gorse, willow, and river edge species do the work of slowing down the flow of runoff and taking a lot of nutrients out of the soil/water to prevent this from happening. 4. By diverting rainfall to piped systems water is stopped from soaking into the ground, depleting groundwater and reducing flow in dry weather. 5. Many urban watercourses are lifeless and unattractive, often hidden in culverts under the ground. 6. Groundwater is naturally cooler than surface water especially in cities where it can be an extra degree or two warmer than other places in hot weather as there is a lot of thermal mass. Walls of high rise buildings and

heavily built up areas take in the heat easily and release the heat of the sun which is effectively stored up in concrete (ever put your hand on a wall on a hot day?). Walled gardens for example can have their own unique micro-climate especially when protected from the wind; this is great for gardeners who want to grow more delicate fruit and vegetables. Surface water becomes warmer through this process when it rains at all times of the year, and if it gets into the natural groundwater it can change the temperature quite quickly. Micro organisms and other life forms such as fish found in rivers cannot tolerate these rapid changes in heat as it is not their natural habitat. Warmer water cannot hold as much dissolved oxygen and so effects B.O.D.

Soil moisture deficit or SMD
Soil moisture deficit or SMD can be used to show how much moisture the ground, in any given place, can take before it becomes saturated and subsequently becomes run-off. Extra storm water runoff leads to lowland or flatland areas becoming flooded especially as towns and cities are: A) Normally located in a lowland (compared to the surrounding terrain) or flood plain on a river or by the sea. B) Built up and impermeable spaces that could possibly hold water if they were designed to (which they are not). C) Two systems are connected as was said before. If the river, for example, runs high then it has much less holding capacity and backs up along the pipes into the street but every other place along the water’s route comes into the town or city not just its own. This is a graph of SMD

Flash flooding occurs when rain fall too quickly to be absorbed by the ground or drainage system. The runoff rapidly flows down hill and collects in lowland areas. In a flash flood, drainage, and sewerage systems, at best designed to take a 30year storm, are overwhelmed causing flooding in vulnerable areas.

IN IRELAND
The two sets of facts chosen for this part of the introduction are not meant to be proof of climate change as many scientists, politicians , ecologists and so on… have already proven this to be a real and significant prospect. Instead this section is to show two extremities in weather in two different summers in Ireland. This is also partly to show that rain is an important and free resources that we can use instead of letting it go down the drain. There will more along the same lines later for the main point of the project.

The summer of 2006 Ireland was affected by a heat-wave from the start of June and continued until the end of July. Temperatures were well above average for both months. The highest level in June was 27 degrees centigrade (80.6 degrees F) at Derrylin county Fermanagh (NI) on the 8th June. In Kilkenny, Co Kilkenny, there were 39 consecutive days in July with temperatures over 20 degrees C and 9 of those days had over 25 degrees C.

It was the warmest July on record since records began in Ireland but by the end of July temperatures returned to average. Temperatures of over 30 degrees C are rare in Ireland although a few were recorded in Birr, Co Offaly, Casement Aerodrome (Dublin), Kilkenny castle and Shannon airport. Temperatures over 30 degrees C usually happen every decade (1976, 1983, 1995, 2006) Rainfall levels were quite low with only 14.6 mm of rain in Armagh (NI) in June parts of Munster and Leinster also recorded 21 days with no rainfall between 28 th may and 17th June. Drought was not an issue in Ireland despite this. Overall summer 2006 (June, July, August) was the sunniest and warmest since 1995. Autumn 2006 was also the warmest on record in many places. Sunshine levels were way above normal however rainfall levels were above average too.

The summer of 2008 Rainfall totals were “Above normal everywhere and were more than twice normal in the east and south east of the country” Met Eireann website This saw parts of the Ireland affected by heavy flooding. Severe flooding was reported in west limerick on July 31st and north Kildare and Dublin regions on august 9th. Other areas were affected between august 12th and 16th. There were between 49 and 78 rain-days recorded for the three month period compared with the normal range for summer of 38 and 55 rain-days.

Water, a few facts. Because Ireland and the U.K have so much rain why are some people, such as environmentalists worried about running out of fresh water? The hydrological (water) cycle is closely linked to ecosystems on land. Water in the sea and on land evaporates with the suns help and forms clouds this is supplemented by transpiration which is the process by which plants lose their moisture to the atmosphere and in turn the clouds deposit their water back to the land and sea as rain, snow, and hail. This water then collects in lakes and streams and more water is slowly deposited into the sea. ‘In reality water cycles operate on all scales and each site be it an individual garden, a street, whole city, or an entire country (and) can be characterised by the way that water enters and leaves that area’
Rain gardens Nigel dunnet and Andy clayden.

In natural systems some water soaks into the ground and seeps through soil and rocks this is known as groundwater and it may return to the surface in lakes streams or rivers. Some groundwater is known as fossil water since it has been underground for hundreds of thousands of years and would take the same amount of time to be replenished if it were abstracted. The vast majority of water is in the sea this can be at any one time 97 percent of the total water on earth. Although there are ways of turning this water into ‘fresh water’ it is an energy intensive process. At a time when we should be weaning ourselves off of finite and gradually more expensive fossil fuels this is not really an option (refer to Power down by Richard Heinberg). This table shows how much available water there is to use in a growing population. Table 0.1 distribution of water on the planet.

