Islam:A Lifestyle in Modern World

Contents Articles User:Rajah2770

1

Islam

5

Islamic schools and branches

32

Sunni Islam

46

Muslim world

51

Sharia

71

Fiqh

101

Islamic studies

106

Science in medieval Islam

111

Astronomy in medieval Islam

119

Islam and science

126

Mathematics in medieval Islam

133

Physics in medieval Islam

138

Cosmology in medieval Islam

140

Islamic philosophy

152

Islamic art

161

List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world

181

Medicine in the medieval Islamic world

186

Astrology in medieval Islam

188

Portal:Astrology

192

Portal:Occult

193

References Article Sources and Contributors

197

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

202

Article Licenses License

205

User:Rajah2770

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User:Rajah2770 Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika [[File:File:Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika & his two kids.jpg||alt=]] Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika with Laquit(son) and Danisha(daughter) Born

Azad Bin Rajib HazarikaJuly 2, 1970Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Residence

Nagaon, Assam, India

Nationality

Indian

Ethnicity

AssameseMuslim

Citizenship

India

Education

PhD, PDF, FRAS

Alma mater

University of Jodhpur Jai Narayan Vyas University [1] Institute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology [2] Kendriya Vidyalaya [3] Poona College of Arts, Science &Commerce

Occupation

Assistant Professor(Lecturer), Diphu Govt. College , Diphu,Assam,India

Years active

2004- onwards

Employer

Diphu Government College Government of Assam,Assam Education Service

Known for

Lecturer ,Assistant Professor,Mathematician,Academician,Fusion,Astronomy

Home town

Nagaon, Assam, India

Salary

Rs 40000 per month

Height

6 feet and 2 inches

Weight

100 kg

Title

Doctorate, Dr., FRAS (London), Assam Education Service, AES

Board member of

Member of Scientific and Technical committee & Editorial review board of Natuaral and Applied sciences World Academy of [4] Science ,Engineering & Technology

Religion

Sunni Islam,

Spouse

Helmin Begum Hazarika

Children

Laquit Ali Hazarika(son), Danisha Begum Hazarika(daughter)

Parents

Rosmat Ali Hazarika@Rostam Ali Hazarika@Roufat Ali Hazarika and Anjena Begum Hazarika

Call-sign

Drabrh or Raja Website [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

User:Rajah2770

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Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika with Laquit (son) and Danisha(daughter)

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika (born July 02, 1970, in Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India) is Assistant Professor(Lecturer) Diphu Government College ,Diphu in Karbi Anglong district , Government of Assam [10] , [11] , Karbi Anglong,Assam's largest conglomerate by Government of Assam . He is also the Fellow of Royal Astronomical Society[12] ,London ,Member of International Association of Mathematical Physics, World Academy of Science ,Engineering & Technology, Focus Fusion Society, Dense Plasma Focus, Plasma Science Society of India, Assam Science Society, Assam academy of mathematics,International Atomic Energy Agency,Nuclear and Plasma Sciences Society,Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics,German Academy of Mathematics and Mechanics,Fusion Science & Technology Society,Indian National Science Academy,Indian Science Congress Association,Advisory Committee of Mathematical Education,Royal Society,International Biographical Centre.

Early life Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika was born into the famous Hazarika family, a prominent family belonging to Dhing's wealthy Muslim Assamese community of Nagaon district. He was born to Anjena Begum Hazarika and Rusmat Ali Hazarika. He is eldest of two childrens of his parents younger one is a Shamim Ara Rahman(nee Hazarika)daughter .

Early career Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika completed his PhD degree in Mathematics from J N Vyas University of Jodhpur in 1995 with specialization in Plasma instability, the thesis was awarded “best thesis” by Association of Indian Universities in 1998 and the Post-Doctoral Fellow Program from Institute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology [13] in Guwahati Assam in 1998 as Research Associate in Plasma Physics Division in theory group studying the Sheath phenomenon. As a Part-time Lecturer in Nowgong college, Assam before joining the present position in Diphu Government College ,Diphu in Karbi Anglong district[14] ,[15] He is a member of the wikipedia[16] , [17] . He is Fellow of Royal Astronomical Society[18] ,member of International Association Mathematical Physics[19] , member of World Academy of Science,Engineering & Technology [20] ,[21] , member of Plasma science Society of India [22] , [23] ,member of Focus Fusion Society forum [24] ,member of Dense Plasma Focus [25] , Member of Assam Science Society [26] , Member of Assam Academy of Mathematics [27]

User:Rajah2770 He joined the Diphu Government College in July2004 as Lecturer in Mathematics (Gazetted officer), through Assam Public Service commission [28] in Assam Education Service [29] , AES-I. [30] now redesignated as Assistant Professor.

Career In May 1993, Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika was awarded Junior Research Fellowship,University Grants Commission, National Eligibility Test and eligibility for Lecturership ,Govt. of India and worked as JRF(UGC,NET) in Department of Mathematics and Statistics of J N Vyas University in Jodhpur. Later on in May 1995 got Senior Research Fellowship(UGC,NET) and continued research for completion of PhD on 27th Dec 1995 .From 1993 onwards taught in Kamala Nehru College for women, Jodhpur and in Faculty of Science in J N Vyas University in Jodhpur up to the completion of PhD .In 1998 May joined Plasma Physics Division of Institute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology in Guwahati as Research Associate for PDF in theory group to study the sheath phenomena of National Fusion Programme [31] of Govt. of India . Then joined Nowgong College as a part-time Lecturer after which in 2004, July joined the present position of Lecturer in Diphu Government College which is redesignated as Assistant Professor.

Research During PhD [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] The research was based on Astronomy,Astrophysics, Geophysics , for plasma instability with the title of thesis as “Some Problems of instabilities in partially ionized and fully ionized plasmas” which later on in 1998 was assessed as best thesis of the year by Association of Indian Universities in New Delhi. He is known for Bhatia-Hazarika limitResearch at Diphu Govt. College [37] , [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] Applied for patent in US patent and trademarks office [45] [46] Research guidance is given to students in Mathematics for MPhil. He has written six books entitled Inventions of Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika on future devices and Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's Pattern recognition on fusion ,Application of Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's conceptual devices , Green tecnology for next genration , Invention of Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's devices ,VASIMR DANISHA:A Hall Thruster Space Odyssey ,[47] , [48] , [49] He has derived a formula Hazarika's constant for VASIMR DANISHA as Hazarika constant Ch=1+4sin3φ sin θ-2sin φ-2sin θ the value is 2.646

Personal life Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika has a metallic Scarlet red Tata Indigo CS of Tata motors make and loves to drive himself.He is married to Helmin Begum Hazarika and have two chidrens Laquit(son) and Danisha(daughter).

Quotes • • • • • •

"Fakir(saint) and lakir(line) stops at nothing but at destination" "Expert criticizes the wrong but demonstrates the right thing" “Intellectuals are measured by their brain not by their age and experience” “Two type of persons are happy in life one who knows everything another who doesn’t know anything” “Implosion in device to prove every notion wrong for fusion” “Meditation gives fakir(saint) long life and fusion devices the long lasting confinement”

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User:Rajah2770

Awards and recognition Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika got Junior Research Fellowship,Government of India Senior Research Fellowship,Government of India Research AssociateshipDSTGovernment of India Fellowof Royal Astronomical Society [50] Member of Advisory committee of Mathematical Education Royal Society London Member of Scientific and Technical committee & editorial review board on Natural and applied sciences of World Academy of Science ,Engineering &Technology [51] Leading professional of the world-2010 as noted and eminent professional from International Biographical Centre Cambridge

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

http:/ / www. iasst. in http:/ / www. kvafsdigaru. org http:/ / www. akipoonacollege. com http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=45 http:/ / www. facebook. com/ Drabrajib http:/ / in. linkedin. com/ pub/ dr-a-b-rajib-hazarika/ 25/ 506/ 549

[7] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh [8] http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org [9] http:/ / www. karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege. org/ teaching. html [10] http:/ / www. karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege/ teaching. html [11] http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC%20prospectus%2008-09. pdf [12] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ member?recid==5531 [13] http:/ / www. iasst. in [14] {{cite web|url=http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC%20prospectus%2008-09. pdf [15] http:/ / karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege/ teaching. html [16] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ User:Drabrh [17] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh [18] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ member?recid=5531, [19] http:/ / www. iamp. org/ bulletins/ old-bulletins/ 201001. pdf [20] http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=45 [21] http:/ / www. waset. org/ Search. php?page=68& search= [22] http:/ / www. plasma. ernet. in/ ~pssi/ member/ pssi_new04. doc [23] http:/ / www. ipr. res. in/ ~pssi/ member/ pssidir_new-04. doc [24] http:/ / www. focusfusion. org/ index. php/ forums/ member/ 4165 [25] http:/ / www. denseplasmafocus. org/ index. php/ forum/ member/ 4165 [26] http:/ / www. assamsciencesociety. org/ member [27] http:/ / www. aam. org. in/ member/ 982004 [28] http:/ / apsc. nic. in [29] http:/ / aasc. nic. in/ . . . / Education%20Department/ The%20Assam%20Education%20Service%20Rules%201982. pdf [30] (http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC prospests 08-09. pdf) [31] http:/ / nfp. pssi. in [32] http:/ / www. iopscience. iop. org/ 1402-4896/ 51/ 6/ 012/ pdf/ physcr_51_6_012. pdf [33] http:/ / www. iopsciences. iop. org/ 1402-4896/ 53/ 1/ 011/ pdf/ 1402-4896_53_1_011. pdf, [34] http:/ / www. niscair. res. in/ sciencecommunication/ abstractingjournals/ isa_1jul08. asp [35] http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/ wiki/ Wikitionary%3ASandbox [36] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1996PhyS. . 53. . . 578 [37] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh/ File:Drabrhdouble_trios_saiph_star01. pdf [38] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_bayer_rti. pdf [39] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Columb_drabrh. pdf [40] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_double_trios. pdf [41] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrhiterparabolic2007. pdf [42] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_mctc_feedbackloop. pdf [43] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_tasso_07. pdf

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User:Rajah2770 [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51]

http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Abstracts. pdf?page=2 http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ en/ 5/ 50/ EfilingAck5530228. pdf http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ en/ c/ c4/ EfilingAck3442787. pdf http:/ / www. pothi. com http:/ / i-proclaimbookstore. com http:/ / ipppserver. homelinux. org:8080/ view/ creators/ Hazarika=3ADr=2EA=2EB=2ERajib=3A=3A. html http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ members?recid=5531 http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=46

External links • (http://www.diphugovtcollege.org/) • Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's profile on the Linkedin Website (http://in.linkedin.com/pub/dr-a-b-rajib-hazarika/25/ 506/549=) • (http://www.facebook.com/Drabrajib) Rajah2770 (talk) 18:12, 7 February 2011 (UTC)

Islam Islam (Arabic: ‫ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻡ‬‎ al-’islām, pronounced [ʔɪsˈlæːm] ( listen)[1] ) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: ‫ﺍﻟﻠﻪ‬‎, Allah), and by the teachings and normative example (called the Sunnah and composed of Hadith) of Muhammad, considered by them to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim. Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable.[2] Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including The Kaaba, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, is the center through Abraham, Moses and Jesus, whom they consider prophets .[3] of Islam. Muslims from all over the world gather there to pray in unity. Muslims maintain that previous messages and revelations have been [4] partially changed or corrupted over time, but consider the Qur'an to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God (the Final Testament, following the Old and New Testaments).[5] Religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship, and following Islamic law, which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, providing guidance on multifarious topics from banking, politics, and welfare, to warfare and the environment.[6] [7] Most Muslims belong to one of two denominations; with 80-90% being Sunni and 10-20% being Shia.[8] [9] [10] About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim country,[11] 25% in South Asia,[11] 20% in the Middle East,[12] 2% in Central Asia, 4% in the remaining South East Asian countries, and 15% in Sub-saharan Africa.[13] Sizable communities are also found in China and Russia, and parts of Europe. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world (see Islam by country). With about 1.41-1.57 billion Muslims, comprising about 21-23% of the world's population,[13] [14] Islam is the second-largest religion and one of the fastest-growing religions in the world.[15] [16]

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Islam

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Etymology and meaning Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, completion and bonding/joining.[17] In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God".[18] [19] Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive. Believers demonstrate submission to God by worshipping God and following his commands, and rejecting polytheism. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Qur'an. In some verses (ayat), there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."[20] Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."[21] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[22] Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of islam, imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence) where it represents acts of worship (`ibādah) and Islamic law (sharia).[23]

Articles of faith God Islam's fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawhīd. God is described in chapter 112 of the Qur'an as:[24] "Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him." (112:1-4) Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism, but accept Jesus as a prophet. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God. God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahman, meaning "The Compassionate" and Al-Rahim, meaning "The Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).[25] Allah means God in Arabic

Muslims believe that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[26] He is viewed as a personal God who states “We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein”[27] and responds whenever a person in need or distress calls him.[8] [28] There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, between God and the creation that he brought into being by the sheer command “‘Be’ and it is.”[8] [29] Allāh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims to refer to the one God, while ʾilāh is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[30] Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in Turkish or "Khodā" in Persian.

Angels Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in total obedience.[31] Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..."[32]

Islam

Revelations The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.[4] The Qur'an (literally, “Reading” or “Recitation”) is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal Word of God and is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature work in the Arabic language.[33] [34] [35] Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl). On many occasions between 610 and his death on June 8, 632.[36] The Qur'an was reportedly written down by Muhammad's companions (sahabah) while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized under the administration of Uthman, the third caliph. The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 The first sura in a Qur'anic āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[37] The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".[38] Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[39] When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.[40]

Prophets Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic: ‫ﻧﺒﻲ‬‎) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Qur'an [41] the descendants of Abraham and Imran were chosen by God to bring the "Will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the Will of God. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[42] Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an. Six of these collections, compiled in the 3rd century AH (9th century CE), came to be regarded as especially authoritative by the largest group in Islām, the Sunnites. Another large group, the Shīʾah, has its own Ḥadīth contained in four canonical collections.[8]

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Islam

Resurrection and judgment Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Qiyamah (also known as yawm ad-dīn, "Day of Judgment" and as-sā`a, "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[43] The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, riba, and dishonesty. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to ridwān.[44] Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[45]

Predestination In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa'l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..."[46] For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet".[47]

Five pillars The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion") are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime. The Shia and Sunni sects both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.[48]

Testimony The Shahadah,[49] which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[50]

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Islam

Prayer Ritual prayers, called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt (Arabic: ‫)ﺻﻼﺓ‬, must be performed five times a day. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an.[51] A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a Muslims praying distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jāmi`).[52] Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[53]

Fasting Further information: Sawm of Ramadan Fasting, called "Sawm" (Arabic: ‫ﺻﻮﻡ‬‎), from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.[54]

Alms-giving "Zakāt" (Arabic: ‫ﺯﻛﺎﺓ‬‎) is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (sadaqah).[55]

Pilgrimage The pilgrimage, called the Hajj (Arabic: ‫ﺣﺞ‬‎ Ḥajj) during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the black stone if possible, walking or running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina.[56]

Law and jurisprudence The Sharia (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".[57] Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars

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(known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.[58] Over the years there have been changing views on Islamic law but many such as Zahiri and Jariri have since died out.[59] [60] Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.[61]

Jurists There are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam, but "jurist" generally refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. In a broader sense, the term ulema is used to describe the body of Muslim clergy who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih, or muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the village mullahs, imams, and maulvis—who have attained only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship; other Muslims would say that clerics must meet higher standards to be considered ulema. Some Muslims practise ijtihad whereby they do not accept the authority of clergy.[62]

Ottoman miniature painters

Etiquette and diet Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[63]

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Family life The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. With some exceptions, the woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.[64] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[65] A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word Many Muslim women do not show "divorce".[66] Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional their hair in public. Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as polygamy in Islam, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain Islamist groups like the Taliban have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.[67]

Government Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1923. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini.[68]

Military Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God) and is considered the "Sixth Pillar of Islam" by a minority of Sunni Muslim authorities.[69] Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation [70]." Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.[71] Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.[72] [73] Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[74] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.[75] Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Ummah. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without, with some claiming that it only serves to protect the Ummah, with no aspiration of offensive conflict, whereas others have argued that the goal of Jihad is global conquest. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims or hamper proselytizing efforts.[76] [77] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice.[78]

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Islam Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[77] For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's[79] occultation in 868 AD.[80]

History Muhammad (610–632) Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) was a trader later becoming a religious, political, and military leader. However, Muslims do not view Muhammad as Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is the 2nd the creator of Islam, but instead regard most sacred Mosque in Islam. him as the last messenger of God, through which the Qur'an was revealed. Muslims view Muhammad as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last in a series of prophets.[81] For the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, Muhammad started receiving revelations that he believed to be from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his companions.[82] During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 12 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political and religious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement, or death, and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.[83] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[84]

Rise of the caliphate and civil war (632–750) Further information: Succession to Muhammad, Muslim conquests, and Battle of Karbala With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's companion and close friend. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[85]

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His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories.[86] When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met The Muslim Caliphate, 750 CE with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah, who was governor of Levant, seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty.[87] These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a.[88] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula, former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul) in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and the fringes of Central Asia.[89] One of the best preserved architectural examples of Islamic conquest, is the Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) founded in 670 by the Arab conqueror and Umayyad general Uqba ibn Nafi [90] and considered as the ancestor and model for all the mosques in the western Islamic world [91]  · .[92] The muladies (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have comprised the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.[93] While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.[94] The Umayyad aristocracy viewed Islam as a religion for Arabs only;[95] the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.[96]

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Golden Age (750–1258) Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.[98] The major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni Madh'habs were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist al-Shafi'i; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.[99] Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic The Great Mosque of Kairouan, established in theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid 670 in Kairouan, Tunisia, represents one of the [100] al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed. Sufism best architectural examples of Islamic [97] became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism civilization. and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.[101] The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medieval ecclesiastical Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the antichrist and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.[102] Córdoba, the largest Muslim city of the world in 1000, was home to about half a million people.[103] Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word[104] and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine.[105] [106] The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE.[107] The origins of the doctorate also dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in madrasahs which taught law.[108] The first establishments for taking care of the mentally ill were also created in the Muslim world.[109] During this time, standards of experimental and quantification techniques were introduced to the scientific process to distinguish between competing theories as well as the tradition of citation.[110] [111] Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world’s first true scientist."[112] Legal institutions introduced in Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).[113] [114]

Fragmentation and invasions Further information: Mongol invasion of Central Asia and Ilkhanate By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, emirates formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized Muslim world where the Shia Fatimids contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. In the 10th century the powerful Ghaznavids conquered the Afghan-Persian region and a large part of the Indian subcontinent in the name of Islam. They were replaced by the Ghurids in the 12th century. In 836, Caliph Al-Mu'tasim moved the capital of the Caliphate from Baghdad to the new city of Samarra, which would remain the capital until 892 when it was returned to Baghdad by al-Mu'tamid. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks

The interior of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, one of the finest examples of Ummayad architecture in Spain.