Public health guidelines U.K recommend drinking 2 – 3 litres of drinking water per day but this can vary with age, food intake, temperature and the amount of exercise undertaken throughout the day. Development agencies regard 5 litres per person per day (PPPD) as the minimum for cooking and drinking, rising to 15 litres if used for bathing and clothes washing. If water borne sanitation is required then the figure reaches to 50 litres PPPD. Here are two tables giving the average measurement of water used in everyday usage for the U.K.

“Many people in the world exist on 10 litres of water per day or less we can use almost that amount in one flush of the toilet” (water-john Clift and Amanda Cuthbert)

Given the limited amount of fresh water for us to use and the amount it costs to purify dirty water. The hypothetical question springs to mind why waste or pollute all that lovely clean, free water that seemingly just falls out of the sky? Furthermore we damage our waterways and use more of it than ever before. Mains tap water. Mains Tap water will have been through a number of processes to make it safe to drink. These will include: filtering, removing colour, and disinfection against pathogens (harmful bacteria). All of these processes have a negative impact on the natural environment and reducing water use will help to minimise the effects. During the summer there is generally less water available, water companies are forced to use much dirtier water that requires more intensive cleaning (U.K) The direct energy cost of purifying water and delivering door to door (after making dirty in the first place) is the equivalent of 80kilos of co2 emissions per house hold per year. A lot of people in more remote areas may have a well, borehole, or even a spring. Another choice would be the direct use of rainwater as a source this would usually only be a supplement. Springs Spring water is an excellent source. It will be cleaner than surface water and there may be no need to pump it. A structure is built around the spring source which is called a spring box this is a cross section of one:

The spring water enters the box by deliberate gaps in the block work, through a gravel base or by a pipe buried in gravel behind the box. The box is for storage and protects the water from contamination. Also a fenced area of around 4 metres is required to prevent access to animals. Alternatively the water can be protected and captured by driving a pipe horizontally into the eye of the spring.

This method is used to convert boggy patches in a field into useful water supplies. Wells and boreholes Wells and boreholes have similar features but dimension a different. A well is dug at least a metre in diameter by hand or by a mechanical digger then lined with concrete. Boreholes are smaller in diameter (6 inches for domestic use) are excavated using a drill then lined with steel or plastic tubes. Boreholes are likely to be more economic and easier to build than a well. Both wells and boreholes can be deep or shallow this does not really refer to how deep they are, it depends on what level of aquifer they abstract from. Both are illustrated in the diagram. Shallow wells and boreholes are more likely to dry up from changes in the water level than deep ones. Features of wells and boreholes diagram.

Rain water harvesting and use It is possible to meet all your demands for water use with rainwater harvesting if your system is up to it and you’re aware of how much water you use. The simplest and cheapest method of harvesting is to install a water butt at the bottom of each downpipe. This water would really only be suitable for the garden and could be fed into drip lines to irrigate the garden this is about as far as people usually go, as most people are supplied by mains water. Using rainwater in the garden when there hasn’t been rain for a while doesn’t stress water supplies so can be used when there is a hosepipe ban. Also rainwater doesn’t usually contain any chemicals and so is far healthier for plants. (Chlorine destroys ‘good’ and ‘bad’ bacteria that may affect soil nutrients) If a surplus amount of water is gained by harvesting you may want to use this inside the house for flushing the toilet or washing clothes (especially if your mains supply is hard water). You may be able to meet you demand for all of this (i.e. gardening, flushing the toilet, and washing your clothes) in the winter but

this is unlikely in the summer (although you never know). A couple of important things to note are; when planning to drink rainwater from your roof check that there is no lead flashing as lead is poisonous. If you do have lead flashing however you can paint over it with thick oil based paint. Lead levels in water will also poison plants so be careful. The slope and condition of the roof also effect how much water can be harvested and the quality is affected by things that can be picked up on its way down such as moss (which provides certain micro organisms with food), turf and other debris. Avoid asbestos, felt or wood which will contaminate the water. The amount of water you can harvest is calculated using the area of the base of the building (not the roof area). The calculation may look something like this: Yield (m3) =annual rainfall (m) X collection area (m2) X runoff coefficient X filter efficiency The runoff coefficient is determined by the roof pitch here is a table to explain: Filter efficiency depends on the type of filter you use and how often it’s cleaned; you can expect this to be over 80% and is written in the equation as 0.8. Then it’s up to the occupants to figure out how much water is used in a typical day. Computer programs are available to help people calculate the supply and demand aspect of rainwater harvesting. Here is a basic gravity fed system.