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had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority.[115] During this time, expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Central Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago.[116] The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, and Muslim Italian possessions were lost to the Normans. From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars known as the Crusades, aimed at reversing Muslim military conquests within the eastern part of the former Roman Empire, especially in the Holy Land. Initially successful in this aim, and establishing the Crusader states, these acquisitions were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.[117] In the east the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, as they overran the Muslim lands in a series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamluks took control in an uprising in 1250[118] and in alliance with the Golden Horde halted the Mongol armies at the Battle of Ain Jalut. Over the next century the Mongol Khanates converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia, eastern Europe and the Indian subcontinent. The Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.[119] The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century,[120] probably brought by merchants making use of free passage offered by the Pax Mongolica.[121]

New dynasties and colonialism (1030–1918) In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman Empire established itself after a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece, and western Anatolia. In 1453 under Mehmed II the Ottomans captured Constantinople[122] and launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529.[123] Under Ottoman rule, many people in the Balkans became Muslim. From the 14th to the 16th century much of the eastern Islamic world was experiencing another golden age under the Timurid dynasty. In the early 16th century, the Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained in power for two centuries until being usurped by the Hotaki dynasty in the early 18th century. Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.[124] Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi.

The Taj Mahal was built by Muslim rulers of the Mughal Empire in Agra, India.

After the invasion of Persia and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in the mid 13th century, Delhi became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east.[125] Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting with the Ghaznavids in the 10th century. The prominent ones included the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526–1857). It was during the 18th century that the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.[126] In the 19th century, the Salafi, Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated. By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last Mughal dynasty,[127] and overthrew the Muslim-ruled Kingdom of Mysore. In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the

Islam Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[128] Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914.[129] The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[130] [131]

Modern times (1918–present) Further information: Arab Revolt, Arab–Israeli conflict, Iranian revolution, and Islamic revival By the early years of the 20th century, most of the Muslim world outside the Ottoman empire had been absorbed into the empires of non-Islamic European powers. After World War I losses, nearly all of the Ottoman empire was also parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. In the course of the 20th century, most of these European-ruled territories became independent, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of Israel have assumed prominence.[132] The Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC, now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation), consisting of Muslim countries, was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[133] The 20th century saw the Islamic world increasingly exposed to outside cultural influences, bringing potential changes to Muslim societies. In response, new Islamic "revivalist" movements were initiated as a counter movement to non-Islamic ideas. Groups such as Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan and the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. In countries like Iran, revolutionary movement replaced secular regime with an Islamic state. Sometimes called Islamist, they see Western cultural values as a threat, and The Sultan Ahmet Mosque in Istanbul, promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private Turkey. question of importance. Some Muslim organizations began using the media to promote the message of Islam. The first Islamic satellite network hosting a 24-hour service worldwide was MTA International, established by the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community in 1994. Zakir Naik, head of the Islamic Research Foundation, established another 24-hour Islamic international TV channel (Peace TV) in 2006.[134] In the 21st century Muslims face questions relating to their faith, the nation state, science, and every day life. New Muslim intellectuals are beginning to arise, and are increasingly separating perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions to resolve these issues.[135] Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".[136] Women's issues receive a significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam because the family structure remains central to Muslim identity. Andrew Rippin states that while Muslims believe that Islam stands for both men and women, the social reality suggests otherwise.[137] In the Islamic debate on evolution, some scientists have expressed concern over Muslims' importation of creationist theories. Nevertheless, because Muslims view Islam as compatible with science, and the high prestige accorded to scientists in the Islamic world, research scientists can spread scientific ideas to Muslims.[138] In his book titled God Is Not Great, which criticizes all religions, Christopher Hitchens expresses his opinion by stating that Islam is "dogmatic," and "the fact remains that Islam's core claim – to be unimprovable and final – is at once absurd." Such claims have been challenged by many Muslim scholars and writers including Fazlur Rahman Malik,[139] Syed Ameer Ali,[140] Ahmed Deedat[141] and Yusuf Estes.[142] Montgomery Watt and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics.[143] As a result of immigration, many Muslims have formed significant communities in the United States and Europe (particularly Britain, France and Germany). A concern for Muslims has been the practice of their faith, and retention

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Islam of their values and identity.[144] The rise of Islamophobia, according to Carl Ernst, had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.[145] Paul Berman considers this to be "reactionary turn in the intellectual world" represented by Western scholars who idealize Islam.[146] Tariq Ramadan argues for the creation of a "European Islamic culture" that takes into account the customs and reality of life in Europe, while respecting Islamic values and guidelines.[147]

Denominations Sunni Sunni Muslims are the largest group in Islam, comprising the vast bulk (80-90%[8] [10] [148] ) of the world's 1.5 billion Muslims, hence the title Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘ah (people of the tradition[16] and union). In Arabic language, as-Sunnah literally means "tradition" or "path". The Qur'an and the Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) Distribution of Islamic schools and branches in areas where large Muslim as recorded in hadith are the primary population are found foundations of Sunni doctrine. According to Sunni Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.[149] Two major hadith collections are Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful Movements in Islam successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis believe that a caliph should be chosen by the whole community.[148] [150] There are four recognised madh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable.[151] The Salafi (also known as Ahl al-Hadith, or Wahhabi by its adversaries) is a ultra-orthodox Islamic movement which takes the first generation of Muslims as exemplary models.[152]

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Shia The Shi'a constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.[10] [13] They believe in the political and religious leadership of Imams from the progeny of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who Shia's believe was the true successor after Muhammad. They believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To most Shias, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation. Shias regard Ali as the prophet's true successor and believe that a caliph is appointed by divine will.[153] Although the Shi'as share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over validity of specific collections of hadith, with Shias preferring hadiths attributed to the Ahl al-Bayt. Shia Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers (iṯnāʿašariyya). The Twelver Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari jurisprudence.[154] Other smaller groups include the Ismaili and Zaidi, who differ from Twelvers in both their line of successors and theological beliefs.[155] Other smaller branches include the Alawites and Alevi.

Sufism Sufism is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[156] Sufism and Islamic law are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by the Salafi sect for what they see as an unjustified religious innovation. Many Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a, but others classify themselves simply as 'Sufi'.[157] [158]

Sufi whirling dervishes in Istanbul, Turkey

Minor denominations • Ahmadiyya is an Messianic movement founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad that began in India in the late 19th century and is practiced by millions of people around the world.[159] • The Berghouata were a late first millennium Berber sect who followed a syncretic religion inspired by Islam (perhaps influenced by Judaism)[160] with elements of Sunni, Shi'a and Kharijite Islam, mixed with astrological and heathen traditions. • The Kharijites are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is Ibadism. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The Imamate is an important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman, with a number of diasporic communities in Northern Africa.[161] [162] • The Quranists are Muslims who generally reject the Hadith and/or the Sunnah. • Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century.

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Demographics A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population or 1.57 billion people are Muslims. Of those, an estimated 80–90% are Sunni and 10–20% are Shi'a,[8] [9] [10] with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 50 countries are Muslim-majority,[163] and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.[164] Between 1900 and 1970 the global Muslim Muslim population by percentage worldwide community grew from 200 million to 551 million;[165] between 1970 and 2009 Muslim population increased more than three times to 1.57 billion. The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.[166] Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.[167] [168] In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.[169] Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[170] [171] [172] [173] However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims.[174] Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries,[175] and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.[13] [176]

Culture Architecture Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque (four-iwan and hypostyle).[177] Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[178] in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba.

The Blue Mosque in Afghanistan

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Art Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations.[179] It includes fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.

Calendar The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar with days lasting from sunset to sunset.[180] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: ‫ )ﻋﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻔﻄﺮ‬on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Arabic: ‫ )ﻋﻴﺪ ﺍﻷﺿﺤﻰ‬on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.[181]

The Islamic calendar is based on the lunar cycle.

References Citations [1] There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is English pronunciation: /z/ or /s/, and whether the a is pronounced /ɑː/ as in father, /æ/ as in cat, or (when the stress is on the i) /ə/ as in the a of sofa (Merriam Webster). The most common are English pronunciation: /ˈɪzləm, ˈɪsləm, ɪzˈlɑːm, ɪsˈlɑːm/ (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and English pronunciation: /ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪslɑːm/ (American Heritage Dictionary). [2] See: • • [3] [4]

[5] [6] [7]

Qur'an 51:56 "God" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ empires/ islam/ faithgod. html). Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. . Retrieved 2010-12-18. "For Muslims, God is unique and without equal." "People of the Book" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ empires/ islam/ faithpeople. html). Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. . Retrieved 2010-12-18. See: * Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it. * Esposito (1998), pp.6,12* Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5* F. E. Peters (2003), p.9* F. Buhl; A. T. Welch. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.* Hava Lazarus-Yafeh. "Tahrif". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Bennett, Clinton (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN 9780826499448. Esposito (2002b), p.17 See: * Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118* "Shari'ah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.

[8] "Islām" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 295507/ Islam). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. [9] "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population" (http:/ / pewforum. org/ Muslim/ Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population(6). aspx). Pew Research Center. October 7, 2009. . Retrieved 2010-08-24. [10] "Religions" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ fields/ 2122. html). Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. 2010. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. [11] Miller (2009), pp.8,17 [12] See:* Esposito (2002b), p.21* Esposito (2004), pp.2,43 * Miller (2009), pp.9,19 [13] Miller, Tracy, ed (10 2009) (PDF). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population (http:/ / pewforum. org/ Muslim/ Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population. aspx). Pew Research Center. . Retrieved 2009-10-08. [14] "The World Factbook" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ xx. html). CIA Factbook. . Retrieved 2010-12-08. [15] "The List: The World's Fastest-Growing Religions" (http:/ / www. foreignpolicy. com/ story/ cms. php?story_id=3835). Foreign Policy. May 14, 2007. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. •

"Islam Today" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ empires/ islam/ faithtoday. html). Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. "Islam, followed by more than a billion people today, is the world's fastest growing religion and will soon be the world's largest..."

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"No God But God" (http:/ / www. usnews. com/ articles/ news/ religion/ 2008/ 04/ 07/ no-god-but-god. html). Thomas W. Lippman. U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. "Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is a unique religion based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others." • "Understanding Islam" (http:/ / www. usnews. com/ articles/ news/ religion/ 2008/ 04/ 07/ understanding-islam. html). Susan Headden. U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. • "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents" (http:/ / www. adherents. com/ Religions_By_Adherents. html). Adherents.com. . Retrieved 2007-07-03. [17] Dictionary listing for Siin roots (http:/ / www. studyquran. co. uk/ 20_SIIN. htm) derived from Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon via www.studyquran.co.uk [18] Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis. Islam: The Religion and The People. Wharton School Publishing. 2009. pp. 8 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=IVyMAvW9slYC& pg=PA8& dq=surrender+ to+ will+ of+ God+ islam) [19] What does Islam mean? (http:/ / www. qaem. org/ wp/ what-does-islam-mean/ ) The Friday Journal, Mumbai (6 Feb 2011) [20] See: • Qur'an 6:125, Qur'an 61:7, Qur'an 39:22 • L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. [21] Qur'an 5:3, Qur'an 3:19, Qur'an 3:83 [22] See: • Qur'an 9:74, Qur'an 49:14 • L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. [23] Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir (2006). The mosque: the heart of submission. Fordham University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-82-322584-2. [24] See: • Qur'an 112:1–4 • Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76 • Esposito (2004), p.22 • Griffith (2006), p.248 • D. Gimaret. "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. [25] Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book. William Carey Library. ISBN 0-87808-299-9. [26] "Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence" (http:/ / www. patheos. com/ Library/ Islam/ Beliefs/ Human-Nature-and-the-Purpose-of-Existence. html). Patheos.com. . Retrieved 2011-01-29. [27] Qur'an 50:16 [28] Qur'an 2:186 [29] Qur'an 2:117 [30] See: • "God" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ empires/ islam/ faithgod. html). Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. . Retrieved 2010-12-18. • "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh. • L. Gardet. "Allah". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. [31] Qur'an 21:19–20, Qur'an 35:1 [32] See: • • • • [33] [34] [35] [36] [37]

Qur'an 35:1 Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28 W. Madelung. "Malā'ika". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Gisela Webb. "Angel". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Alan Jones, The Koran, London 1994, ISBN 1842126091, opening page. Arthur Arberry, The Koran Interpreted, London 1956, ISBN 0684825074, p. x. Maurice Bucaille, THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE, 1978, ISBN 8172311613, p. 125 Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21 See:

• "Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. • "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. [38] Esposito (2004), p.79 [39] See: •

Esposito (2004), pp.79–81

• "Tafsir". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. [40] See: •

Teece (2003), pp.12,13

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22 • •

C. Turner (2006), p.42 "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.: The word Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation. [41] "The Koran" (http:/ / quod. lib. umich. edu/ cgi/ k/ koran/ koran-idx?type=proximity& q1=Imran& operator1=Near& amt1=80& q2=Ibrahim& operator2=Near& amt2=80& q3=& size=First+ 100). Quod.lib.umich.edu. . Retrieved 2009-12-12. [42] See: • Momem (1987), p.176 • "Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. [43] See: • "Resurrection", The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2003) • "Avicenna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.: Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna". • L. Gardet. "Qiyama". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. [44] Qur'an 9:72 [45] See: • Smith (2006), p.89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p.565 • "Heaven", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000) • Asma Afsaruddin. "Garden". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. • "Paradise". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. [46] See: •

Qur'an 9:51

•

D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..." ' " • Ahmet T. Karamustafa. "Fate". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.: The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation". [47] See: • Farah (2003), pp.119–122 • Patton (1900), p.130 [48] Pillars of Islam (http:/ / www. oxfordislamicstudies. com/ article/ opr/ t125/ e1859?_hi=32& _pos=3), Oxford Islamic Studies Online [49] Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 3, 39, 85, 27–272 [50] See: • Farah (1994), p.135 • Momen (1987), p.178 • "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals(2004) • ArticleClick.com (http:/ / www. articleclick. com/ Article/ Ismaili/ 1035965) [51] See: • Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19 • Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55 • Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34 • Momen (1987), p.178 [52] Budge, E.A. Wallis (June 13, 2001). Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th Century Travel Guide. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 123–128. ISBN 0-486-41721-2. [53] See: • J. Pedersen; R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al.. "Masdjid". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. • "Mosque". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. [54] See: • • • •

Qur'an 2:184 Esposito (2004), pp.90,91 "Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. "For whom fasting is mandatory" (http:/ / www. usc. edu/ dept/ MSA/ fundamentals/ pillars/ fasting/ tajuddin/ fast_21. html#HEADING20). Compendium of Muslim Texts. USC-MSA. . Retrieved 2007-04-18. [55] See: • • •

Qur'an 2:177 Esposito (2004), p.90 "Zakat". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.

• "Zakat". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. [56] See:

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• Farah (1994), pp.145–147 • Goldschmidt (2005), p.48 • "Hajj". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. [57] "Shari'ah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. [58] See: • Menski (2006), p.290 • B. Carra de Vaux; J. Schacht, A.M. Goichon. "Hadd". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. • N. Calder; M. B. Hooker. "Sharia". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. [59] Berg, Herbert. "Islamic Law." Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History 3 (2005): 1030. [60] Dien, Mawil Izzi. Islamic Law: From Historical Foundations To Contemporary Practice. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004. [61] Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162 [62] Weiss (2002), pp.3,161 [63] See: • • • • • • •

Qur'an 5:5 Curtis (2005), p.164 Esposito (2002b), p.111 Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws (http:/ / www. renaissance. com. pk/ janisla2y2. html) Ghamidi (2001): The Dietary Laws (http:/ / www. renaissance. com. pk/ febislaw2y2. html) Ghamidi (2001): Various types of the prayer (http:/ / www. renaissance. com. pk/ DecIslaw2y5. htm) Ersilia Francesca. "Slaughter". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.

[64] "al-Mar'a". Encyclopaedia of Islam • Waines (2003) pp. 93–96 • The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339 • Esposito (1998) p. 79 [66] *"Talak". Encyclopaedia of Islam • Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241 • Harald Motzki. "Marriage and Divorce". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. • Lori Peek. "Marriage Practices". Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures. [68] See: • • • [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [74]

Esposito (2004), p. 84 Lapidus (2002), pp. 502–507,845 Lewis (2003), p. 100 Esposito (2003), p.93 http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/ wiki/ disapprobation Firestone (1999) pp. 17–18 Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17–18 Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad See:

• Brockopp (2003) pp. 99–100 • Esposito (2003), p.93 • "jihad". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. [75] See: • • [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] • • •

Firestone (1999) p.17 "Djihad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online. Firestone (1999) p.17 "Djihād". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108–109, 118 Seyyed Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 72 cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106 See: Esposito (1998), p.12 Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5 F. E. Peters (2003), p.9

• "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. [82] See: •

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Islam • F. Buhl; A. T. Welch. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. [83] See: • F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194 • Lapidus (2002), pp.23–28 [84] F. Buhl; A. T. Welch. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. [85] See: • Holt (1977a), p.57 • Hourani (2003), p.22 • Lapidus (2002), p.32 • Madelung (1996), p.43 • Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50 [86] See • Holt (1977a), p.74 • L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. [87] Holt (1977a), pp.67–72 [88] Waines (2003) p.46 [89] Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003. [90] Clifford Edmund Bosworth, ''Historic cities of the Islamic world'', page 260. BRILL, 2007 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC& pg=PA260& dq=mosque+ of+ kairouan+ uqba+ 670#v=onepage& q=mosque of kairouan uqba 670& f=false). Books.google.com. 2007. ISBN 9789004153882. . Retrieved 2010-08-06. [91] Nnamdi Elleh, ''Architecture and power in Africa'', page 115. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=aKoKHmuexywC& pg=PA115& dq=great+ mosque+ of+ kairouan+ western+ islamic+ world#v=onepage& q=great mosque of kairouan western islamic world& f=false). Books.google.fr. 2002. ISBN 9780275976798. . Retrieved 2010-08-06. [92] John Stothoff Badeau and John Richard Hayes, The Genius of Arab civilization: source of Renaissance, page 104. Taylor & Francis, 1983. [93] Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. Chapter 5: Ethnic Relations (http:/ / libro. uca. edu/ ics/ ics5. htm), Thomas F. Glick [94] See: • Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91 • "Sufism". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. [95] Hawting (2000), p.4 [96] Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83 [97] "Great Mosque of Kairouan" (http:/ / www. muslimheritage. com/ topics/ default. cfm?articleID=358). Muslim Heritage.com. 2003-04-24. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [98] See: • Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105 • Holt (1977b), pp.661–663 • Lapidus (2002), p.56 • Lewis (1993), p.84 • L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. [99] Lapidus (2002), p.86 [100] See: • Lapidus (2002), p.160 • Waines (2003) p.126,127 [101] See: • Esposito (2004), pp.44–45 • Lapidus (2002), pp.90–94 • "Sufism". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. [102] Tolan (2002) xv, xvi, 41 [103] Luc-Normand Tellier (2009). " Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC& pg=PA200& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". PUQ. p.200. ISBN 2760515885 [104] Micheau, Françoise. "The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East". pp. 991–2, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985–1007) [105] Alatas, Syed Farid (2006). "From Jami`ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue". Current Sociology 54 (1): 112–32. doi:10.1177/0011392106058837 [106] Imamuddin, S. M. (1981). Muslim Spain 711–1492 A.D.. Brill Publishers. p. 169. ISBN 9004061312 [107] The Guinness Book Of Records, Published 1998, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2, P.242 [108] Makdisi, George (April–June 1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West". Journal of the American Oriental Society (American Oriental Society) 109 (2): 175–182 [175–77]. doi:10.2307/604423. JSTOR 604423

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[109] "The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate" (https:/ / www. planetseed. com/ node/ 17129). Planetseed.com. . Retrieved 2011-01-29. [110] Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8 page 23, 84.

"Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty." [111] Rosanna Gorini (2003), "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience, First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy:

"According to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. With his book he changed the meaning of the term optics and established experiments as the norm of proof in the field. His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable." [112] [113] [114] [115]

BBC News (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7810846. stm) The ‘first true scientist.’ (Gaudiosi 1988) (Hudson 2003, p. 32) See:

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Lapidus (2002), p.103–143 "Abbasid Dynasty". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310 See:

• Lapidus (2002), p.292 • "Islamic World". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. [119] The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves (http:/ / www. econ. hit-u. ac. jp/ ~areastd/ mediterranean/ mw/ pdf/ 18/ 10. pdf). Eizo Matsuki. Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University. [120] Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5Pvi-ksuKFIC& pg=PA516& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false). ABC-CLIO. p. 516. ISBN 0313341028. [121] Black Death (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ science/ articles/ 2007/ 09/ 13/ 2031252. htm?site=science/ greatmomentsinscience), Great Moments in Science, ABC Science [122] See • • • [123]

Holt (1977a), p.263 Lapidus (2002), p.250 "Istanbul". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. See:

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Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254 L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Esposito (2004), pp.104,105 Ikram, S. M. 1964. Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press See:

• •

Lapidus (2002), p.572 Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan. [127] Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624 [128] Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271 [129] Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0618427708 [130] Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493 [131] "New Turkey" (http:/ / weekly. ahram. org. eg/ 2000/ 488/ chrncls. htm). Weekly.ahram.org.eg. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [132] Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835 [133] "Organization of the Islamic Conference" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ country_profiles/ 1555062. stm). BBC News. 2008-09-18. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [134] "24-hours Islamic International TV channel" (http:/ / www. peacetv. tv/ ). Peace TV. . Retrieved 2010-11-22. [135] Nigosian (2004), pp.41 [136] See: • Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179 • Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830 [137] Rippin (2001), p.288

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[138] Hameed S (2008). "Bracing for Islamic creationism". Science 322 (5908): 1637–8. doi:10.1126/science.1163672. PMID 19074331. [139] For example see Major Themes of the Qur'an by Fazlur Rahman Malik in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446. [140] For example see The Spirit of Islam by Syed Ameer Ali (1849–1928). It is described by David Samuel Margoliouth (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface Mohammed and the Rise of Islam. [141] Westerlund (2003) [142] Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu (2003-11-17). "Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images" (http:/ / advance. uconn. edu/ 2003/ 031117/ 03111715. htm). Advance, University of Connecticut. . [143] See: • Seibert (1994), pp.88–89 • Watt (1974), p.231 [144] Nigosian, pp.41 [145] Ernst (2004), p.11 [146] Berman, Paul (June 4, 2007). "Who's Afraid of Tariq Ramadan?: The Islamist, the journalist, and the defense of liberalism." (http:/ / www. tnr. com/ politics/ story. html?id=fd52e6a4-efc5-42fd-983b-1282a16ac8dd). The New Republic. . [147] Haddad and Ramadan (2002), pp.163 [148] "Sunnite" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 574006/ Sunnite). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. . Retrieved 2010-08-26. [149] See: • • •

Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666 J. Robson. "Hadith". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. D. W. Brown. "Sunna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

[150] From the article on Sunni Islam in Oxford Islamic Studies Online (http:/ / www. oxfordislamicstudies. com/ article/ opr/ t125/ e2280?_hi=2& _pos=2) [151] See: • • • [152] [153]

Esposito (2003), pp.275,306 "Shariah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. "Sunnite". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Salafi Islam (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ intro/ islam-salafi. htm) GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved on 2010-11-09. See

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Lapidus (2002), p.46 "Imam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. "Shi'ite". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. See:

• Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45 • Nasr (1994), p.466 [155] See: • • [156] [157] [158]

Kramer (1987), Syria's Alawis and Shiism pp.237–254 (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ query?url=http:/ / www. geocities. com/ martinkramerorg/ Alawis. htm& date=2009-10-26+ 02:18:33) Shia branches (http:/ / philtar. ucsm. ac. uk/ encyclopedia/ islam/ shia/ index. html) Trimingham (1998), p.1 "Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders: Sufism's Many Paths" (http:/ / www. uga. edu/ islam/ Sufism. html). Uga.edu. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. See:

• • • •

Esposito (2003), p.302 Malik (2006), p.3 B. S. Turner (1998), p.145 "Afghanistan: A Country Study - Sufism" (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?frd/ cstdy:@field(DOCID+ af0061)). Library of Congress Country Studies. 1997. . Retrieved 2007-04-18. [159] "Ahmadiyya Adherents" (http:/ / www. adherents. com/ Na/ Na_16. html). Adherents.com. . Retrieved 21 February 2011. [160] It is believed that Salih Ibn Tarif was a Jew born in the Iberian Peninsula - Kitab Al-Istibsar, transl. of E. Fagnan, L'Afrique Septentrionale au XII siécle de notre Ere, Argel, 1900, p. 157. [161] See: • • •

UGA.edu (http:/ / www. uga. edu/ islam/ ibadis. html), Ibadi Islam: An Introduction J. A. Williams (1994), p.173 "al-Ibāḍiyya". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

[162] "Valerie J. Hoffman, Ibadi Islam: An Introduction" (http:/ / www. uga. edu/ islam/ ibadis. html). Uga.edu. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [163] Miller (2009), p.11

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[164] Ba-Yunus, Ilyas; Kassim Kone (2006). Muslims in the United States (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=oj7krKWyVNAC). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 172. ISBN 0313328250, 9780313328251. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. [165] Whaling, Frank (1987). Religion in today's world: the religious situation of the world from 1945 to the present day. T & T Clark. p. 38. ISBN 0567094529. [166] "Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online" (http:/ / www. oxfordislamicstudies. com/ article/ opr/ t125/ e1087). Oxfordislamicstudies.com. 2008-05-06. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [167] Secrets of Islam (http:/ / www. usnews. com/ usnews/ graphics/ religion/ islams_global_reach. htm) – U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University (2005). [168] Miller (2009), pp.15,17 [169] "Number of Muslim by country" (http:/ / www. nationmaster. com/ graph/ rel_isl_num_of_mus-religion-islam-number-of-muslim). nationmaster.com. . Retrieved 2007-05-30. [170] "CIA – The World Factbook – China" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ ch. html). Cia.gov. . Retrieved 2009-06-15. [171] "China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ irf/ 2006/ 71338. htm). State.gov. . Retrieved 2009-06-15. [172] "NW China region eyes global Muslim market" (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ bizchina/ 2008-07/ 09/ content_6831389. htm). China Daily. 2008-07-09. . Retrieved 2009-07-14. [173] "Muslim Media Network" (http:/ / muslimmedianetwork. com/ mmn/ ?p=1922). Muslim Media Network. 2008-03-24. . Retrieved 2009-07-14. [174] Secrets of Islam (http:/ / www. usnews. com/ usnews/ graphics/ religion/ islams_global_reach. htm), U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University. [175] See: • •

Esposito (2004) pp.2,43 "Islamic World". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.

"Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents" (http:/ / www. adherents. com/ Religions_By_Adherents.html). Adherents.com. . Retrieved 2007-01-09. •

"Muslims in Europe: Country guide" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ europe/ 4385768. stm). BBC News (BBC). 2005-12-23. . Retrieved 2006-09-28. • "Religion In Britain" (http:/ / www. statistics. gov. uk/ cci/ nugget. asp?id=293). National Statistics. Office for National Statistics. 2003-02-13. . Retrieved 2006-08-27. [176] The Mosque in America: A National Portrait (http:/ / www. cair. com/ Portals/ 0/ pdf/ The_Mosque_in_America_A_National_Portrait. pdf) Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). April 26, 2001. Retrieved on 2010-08-01. [177] "Islam", The New Encyclopedia Britannica (2005) [178] Elizabeth Allo Isichei, ''A history of African societies to 1870'', page 175. Cambridge University Press, 1997 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=LgnhYDozENgC& pg=PA175& dq=mosque+ kairouan+ roman+ columns#v=onepage& q=mosque kairouan roman columns& f=false). Books.google.com. 1997. ISBN 9780521455992. . Retrieved 2010-08-06. [179] Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghauset and Architecture 650–1250, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08869-8, p.3 [180] Patheos Library – Islam Sacred Time – Patheos.com (http:/ / www. patheos. com/ Library/ Islam/ Ritual-Worship-Devotion-Symbolism/ Sacred-Time. html) [181] Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws (http:/ / www. renaissance. com. pk/ janisla2y2. html)

Footnotes Books and journals • Accad, Martin (2003). "The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 14 (1). ISSN 0959-6410. • Adil, Hajjah Amina; Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani (2002). Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam. Islamic Supreme Council of America. ISBN 978-1930409118. • Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World (2.00 ed.). I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1860642579. • Armstrong, Karen (2006). Muhammad: A Prophet for our Time. HarperCollins. ISBN 006059897-2. • Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina press. ISBN 1570034710.

Islam • Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195133986. • Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional. ISBN 978-0813819464. • Eglash, Ron (1999). African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2614-0. • Ernst, Carl (2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5577-4. • Esposito, John; John Obert Voll (1996). Islam and Democracy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510816-7. • Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195112344. • Esposito, John; Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (2000a). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513526-1. • Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195107999. • Esposito, John (2002a). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195168860. • Esposito, John (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515713-3. • Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512558-4. • Esposito, John (2004). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd Rev Upd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195182668. • Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0812018530. • Farah, Caesar (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (7th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0764-12226-2. • Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-5125800. • Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521026994. • Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq. OCLC 52901690. • Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Lawrence Davidson (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813342757. • Griffith, Ruth Marie; Barbara Dianne Savage (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801883709. • Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2002). Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens. Oxford University Press. • Hawting, G. R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN 0415240735. • Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1553698425. • Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291364. • Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291372. • Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0674010178. • Humphreys, Stephen (2005). Between Memory and Desire. University of California Press. ISBN 052-0246918. • Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0313324727.

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Islam • Koprulu, Mehmed Fuad; Leiser, Gary (1992). The Origins of the Ottoman Empire. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791408191. • Kramer, Martin (1987). Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813304533. • Kugle, Scott Alan (2006). Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253347114. • Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521779333. • Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0462-0. • Lewis, Bernard (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1928-5258-2. • Lewis, Bernard (1997). The Middle East. Scribner. ISBN 978-0684832807. • Lewis, Bernard (2001). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East (2nd ed.). Open Court. ISBN 978-0812695182. • Lewis, Bernard (2003). What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (Reprint ed.). Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0060516055. • Lewis, Bernard (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. Random House, Inc., New York. ISBN 978-0812967852. • Madelung, Wilferd (1996). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521646960. • Malik, Jamal; John R Hinnells, Inc NetLibrary (2006). Sufism in the West. Routledge. ISBN 0415274087. • Menski, Werner F. (2006). Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521858593. • Mohammad, Noor (1985). "The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction". Journal of Law and Religion (Journal of Law and Religion, Inc.) 3 (2): 381. doi:10.2307/1051182. JSTOR 1051182. • Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300035315. • Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7). HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06067-700-7. • Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (2004). Islam: its history, teaching, and practices. Indiana University Press. • Novak, David (February 1999). "The Mind of Maimonides". First Things. • Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. ISBN 0-87196-129-6. • Patton, Walter M. (April 1900). "The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures (Brill Academic Publishers) 16 (3): 129. doi:10.1086/369367. ISBN 9004103147. • Peters, F. E. (1991). "The Quest for Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies. • Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11553-2. • Peters, Rudolph (1977). Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-04854-5. • Rippin, Andrew (2001). Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415217811. • Ruthven, Malise (2005). Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning. Oxford University Press. ISBN 01-92-80606-8. • Sahas, Daniel J. (1997). John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-9004034952. • Sachedina, Abdulaziz (1998). The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0195119150. • Seibert, Robert F.; Daniel, Norman (1994). "Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel)". Review of Religious Research (Religious Research Association, Inc.) 36 (1): 88. doi:10.2307/3511655. JSTOR 3511655.

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Islam • Sells, Michael Anthony; Emran Qureshi (2003). The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231126670. • Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195156492. • Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 1-82760-198-1. • Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3. • Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; R. Campbell (translator) (2002). Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam. Green Gold. ISBN 0-922817-00-6. • Teece, Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0749647964. • Tolan, John V. (2002). Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231123329. • Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195120582. • Tritton, Arthur S. (1970) [1930]. The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar. London: Frank Cass Publisher. ISBN 0-7146-1996-5. • Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. Routledge (UK). ISBN 041534106X. ISBN 041534106X. • Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0415174589. • Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521539064. • Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. ISBN 0-85-224245-X. • Watt, W. Montgomery (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-881078-4. • Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers. ISBN 9004120661. • Williams, John Alden (1994). The Word of Islam. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-79076-7. • Williams, Mary E. (2000). The Middle East. Greenhaven Pr. ISBN 0737701331. Encyclopedias • William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, ed (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0974309101. • Gabriel Oussani, ed (1910). Catholic Encyclopedia. • Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton, ed (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 978-1593392369. • Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.. • Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley, ed (2001). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill. ISBN 0-8028-2414-5. • John Bowden, ed (2005). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-522393-4. • George Thomas Kurian, Graham T. T. Molitor, ed (1995). Encyclopedia of the Future. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028972053. • P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs, ed. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. • Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, ed (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028656038. • Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ed. Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers.

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Islam • Lindsay Jones, ed (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028657332. • Salamone Frank, ed (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9780415941808. • Peter N. Stearns, ed (2000). The Encyclopedia of World History Online (6th ed.). Bartleby. • Josef W. Meri, ed (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 041-5966906. • Wendy Doniger, ed (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. ISBN 0877790442. • Glasse Cyril, ed (2003). New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISSN 978-0759101906. • Edward Craig, ed (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415073103.

Further reading • Arberry, A. J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0684825076. • Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960740799. • Kramer (ed.), Martin (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University. ISBN 978-9652240408. • Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004038132. • Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195090611. • Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195102833. • Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1591440710. • Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1591440345. • Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices (New ed.). Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253216274. • Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70281-2. • Tausch, Arno (2009). Muslim Calvinism (1st ed.). Rozenberg Publishers, Amsterdam. ISBN 978-9051709957. • Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1. • Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0720610383. Minorities in Islam: • A. Khanbaghi. The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran (IB Tauris, 2006).

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External links Academic resources • • • •

Patheos Library – Islam (http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam.html) University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts (http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA) Encyclopedia of Islam (Overview of World Religions) (http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam) Ethical Democracy Journal (http://www.ethicaldemocracy.org/) views on Islam, other ethical systems and democracy

Online resources • Islam (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105852/Islam), article at Encyclopaedia Britannica • Islam (http://www.friesian.com/islam.htm), article at Friesian.com • Asabiyya: Re-Interpreting Value Change in Globalized Societies (http://ideas.repec.org/p/iza/izadps/dp4459. html), article at Repec/Ideas, University of Connecticut and IZA, Bonn, on Islam and global value change Directories • Islam (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam//) at the Open Directory Project • Islam (Bookshelf) (http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Islam_(Bookshelf)) at Project Gutenberg • Islam (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/islamus.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs • Islam and Islamic Studies Resources (http://www.uga.edu/islam/) from Dr. Alan Godlas, Professor, University of Georgia

Islamic schools and branches Muslims are basically divided in two major factions, Sunnis and Shias, that are further divided into various Schools of Jurisprudence and orders of Imamate. All other movements within such as Salafi, Modernists, the Mystical Sufi Orders, Deobandi and Barelvi are either Sunni or Shia or both. The division occurred during the early phase of the Caliphate over the question of who should succeed Muhammad after his death. The third faction called the Kharijites who also came forth of the same question are now extinct although some Muslims Tree of divisions believe that the Ibadiyya community which is dominant in the modern day state of Oman and Zanzibar have descended from them despite the fact that Ibadiyya do not consider themselves Kharijites. There are also divisions on the philosophical basis of theology but it overlaps with different factions. However, the central text of Islam, the Qur'an, and the core tenets of faith called the Aqeedah largely remain the same all over Muslim World across all of these branches.

Islamic schools and branches

Sunni Islam Sunni Muslims are the largest denomination of Islam and are known as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h or simply as Ahl as-Sunnah. The word Sunni comes from the word sunnah, which means the teachings and actions or examples of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. Therefore, the term "Sunni" refers to those who follow or maintain the sunnah of the prophet Muhammad. The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not specifically appoint a successor to lead the Muslim ummah (community) before his death, and after an initial period of confusion, a group of his most prominent companions gathered and elected Abu Bakr Siddique, Muhammad's close friend and a father-in-law, as the first caliph of Islam. Sunni Muslims regard the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, `Umar ibn al-Khattāb, Uthman Ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abu Talib) as "al-Khulafā’ur-Rāshidūn" or "The Rightly Guided Caliphs." Sunnis also believe that the position of caliph may be attained democratically, on gaining majority votes, but after the Rashidun, the position turned into a hereditary dynastic rule because of the divisions that started by the Shias and others. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1923, there has never been another caliph as widely recognized in the Muslim world.

Schools of law Madhhab is an Islamic term that refers to a school of thought or religious jurisprudence, or fiqh, within Sunni Islam. Each of the Sahaba had a unique school of jurisprudence, but these schools were gradually consolidated or discarded so that there are currently four recognized schools. The differences between these schools of thought manifest in minor practical differences, as most Sunni Muslims consider them all fundamentally the same. Sunnis generally do not identify themselves with a particular school of thought — simply calling themselves "Sunnis". Hanafi The Hanafi school was founded by Imam Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man; it is the largest school of thought followed by most Muslims around the world. It is predominant among Sunni Muslims in Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, northern Egypt, Iraq, Turkey, Balkans and in many western countries. There are movements within this madhab such as Barelvi and Deobandi. Shafi`i Shafi`i was founded by Imam Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i, is the second largest school of thought in terms of followers. It is practiced throughout the Muslim world, but is most prevalent in Egypt, Somalia, Indonesia, Thailand, Singapore, Philippines, Yemen, among Kurds, Kerala (Mappilas) and is officially followed by the governments of Brunei and Malaysia. Maliki The Maliki school derives from the work of Imam Malik ibn Anas. It is practiced in North and West Africa. It is the third-largest of the four schools. Hanbali Hanbali is considered to be the most conservative of the four schools and the one that relies on hadith the most. Hanbalis reject the use of philosophical argument in matters of religious belief. The school was started by the students of Imam Ahmad. Hanbali jurisprudence is predominant among Muslims in Saudi Arabia.