Reducing water use

If you intend on using a mains supply, rainwater, well, or borehole it’s always a good idea to watch how much water being used. 7 tips 1. 20 litres of water can come out of a tap in a minute (depending on water pressure) try not leaving the tap on when brushing teeth or washing hands (turn it off when using the soap etc…) you could easily be wasting 15,000 litres a year Think before using the hot water tap. Waiting for water to run warm can waste 10 litres of water. This cool water could be used for something else like watering houseplants, filling the kettle, giving to the dog, washing the floor etc… Use a washing up bowl instead of using the sink it only need half as much water to fill Wait for a full load before using the dishwasher or washing machine. The half load or economy settings use at least 75% of the energy compared with a full load. So it’s not half a load at all! Don’t cool foods under kitchen tap they can use up to 30 litres of water a minute. Not flushing the toilet after urinating may be acceptable in some circles, but even better is using the good source of nitrogen on the garden. There are many new and old appliances and gadgets on the market to help reduce water use.

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Objective
The objective of this project is to demonstrate and talk about the use of sustainable urban drainage systems known as S.U.D.S and to create designs for elements of rain gardens which will be based in a few locations in Kinsale, county cork. Identifying the right plants for the job is also part of this and research done into native and non native plants for the right situations. Plants that can tolerate periods of dry weather and flood will be of particular use.

S.U.D.S Sustainable urban drainage systems are designed to mimic natural drainage systems within the built up environment although the urban part of it is dropped to make a wider spanning term that would include farmland. It provides alternatives to storm water drains and the destruction of natural ecosystems that involve water. For this project, as was said before, the concentration is on urban sustainable drainage systems although touching on useful ways to implement using water in a sustainable way in gardens and farmland. The aim with S.U.D.S is to slow storm water down using a number of techniques such as source control, permeable paving, detention of storm water (rain butts or balancing ponds), infiltration (soil based constructed wetlands, bio-retention) and evaporation/transpiration (green roofs etc...), and much more. S.U.D.S is also called BMP (best management practices) in other countries and Low Impact Development in the United States. Rain gardens The name of rain garden can strictly be given to a particular type of technique used in S.U.D.S. A rain garden is a planted depression in the landscape by which water is channelled into. Rainwater can then filtrate down into the ground naturally by mimicking natural processes. The term is often used to describe, in general, many of the processes used in S.U.D.S such as planted swales. The line doesn’t seem to be clear unless the term is taken in its literal sense. The name of rain garden seems a lot more user friendly than S.U.D.S and in effect the work can be carried out by unskilled home owners, farmers, and lay persons as well as planners, builders, environmental consultants and councils. Native plants are recommended for rain gardens for three main reasons. Native planted rain gardens could be used as an educational site also: 1. They don’t require any special treatment such as fertilisers

2. Native plants have evolved to withstand the weather in the locality such as type of water and temperature. 3. They may encourage more native flora and fauna elsewhere in the landscape Saying that, it can be hard to know what is native and non native especially if the people creating the rain garden are not greatly knowledgeable and can’t do the research involved. There are no strict rules to a rain garden except that it must be able to take the amount of water it is expected to take. In the book ‘rain gardens’ by Nigel dunnet and Andy clayden it is written: ‘(but) so many of the so-called scientific arguments put forward about native plants being better suited to a particular climate and place rather than nonnative plants don’t really stack up.’ They go on to say: ‘Native species are typically seen as being inherently ecological, whereas exotic species are not, unless considered in the context of the country they hail from, in which case they immediately become ecological (hitchmough 2003)!’ And: ‘Invasiveness has little to do with geographical origin, but instead related to whether plants possess certain biological traits such as high seed production, effective dispersal and low palatability to herbivores.’ Some evidence of ecological surveys in the U.K is given as back up for these comments and the book by J. Hitchmough. (Details given in bibliography.) Rain gardens where originally created for residential use in Maryland (Prince George’s county) when dick Brinker a developer, had the idea to replace the traditional BMP (best management practices with a bio retention area. He contacted the programs and planning department (environmental resources division) and told them what he planned to do. The result was the use of raingardens in the housing estate, Somerset, which had a 300-400’ rain garden on each of the houses property. This system saved him nearly $400,000 which would have been the cost of building curbs, walkways, and gutters. The planted drainage swales cost $100,000 to install. Flow monitoring done in later years showed a 75-80% reduction in storm water runoff during a regular rainfall. Bio-retention

Bio-retention another general word used to describe the principle behind rain gardens and other low impact design for storm water. Bio retention basically means to use the properties of plants, soil, and soil ‘make-up’ to produce better water quality in waterways than would otherwise be known if the current infrastructure was to remain.

To calculate how big a rain garden or bio-retention area should be(although it can be as big as is wanted , a calculation similar to calculating rain water harvesting systems is carried out to find out how much area is needed, to hold or flow water away to another area. The calculation is a general one although it can be made more specific using the rain water harvesting sum. Estimate the area which the site will get rain. Multiply the width X length of the building(s) and add the square metres of paved/concreted areas. You want o estimate only the square meters of impermeable landscape that will drain into the rain garden/bio retention area. For sandy soil the rain garden will want to be 20-30% of the area calculated. For clay soil the garden should be 60% of the drain area (soil replacement is usually the best option here). To improve or create a whole new garden the type of soil used on a site is important a mixture of sand (50-60%) topsoil (20-30%) and compost (20-30%) is the best way to do this. In urban areas with little or no soil it is important that many different combinations of systems are used to help manage rainwater and storms but any size raingardens can only be a good thing. It is important to point out that the traditional drains will still be part of the street. Rain gardens and S.U.D.S can be used in conjunction with these as the water will have been cooled, cleaned to a certain extent and slowed down a lot. More components of a rain garden or suds; Swales

Swales are normally used in places where little rain falls and it is a desire to collect, store and use rainwater in the landscape, usually on a farm. Contours are followed thus sometimes swales are known as, on contour ditches. They are used as a means of infiltration of rainwater into the ground. Higher levels such as hillsides or slopes benefit as rainwater is collected up higher on the landscape and spread throughout the hillside on its way down. A swale can be planted with trees on the edges to encourage the water to spread a little and for some to stay in range of the trees for use raising the water table. In urban areas they can also be used to collect water for use in the landscape and for infiltration. They can be

designed to move water around and enable pollutants to settle and filter out. This is another technique for slowing water down. Dams can be installed on larger systems within the swale to encourage rain to build up rather than fast flow for a few hours or a few days. Plants of great diversity can be planted along the edges (shrubs, wildflowers) as in the farmland swale to shade the water to protect it from evaporation and provides irrigation. It was mentioned earlier in the text that warmer water flowing into existing ground water, is bad for the natural state of groundwater for two reasons; one was that the increase and/or rapid change in temperature can kill organisms found in ground or river/lake water the other reason that higher temperatures should be avoided was that warmer water contains less dissolved oxygen and therefore is bad for life in the waterways. Swales planted with trees, shrubs, and other wetland edge plants help to cool the water down via the process of transpiration and allow other plants less tolerant of summer flooding to live. Meanwhile this helps further along the line simply by shading water. This method was used as the conventional one in many parts of the world long before cemented sewers became the normal practice in the U.S. swales used for urban drainage are now promoted as bio-swales. Wide depressions are more useful as ponds therefore swales are kept narrow. For a household this would mean a water storage depth of around 15cm and width of 60cm. And a maximum width of 1.2 metres for public swales alongside motorways. In the u.k swales are sown with grass which is kept short this is not only unattractive, but wastes the opportunity to create more wildlife in the area and takes more maintaining, with the exception of places where vandalism is a problem. In Portland, Oregon (home to a lot rain gardens with official backing and encouragement from the government.) Research has been done to test swales vegetated with meadow like grass and flower schemes, compared with swales planted with short turf like grasses. The latter retained only 27% of the water flow through and the swales planted with more poly-cultural, meadow like schemes retained 41%. A big difference. Pollutant capture has been shown to be bigger also (81%) compared with turf (61%).

Permeable paving Paving construction and the use of hard landscaping is usually the main problem in urban areas where water is concerned but the immediate alternative is to use porous materials that achieve the same effects. A hard pedestrian walkway or a car park can still be used in exactly the same way. Permeable paving reduces the amount of surface water run off for moderate storms and can be effective in reducing pollutants. Permeable paving or even reinforced surface allow a certain

amount of water to pass through into soil and groundwater rather than fast flows of extra dirty water directly into the natural systems. Gravel can be used in a car park rather than concrete but when a structure has to be more load bearing paving blocks and plastic grids are put in place. Gaps are left between paving, filled with sand and soil and sometimes planted to make the structure solid. Plastic grids are used on lawn spaces sometimes around trees to give space to the tree and allow soak away. The grids can be driven onto occasionally and help to protect roots of grasses and soil compaction. Concretes that absorb water are available on the market. More conservative councils may be more likely to use this idea rather than planting schemes that could be vandalised. It is also easier to work with in terms of conventional building plans. From an environmental point of view, permeable paving seems to be a compromise between people who want to see better building practice involving more green space and councils/government thinking about non maintenance and ‘greater’ public need. Permeable paving can be used to channel water when an open swale is thought be unnecessary these can be called rills and consist of modular paving blocks fitted tightly but not using mortar to fix them in. Instead, sand and soil can be used (but is not necessary) and planting of grasses can be used as in plastic grid systems.

Rills and channels

These are another way of taking water to another place in an urban area. They are a part of the idea of permeable paving. A way for people to walk over the channel of water without even noticing that it’s not impermeable. Normally gullies and long concrete drains are used to carry water away fast where water is seen as a pest and not made a feature of. In the rain garden concept, channels are used to direct water into a rain garden or the next part of the chain.

Here are a few pictures

Storm water planters Storm-water planters are really similar to normal garden planter except that they are being directly fed water from a downspout, they are a way of infiltrating water to slow it down and even clean it. Planters were created in Oregon. They can be fitted anywhere are simple to build and are a great way to raise the aesthetics of a street almost instantly. Storm water planters are home to plants tolerant to flooding such as willow it has a longer term for storing water as it is slow to infiltrate. They can be connected together with other features in the landscape and to themselves. Requirements for storm-water planters; • • • Planters must be at least 30cm deep from the bottom of the planter to the growing medium and should not slope in any direction. A minimum of 5cm is needed from the top of the growing medium to the top of the planter. Planters should be made out of stone, concrete, brick or any other durable material

Drawings and pictures insert here. Retention ponds Retention ponds are non infiltration basins that gather water from the surrounding landscape and hold it. Water can overspill and evaporate. The functions of retention ponds are used at the end of the chain.