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Islamic schools and branches

Movements Al-Ikhwan Al-Muslimun The Al-Ikhwan Al-Muslimun – Translated as The Muslim Brotherhood, this organisation was founded by Egyptian scholar Hassan al-Banna who graduated from Dar al-Ulum. With its various branches it is the largest Sunni movement in the Arab world, with an affiliate usually being the largest opposition party in many Arab nations. The Muslim Brotherhood is not concerned with theological differences, accepting Muslims of any of the four Sunni schools of thought, it is the world's oldest and largest Islamist group. Its aims are to re-establish the Caliphate and in the mean time push for more Islamisation of society. The Brotherhood's stated goal is to instill the Qur'an and sunnah as the "sole reference point for... ordering the life of the Muslim family, individual, community... and state." Jamaat-e-Islami The Jamaat-e-Islami is an Islamist political party in the Indian Subcontinent. It was founded in Lahore, India, by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi in 1941 and is the oldest religious party in Pakistan and India. Today, sister organizations with similar objectives and ideological approaches exist in India, (Jamaat-e-Islami Hind), Bangladesh (Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh), Kashmir, Afghanistan, and Sri Lanka, and there are "close brotherly relations" with the Islamist movements and missions "working in different continents and countries", particularly those affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood or Akhwan-al-Muslimeen. The JI envisions an Islamic government in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan governing by Islamic law. It opposes Westernization--including capitalism, socialism, or such practices as bank interest, and favours an Islamic economic order and Caliphate. Jamaat-al-Muslimeen The Jamaat ul-Muslimeen is a movement in Sunni Islam revived by the Imam Syed Masood Ahmad in the 1960s.[1] The present leader of this group is Muhammad Ishtiaq.[2] Salafi The Salafi movement was revived by the 18th century teacher Sheikh Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab in the Arabian peninsula, and was instrumental in the rise of the House of Saud to power. Salafism is a puritanical and legalistic Islamic movement under the Sunni umbrella, and is the dominant form of Islam in Saudi Arabia. The terms "Wahhabism" and "Salafism" are often used interchangeably, although the word "Wahhabi" is a specific for followers of Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab who are the far right wing of Salafi Islam. In addition to the Qur'an and hadith, and the works of earlier scholars like Ibn Taymiyya, Ibn Al Qayyim and Muhammad bin Abdulwahhab are used for religious guidance. Salafism is, in general, opposed to Sufism and Shi'a Islam, which they regard as heresies. They see their role as a movement to restore Islam from what they perceive to be innovations, superstitions, deviances, heresies and idolatries. The methodology predominates mainly in countries such as Saudi Arabia, the other Arabian Peninsula states and elsewhere. It has significant numbers of adherents in India and Pakistan, where the movement is known as Ahl al-Hadith ("People of Hadith"). It is also growing in popularity in countries in the western world; in particular the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada. Salafis view the first three generations of Muslims, Muhammad's companions and the two succeeding generations after them, the Tabi‘un and the Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in, and those who followed in their path as being the best sources in order to understand the foundational principles of Islam.

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Islamic schools and branches

Schools of belief Aqidah Aqidah is an Islamic term meaning creed or belief. Any religious belief system, or creed, can be considered an example of aqidah. However this term has taken a significant technical usage in Muslim history and theology, denoting those matters over which Muslims hold conviction. The term is usually translated as "theology". Such traditions are divisions orthogonal to sectarian divisions of Islam, and a Mu'tazili may for example, belong to Jafari, Zaidi, or even a Hanafi sect/jurisprudence school, though the latter is usually a rare occurrence. Ash'ari Ash'ari is a school of early Islamic philosophy founded in the 10th century by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari. It was instrumental in drastically changing the direction of Islam and laid the groundwork to "shut the door of ijtihad" centuries later in the Ottoman Empire. The Asharite view was that comprehension of the unique nature and characteristics of God were beyond human capability. Maturidi A Maturidi is one who follows Abu Mansur Al Maturidi's theology, which is a close variant of the Ash'ari school. Points which differ are the nature of belief and the place of human reason. The Maturidis state that belief (iman) does not increase nor decrease but remains static; it is piety (taqwa) which increases and decreases. The Ash'aris say that belief does in fact increase and decrease. The Maturidis say that the unaided human mind is able to find out that some of the more major sins such as alcohol or murder are evil without the help of revelation. The Ash'aris say that the unaided human mind is unable to know if something is good or evil, lawful or unlawful, without divine revelation. Murji'ah Murji'ah (Arabic ‫ )ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺟﺌﺔ‬is an early Islamic school, whose followers are known in English as Murjites or Murji'ites (Arabic ‫)ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺟﺌﻮﻥ‬. During the early centuries of Islam, Muslim thought encountered a multitude of influences from various ethnic and philosophical groups that it absorbed. Murji'ah emerged as a theological school that was opposed to the Kharijites on questions related to early controversies regarding sin and definitions of what is a true Muslim. They advocated the idea of "delayed judgement". Only God can judge who is a true Muslim and who is not, and no one else can judge another as an infidel (kafir). Therefore, all Muslims should consider all other Muslims as true and faithful believers, and look to Allah to judge everyone during the last judgment. This theology promoted tolerance of Umayyads and converts to Islam who appeared half-hearted in their obedience. The Murjite opinion would eventually dominate that of the Kharijites. The Murjites exited the way of the Sunnis when they declared that no Muslim would enter the hellfire, no matter what his sins. This contradicts the traditional Sunni belief that some Muslims will enter the hellfire temporarily. Therefore the Murjites are classified as Ahlul Bid'ah or "People of Innovation" by the majority of other Muslims. Mu'tazili Mu'tazili theology originated in the 8th century in al-Basrah when Wasil ibn Ata left the teaching lessons of Hasan al-Basri after a theological dispute. He and his followers expanded on the logic and rationalism of Greek philosophy, seeking to combine them with Islamic doctrines and show that the two were inherently compatible. The Mu'tazili debated philosophical questions such as whether the Qur'an was created or eternal, whether evil was created by God, the issue of predestination versus free will, whether God's attributes in the Qur'an were to be interpreted allegorically or literally, and whether sinning believers would have eternal punishment in hell. Athari The Athari school derives its name from the Arabic word "Athar", meaning "narrations". The Athari methodology is to avoid delving into extensive theological speculation. They use the Qur'an, the Sunnah, and sayings of the Sahaba. Athari is generally synonymous with Salafi.

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Zahiri Zahiri– A school of thought which literally translates as "literalist", who were regarded as heterodox among many Muslim for rejecting qiyas, though classically they are regarded as the fifth main school of Sunni Islam. There are a number of groups, mainly named after the founder of the group, which follow much of the teachings of the schools and theologies. Some, such as the Salafis, disagree with the teachings to some extent.

Shia Islam Shia Islam (‫ ﺷﻴﻌﺔ‬Shī‘ah, sometimes Shi'a or Shi'ite), is the second-largest denomination of Islam, comprising anywhere between 10% or one-tenth[3] to 13%[4] of the total Muslim population in the world.[5] Shia Muslims—though a minority in the Muslim world—constitute the majority of the populations in Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Iran, and Iraq, as well as a plurality in Lebanon and Yemen. In addition to believing in the authority of the Qur'an and teachings of the Muhammad, Shia believe that his family, the Ahl al-Bayt (the "People of the House"), including his descendants known as Imams, have special spiritual and political rule over the community[6] and believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the first of these Imams and was the rightful successor to Muhammad, and thus reject the legitimacy of the first three Rashidun caliphs.[7] Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf, Iraq, where Ali the first Shī‘ah Imam is buried.

The Shi'a Islamic faith is vast and includes many different groups. There are various Shi'a theological beliefs, schools of jurisprudence, philosophical beliefs, and spiritual movements. The Shia identity emerged soon after the death of 'Umar Ibnil-Khattab (the second caliph) and Shi'a theology was formulated in the second century[8] and the first Shi'a governments and societies were established by the end of the ninth century. An estimate of approximately 10–13% of the world's Muslims are Shi'a, which corresponds to about 130–190 million Shi'a Muslims worldwide.[4] [5] Shi'a Muslims also constitute over 30% of the population in Lebanon,[9] over 45% of the population in Yemen,[10] over 35% of the population in Kuwait, 20–25% of the population (primarily Alevi) in Turkey, 20% (primarily Bektashi) of the population in Albania, 15% of the population in Pakistan and 3% of population in Afghanistan. They also make up at least 25%[11] -31%[12] of the Muslim populations in India, 15-20% in the United Arab Emirates, Syria and Saudi Arabia, although the total number is difficult to estimate due to the intermingling between the two groups and practice of taqiyya by Shiites.[13] Significant Shi'a communities exist on the coastal regions of West Sumatra and Aceh in Indonesia (see Tabuik). The Shi'a presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia, where Muslims are predominantly Shafi'i Sunnis. A significant syncretic Shi'a minority is present in Nigeria, centered around the state of Kano (see Shia in Nigeria). East Africa holds several populations of Ismaili Shia, primarily descendants of immigrants from South Asia during the colonial period, such as the Khoja. According to Shi'a Muslims community,[14] one of the lingering problems in estimating Shi'a population is that unless Shi'a form a significant minority in a Muslim country, the entire population is often listed as Sunni.[14] The reverse, however, has not held true, which may contribute to imprecise estimates of the size of each sect. For example, the 1926 rise of the House of Saud in Arabia brought official discrimination against Shi'a.[15] Shi'a Islam is divided into three branches. The largest and best known are the Twelver (‫ ﺍﺛﻨﺎ ﻋﺸﺮﻳﺔ‬iṯnāʿašariyya), named after their adherence to the Twelve Imams. They form a majority of the population in Iran, Azerbaijan, Bahrain and Iraq. Other smaller branches include the Ismaili and Zaidi, who dispute the Twelver lineage of Imams and beliefs.[16]

Islamic schools and branches The Twelver Shi'a faith is predominantly found in Iran (90%), Azerbaijan (85%), Bahrain (75%), Iraq (65%), Lebanon (35%),[17] Kuwait (35%), Albania (20%), Pakistan (15%), Afghanistan (3%).[18] [19] and India (25%[11] -31%)[12] of its Muslim population. The Zaidi dispute the succession of the fifth Twelver Imam, Muhammad al-Baqir, because he did not stage a revolution against the corrupt government, unlike Zaid ibn Ali. They do not believe in a normal lineage, but rather that any descendant of Hasan ibn Ali or Husayn ibn Ali who stages a revolution against a corrupt government is an imam. The Zaidi are mainly found in Yemen. The Ismaili dispute the succession of the seventh Twelver Imam, Musa al-Kadhim, believing his older brother Isma'il ibn Jafar actually succeeded their father Ja'far al-Sadiq, and did not predecease him like Twelver Shi'a believe. Ismaili form small communities in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, India, Syria, United Kingdom, Canada, Uganda, Portugal, Yemen, mainland China, Bangladesh and Saudi Arabia[20] and have several subbranches.

Twelver Twelvers believe in twelve Imams. The twelfth Imam is believed to be in occultation, and will appear again just before the Qiyamah (Islamic view of the Last Judgment). The Shi`a hadiths include the sayings of the Imams. Many Muslims criticise the Shia for certain beliefs and practices, including practices such as the Mourning of Muharram (Mätam). They are the largest Shi'a school of thought (85%), predominant in Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon and Bahrain and have a significant population in Pakistan, Kuwait and the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia. The Twelver Shi'a are followers of the Jaf'ari madh'hab. Followers of the madh'hab are divided into the following sub-divisions, although these are not considered different sects: • Usulism – The Usuli form the overwhelming majority within the Twelver Shia denomination. They follow a Marja-i Taqlid on the subject of taqlid and fiqh. They are concentrated in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon. • Akhbarism – Akhbari, similar to Usulis, however reject ijtihad in favor of hadith. Concentrated in Bahrain. • Shaykhism – Shaykhism is an Islamic religious movement founded by Shaykh Ahmad in the early 19th century Qajar dynasty, Iran, now retaining a minority following in Iran and Iraq. It began from a combination of Sufi and Shi‘a and Akhbari doctrines. In the mid 19th-century many Shaykhis converted to the Bábí and Bahá'í religions, which regard Shaykh Ahmad highly.

Ismailism The Ismailis and Twelvers both accept the same initial Imams from the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatima Zahra and therefore share much of their early history. However, a dispute arose on the succession of the Sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq. The Ismailis are those who accepted Ja'far's eldest son Ismail as the next Imam, whereas the Twelvers accepted a younger son, Musa al-Kazim. Today, Ismailis are concentrated in Pakistan and other parts of South Asia. The Nizari Ismailis, however, are also concentrated in Central Asia, Russia, China, New Zealand, Afghanistan, Papua New Guinea, Syria, Australia, North America (including Canada), the United Kingdom, Bangladesh and in Africa as well. • Nizari – The Nizāriyya are the largest branch (90%) of Ismaili, they are the only Shia group to be have their absolute temporal leader in the rank of Imamate, which is currently invested in Aga Khan IV. Their present living Imam is Mawlānā Shah Karim Al-Husayni who is the 49th Imam. The Nizāriyya believe that the successor-Imām to the Fatimid caliph al-Mustansir was his elder son al-Nizār. • Mustaali – The Mustaali group of Ismaili Muslims differ from the Nizāriyya in that they believe that the successor-Imām to the Fatimid caliph, al-Mustansir, was his younger son al-Mustaʻlī, who was made Caliph by the Fatimad Regent Al-Afdal Shahanshah. In contrast to the Nizaris, they accept the younger brother al-Mustaʻlī over Nizar as their Imam. The Bohras are an offshoot of the Taiyabi, which itself was an offshoot of the Mustaali. The Taiyabi, supporting another offshoot of the Mustaali, the Hafizi branch, split with the Mustaali Fatimid, who

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Islamic schools and branches

•

•

• •

recognized Al-Amir as their last Imam. The split was due to the Taiyabi believing that At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim was the next rightful Imam after Al-Amir. The Hafizi themselves however considered Al-Hafiz as the next rightful Imam after Al-Amir. The Bohras believe that their 21st Imam, Taiyab abi al-Qasim, went into seclusion and established the offices of the Da'i al-Mutlaq (‫)ﺍﻟﺪﺍﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﻖ‬, Ma'zoon (‫ )ﻣﺄﺫﻭﻥ‬and Mukasir (‫)ﻣﻜﺎﺳﺮ‬. The Bohras are the only surviving branch of the Mustaali and themselves have split into the Dawoodi Bohra, Sulaimani Bohra, and Alavi Bohra. Dawoodi Bohra – The Dawoodi Bohras are a denomination of the Bohras. After offshooting from the Taiyabi the Bohras split into two, the Dawoodi Bohra and the Sulaimani Bohra, over who would be the correct dai of the community. Concentrated mainly in Pakistan and India. Sulaimani Bohra – The Sulaimani Bohra named after their 27th Da'i al-Mutlaq, Sulayman ibn Hassan, are a denomination of the Bohras. After offshooting from the Taiyabi the Bohras split into two, the Sulaimani Bohra and the Dawoodi Bohra, over who would be the correct dai of the community. Concentrated mainly in Yemen. Alavi Bohra – Split from the Dawoodi Bohra over who would be the correct dai of the community. The smallest branch of the Bohras. Hebtiahs Bohra – The Hebtiahs Bohra are a branch of Mustaali Ismaili Shi'a Islam that broke off from the mainstream Dawoodi Bohra after the death of the 39th Da'i al-Mutlaq in 1754.

• Atba-i-Malak – The Abta-i Malak jamaat (community) are a branch of Mustaali Ismaili Shi'a Islam that broke off from the mainstream Dawoodi Bohra after the death of the 46th Da'i al-Mutlaq, under the leadership of Abdul Hussain Jivaji. They have further split into two more branches, the Atba-i-Malak Badra and Atba-i-Malak Vakil.[21] • Druze – The Druze are a small distinct traditional religion that developed in the 11th century. It began as an offshoot of the Ismaili sect of Islam, but is unique in its incorporation of Gnostic, neo-Platonic and other philosophies. Druze are considered heretical and non-Muslims by most other Muslims because they are believed to address prayers to the Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the third Fatimid caliph of Egypt, whom they regard as "a manifestation of God in His unity." The Druze believe that he had been hidden away by God and will return as the Mahdi on Judgement Day. Like Alawis, most Druze keep the tenets of their Faith secret, and very few details are known. They neither accept converts nor recognize conversion from their religion to another. They are located primarily in the Levant. Druze in different states can have radically different lifestyles. Some claim to be Muslim, some do not, though the Druze faith itself abides by Islamic principles.

Zaidiyyah Zaidiyyahs historically come from the followers of Zayd ibn Ali, the great-Grandson of 'Ali b. Abi Talib. They follow any knowledgeable and upright descendant of al-Hasan and al-Husayn, and are less esoteric in focus than Twelverism or Ismailism.

Alawi Alawites are also called Nusayris, Nusairis, Namiriya or Ansariyya. Slightly over one million of them live in Syria and Lebanon.[22]

Alevi Alevis are sometimes categorized as part of Twelver Shi'a Islam, and sometimes as its own religious tradition, as it has markedly different philosophy, customs, and rituals. They have many Sufi characteristics and express belief in the Qur'an and the Shi'a Imams, but reject polygamy and accept religious traditions predating Islam, like Turkish shamanism. They are significant in East-Central Turkey. They are sometimes considered a Sufi sect, and have an untraditional form of religious leadership that is not scholarship oriented like other Sunni and Shia groups. They number around 25 million worldwide, of which 22 million are in Turkey, with the rest in the Balkans, Albania,

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Islamic schools and branches Bosnia and Herzegovina, Azerbaijan, Iran and Syria.

Sufism Sufism is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[23] Sufis usually considered Sufism to be complementary to orthodox Islam, however it has often been accused of being an unjustified Bid‘ah or religious innovation by the Salafi. One starts with sharia (Islamic law), the exoteric or mundane practice of Islam and then is initiated into the mystical (esoteric path of a Tariqah (Sufi Order). Some Sufi followers consider themselves as Sunni or Shi'a, while others consider themselves as simply 'Sufi' or Sufi-influenced.

Qadiri The Qadiri Order is one of the oldest Sufi Orders. It derives its name from Abdul-Qadir Gilani (1077-1166), a native of the Iranian province of Gīlān. The order is one of the most widespread of the Sufi orders in the Islamic world, and can be found in Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Turkey and the Balkans and much of East and West Africa. The Qadiriyyah have not developed any distinctive doctrines or teachings outside of mainstream Islam. They believe in the fundamental principles of Islam, but interpreted through mystical experience.

Bektashi The Bektashi Order was founded in the 13th century by the Islamic saint Hajji Bektash Wali, and greatly influenced during its fomulative period by the Hurufi Ali al-'Ala in the 15th century and reorganized by Balim Sultan in the 16th century. Because of its adherence to the Twelve Imams it is classified under Twelver Shi'a Islam. Bektashi are concentrated in Turkey and Albania and their headquarters are in Albania.

Chishti The Chishti Order (Persian: ‫ )ﭼﺸﺘﯿﮧ‬was founded by (Khawaja) Abu Ishaq Shami ("the Syrian") (d. 941) who brought Sufism to the town of Chisht, some 95 miles east of Herat in present-day Afghanistan. Before returning to the Levant, Shami initiated, trained and deputized the son of the local Emir, (Khwaja) Abu Ahmad Abdal (d. 966). Under the leadership of Abu Ahmad’s descendants, the Chishtiyya as they are also known, flourished as a regional mystical order.

Naqshbandi The Naqshbandi order is one of the major Sufi orders of Islam. Formed in 1380, the order is considered by some to be a "sober" order known for its silent dhikr (remembrance of God) rather than the vocalized forms of dhikr common in other orders. The word Naqshbandi ‫ ﻧﻘﺸﺒﻨﺪﯼ‬is Persian, taken from the name of the founder of the order, Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari. Some have said that the translation means "related to the image-maker," some also consider it to mean "Pattern Maker" rather than "image maker", and interpret "Naqshbandi" to mean "Reformer of Patterns", and others consider it to mean "Way of the Chain" or "Golden Chain".

Oveyssi The Oveyssi Order claim to be founded 1,400 years ago by Uwais al-Qarni from Yemen. Uways received the teachings of Islam inwardly through his heart and lived by the principles taught by him, although he had never physically met Muhammad. At times Muhammad would say of him, "I feel the breath of the Merciful, coming to me from Yemen." Shortly before Muhammad died, he directed Umar (second Caliph) and Ali (the first Imam of the Shi'a) to take his cloak to Uwais. According to Ali Hujwiri, Farid ad-Din Attar of Nishapur and Sheikh Muhammad

39

Islamic schools and branches

40

Ghader Bagheri, the first recipient of Muhammad's cloak was Oveys. The Oveyssi order is still in existence today. The present Pir—Molana Salaheddin Ali Nader Shah Angha—was officially appointed as the forty-second Sufi master in the unbroken chain of transmission on September 4, 1970, when the cloak of Muhammad was bestowed upon him by his father Shah Maghsoud Sadegh Angha.

Suhrawardiyya The Suhrawardiyya order (Arabic: ‫ﺳﻬﺮﻭﺭﺩﻳﺔ‬‎) is a Sufi order founded by Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi (1097–1168).

Other Sufis Mouride is a large Islamic Sufi order most prominent in Senegal and The Gambia, with headquarters in the holy city of Touba, Senegal.[24] The Tijaniyyah order attach a large importance to culture and education, and emphasize the individual adhesion of the disciple (murīd). The Shadhili is a Sufi order founded by Abu-l-Hassan ash-Shadhili. Followers (murids Arabic: seekers) of the Shadhiliya are often known as Shadhilis.[25] [26] The Mawlawi Order is better known in the West as the "whirling dervishes".

Ahmadiyya The Ahmadiyya movement was founded in India in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, who claimed to be the promised Messiah ("Second Coming of Christ") the Mahdi awaited by the Muslims and a 'subordinate' prophet within Islam. The followers are divided into two groups, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community and the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam, the former believing that Ghulam Ahmad was a non-law bearing prophet and the latter believing that he was only a religious reformer though a prophet in an allegorical sense. Ahmadis consider themselves Muslims and claim to practice the pristine form of Islam as re-established with the teachings of Ghulam Ahmad. They are, however considered non-Muslim in some Muslim countries (notably Saudi Arabia and Pakistan) by constitution because of the issue of Ghulam Ahmad's prophethood.

Ahmadiyya Muslim Community The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is the larger community of the two arising from the Ahmadiyya movement and is guided by the Khalifa (Caliph), currently Khalifatul Masih V, who is the spiritual leader of Ahmadis and the successor to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. He is called the Khalifatul Masih (successor of the Messiah). Flag of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community

Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement also known as the Lahoris, formed as a result of ideological differences within the Ahmadiyya movement, after the demise of Maulana Hakim Noor-ud-Din in 1914, the first Khalifa after its founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. The main dispute was based on differing interpretations of a verse [Qur'an 33:40] related to the finality of prophethood. Other issues of contention were the Kalima, funeral prayers, and the suitability of the elected Khalifa (2nd successor) Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad (the son of the Founder). The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement is led by a President or Emir.

Islamic schools and branches

Kharijite Islam Kharijite (lit. "those who seceded") is a general term embracing a variety of Muslim sects which, while originally supporting the Caliphate of Ali, eventually seceded after his son Imam Hasan negotiated with Mu'awiya during the 7th Century Islamic civil war (First Fitna). Their complaint was that the Imam must be spiritually pure, and that Hasan's compromise with Mu'awiya was a compromise of his spiritual purity, and therefore of his legitimacy as Imam or Caliph. While there are few remaining Kharijite or Kharijite-related groups, the term is sometimes used to denote Muslims who refuse to compromise with those with whom they disagree.

Ibadi The only surviving Kharijite sect is the Ibadi. The sect developed out of the 7th century Islamic sect of the Kharijites. Nonetheless, Ibadis see themselves as quite different from the Kharijite. Believed to be one of the earliest schools, it is said to have been founded less than 50 years after the death of Muhammad. It is the dominant form of Islam in Oman, but small numbers of Ibadi followers may also be found in countries in Northern and Eastern Africa. The early medieval Rustamid dynasty in Algeria was Ibadi. Ibadis usually consider non-Ibadi Muslims as unbelievers, though nowadays this attitude has highly relaxed. They approve of the caliphates of Abū Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab, whom they regard as the "Two Rightly Guided Caliphs". Specific beliefs include: walāyah- friendship and unity with the practicing true believers and the Ibadi Imams, barā'ah- dissociation and hostility towards the unbelievers and sinners, and wuqūf- reservation towards those whose status is unclear. While Ibadi Muslims maintain most of the beliefs of the original Kharijites, they have rejected the more aggressive methods. The Sufris (Arabic: ‫ﺳﻔﺮﻳﻴﻦ‬‎) were a sect of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, and a part of the Kharijites. They believe Sura 12 (Yusuf) of the Qur'an is not an authentic Sura.

Other groups and movements Ahl-e Haqq From the Ahl-e Haqq point of view, the universe is composed of two distinct yet interrelated worlds: the internal (batini) and the external (zahiri), each having its own order and rules. Although humans are only aware of the outer world, their lives are governed according to the rules of the inner world. Among other important pillars of their belief system are that the Divine Essence has successive manifestations in human form (mazhariyyat, derived from zahir) and the belief in transmigration of the soul (or dunaduni in Kurdish). The Ahl-e Haqq do not observe Muslim rites and rituals.[27]

Mahdavism Mahdavi Islam (Arabic: ‫ﻣﻬﺪﻭﻱ ﺍﺳﻼﻡ‬‎) is a sect within Islam, founded by Muhammad Jaunpuri in India in the 15th century CE. Jaunpuri declared himself to be the Imam Mahdi, the prophesied redeemer in Islam, and the denomination takes its name from the term mahdi ("guided"). Mahdavis follow the doctrine of Ahle Sunnat Wal Jamaat. The Mahdavi regard Jaunpuri as the Imam Mahdi, the Caliph of Allah and the second most important figure after the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Both the prophet and imam are considered to be masum (‫ﻣﻌﺼﻮﻡ‬, "infallible") [28]

Zikri is claimed to be based around the teachings of Muhammad Jaunpuri. In religious practice, the Zikris differ greatly from mainstream Muslims and the Mahdavis. A main misconception that Zikris perform prayers called dhikr five times a day is a major one, in which sacred verses are recited, as compared to the orthodox practice of salah. Most Zikris live in Balochistan, but a large number also live in Karachi, the Sindh interior, Oman and Iran.

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Islamic schools and branches

Messiah Foundation International Messiah Foundation International is a Pakistani Islamic sect.

Moorish Science The Moorish Science Temple of America is an American organization founded in the early 20th century by Timothy Drew. He claimed it was a sect of Islam but he also drew inspiration from Buddhism, Christianity, Freemasonry, Gnosticism and Taoism. Its primary tenet was the belief that there was a Negroid-looking population of aboriginal paleo-Americans which existed prior to the transatlantic slave trade that was subsequently confused with African people. Although often criticised as lacking scientific merit, adherents of the Moorish Science Temple of America believe that the Negroid Asiatic was the first human inhabitant of the Western Hemisphere. In their religious texts, adherents refer to themselves as "Asiatics",[29] presumably referring to the non-Mongoloid Paleoamericans (see Luzia Woman). These adherents also call themselves "indigenous Moors", "American Moors" or "Moorish Americans" in contradistinction to "African Moors" or "African Americans".

Nation of Islam The Nation of Islam was founded by Wallace Fard Muhammad in Detroit in 1930,[30] with a declared aim of "resurrecting" the spiritual, mental, social and economic condition of the black man and woman of America and the world. It is viewed by almost all Muslims as a heretical cult. The group believes Fard Muhammad was God on earth,[31] [30] a belief viewed as shirk by mainstream Muslims. It does not see Muhammad as the final prophet, but Elijah Muhammad as the "Messenger of Truth" and only allows people of black ethnicity and believes they are the original race on earth. In 1975, the teachings were abandoned and the group was renamed the American Society of Muslims by Warith Deen Mohammed, the son of Elijah Muhammad.[32] He brought the group into mainstream Sunni Islam, establishing mosques instead of temples and promoting the Five pillars of Islam.[33] [34] Thousands (estimated 2 million) of African Americans joined Imam Muhammad in mainstream Islam.[35] Some members were dissatisfied, including Louis Farrakhan, who revived the group again in 1978 with the same teachings of the previous leaders. It currently has from 30,000 to 70,000 members.[36]

Submitters The United Submitters International (USI) is a religious group, founded by Dr. Rashad Khalifa. Submitters considers themselves to be adhering to "true Islam", but prefer not to use the terms "Muslim" or "Islam", instead using the English equivalents: "Submitter" or "Submission". Submitters consider Khalifa to be a Messenger of God. Specific beliefs of the USI include: the dedication of all worship practices to God alone, upholding the Qur'an alone with the exception of two rejected Qur'an verses,[37] and rejecting the Islamic traditions of hadith and sunnah attributed to Muhammad. The main group attends "Masjid Tucson"[38] in Arizona, US.

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Islamic schools and branches

Zikri Zikris are minority Islamic religious sect in Pakistan. Zikri sect has similarities with Mahdavi sect.

Related concepts Islamism Islamism is a term that refers to a set of political ideologies derived from various fundamentalist views, which hold that Islam is not only a religion, but a political system governing the legal, economic and social imperatives of the state. Many Islamists do not refer to themselves as such and it is not a single particular movement. Religious views and ideologies of its adherents vary, and they may be Sunni Islamists or Shia Islamists depending upon their beliefs. Islamist groups include groups such as Al-Qaeda, the organizer of the September 11, 2001 attacks and perhaps the most prominent; and the Muslim Brotherhood, perhaps the oldest, which also forms the largest opposition grouping in Egypt. Although violence is often employed by some organizations, not all Islamist movements are violent.

Liberals Liberal and progressive movements have in common a religious outlook which depends mainly on Ijtihad or re-interpretations of scriptures. Liberal Muslims believe in greater autonomy of the individual in interpretation of scripture, a critical examination of religious texts, gender equality, human rights, LGBT rights and a modern view of culture, tradition, and other ritualistic practices in Islam.

Quran alone Qur'an-Aloners, or Qur'anists, refers to those who follow the Quran alone without additional details or hadiths. There are multiple "Qur'an-Alone" groups and movements.

Related faiths Bábism In 1844 a young man from Shiraz, Iran proclaimed to be the Mahdi and took on the title of "The Báb". The religion he began officially broke away from Islam, and gained a significant following in Iran. His followers were called heretics by the state, and in 1850 the Báb was publicly executed. Most Babis accepted the claims of Bahá'u'lláh, henceforth considering themselves Bahá'ís.[39]

Bahá'í Faith Following the death of the Báb almost all Bábís turned to Bahá'u'lláh, as the fulfillment of the Báb's prophecy of man yazhiruhu'lláh, "He Whom God shall make manifest." Baha'u'llah was a respected leader of the Bábís community. The Bábís eventually called themselves Bahá'ís. Bahá'ís believe that the Bábí and Islamic prophecies of the end times and the return of the Mahdi and Jesus were fulfilled. As does the Shaykhi school of Islamic interpretation, to which this group is historically connected, Bahá'ís interpret Islamic (and other) eschatology symbolically and metaphorically. Bahá'ís believe Bahá'u'lláh to be a Manifestation of God, a messenger on par with Muhammad. Due to its background and history, it is sometimes categorized as a sect of Islam, which is denied by its adherents and the Muslim mainstream. Bahá'ís have been persecuted as apostates in some Islamic countries, especially Iran.

43

Islamic schools and branches

44

Druze The Druze conception of the deity is declared by them to be one of strict and uncompromising unity. The main Druze doctrine states that God is both transcendent and immanent, in which He is above all attributes but at the same time He is omnipresent.[40]

Sikhism Sikhism has had strong influence from both Islam and Hinduism but more from the latter. Guru Nanak visited Hijaz to learn Holy Scriptures of Islam - Qur'an and Hadees. He was disillusioned with discrimination in Islam and Hinduism and the essence of Sikh teaching is summed up by Nanak in these words: "Realisation of Truth is higher than all else. Higher still is truthful living". Sikhism believes in equality of all humans and rejects discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, and sex. Sikhism also does not attach any importance to asceticism as a means to attain salvation, but stresses on the need of leading life as a householder.

Five Percenters An offshoot of the Nation of Islam, this group was formed in Harlem, New York City in the 1960s by Clarence 13X, who proclaimed himself to be Allah (God). The group believes God is black and focuses on bringing justice to African-American youth. They have little relation to mainstream Islam, except that they use the expression Allahu Akbar.

Meivazhi Meivazhi is a South Indian religious faith which is related with Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Jainism as well as Judaism.

Nuwaubu At various times known as the Ansaaru Allah Community, Nubian Islamic Hebrews, and Nuwaubians, this group no longer claims to be Muslim. Its founder and leader, Malachi Z. York, was known as As Sayyid Al Imaam Issa Al Haadi Al Mahdi and other similar names when he was claiming to be a Muslim and the successor to Elijah Muhammad. The Nuwaubian teachings are now based on ancient Sumerian and Egyptian texts with extraterrestrial revelations from the alien spirit said to be inhabiting York.

Subud Subud is a faith which is originated in Indonesia and related to Islam.

Geographical distribution

Schools of law

Schools of law

Muslim states

Muslim officiality

Islamic schools and branches

Percentage of muslims

45

Percentage of muslims

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

[6] [7] [8]

Why was Jamaat-ul-Muslimeen revived? (http:/ / www. aljamaat. org/ islam/ articles/ a21. htm) Ameer-e-Jamaat-ul-Muslimeen, Muhammad Ishtiaq (http:/ / www. aljamaat. org/ jamaat-ul-muslimeen/ muhammadishtiaq. htm) "Shīʿite" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 540503/ Shiite). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2010. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population" (http:/ / pewforum. org/ Muslim/ Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population(6). aspx). Pew Research Center. October 7, 2009. . Retrieved 2010-08-24. Miller, Tracy, ed (October 2009) (PDF). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population (http:/ / pewforum. org/ newassets/ images/ reports/ Muslimpopulation/ Muslimpopulation. pdf). Pew Research Center. . Retrieved 2009-10-08. Corbin (1993), pp. 45–51 Tabatabaei (1979), pp. 41–44 Dakake (2008), pp.1 and 2

[9] "Religious Distribution in Lebanon" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ packages/ khtml/ 2006/ 07/ 19/ world/ middleeast/ 20060719_MIDEAST_GRAPHIC. html) New York Times [10] How many Shia? (http:/ / islamicweb. com/ beliefs/ cults/ shia_population. htm) [11] "Shia women too can initiate divorce" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ city/ lucknow/ Shia-women-too-can-initiate-divorce/ articleshow/ 334804. cms). The Times of India. November 06, 2006. . Retrieved 2010-06-21. [12] "Talaq rights proposed for Shia women" (http:/ / www. dnaindia. com/ india/ report_talaq-rights-proposed-for-shia-women_1062327). Daily News and Analysis, www.dnaindia.com. 5 November 2006. . Retrieved 2010-06-21. [13] Momen, Moojan, An Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Yale University Press, 1985, p.277 [14] "Shi'ah Islam" (http:/ / www. islamic-harmonization. org/ shiah. html). Islamic Harmonisation. . Retrieved 2010-07-01. [15] Discrimination towards Shia in Saudi Arabia (http:/ / www. wsws. org/ articles/ 2001/ oct2001/ saud-o08. shtml) [16] Tabatabae (1979), p. 76 [17] The Revenge of the Shia (http:/ / www. wilsoncenter. org/ index. cfm?fuseaction=wq. essay& essay_id=202986) [18] Religious Minorities in the Muslim World (http:/ / iml. jou. ufl. edu/ projects/ Spring05/ Shullick/ twelver. htm) [19] Notes on Islam from a Baha'i Perspective (http:/ / bahai-library. com/ stockman_history_islam) [20] International Crisis Group. The Shiite Question in Saudi Arabia, Middle East Report N°45, 19 September 2005 (http:/ / merln. ndu. edu/ archive/ icg/ shiitequestion. pdf) [21] Islamic Voice (http:/ / www. islamicvoice. com/ september. 98/ features. htm) [22] Alawi Islam (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ intro/ islam-alawi. htm) [23] Trimingham (1998), p.1 [24] "Mourides Celebrate 19 Years in North America" (http:/ / www. africanmag. com/ viewer/ magazines/ article. asd/ id/ 504/ vts/ design001) by Ayesha Attah. The African magazine. (n.d.) Retrieved 2007-11-13. [25] Hazrat Sultan Bahu (http:/ / www. yabahu. com) [26] Home - ZIKR (http:/ / www. zikr. co. uk) [27] Z. Mir-Hosseini, Inner Truth and Outer History: The Two Worlds of the Ahl-e Haqq of Kurdistan, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol.26, 1994, p.267-268 [28] http:/ / khalifatullahmehdi. info/ books/ english/ Maulud. pdf [29] The Holy Koran of the Moorish Science Temple of America Chapter XXV - "A Holy Covenant of the Asiatic Nation" [30] Milton C. Sernett (1999). African American religious history: a documentary witness. Duke University Press. pp. 499-501. [31] Elijah Muhammad. History of the Nation of Islam. BooksGuide (2008). pp. 10. [32] Richard Brent Turner (2004-08-25) Mainstream Islam in the African-American Experience (http:/ / www. masnet. org/ news. asp?id=1572) Muslim American Society. Retrieved on 2009-06-22. [33] Evolution of a Community, WDM Publications, 1995. [34] Lincoln, C. Eric. (1994) The Black Muslims in America, Third Edition, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company) page 265. [35] Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Marie Cantlon (2006). Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America. Indiana University Press. pp. 752. ISBN 0-253-34685-1, 9780253346858

Islamic schools and branches

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[36] 2008-02-14 "America's black Muslims close a rift" (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 2002/ 0214/ p03s01-ussc. html) Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved on 2009-06-22. [37] 9:128-129 (http:/ / www. usc. edu/ dept/ MSA/ quran/ 009. qmt. html#009. 128) Two False Verses Removed from the Quran (http:/ / submission. info/ quran/ appendices/ appendix24. html) [38] Masjid Tucson (Mosque of Tucson)— Official Website (http:/ / www. masjidtucson. org/ ) [39] Religious Dissidence and Urban Leadership: Bahais in Qajar Shiraz and Tehran (http:/ / www-personal. umich. edu/ ~jrcole/ bahai/ 2000/ urbanbh2. htm), by Juan Cole, originally published in Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 37 (1999): 123-142 [40] The Druze Faith by Sami Nasib Makarem

External links • • • • •

Online Fatwa Site - Questions and Answers (http://www.islamqa.com/en) The Four Sunni Schools of Thought (http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/ahm/newmadhh.htm) Ask Imam - Islam Q&A (http://www.askimam.org) Online Islamic Learning (http://www.sunnipath.com) Sufism - Islamic Science of Spirituality (http://www.tasawwuf.org/)

Sunni Islam Sunni Islam (  /ˈsuːni/ or /ˈsʊni/) or Sunnism (/ˈsuːnɪzəm/ or /ˈsʊnɪzəm/) is the largest branch of Islam;[2] [3] . Sunni Muslims are referred to in Arabic as ʾAhl ūs-Sunnah wa āl-Ǧamāʿah (Arabic: ‫ﺃﻫﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺔ‬‎, "people of the tradition [of Muhammad] and the community") or ʾAhl ūs-Sunnah (Arabic: ‫ﺃﻫﻞ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺴﻨﺔ‬‎) for short; in English, they are known as Sunnis or Sunnites. Sunni Islam is referred to as the orthodox version of the religion.[4] The word "Sunni" comes from the term Sunnah (Arabic: ‫ﺳﻨﺔ‬‎), which refers to the sayings and actions of Muhammad that are recorded in hadiths (collections of narrations regarding Muhammad).[5] Sunni Muslims generally consider Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim to be entirely authentic and accurate hadiths.