Retention ponds mimic natural lakes or wetlands, being as the water levels are not always constant. They are a great wildlife habitat and improve amenity value in an area. Pollutants are removed through settlement and filtration of plants. The ‘dry retention pond’ is normally used in large scale or public landscapes these dry out in periods of dry weather and fill during storms or periods of heavy rainfall. The dry retention pond is not really suitable for private gardens or small scale projects. These have to be planted with plants that can cope with extremes of weather. Finding plants that can cope with this is part of this project and brilliant opportunity to find the resilience in natural wetland plants. However run-off is usually contaminated with various pollutants which can cause harm to ponds wildlife, therefore runoff should not flow directly into a retention

pond. Increased nutrient levels in the pond water will cause algal blooms as was discussed in the introduction. At the very least, a buffer zone of shrubs and trees should be used if not using any other elements of rain gardens or S.U.D.S. Slowing the water down prior to releasing storm water to a pond is vital as ponds are not naturally able to cope with surges of water which disturb plants and insects. A very useful precursor to a retention pond would be ‘filter strip’ which is discussed under that heading. Ponds obviously come with serious warning especially where children are concerned but it would not be good for safety reasons or wildlife if there was just a steep sided water filled hole. When designing a pond, a wall or fence may come into the plan but is not necessary. Plastic grids can be used for plants to grow through the top and preventing adults or children from entering the water but this is an added expense and may take professional help to install. The best way to design a pond is to make it the sides sloped. no one can fall in, and to add extra wildlife and aesthetic merit, some plants live on the edge as they like more dry conditions and can tolerate some flooding some plants like to be submerged some of the time and can tolerate dryer conditions (wet to moist). This method creates a number of habitats from the edge of pond and a gradual slope to the middle of the retention pond and a mixture her and there about the pond. At least half of the pond should retain water permanently. Give a cross section of a good pond

Filter strips Filter strips receive run off on its way toward a stream or pond and they must not be steeply sloping. They can be just a lawn but achieve more when mixed planting is used, the wider a strip the better.

Level spreaders can be incorporated into the design to distribute the flow evenly thus preventing concentrated flows of water. Much like swales in design, level spreaders distribute the water slowly into the ground but unlike swales they’re filled with gravel. The big difference between swales and filter strips is that the filter strip is sloping and designed to spread the water whereas swales are designed to move water and store temporarily. Filter strips may be filled with limestone especially level spreaders, this would help to clean and filter polluted water, which has been contaminated with heavy metals that would be present around garages and motorways.

Picture.

Green roofs Green roofs are roofs that are made up of membrane, growing medium and plants. They can be made of just turf but turf is heavy and can put great strain on a structure. Green roofs improve water quality from run off or infiltration of storm water. They are normally used on a small scale as they can be expensive to install. It’s easier to apply the method to your garden shed or lean-to than house, especially if the pitch is greater than the recommended one. Green roofs can soak up as much as 80% of the rain that fall on them in a typical shower. This works on the same principal as a lawn but with mixed plantings with plants such as sedum and any plants that are shallow rooting. Sedum is a very special type of plant that can live on very little soil its natural habitats are bogs and rocky areas. (More about sedum in the plants list). It is the principal plant used and can even be bought in mats that can be applied very easily to the roof. It doesn’t take long to grow and is very beautiful to look at. The turf or grass roofs of Scandinavia have been used for centuries or more. The roof s used local growing mediums and plants and simple materials for the construction. Over a closely sealed wooden plank surface, layers of birch bark were used to give additional water proofing, and layers of birch twigs helped water drain from the base of the roof. These ideas, using light weight materials, are transferred into modern green roofs for out houses or lean-to’s. There are many different thicknesses of modern green roof that have been invented over time but they all consist of a series of layers. Water proof layer The base layer of any green roof is the water proof layer. This also has to be root proof. Green roof companies will give a guaranty of normally 25 years against leakage.

Drainage layer The drainage layer normally sits on top of the water proof layer and removes excess water from the roof. Most green roof plants are tough and drought tolerant (they don’t like water logged soil). Commercially, drainage layers are preformed plastic layers with cells that have drainage outlets. Filter mat Geo textile material sits in between the water proof layer and the drainage layer to prevent the drainage layer becoming too clogged up with solids. Growing medium. The growing medium supports plants and improves the permeability of the roof. This is sometimes artificial composed of recycled crushed bricks or tiles mixed with a small proportion of organic soil/ (10-20%) compost. The vegetation Basically, plants that are tough and drought tolerant that store water, like sedum.

Pictures and diagrams

Case study Areas in Kinsale County cork Ireland References made to the level of water hardiness or drought hardiness are meant thus: • • • • Wet – site constantly waterlogged with long continuous periods of standing surface water. Includes swamp and marsh conditions Moist – soil constantly moist. Plants tolerant of longer periods of flooding Mesic – soil neither excessively wet or dry plants tolerant of brief periods of flooding Dry – plants that tolerate extended dry periods

Goats beard –ranunculus dioicius 2.omX3.0m flowers from July- August Sun and light shade in moist to mesic soil.