The Al-Azhar University in Cairo, Egypt, is the chief centre of Sunni Islamic learning in the world.

Etymology Sunni is a broad term derived from Sunnah (‫ ﺳﻨﺔ‬Arabic pronunciation: [ˈsunna], plural ‫ ﺳﻨﻦ‬sunan Arabic [6] pronunciation: [ˈsunæn]), which is an Arabic word that means "habit" or "usual practice". The Muslim usage of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of Muhammad. In its full form, this branch of Islam is referred to as "Ahlus-Sunnah Wa Al-Jama'ah" (literally, "People of the Tradition and the Congregation").

Sunni Islam

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Anyone claiming to follow the Sunnah and can show that they have no action or belief against the Prophetic Sunnah can consider him or herself to be a Sunni Muslim. However, it should be noted that Shi'a Muslims also hold that they follow the Sunnah.

Schools of law (Madh'hab) Islamic law is known as the Sharī'ah. The Sharī'ah is based on the Qur'an and the Sunnah. The Madh'hab translates to "way", and different Madhaheb (plural of Madh'hab) reflect different opinions on some laws and obligations of the sharia, for example when one Madh'hab sees a certain act as an obligation, while the other does not. It has to be clear that each one of these schools consider the others to be fully valid and accepted.

The Mosque of Uqba also known as the Great Mosque of Kairouan was, in particular during the ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries, an [1] important center of Islamic learning with a Maliki emphasis. The Mosque of Uqba is located in the city of Kairouan in Tunisia.

Below are the most famous four:

Hanafi School Abu Hanifah (died 767), was the founder of the Hanafi school and student of Ja'far al-Sadiq. He was born in the year 702 CE in Kufa, Iraq.[7] [8] Muslims of Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Central Asia, the Muslim areas of Southern Russia, the Caucasus, most of the Muslim areas of the Balkans and Turkey and parts of Iraq, all follow this school of jurisprudence. It is also the dominant school of Muslims in the United Kingdom and Germany.

Maliki School Malik ibn Anas (died 795) Student of the imam Abu Hanifah's eldest student, Muhammad, Malik ibn Anas developed his ideas in Medina. His doctrine is recorded in the Muwatta which has been adopted by most North African and West African countries like Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Nigeria and others except Egypt, Horn of Africa and Sudan. Also, the Maliki madhab is the official state madhhab of Kuwait, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates. He was one of the teachers of Imam al-Shafi'i. One of greatest historical centers of Maliki teaching, especially during the ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries, is the Mosque of Uqba also known as the Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia).[1] [9]

Shafi'i school Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i (died 820 CE) was a student of Malik. He taught in Iraq and then in Egypt. Muslims in Indonesia, Lower Egypt, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Coastal Maharashtra/Konkan and Kerala in India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Palestine, Yemen and Kurds in the Kurdish regions follow the Shafi'i school. Al-Shafi'i placed great emphasis on the Sunnah of Muhammad, as embodied in the Hadith, as a source of the Shari'ah.

Sunni Islam

Hanbali School Ahmad bin Hanbal (died 855), the namesake of the Hanbali school, was born in Baghdad. He learned extensively from al-Shafi'i. This school of jurisprudence is followed predominantly in the Arabian Peninsula.

Theology of the four Madhab The followers of these four schools follow the same basic belief system but differ from one another in terms of practice and execution of rituals, and in juristic interpretation of "divine principles" (or Shariah) as envisaged in Quran and Hadith. However Sunni Muslims consider them all equally valid. There are other Sunni schools of law. However, many are followed by only small numbers of people and are relatively unknown due to the popularity of the four major schools; also, many have died out or were not sufficiently recorded by their followers to survive. Interpreting the Shari'ah to derive specific rulings (such as how to pray) is known as fiqh, which literally means understanding. A madh'hab is a particular tradition of interpreting fiqh. These schools focus on specific evidence (Shafi'i and Hanbali) or general principles (Hanafi and Maliki) derived from specific evidences. The schools were started by eminent Muslim scholars in the first four centuries of Islam. As these schools represent clearly spelled out methodologies for interpreting the Shari'aa, there has been little change in the methodology per se. However, as the social and economic environment changes, new fiqh rulings are being made. For example, when tobacco appeared it was declared as 'disliked' because of its smell. When medical information showed that smoking was dangerous, that ruling was changed to 'forbidden'. Current fiqh issues include things like downloading pirated software and cloning. The consensus is that the Shari'ah does not change but fiqh rulings change all the time. A madh'hab is not to be confused with a religious sect. There may be scholars representing all four madh'habs living in larger Muslim communities, and it is up to those who consult them to decide which school they prefer.

Demographics The vast majority (approximately 80-90%[10] [11] ) of Muslims worldwide practice Sunni Islam.[2] [12] The remaining are Shia along with other smaller groups.

Sunni theological traditions Some Islamic scholars faced questions that they felt were not All the different Islamic schools and branches shown in explicitly answered in the Qur'an, especially questions with regard colors. to philosophical conundra like the nature of God, the existence of human free will, or the eternal existence of the Qur'an. Various schools of theology and philosophy developed to answer these questions, each claiming to be true to the Qur'an and the Muslim tradition (sunnah). Among Sunnites, the following were the dominant traditions: • Athari (Arabic: ‫)ﺃﺛﺮﻱ‬, or "textualism", is derived from the Arabic word athar, literally meaning "remnant", and also referring to "narrations". Their disciples are called the Atharis. The Atharis are considered to be one of three Sunni schools of Aqidah: Athari, Ashari, and Maturidi. • The Athari methodology of textual interpretation is to avoid delving into extensive theological speculation. They believe in Allah and his attributes in the exact fashion that they were mentioned in the Quran, the Sunnah, and by the Sahabah. They do not attempt to further interpret the aforementioned texts by giving a literal meaning like in Ẓāhirīya (literalism) or the Tashbih (simile or likening), nor through tahrif (distortion), nor ta`weel (allegory or metaphor), nor ta'teel (denial). They avoid entering into deep rational philosophical discussions of matters relating to Islamic beliefs that are not supported by the Quran, the Sunnah or the

48

Sunni Islam understanding of the Sahabah with specific wording; rather, their discussion and presentation of beliefs revolves entirely around textual evidences found in these three main sources, while remaining cautious to avoid taking the path of the Ẓāhirīs (literalists) either. The Atharis believe this to be the methodology adhered to by the first three generations of Muslims (i.e. the Salaf), therefore making it the school of Sunni Aqidah that they believe is adhering to the truth. Due to the emphasis of the Hanbali school of thought on textualism, Muslims who are Hanbali usually prefer the Athari methodology in Aqidah. However, Atharis are not exclusively Hanbali, many Muslims from other schools of thought adhere to the Athari school of Aqidah also. The Atharis are also called sometimes the Salafis. And their theological system of Aqidah is most of the time called Aqidat al-Salaf (or in fewer occasions: Aqidat As-hab al-Hadith). • Ash'ari, founded by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (873–935). This theological system of Aqidah was embraced by plenty of Muslim scholars such as Imam al-Ghazali.[13] • Ash'ari theology stresses divine revelation over human reason. Contrary to the Mu'tazilites, they say that ethics cannot be derived from human reason, but that God's commands, as revealed in the Qur'an and the Sunnah (the practices of Muhammad and his companions as recorded in the traditions, or hadith), are the sole source of all morality and ethics. • Regarding the nature of God and the divine attributes, the Ash'ari rejected the Mu'tazilite position that all Qur'anic references to God as having physical attributes were metaphorical.[14] The Ash'aris insisted that these attributes were "true", since the Qur'an could not be inclusive of an error, but that they were not to be understood as implying anthropomorphism or any materialistic bodily nature. • Ash'aris tend to stress divine omnipotence over human free will. • Ash'aris believe that the Qur'an is eternal and uncreated. • Maturidi, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (died 944). Maturidiyyah was a minority tradition until it was accepted by the Turkish tribes of Central Asia (previously they had been Ash'ari and followers of the Shafi'i school, it was only later on migration into Anatolia that they became Hanafis and followers of the Maturidi creed). One of the tribes, the Seljuk Turks, migrated to Turkey, where later the Ottoman Empire was established.[15] Their preferred school of law achieved a new prominence throughout their whole empire although it continued to be followed almost exclusively by followers of the Hanafi school while followers of the Shafi and Maliki schools within the empire followed the Ash'ari school. Thus, wherever can be found Hanafi followers, there can be found the Maturidi creed. • Maturidis argue that the knowledge of God's existence can be derived through pure reason.

Sunni view of hadith The Qur'an as it exists today in book form was compiled by Muhammad's companions (Sahaba) in approximately 650 CE, and is accepted by all Muslim denominations. However, there were many matters of belief and daily life that were not directly prescribed in the Qur'an, but were actions that were observed by Muhammad and the early Muslim community. Later generations sought out oral traditions regarding the early history of Islam, and the practices of Muhammad and his first followers, and wrote them down so that they might be preserved. These recorded oral traditions are called hadith. Muslim scholars have through the ages sifted through the hadith and evaluated the chain of narrations of each tradition, scrutinizing the trustworthiness of the narrators and judging the strength of each hadith accordingly. Most Sunni Muslims accept the hadith collections of Bukhari and Muslim as the most authentic (sahih, or correct), and while accepting all hadiths verified as authentic, grant a slightly lesser status to the collections of other recorders. There are, however, four other collections of hadith that are also held in particular reverence by Sunni Muslims, making a total of six:

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Sunni Islam • • • • • •

Sahih al-Bukhari Sahih Muslim Sunan an-Nasa'ii Sunan Abu Dawud Sunan at-Tirmidhi Sunan ibn Majah

There are also other collections of hadith which also contain many authentic hadith and are frequently used by scholars and specialists. Examples of these collections include: • • • • • •

Musannaf of Abd al-Razzaq Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal Mustadrak of Al Haakim Muwatta of Imam Malik Sahih Ibn Hibbaan Sahih Ibn Khuzaymah

Notes [1] Wilfrid Scawen Blunt and Riad Nourallah, The future of Islam, Routledge, 2002, page 199 [2] "Islam Today" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ empires/ islam/ faithtoday. html). Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. . Retrieved 2010-12-17. [3] "Sunnite" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 574006/ Sunnite). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. . Retrieved 2010-12-17. [4] "Sunni and Shia Islam" (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?frd/ cstdy:@field(DOCID+ af0060)). Library of Congress Country Studies. . Retrieved 2010-12-17. [5] "Sunna" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ sunna). Merriam-Webster. . Retrieved 2010-12-17. "the body of Islamic custom and practice based on Muhammad's words and deeds" [6] Sunnah (http:/ / www. usc. edu/ schools/ college/ crcc/ engagement/ resources/ texts/ muslim/ reference/ glossary/ term. SUNNAH. html), Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement [7] Josef W. Meri, Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, 1 edition, (Routledge: 2005) in a Afghan-Persian family(citation needed), p.5 [8] Hisham M. Ramadan, Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary, (AltaMira Press: 2006), p.26 [9] Ira Marvin Lapidus, A history of Islamic societies, Cambridge University Press, 2002, page 308 [10] CIA.gov (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ fields/ 2122. html) [11] "Islām" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 295507/ Islam). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. . Retrieved 2010-08-26. [12] Miller, Tracy, ed (October 2009) (PDF). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population (http:/ / pewforum. org/ newassets/ images/ reports/ Muslimpopulation/ Muslimpopulation. pdf). Pew Research Center. . Retrieved 2010-08-26. [13] J. B. Schlubach. "Fethullah Gülen and Al-Ghazzali on Tolerance" (http:/ / www. fethullahgulenforum. org/ articles/ 13/ fethullah-gulen-al-ghazzali-on-tolerance). . Retrieved 2010-01-07. [14] Bülent Þenay. "Ash'ariyyah Theology, Ashariyyah" (http:/ / mb-soft. com/ believe/ txw/ ashari. htm). BELIEVE Religious Information Source. . Retrieved 2006-04-01. [15] "Maturidiyyah" (http:/ / philtar. ucsm. ac. uk/ encyclopedia/ islam/ sunni/ matur. html). Philtar. . Retrieved 2006-04-01.

Further reading • Branon Wheeler, Applying the Canon in Islam: The Authorization and Maintenance of Interpretive Reasoning in Ḥanafī Scholarship (http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=slLpouSlzPcC&printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_atb), SUNY Press, 1996

External links • Books Related of Ahle Sunnat wa Jamat Aqaid (http://www.daweteislami.net/book.php) • Books Related of Ahle Sunnat Wa Jamat Aqaid (http://www.rehmani.net/books.php) • PBS - Islam Today (http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithtoday.html) • Books relating to belief of ahl as-Sunnat (http://www.hakikatkitabevi.com.tr/english/english.htm) • Ahl as-sunnat belief (http://www.ourreligionislam.com/detail.asp?Aid=4279)

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Sunni Islam • Translation and Detailed Commentary on Quran (http://www.classicalislamgroup.co.uk/index. php?view=tafseer) • SunniPath - Study Islam Online (http://www.sunnipath.com/)

Muslim world The term Muslim world (also known as Ummah) has several meanings. In a religious sense, it refers to those who adhere to the teachings of Islam, referred to as Muslims. In a cultural sense, it refers to Islamic civilization, inclusive of non-Muslims living in that civilization. In a modern geopolitical sense, the term usually refers collectively to Muslim-majority The Muslim population of the world map by percentage of each country, according to the countries, states, districts, or towns. Pew Forum 2009 report on world Muslim populations. Muslims number between 1.2 and 1.6 billion people, or roughly one-fifth of mankind, and are spread across many different nations and ethnic groups. Islam emphasizes unity and defense of fellow Muslims, although many schools and branches (see Shi'a–Sunni relations, for example) exist. In the past both Pan-Islamism and nationalist currents have influenced the status of the Muslim world. Current reports from various sources have estimated that 1.2 to 1.57 billion Muslims populate the world, or about 23% of an estimated 2009 world population of 6.8 billion[1] [2] with around 62% in Asia-Pacific, 20% in the Middle East and North Africa, 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa and around 2% in Europe & Americas.[3] [4] [5] [6]

History Muslim history involves the history of the Islamic faith as a religion and as a social institution. The history of Islam began in Arabia with the Islamic prophet Muhammad's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century. Under the Rashidun and Umayyads, the Caliphate grew rapidly geographically expansion of Muslim power well beyond the Arabian Peninsula in the The Islamic World expansion, 622-750   Expansion 622-632  Expansion form of a vast Muslim Empire with an 632-661  Expansion 661-750 area of influence that stretched from northwest India, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees. During much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early 21st century. The fast-growing Western interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts

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Muslim world

52

and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world in contemporary history.[7]

Classical culture The Islamic Golden Age, also sometimes known as the Islamic Renaissance,[8] is traditionally dated from the 7th to 13th centuries C.E.,[9] but has been extended to the 15th and 16th[10] centuries by more recent scholarship.

Arts The term "Islamic art and architecture" denotes the works of art and architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations.[11] [12] Aniconism and Arabesque No Islamic visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because it is believed that such artistic depictions may lead to idolatry. Interior view of the dome in the Selimiye Moreover, Muslims believe that God is incorporeal, making any twoMosque, Edirne. or three- dimensional depictions impossible. Instead, Muslims describe God by the names and attributes that, according to Islam, he revealed to his creation. All but one sura of the Qur'an begins with the phrase "In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful". Images of Mohammed are likewise prohibited. Such aniconism and iconoclasm[13] can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology. Islamic art frequently adopts the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as arabesque. Such designs are highly nonrepresentational, as Islam forbids representational depictions as found in pre-Islamic pagan religions. Despite this, there is a presence of depictional art in some Muslim societies, notably the miniature style made famous in Persia and under the Ottoman Empire which featured not only paintings of people and animals but also depictions of Qur'anic stories and Islamic traditional narratives. Another reason why Islamic art is usually abstract is to symbolize the transcendence, indivisible and infinite nature of God, an objective achieved by arabesque.[14] Islamic calligraphy is an omnipresent decoration in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in the form of Qur'anic verses. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts, which can be found adorning the walls and domes of mosques, the sides of minbars, and so on.[14] Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other significant features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.[15] The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock mosque, and recurring even up until the 17th century with the Taj Mahal. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into Western architecture.[16] Ceramics Further information: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam Between the 8th and 18th centuries, the use of glazed ceramics was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of elaborate pottery.[17] Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of stone-paste ceramics, originating from 9th century Iraq.[18] Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Old world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550).[19]

Muslim world Architecture Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque.[20] Through it the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Iberian Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[21] in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Persian-style mosques are characterized by their tapered brick pillars, large arcades, and arches The Taj Mahal is the most notable example of Islamic architecture in supported each by several pillars. In South Asia, South Asia it was constructed according to the orders of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. elements of Hindu architecture were employed, but were later superseded by Persian designs. The most numerous and largest of mosques exist in Turkey, which obtained influence from Byzantine, Persian and Syrian designs, although Turkish architects managed to implement their own style of cupola domes.[20]

Literature Further information: Islamic poetry and Arabic poetry The best known work of fiction from the Islamic world is One Thousand and One Nights or (Arabian Nights), which is a compilation of folk tales. The original concept is derived from a pre-Islamic Persian prototype that probably relied partly on Indian elements.[22] It reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[23] All Arabian fantasy tales tend to be called Arabian Nights stories when translated into English, regardless of whether they appear in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights or not.[23] This work has been very influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.[24] Many imitations were written, especially in France.[25] Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor and Ali Baba. A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance "Ali Baba" by Maxfield Parrish. (love) is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a Latin version of Layla and Majnun to an extent.[26] Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan. Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel. Ibn Tufail wrote the first Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic feral children living in seclusion on a desert island, both being

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Muslim world the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel.[27] [28] Theologus Autodidactus, written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), is the first example of a science fiction novel. It deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation, futurology, the end of the world and doomsday, resurrection, and the afterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of science and philosophy through the use of fiction.[29] A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English.[30] [31] [32] [33] Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle to write his own Aladdin is known to have owned a Magic carpet, a legendary carpet that can be used to philosophical novel set on an island, transport persons who are on it instantaneously or quickly to their destination. The Aspiring Naturalist.[34] The story also anticipated Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Emile: or, On Education in some ways, and is also similar to Mowgli's story in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book as well as Tarzan's story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother wolf.[35] Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, considered the greatest epic of Italian literature, derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology: the Hadith and the Kitab al-Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before[36] as Liber Scale Machometi, "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder") concerning Muhammad's ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi. The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century.[37]

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Philosophy Further information: Logic in philosophy, Kalam, Avicennism, Averroism, Illuminationism, and Transcendent theosophy One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture."[38] Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims.[38] The Persian scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037) had more than 450 books attributed to him. His writings were concerned with many subjects, most notably philosophy and medicine. His medical textbook The Canon of Medicine was used as the standard text in European universities for centuries. His works on Aristotle was a key step in the transmission of learning from Ancient Greece to the Islamic world and the West. He often corrected the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad. He also wrote The Book of Healing, an influential scientific and philosophical encyclopedia. His thinking and that of his follower Ibn Rushd (Averroes) was incorporated into Christian philosophy during the Middle Ages, notably by Thomas Aquinas.