Marsh marigold - Caltha palustris 30cmX30cm Irish native Flowers April – May. requires wet – moist soils in sun or dappled shade Ground Cover; Pond; Bog Garden; Marsh marigold’s Natural habitat is alder woods and fenland.

flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees, beetles, flies. It is noted for attracting wildlife. The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in heavy clay soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires wet soil and can grow in water (shallow water up to 15cm deep), though it will tolerate drier conditions if there is shade from the summer sun. The Root is edible when well cooked. The raw root should not be eaten. Flower buds can be eaten cooked or pickled and used as a caper substitute. Eating the raw flower buds can lead to intoxication. Young leaves, cooked, are also edible. The leaves are harvested in the spring as the plant is coming into flower and is used like spinach after cooking in two or more changes of water. Eating the raw leaves can lead to intoxication. Older leaves, before the plant flowers, can be eaten if they are well cooked some caution is advised. A dye can also be made from the flowers as a substitute for saffron.

Cuckoo flower /ladies smock Cardamine pratensis 45cmX30cm Flowers April to May requires moist – mesic or wet soil in sunny area. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees, flies, Moths & Butterflies. The plant is self-fertile and is noted for attracting wildlife. The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires moist or wet soil. Leaves and young shoots are edible, raw or cooked and are Rich in vitamins and minerals, especially vitamin C, but with a bitter and pungent flavour. The leaves and young shoots are harvested in the spring and taste rather like water cress. The leaves can be available early in the year and when used in small quantities make a very acceptable addition to salads. Flowers and flower buds can also be eaten raw which also have a pungent cress-like flavour. The white flowers are very attractive, they make a pleasant nibble. Cuckoo flower Succeeds in most soils so long as they are moist or wet. It prefers a cool damp soil. Cuckoo flower should be positioned in full sun or partial shade. Cuckoo flower was at one time much used as a spring salad plant and was often sold in local markets. A very ornamental plant, non-invasive and well suited to the wild garden though it may require protection from wood pigeons that eat out the young buds in spring. It grows well in the spring meadow. A food plant for the orange tip butterfly. There is at least one named variety, selected for its ornamental value. 'Flore Pleno' is a double flowered form.

Hemp agrimony Eupatorium cannabinium 1.5mX1.0m. Flowers July – august requires moist – mesic soils in a shady edge. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees, flies, beetles, Moths & Butterflies. The plant is self-fertile. It is noted for attracting wildlife. The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. Hemp agrimony’s normal habitat is by streams in lowland areas and avoiding acid soils. It ranges from Britain to North Africa including western and central Asia. Hemp agrimony has been employed chiefly as a detoxifying herb for fevers, colds, flu and other viral conditions. It also stimulates the removal of waste products via the kidneys but it should be used only under professional supervision. A tea made from the dried leaves will give prompt relief if taken at the onset of influenza and recent research has shown that the plant might have anti-tumour activity, though the plant also contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids that can cause damage or cancer to the liver. The leaves have been laid on bread in order to prevent it from becoming mouldy. The leaf juice has been rubbed onto the coats of animals as an insect repellent

Russian Comfrey Symphytum asperum 1.5mX0.6cm flowers May – June Requires moist – mesic in sun or shade very vigorous. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees. It is the cultivated form of symphiticum communis

The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in heavy clay soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. Young leaves cooked or raw can be eaten. The leaf is hairy and the texture is mucilaginous. It may be full of minerals but it is not pleasant to eat for most tastes. It can be chopped up finely and added to salads, in this way the hairiness is not so obvious. Young shoots can be used as an asparagus substitute. The blanched stalks are used. Older leaves can be dried and used as a tea. The peeled roots are cut up and added to soups. The roasted roots are used with dandelion and chicory roots for making coffee. Russian comfrey is tolerant of being cut several times a year and can be used to provide instant compost for crops such as potatoes. Simply layer the wilted leaves at the bottom of the potato trench or apply them as mulch in no-dig gardens. A liquid feed can be obtained by soaking the leaves in a small amount of water for a week, excellent for potassium demanding crops such as tomatoes. The leaves are also a very valuable addition to the compost heap. A gum obtained from the roots was at one time used in the treatment of wool before it was spun. Meadow sweet Filipendula ulmaria 1.0m flowers June – August requires moist – mesic soil

Meadow sweet ranges from Europe including Britain and Ireland (native) to Iceland, Spain and temperate Asia. The flowers are

hermaphrodite and are pollinated by Bees, flies and beetles. The plant is selffertile. It is noted for attracting wildlife. The plant prefers light, medium and heavy soils and can grow in heavy clay soil. The plant prefers neutral and basic soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. The root can be cooked and eaten also Young leaves- cooked are used for the flavouring in soups. Young leaves, flowers and roots are brewed into a tea or used as a sweetener in herb teas. The flowers are used as flavouring in various alcoholic beverages and in stewed fruits. Adding them to wine or beer is said to make a very heady brew. They are also made into syrup which can be used in cooling drinks and fruit salads. Meadowsweet was one of the three most sacred herbs of the Druids. It is used as a substitute for aspirin with the plus point that it does not affect the lining of the stomach. Reports suggest that it can be used for the treatment of diarrhoea and treatment of the blood. Water avens Geum rivale 30cm flowers May – June. Requires moist soil. The flowers are hermaphrodite and are pollinated by Bees. The plant is self-fertile.