Islamic

In Al-Andalus, Ibn Rushd founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, was influential in the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.

One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries had an impact on the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.[39] He also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence".[40] Avicenna also founded his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands. He was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and founder of Avicennian logic, and he developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa, and distinguished between essence and existence. Another influential philosopher who had a significant influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail. His philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdha, translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture,[41] condition of possibility, materialism,[42] and Molyneux's Problem.[43] European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke,[44] Gottfried Leibniz,[33] Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens,[45] George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers,[46] and Samuel Hartlib.[34] Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when Mulla Sadra founded his school of Transcendent theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism.[47] Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer in evolutionary thought; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); Abu Rayhan Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer in the philosophy of history[48] and social philosophy.

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Sciences Muslim scientists made significant advances in the sciences. They placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from circa 1000, in his Book of Optics. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.[49] [50] [51] The mathematician al-Khwārizmī, from whose name the word algorithm derives, is considered to be the father of algebra (which is named after his book, kitab al-jabr).[52] Recent studies show that it is very likely that the Medieval Muslim artists were aware of advanced decagonal quasicrystal geometry (discovered half a millennium later in 1970s and 1980s in West) and used it in intricate decorative tilework in the architecture.[53] Muslim mathematicians also made several refinements to the Arabic numerals, such as the introduction of decimal point notation.

Illustration of medieval Muslim surgical instruments from physician Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi's 11th century medical encyclopedia: Kitab al-Tasrif.

Muslim physicians contributed significantly to the field of medicine, including the subjects of anatomy and physiology: such as in the 15th century Persian work by Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn al-Faqih Ilyas entitled Tashrih al-badan (Anatomy of the body) which contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems; or in the work of the Egyptian physician Ibn al-Nafis, who proposed the theory of pulmonary circulation. Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine remained an authoritative medical textbook in Europe until the 18th century. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (also known as Abulcasis) contributed to the discipline of medical surgery with his Kitab al-Tasrif ("Book of Concessions"), a medical encyclopedia which was later translated to Latin and used in European and Muslim medical schools for centuries. Other medical advancements came in the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy.[54] In astronomy, Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Averroes, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir were later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories were also discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Abu Rayhan Biruni, Sijzi, Qotb al-Din Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī. The astrolabe, though originally developed by the Greeks, was perfected by Islamic astronomers and engineers, and was subsequently brought to Europe. Muslim chemists and alchemists played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry. Scholars such as Will Durant and Alexander von Humboldt regard Muslim chemists to be the founders of chemistry. In particular, Jābir ibn Hayyān is regarded as the "father of chemistry". The works of Arab chemists influenced Roger Bacon (who introduced the empirical method to Europe, strongly influenced by his reading of Arabic writers), and later Isaac Newton. A number of chemical processes (particularly in alchemy) and distillation techniques (such as the production of alcohol) were developed in the Muslim world and then spread to Europe. Some of the most famous scientists from the Islamic world include Jābir ibn Hayyān (polymath, father of chemistry), al-Farabi (polymath), Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (father of modern surgery),[55] Ibn al-Haytham (universal genius,

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father of optics, founder of psychophysics and experimental psychology,[56] pioneer of scientific method, "first scientist"), Abu Rayhan Biruni (universal genius, father of Indology[57] and geodesy, "first anthropologist"),[58] Avicenna (universal genius, father of momentum[59] and modern medicine),[60] Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (father of demography,[61] cultural history,[62] historiography,[63] the philosophy of history, sociology,[48] and the social sciences),[64] among many others.

Technology In technology, the Muslim world adopted papermaking from China.[65] The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China via Islamic countries, where the formulas for pure potassium nitrate and an explosive gunpowder effect were first developed.[66] [67] Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using new technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hormuz was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean, along which Muslim countries traded with each other and with European powers such as Venice, Genoa and Catalonia. The Silk Road crossing Central Asia passed through Muslim states between China and Europe.

Gun-wielding Ottoman Janissaries and defending Knights of Saint John at the Siege of Rhodes in 1522, from an Ottoman manuscript.

Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, steam power,[68] fossil fuels such as petroleum, and early large factory complexes (tiraz in Arabic).[69] The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, sawmills, ship mills, stamp mills, steel mills, A manuscript written during the Abbasid Era. sugar mills, tide mills and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[65] Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[10] Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution.[70] A number of industries were active during the Arab Agricultural Revolution, producing goods including astronomical instruments, ceramics, chemicals, clocks, glass, matting, pulp and paper, perfume, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, rope, silk, sugar, textiles, and weapons. Also important to the economy of the period were the use of mechanical hydropower and wind power, shipbuilding, and the mining of minerals such as sulfur, lead and iron. Early factories (tiraz) were built for many of these industries, and knowledge of these industries was later transmitted to medieval Europe, especially during the Latin translations of the 12th century. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by Egyptian craftsmen in Greece.[71] The agricultural and

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handicraft industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.[72]

Modern world Geographic spread

Map of the world of Muslim majority countries

Countries with the largest Muslim populations (2009) With the exception of India, Ethiopia, China and Russia the majority of the population in the following countries are Muslim.[73] • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Indonesia 202,867,000 (88.2%) Pakistan 174,082,000 (96.3%) India 160,945,000 (13.4%) Bangladesh 145,312,000 (89.6%) Egypt 78,513,000 (94.6%) Nigeria 78,056,000 (50.4%) Iran 73,777,000 (99.4%) Turkey 73,619,000 (98.0%) Algeria 34,199,000 (98.0 %) Morocco 31,993,000 (99.0%) Iraq 30,428,000 (99.0%) Sudan 30,121,000 (71.3%) Afghanistan 28,072,000 (99.7%) Ethiopia 28,063,000 (33.9%) Uzbekistan 26,469,000 (96.3%) Saudi Arabia 24,949,000 (97.0%) Yemen 23,363,000 (99.1%) China 21,667,000 (1.6%)

• Syria 20,196,000 (92.2%) • Malaysia 16,581,000 (60.4%)

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• Russia 16,482,000 (11.7%) • Niger 15,075,000 (98.6%) • Azerbaijan 8,765,000 (99.2%) [74] Many Muslims not only live in, but also have an official status in the following regions: • Southwest Asia: Arab nations such as Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait and non-Arab nations such as Iran. • Africa: North African countries such as Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt; Northeast African countries like Somalia, Somaliland (de facto state), Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Sudan; and West African countries like Mali, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Burkina Faso, Sierra Leone, Niger and Nigeria. • Southern Europe: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Northern Cyprus and Turkey. • Eastern Europe: (North Caucasus and Idel-Ural) and Ukraine (especially in the Crimea) • Central Asia: Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan • South Asia: Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the Maldives • East Asia: parts of China (Xinjiang and Ningxia) • Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Brunei and Malaysia The countries of Southwest Asia, and many in Northern and Northeastern Africa are considered part of the Greater Middle East. In Chechnya, Dagestan, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkessia, Ingushetia, Tatarstan, Bashkortostan in Russia, Muslims are in the majority. Some definitions would also include the sizable Muslim minorities in: • several countries of Europe (of which the Muslim population in Cyprus, Russia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, France, the Netherlands and Denmark make up at least 5% of the total population of that country, and with more than 37 million Muslims, collectively, living in Russia, France, Italy, Germany, United Kingdom, Netherlands,[75] • several regions of Russia, other than ethnic republics above (Adyghea, North Ossetia-Alania, etc.) • some parts of India (India has the third-largest population of Muslims of any country; see: Islam in India) • Singapore, Myanmar, Pattani (Thailand), and Mindanao (Philippines) • Guyana, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago. • Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, Malawi, South Africa, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Uganda, Ethiopia • Crimea in Ukraine

Demographics Approximately one-fifth of the world's population is Muslim. Estimates conclude that the number of Muslims in the world ranges between 1.2 to 1.57 billion. Muslims are the majority in 57 countries, they speak about 60 languages and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds. Arabic is the most spoken language of Muslims, and is spoken by 20% of Muslims. Bengali is the second most commonly spoken language, spoken by around 10% of the total population, and Punjabi is the third most spoken language (spoken by around 5% of Muslim world). Other major languages spoken by the Muslims are Javanese, Turkish, Urdu and Persian.

Important organizations Organisation of Islamic Cooperation •

Economy GDP, GDP/capita, Exports, Imports

•

Education

Muslim world

The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) is an inter-governmental organization grouping fifty-seven States. The Organisation is the collective voice of the Muslim world to safeguard the interest and ensure the progress and well-being of their peoples and those of other Muslims in the world over. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) includes many nations that are also in the Arab League. A politically motivated oil embargo in 1974 (to support Egypt and Syria in the 1973 Yom Kippur War against Israel after the US re-equipped Israel with armaments) had drastic economic and political consequences in the United States and Europe.

Religion and state Further information: Political aspects of Islam and Islam and secularism

Religion and state in Muslim majority countries.   Islamic State: Adopted Islam as the ideological foundation for their political institution.  State religionState Religion: Religious body or creed officially endorsed by the state.  Secular State: Officially neutral in matters of religion, neither supporting nor opposing any particular religions.  No Declaration: No announcement formally or officially.

Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulama function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Azerbaijan was the first secular republic in the Muslim world, between 1918 and 1920, when it was incorporated into the Soviet Union.[76] [77] [78] Turkey has been governed as a secular state since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. By contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah, Ruhollah Khomeini.[79] Many Muslim countries have implemented some form of Sharia law or otherwise have Islam as the official state religion. Consequently, in those countries, areas of society ranging from politics to law to schooling, among others, have been affected. However, other states in the Muslim world remain officially secular.

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Countries Countries in the Muslim world sorted by state religion: Islamic states Islamic states have adopted Islam as the ideological foundation for their political institution. • • • • • • • •

Afghanistan[80] Bahrain[81] Iran[82] Mauritania[83] Oman[84] Pakistan[85] Yemen[86] Saudi Arabia

State religion State religion are religious body or creed officially endorsed by the state. • Algeria[87] • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Bangladesh[88] Egypt[89] Iraq[90] Kuwait[91] Libya[92] Malaysia[93] Maldive[94] Morocco[95] Sudan Somalia[96] Somaliland (unrecognised state, claimed in whole by Somalia)[97] Tunisia[98] United Arab Emirates[99]

Secular states Secular states are officially neutral in matters of religion, neither supporting nor opposing any particular religions. • • • • • • • • • • •

Albania Azerbaijan[100] Bosnia and Herzegovina Burkina Faso[101] Chad[102] Djibouti[103] Gambia[104] Guinea[102] Indonesia Kazakhstan[105] [106] Kosovo

• Kyrgyzstan[107] • Mali[108]

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Northern Cyprus Senegal[109] Tajikstan[110] Turkmenistan[111] Turkey Uzbekistan

Law and ethics Further information: Islamic ethics, Sharia, Fiqh, and Islamic economic jurisprudence In some nations, Muslim ethnic groups enjoy considerable autonomy. In some places, Muslims implement a form of Islamic law, called sharia in Arabic. The Islamic law exists in many variations, but the main forms are the five (four Sunni and one Shia) schools of jurisprudence (fiqh): • Hanafi school in Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Egypt, Spain, Morocco, Canada, Maldives, Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq and West Africa • Maliki in North Africa and West Africa • Shafi`i in Malaysia, Qatar, Indonesia, Egypt, Eritrea, Somalia and Yemen • Hanbali in Arabia, Qatar • Jaferi in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain and Azerbaijan. These four are the only "Muslim states" where the majority is Shia and in Yemen, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Lebanon where the Shia are numerically significant. Some Muslim women often dress modestly to show their high characters. Thus, in some countries, the Islamic law requires women to cover either just legs, shoulders and head or the whole body apart from the face. In strictest forms, the face as well must be covered leaving just a mesh to see through. These rules for dressing cause tension between the Western world and the Muslim, concerning particularly Muslims living in western countries, since many in the Western World consider these restrictions both sexist and oppressive. Many Muslims oppose this charge, and instead declare that the media-fuelled world of the West forces women to reveal too much in order to be deemed attractive, and that this is itself oppressive. Islamic economics bans interest or Riba (Usury) but in most Muslim countries Western banking is allowed.

Islam in modern politics and conflicts Further information: Political aspects of Islam, Islamism, Islamic revival, Islam and secularism, and Liberal movements within Islam Many people in Islamic countries also see Islam manifested politically as Islamism. Political Islam is powerful in all Muslim-majority countries. Islamic parties in Turkey, Pakistan and Algeria have taken power at the provincial level. Many in these movements call themselves Islamists, which also sometimes describes more militant Islamic groups. The relationships between these groups (in democratic countries there is usually at least one Islamic party) and their views of democracy are complex. Some of these groups are accused of practicing Islamic terrorism.

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Conflicts with Israel Israel is subject to varying levels of hostility in the Muslim world due to the creation of the state of Israel in Palestine, known to Jews as the Land of Israel, which is sacred for both Jews and Muslims, and due to the prolonged Arab–Israeli conflict and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Turkey was the first Muslim-majority state to recognize Israel, just one year after its founding, and they have the longest shared close military and economic ties. Prior to the Iranian Revolution, Iran and Israel maintained a strong political friendship, however the current Iranian government is strongly anti-Israeli and has repeatedly called for Israel's destruction. Once at war, both Egypt and Jordan have established diplomatic relations and signed peace treaties with Israel, and attempts to resolve the conflict with Palestinians have produced a number of interim agreements. Nine non-Arab Muslim states maintain diplomatic ties with Israel, and since 1994, the Persian Gulf states have lessened their enforcement of the Arab boycott, with Saudi Arabia even declaring its end in 2005, though it has yet to cancel its sanctions. States like Morocco that have large Jewish populations have generally had less hostile relations with Israel.

Nuclear capabilities Pakistan is the only declared nuclear nation in the Muslim world. Pakistan conducted its nuclear tests in May 1998.

Recent history 1979 was a critical year in the Muslim world's relationship with the rest of the world. In that year, Egypt made peace with Israel, the monarchy of Iran was overthrown in the Iranian Revolution, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan began.

Nuclear capable Babur cruise missile of Pakistan

Some of the events pivotal in the Muslim world's relationship with the outside world in the post-Soviet era were: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

The Karabakh War The Iran–Iraq War The 1991 Gulf War The Bosnian War The Kosovo War The South Lebanon conflict (1982–2000) The Kargil War The 2001 invasion of Afghanistan The 2003 invasion of Iraq The so-called War on Terror The Syrian occupation of Lebanon The Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy of 2005 The Second Sudanese Civil War The 2006 Lebanon War The 2006 controversy over remarks quoted by Pope Benedict XVI The 2007 Lebanon conflict

• The ongoing war in Darfur • The ongoing standoff with Iran over its nuclear program

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The ongoing Second Chechen War The ongoing War in North-West Pakistan The ongoing Insurgency in the Philippines The ongoing war in Somalia The 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence The 2010–2011 Middle East and North Africa protests

Major denominations The two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia sects. They differ primarily upon of how the life of the ummah ("faithful") should be governed, and the role of the imam. These two main differences stem from the understanding of which hadith are to interpret the Qur'an. The Shia minority believes that the Family of the Prophet's traditions are exclusively to be followed, whereas the Sunni majority believes in traditions from the Companions of the Prophet and other common people to be followed. The overwhelming majority of Muslims in the world, approximately 85%, are Sunni. Shias and other (Ibadiyyas-Ismailis) make up the rest, about 15% of overall Muslim population. Among the countries with Shia majority or substantial population are Iran (80%), Azerbaijan (85%), Iraq (60%–65%), Bahrain (60%), Kuwait (40%), Pakistan (25-33%), India 25-31% of Muslim Population and (3-4%) of entire population of India and Lebanon (35-40%). The Kharijite Muslims, who are less known, have their own stronghold in the country of Oman holding about 75% of the population. The rest of the population being 15% Shia and the rest Sunni.

Geographical distribution

The main Islamic madhhab's (schools of law) of Muslim countries or distributions

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Approximate map of the distribution of the four Sunni "madhhab" schools of legal interpretation.

The Muslim population of the world map by percentage of each country, according to the Pew Forum 2009 report on world Muslim populations.