The plant prefers light, medium, and heavy, soils. The plant prefers acid, neutral and alkaline soils. It can grow in semi shade (woodland) or no shade. The dried or fresh root can be boiled in water to make a delicious chocolate-like drink, it can also be used as a seasoning and is best harvested in the spring or autumn but can be used all year round. It was once used to flavour ales. The dried root repels moths. Plants are suitable for ground cover when spaced about 30cm apart each way. The cultivar 'Leonard's Variety' is the best for this purpose. It is noted for attracting wildlife.

Spring snowflake - Leucojum vernum.

Flowers from January – April. Spring snowflake is noted for attracting wildlife and is Irish and British native.The plant prefers light ,medium ,and heavy soils. The plant prefers acid, neutral and alkaline soils and can grow in very alkaline soil. It can grow in full shade (deep woodland) or semi-shade (light woodland). The dormant bulbs are fairly hardy and will withstand soil temperatures down to at least -5°c. It is very attractive.

Ragged robin - lychnis – flos – cucili flowers from may to June and prefers moist – Mesic soils. European, (native to Britain and Ireland)to Siberia and the Caucasus. The flowers are hermaphrodite and are pollinated by Bees, Moths & Butterflies.

The plant prefers light , medium and heavy soils. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. The root contains saponins, a soap substitute that can be used for washing clothes, hair etc. It is extracted by boiling the roots in water. Do not overboil the roots because this will break down the saponins.

Creeping jenny - lysimachia nummalaria 0.15cmX60cm flowers June – July prefers moist – mesic soil ranges from Europe, including Britain and Ireland (native), from Sweden south and east to Spain, N. Greece and the Caucasus. Its natural habitat is in damp situations, in pastures and by the sides of streams, avoiding acid soils . it is pollinated by Bees and flies. The plant is self-fertile. The plant prefers light and medium soil but can grow in heavy clay soil. The plant prefers neutral and alkaline soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It can grow in water and is best in pond margins and shallow water positions . Creeping Jenny is a very good woundherb, the fresh leaves being bruised An infusion is used to treat

and applied externally to the affected area. internal bleeding and diarrhoea.

Creeping jenny can be used as a ground cover plant in moist soils but requires weeding for the first year or so. Plants should be spaced about 60cm apart each way and form a carpet, rooting as they spread.

Creeping jenny is an easily grown plant, succeeding in most soils it also grows well in heavy clay soils and marshy soil. Creeping jenny Prefers a shady position but also succeeds in full sun. Plants are hardy to at least -25°c. A very ornamental plant. Yellow loosestrife - Lysimachia vulgaris 1.2m. prefers moist – mesic - wet soils. Natural habitats includes marshes, streams and shallow water Yellow loosestrife ranges from Most areas of Europe and Asia, including Britain and Ireland (native to Ireland), but excluding the extreme north and south. Yellow loosestrife is pollinated by Bees and flies. The plant is self-fertile.

The plant is tolerant of most soils and can grow in heavy clay soil. It can grow in semi-shade or no shade. It requires moist or wet soil and can grow in water. The growing plant repels gnats and flies, it has been burnt in houses in order to remove these insects. The young leaves are edible and some reports say that it can stop internal bleeding.

Ostrich fern Matteuccia - struthiopteris 1.0X0.5 it requires moist soil and some shade as it yellows in full sun and wilts. Ostrich fern is found naturally in the north temperate and occasionally naturalised in Britain its habitat would be on rocky stream banks and in wooded areas. The plant is tolerant of most soils and can grow in heavy clay soil. The plant prefers acid and neutral soils and grows well in very acid soil. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland). Plants make a good ground cover when spaced 60cm apart. They spread slowly and the fronds tend to die off earlier in the autumn than most ferns. It can be invasive. Young fronds can be eaten raw or cooked before they fully unroll, they are thick and succulent and Sometimes sold in speciality markets, the flavour can apparently be compared to asparagus. Another report says that they are a famine food that is only used in times of need in China. The Rootstock can also be eaten peeled and roasted.

Water mint - Mentha aquatica 1.0mX1.0m. Flowers july – October prefers moist –wet or mesic soils found in Europe,(native to Ireland and Britain) N. Africa and southwest Asia Also in S. Africa, Madeira. Natural habitats include Swamps, fen, marshes, by rivers, streams and ponds, and in wet woods. It can grow in water (15cm) and light shade. The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked or used as tea. It is also used as a mouthwash or gargle for treating sore throats and ulcers. It is toxic in large doses. It was traditionally used to keep mice and rats out of flour and it also repels flies. The flowers are attractive to bees and water mint makes a good companion to Brassicas.

Water forget – me – not Mysotis palustrus Flowers May to July 40cmX60cm. Prefers wet – moist soils (can grow in water) Ranges are from Europe, including Britain and Ireland (where it is native), to Scandanavia and south and east to N. Africa and the Himalayas N. America. Water forget me not is pollinated by Bees, flies,Moths & Butterflies. The plant prefers light or medium soils but can grow in heavy clay soil. The plant can grow in most soils. It can grow in semi-shade or no shade.

Royal fern osmunda regalis moist – wet soil

2.0 mX1 .0m

The seeds ripen from June to August. Ranges in Europe including Ireland and Britain where it is native. N. Africa and Asia The plant tolerates most soils and can grow in very acid soil. It can grow in semishade (light woodland) or no shade. It can be used as Ground Cover when spaced 1m apart from each other and suitable for a Bog Garden; It is useful in the treatment of jaundice and removing obstructions of the viscera (Organs in the abdomen). The fronds are used to make compresses for external application to wounds and rheumatic joints for which purposes they are fairly effective. An infusion of the fronds, combined with wild ginger roots (Asarum species) has been used in the treatment of children with convulsions caused by intestinal worms. The hairs of the plant when mixed with wool are used in making cloth. The roots are the source of 'Osmunda fibre', this was once widely used for potting orchids.

Bistort Persicaria bistorta or polygonum bistorta 0.50X0.50cm flowers from June – September. moist, mesic, and dry soils. Native to Ireland and Britain ranges from Europe to western and central Asia. The flowers are hermaphrodite and are pollinated by Insects. The plant is tolerant of most soils and can grow in very acid soil. It can grow in semi-shade or no shade. Leaves can be eaten raw or cooked especially when the leaves are young, though the texture is somewhat chewy when they are eaten raw. They make an excellent substitute for spinach. In Northern England the leaves are an ingredient of a bitter Lenten pudding, called Easter ledger pudding, that is eaten at Lent. The leaves are available from late winter in most years and can be eaten until the early autumn though they become much tougher as the season progresses. The leaves are a good source of vitamins A and C. The Seed can also be eaten raw or cooked. The seed is very small and rather fiddly to utilize. Root, raw or cooked is rich in starch and tannin, it is steeped in water and then roasted in order to reduce the tannin content. It is then said to be a tasty and nutritious food. The root has also been boiled or used in soups and stews and can be dried then ground into a powder and used in making bread. The root contains 30% starch, 1% calcium oxalate and 15 - 36% tannin. bistort is much used, both internally and externally, in the treatment of internal and external bleeding, diarrhoea, dysentery, and cholera. It is also taken internally in the treatment of a wide range of complaints including catarrh, cystitis, irritable bowel syndrome, peptic ulcers, ulcerative colitis and excessive menstruation[238, 254]. Externally, it makes a good wash for small burns and wounds. A mouth wash or gargle is used to treat spongy gums, mouth ulcers and sore throats. The leaves have a great reputation in the treatment of wounds (used as a poultice).

Bistort Persicaria amphibia or persicaria amphibia 0.3m tall flowers from July to September.Ranges from Europe (Irish and British native) to temperate Asia, north America, and south Africa Requires wet soil and can grow in water up to 3 metres deep therefore its habitat is boggy land or ponds. The flowers are hermaphrodite and are pollinated by insects. It can grow in most soils as long as they are wet. The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked and the young shoots are eaten in spring. This type of bistort has the same medicinal properties of Persicaria bistorta. Plants can either be aquatic with floating ovate-oblong leaf-blades or a leggy marsh plant with lanceolate leaves. Their stems root at the nodes wherever they come into contact with the soil.

Bu tterbur petasites hybridis 1.0mX3.om flowers June – August . moist to mesic soils Ranges from Europe (native in Britain and Ireland) to north and west Asia. Habitats include wet meadows and stream sides. The flowers are dioecious (individual flowers are either male or female, only one sex is to be found on any one plant so both male and female plants must be grown if seeds are

required. they are pollinated by Insects. The plant is not self-fertile and only the male plant is to be found is Britain. The plant is tolerant of most soils and can grow in full shade the soil has to be moist or mesic. butterbur Plants can be grown in quite coarse grass, which can be cut annually in the autumn. A very invasive plant, too rampant for anything other than the wild garden. Its roots are very difficult to get rid of. It is best to only grow the male form in the garden to prevent unwanted seedlings coming up all over the place. The growth is so dense and vigorous, with large leaves that can be 75cm or more across, that virtually no other plant is able to grow amongst this species. Plants are a useful early nectar source for bees. Butterbur is widely considered to be an effective cough remedy and recent experiments have shown it to have remarkable antispasmodic and pain-relieving properties. It acts specifically on the bile ducts and stomach . The plant contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids. On there own these are toxic to the liver. A decoction is taken as a remedy for various respiratory problems such as asthma, colds, bronchitis and whooping cough. Externally it can be used as a poultice to speed the healing of wounds. The leaves are harvested in early summer, the root in late summer to autumn. Both can be dried for later use. It is not recommended to self medicate as it can be toxic in larger doses. Primrose –Primula vulgaris flowers December to may. 30X25 cm moist, mesic soils