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Countries with Sharia rule

Map of the world showing the member states of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference

Notes [1] PBS - Islam Today (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ empires/ islam/ faithtoday. html) (Islam, followed by more than a billion people today, is the world's fastest growing religion and will soon be the world's largest. The 1.2 billion Muslims make up approximately one quarter of the world's population, and the Muslim population of the United States now outnumbers that of Episcopalians.The most populous Muslim countries are Indonesia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India. The number of Muslims in Indonesia alone (175 million) exceeds the combined total in Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Iran, the traditional heartlands of Islam. There are also substantial Muslim populations in Europe and North America,...) [2] "Mapping the Global Muslim Population, Executive Summary" (http:/ / pewforum. org/ docs/ ?DocID=450). PewForum.org The report, by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, took three years to compile, with census data from 232 countries and territories. . Retrieved 2009-11-08., A comprehensive demographic study of more than 200 countries finds that there are 1.57 billion Muslims of all ages living in the world today, representing 23% of an estimated 2009 world population of 6.8 billion [3] "Mapping the Global Muslim Population, Asia Predominates" (http:/ / pewforum. org/ Muslim/ Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population(4). ). PewForum.org The report, by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, took three years to compile, with census data from 232 countries and territories. . Retrieved 2010-12-04. [4] Tom Kington (2008-03-31). "Number of Muslims ahead of Catholics, says Vatican" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2008/ mar/ 31/ religion). The Guardian. . Retrieved 2008-11-17. [5] "Muslim Population" (http:/ / www. islamicpopulation. com/ ). IslamicPopulation.com. . Retrieved 2008-11-17. [6] "Field Listing - Religions" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ fields/ 2122. html). . Retrieved 2008-11-17. [7] Milestones of Islamic History (http:/ / www. islamonline. net/ servlet/ Satellite?c=Article_C& cid=1212925100226& pagename=Zone-English-ArtCulture/ ACELayout) [8] Kraemer (1992), p. 1 & 148 [9] Matthew E. Falagas, Effie A. Zarkadoulia, George Samonis (2006). "Arab science in the golden age (750–1258 C.E.) and today", The FASEB Journal 20, p. 1581-1586. [10] Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century (http:/ / www. history-science-technology. com/ Articles/ articles 8. htm) [11] Ettinghausen (2003), p.3 [12] "Islamic Art and Architecture", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)

Muslim world [13] "Muslim Iconoclasm" (http:/ / lexicorient. com/ e. o/ mus_iconoclasm. htm). Encyclopedia of the Orient. . Retrieved 2007-02-23. [14] Madden (1975), pp.423-430 [15] Tonna, Jo (1990). "The Poetics of Arab-Islamic Architecture", Muqarnas BRILL, 7, pp.182-197 [16] Grabar, Oleg (2006), "Islamic art and beyond". Ashgate. Vol 2, p.87 [17] Mason, Robert (1995)."New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". Muqarnas V 12 p.1 [18] Mason, Robert (1995)."New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". Muqarnas V 12 p.5 [19] Mason, Robert (1995)."New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". Muqarnas V 12 p.7 [20] "Islam", The New Encyclopedia Britannica (2005) [21] Elizabeth Allo Isichei, ''A history of African societies to 1870'', page 175. Cambridge University Press, 1997 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LgnhYDozENgC& pg=PA175& dq=mosque+ kairouan+ roman+ columns& hl=fr& ei=-axbTKGaNs2aOIqI4aYP& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=8& ved=0CFMQ6AEwBzge#v=onepage& q=mosque kairouan roman columns& f=false) [22] Marzolph (2007). "Arabian Nights". Encyclopaedia of Islam. I. Leiden: Brill. [23] Grant & Clute, p 51 [24] L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 10 ISBN 0-87054-076-9 [25] Grant & Clute, , p 52 [26] NIZAMI: LAYLA AND MAJNUN - English Version by Paul Smith (http:/ / www. shirazbooks. com/ ebook1. html) [27] Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher (http:/ / www. islamset. com/ isc/ nafis/ drroubi. html), Encyclopedia of Islamic World). [28] Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), " Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288) (http:/ / etd. nd. edu/ ETD-db/ theses/ available/ etd-11292006-152615)", p. 95-101, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. [29] Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher (http:/ / www. islamset. com/ isc/ nafis/ drroubi. html), Encyclopedia of Islamic World). [30] Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication. [31] Cyril Glasse (2001), New Encyclopaedia of Islam, p. 202, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0-7591-0190-6. [32] Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [369]. [33] Martin Wainwright, Desert island scripts (http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ review/ story/ 0,12084,918454,00. html), The Guardian, 22 March 2003. [34] G. J. Toomer (1996), Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 222, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-820291-1. [35] Latinized Names of Muslim Scholars (http:/ / www. muslimheritage. com/ topics/ default. cfm?ArticleID=808), FSTC. [36] I. Heullant-Donat and M.-A. Polo de Beaulieu, "Histoire d'une traduction," in Le Livre de l'échelle de Mahomet, Latin edition and French translation by Gisèle Besson and Michèle Brossard-Dandré, Collection Lettres Gothiques, Le Livre de Poche, 1991, p. 22 with note 37. [37] Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor, Sam Wanamaker Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre (cf. Mayor of London (2006), Muslims in London (http:/ / www. london. gov. uk/ gla/ publications/ equalities/ muslims-in-london. pdf), pp. 14-15, Greater London Authority) [38] "Islamic Philosophy" (http:/ / www. rep. routledge. com/ article/ H057), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1998) [39] Majid Fakhry (2001). Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1-85168-269-4. [40] Irwin, Jones (Autumn 2002). "Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam". The Philosopher LXXXX (2). [41] Russell (1994), pp. 224-262, [42] Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān, pp. 38-46, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-09300-1. [43] Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik Ibn Tufail and Léon Gauthier (1981), Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan, p. 5, Editions de la Méditerranée. [44] Russell (1994), pp. 224-239 [45] Russell (1994) p. 227 [46] Russell (1994), p. 247 [47] Kamal, Muhammad (2006). Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. pp. 9 & 39. ISBN 0754652718. OCLC 224496901 238761259 61169850. [48] Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3). [49] Bradley Steffens (2006), Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1-59935-024-6.

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Muslim world [50] Gorini, Rosanna (October 2003). "Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision" (http:/ / www. ishim. net/ ishimj/ 4/ 10. pdf) (pdf). Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 2 (4): 53–55. . Retrieved 2008-09-25. "According to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. With his book he changed the meaning of the term optics and established experiments as the norm of proof in the field. His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable.". [51] Robert Briffault (1928), The Making of Humanity, p. 190-202, G. Allen & Unwin Ltd:

What we call science arose as a result of new methods of experiment, observation, and measurement, which were introduced into Europe by the Arabs. [...] Science is the most momentous contribution of Arab civilization to the modern world, but its fruits were slow in ripening. [...] The debt of our science to that of the Arabs does not consist in startling discoveries or revolutionary theories; science owes a great deal more to Arab culture, it owes its existence....The ancient world was, as we saw, pre-scientific. [...] The Greeks systematized, generalized and theorized, but the patient ways of investigations, the accumulation of positive knowledge, the minute methods of science, detailed and prolonged observation and experimental inquiry were altogether alien to the Greek temperament. [52] Ron Eglash(1999), p.61 [53] Peter J. Lu, Harvard's Office of News and Public Affairs (http:/ / www. news. harvard. edu/ gazette/ 2007/ 03. 01/ 99-tiles. html) [54] Turner, H. (1997) pp. 136—138 [55] A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892. [56] Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2). [57] Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II (http:/ / milligazette. com/ Archives/ 15-1-2000/ Art5. htm), The Milli Gazette. [58] Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10. [59] Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973-1974. [60] Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23. [61] H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1. [62] Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", Islam & Science 5 (1), p. 61-70. [63] Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1-85065-356-9. [64] Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", Middle East Journal 56 (1), p. 25. [65] Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), p. 1-30 [10]. [66] Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources (http:/ / www. history-science-technology. com/ Articles/ articles 2. htm), History of Science and Technology in Islam. [67] Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries (http:/ / www. history-science-technology. com/ Articles/ articles 3. htm), History of Science and Technology in Islam. [68] Ahmad Y. al-Hassan (1976). Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, p. 34-35. Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo. [69] Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36. [70] Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), p. 1-30. [71] Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part 1: Avenues Of Technology Transfer (http:/ / www. history-science-technology. com/ Articles/ articles 7. htm) [72] Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", The Journal of Economic History 29 (1), p. 79-96. [73] Miller, Tracy, ed. (October 2009) (PDF), Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population (http:/ / pewforum. org/ newassets/ images/ reports/ Muslimpopulation/ Muslimpopulation. pdf), Pew Research Center, , retrieved 2009-12-16 [74] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ List_of_countries_by_Muslim_population [75] Centraal Bureau van de Statistiek (CBS) - Netherlands/ Muslimpopulation (http:/ / www. cbs. nl/ en-GB/ menu/ themas/ bevolking/ publicaties/ artikelen/ archief/ 2004/ 2004-1543-wm. htm) [76] "93 years pass since establishment of first democratic republic in the east – Azerbaijan Democratic Republic" (http:/ / en. apa. az/ news. php?id=148210). Azerbaijan Press Agency. . Retrieved May 28, 2011. [77] Kazemzadeh, Firuz (1951). The Struggle for Transcaucasia: 1917-1921. The New York Philosophical Library. pp. 124, 222, 229, 269–270. ISBN 0-8305-0076-6.

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Muslim world [78] Swietochowski, Tadeusz (2004). Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cozSOSsv7ZsC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Russian+ Azerbaijan,+ 1905-1920:+ The+ Shaping+ of+ a+ National+ Identity+ in+ a+ Muslim+ Community& hl=nl& ei=9HThTYCmLsHpOaOWnMIG& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=snippet& q=129& f=false). Cambridge University Press. pp. 129. ISBN 0521522455. [79] See: • Esposito (2004), p.84 • Lapidus (2002), pp.502–507,845 • Lewis (2003), p.100 [80] Article 1 Islamic republic, Article 2 Religions (http:/ / www. servat. unibe. ch/ icl/ af00000_. html) [81] Article 1 Sovereignty, Constitutional Monarchy (http:/ / mahmood. tv/ bahrain-politics-2/ bahrain-constitution/ the-constitution-of-the-kingdom-of-bahrain-2002/ #article1) [82] Article 2 The Islamic republic (http:/ / www. iranonline. com/ iran/ iran-info/ Government/ constitution-1. html) [83] Article 1 State Integrity, Equal Protection (1) (http:/ / servat. unibe. ch/ icl/ mr00000_. html) [84] Article 2 Religion (http:/ / servat. unibe. ch/ icl/ mu00000_. html) [85] Article 1 (1) Introductory (http:/ / www. pakistani. org/ pakistan/ constitution/ part1. html) [86] Article (1), (2), (3) The foundations of the state (http:/ / www. al-bab. com/ yemen/ gov/ con94. htm) [87] Article 2 Chapter I Algeria (http:/ / www. algeria-un. org/ default. asp?doc=-c1p1) [88] Article 2A The state religion (http:/ / www. pmo. gov. bd/ constitution/ index. htm) [89] Article 2The state (http:/ / www. egypt. gov. eg/ english/ laws/ Constitution/ chp_one/ part_one. asp) [90] Article 2, 1st Basic principles (http:/ / 64. 233. 183. 104/ search?q=cache:rZKJQ6wiTLAJ:news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ shared/ bsp/ hi/ pdfs/ 24_08_05_constit. pdf+ Constitution+ of+ Iraq& hl=en& ct=clnk& cd=3& gl=uk) [91] Article 2 The state and the system government (http:/ / www. kuwait-info. com/ sidepages/ cont. asp) [92] Article 2 State religion, language (http:/ / servat. unibe. ch/ icl/ ly00000_. html) [93] Article 3 (1) (http:/ / www. trybunal. gov. pl/ constit/ constitu/ constit/ malaysia/ malays-e. htm) [94] State religion (7.) State, sovereignty and citizens (http:/ / www. presidencymaldives. gov. mv/ pages/ default. php?ZQE5XDheYQBlEGIOYxc1BTQFZVA=) [95] Article 6 Basic principles (http:/ / www. al-bab. com/ maroc/ gov/ con96. htm) [96] Susan M. Hassig, Zawiah Abdul Latif, Somalia, (Marshall Cavendish: 2007), p.77. [97] Sidebar, "Country Profile; Religion section" (http:/ / www. somalilandgov. com/ ) [98] Article 1 (State) General Provisions (http:/ / www. servat. unibe. ch/ icl/ ts00000_. html) [99] Democratic regime in an Islamic and Arab society (http:/ / www. worldstatesmen. org/ uae_const. doc) [100] Article 7/Article 18 (http:/ / unpan1. un. org/ intradoc/ groups/ public/ documents/ UNTC/ UNPAN003700. htm) [101] Article 31 (http:/ / 64. 233. 183. 104/ search?q=cache:IIR9yrUaMFwJ:www. chr. up. ac. za/ hr_docs/ constitutions/ docs/ Burkina%20FasoC%20(englishsummary)(rev). doc+ Burkina+ Faso+ constitution& hl=en& ct=clnk& cd=2& gl=uk) [102] Article 1 (http:/ / 64. 233. 183. 104/ search?q=cache:4pEtb9MYlp0J:www. chr. up. ac. za/ hr_docs/ constitutions/ docs/ ChadC%20(english%20summary)(rev). doc+ Constitution+ of+ Chad& hl=en& ct=clnk& cd=2& gl=uk) [103] CIAWorld Factbook- Djibouti (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ dj. html#People) [104] Article 1 (1) (http:/ / 64. 233. 183. 104/ search?q=cache:DFzfUsPbHcgJ:www. chr. up. ac. za/ hr_docs/ constitutions/ docs/ The%20GambiaC(english%20summary)(rev). doc+ Constitution+ of+ Gambia& hl=en& ct=clnk& cd=1& gl=uk) [105] Article 1 (1) (http:/ / www. kazakhstanembassy. org. uk/ cgi-bin/ index/ 225) [106] Characteristics of the Republic: Article 2, Provisions Relating to Political Parties: Article 68, Oath taking: Article 81, Oath: Article 103, Department of Religious Affairs: 136, Preservation of Reform Laws: 174 [107] Article 1 (1) (http:/ / www. coe. int/ t/ e/ legal_affairs/ legal_co-operation/ foreigners_and_citizens/ nationality/ documents/ national_legislation/ kyrgyzstan constitution of the kyrghyz republic. asp#P46_1713) [108] Article 25 (http:/ / confinder. richmond. edu/ admin/ docs/ Mali. pdf) [109] Article 1 (http:/ / 64. 233. 183. 104/ search?q=cache:lTPlpP_soN8J:www. chr. up. ac. za/ hr_docs/ constitutions/ docs/ SenegalC%20(english%20summary)(rev). doc+ Constitution+ of+ Senegal& hl=en& ct=clnk& cd=1& gl=uk) [110] Article 1 (http:/ / unpan1. un. org/ intradoc/ groups/ public/ documents/ untc/ unpan003670. htm) [111] Section 1: Foundations of the constitutional order, Article 1 (http:/ / www. uta. edu/ cpsees/ TURKCON. htm)

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References • Ankerl, Guy (2000) [2000]. Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5. OCLC 223231547 237431578 47105537 50042854. • Graham, Mark, How Islam Created the Modern World (2006) • Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1. • Russell, G. A. (1994). The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England. Brill Publishers. ISBN 90-04-09459-8. • Kraemer, Joel L. (1992). Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam. Brill Publishers. ISBN 90-04-07259-4. • Grant, John; Clute, John. "Arabian fantasy". The Encyclopedia of Fantasy. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.

External links • The Islamic World to 1600 (http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/) an online tutorial at the University of Calgary, Canada. • Qantara.de-Dossier: Democracy and Civil Society in Muslim countries (http://www.qantara.de/webcom/ show_article.php/_c-593/i.html/) • Is There a Muslim World? (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=104927939&ft=1& f=1004), on NPR • (English) Asabiyya: Re-Interpreting Value Change in Globalized Societies (http://ideas.repec.org/p/iza/ izadps/dp4459.html) • (English) Why Europe has to offer a better deal towards its Muslim communities. A quantitative analysis of open international data (http://ideas.repec.org/b/erv/ebooks/b001.html)

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Sharia

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Sharia Sharīʿah (Arabic: ‫ﺷﺮﻳﻌﺔ‬‎ šarīʿah, IPA: [ʃaˈriːʕa], "way" or "path") is the code of conduct or religious law of Islam. Most Muslims believe Sharia is derived from two primary sources of Islamic law: the precepts set forth in the Qur'an, and the example set by the Islamic Prophet Muhammad in the Sunnah. Fiqh jurisprudence interprets and extends the application of Sharia to questions not directly addressed in the primary sources by including secondary sources. These secondary sources usually include the consensus of the religious scholars embodied in ijma, and analogy from the Qur'an and Sunnah through qiyas. Shia jurists prefer to apply reasoning ('aql) rather than analogy in order to address difficult questions. Muslims believe Sharia is God's law, but they differ as to what exactly it entails.[1] Modernists, traditionalists and fundamentalists all hold different views of Sharia, as do adherents to different schools of Islamic thought and scholarship. Different countries and cultures have varying interpretations of Sharia as well. Sharia deals with many topics addressed by secular law, including crime, politics and economics, as well as personal matters such as sexuality, hygiene, diet, prayer, and fasting. Where it enjoys official status, Sharia is applied by Islamic judges, or qadis. The imam has varying responsibilities depending on the interpretation of Sharia; while the term is commonly used to refer to the leader of communal prayers, the imam may also be a scholar, religious leader, or political leader. The reintroduction of Sharia is a longstanding goal for Islamist movements in Muslim countries. Some Muslim minorities in Asia (e.g. in India) have maintained institutional recognition of Sharia to adjudicate their personal and community affairs. In western countries, where Muslim immigration is more recent, Muslim minorities have introduced Sharia family law, for use in their own disputes, with varying degrees of success (e.g. Britain's Muslim Arbitration Tribunal). Attempts to impose Sharia have been accompanied by controversy,[2] [3] [4] violence,[5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] and even warfare (cf. Second Sudanese Civil War).[11] [12] [13] [14]

Etymology In The Spirit of Islamic Law, Professor Bernard G. Weiss states "In archaic Arabic, the term sharì'a means 'path to the water hole.' When we consider the importance of a well-trodden path to a source of water for man and beast in the arid desert environment, we can readily appreciate why this term in Muslim usage should have become a metaphor for a whole way of life ordained by God."[15]

Countries with Sharia.

In Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary, Professor Irshad Abdal-Haqq states "Shar'iah, or more properly Al-Shari'ah, literally means the pathway, path to be followed, or clear way to be followed, and has come to mean the path upon which the believer has to tread. In original usage Shar'iah meant the road to the watering place or path leading to the water, i.e., the way to the source of life. The technical application of the term as a reference to the law of Islam is traced directly to the Qur'an, wherein the adherents of Islam, the believers, are admonished by Allah (God) to follow the clear and right way, the path of Shari'ah: Then we put thee on the (right) Way of religion so follow thou that (Way), and follow not the desires of those who know not[Qur'an 45:18]."[16] According to Abdul Mannan Omar in his Dictionary of the Holy Quran, the word at 45:18 (see Abdal-Haqq above) derives from the "Quranic root" shara'a. Derivations include: Shara'a (as prf. 3rd. p.m. sing.), meaning "He ordained", appearing once in the Qur'an at verse 45:13; Shara'u (prf. 3rd. p.m. plu.) "They decreed (a law)" appearing

Sharia once at 42:21; Shir'atun (n.) "Spiritual law", used at 5:48; finally, Shariatun (act. 2nd. pic. f. sing.) "System of divine law, Way of belief and practice" is used at 45:18.[17]

Definitions and descriptions Sharia has been defined as: • "Muslim or Islamic law, both civil and criminal justice as well as regulating individual conduct both personal and moral. The custom-based body of law based on the Quran and the religion of Islam. Because, by definition, Muslim states are theocracies, religious texts are law, the latter distinguished by Islam and Muslims in their application, as Sharia or Sharia law."[18] • "a discussion on the duties of Muslims," —Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb[19] • "a long, diverse, complicated intellectual tradition," rather than a "well-defined set of specific rules and regulations that can be easily applied to life situations," —Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer[20] • "a shared opinion of the [Islamic] community, based on a literature that is extensive, but not necessarily coherent or authorized by any single body," —Knut S. Vikor[21] From the 9th century, the power to interpret and refine law in traditional Islamic societies was in the hands of the scholars (ulema). This separation of powers served to limit the range of actions available to the ruler, who could not easily decree or reinterpret law independently and expect the continued support of the community.[22] Through succeeding centuries and empires, the balance between the ulema and the rulers shifted and reformed, but the balance of power was never decisively changed.[23] At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution introduced an era of European world hegemony that included the domination of most of the lands of Islam.[24] [25] At the end of the Second World War, the European powers found themselves too weakened to maintain their empires.[26] The wide variety of forms of government, systems of law, attitudes toward modernity and interpretations of Sharia are a result of the ensuing drives for independence and modernity in the Muslim world.[27] [28]

Traditional perspectives The majority of Muslims regard themselves as belonging to either the Sunni or Shi'a sect of Islam. Within these sects, there are different schools of religious study and scholarship. The schools within each sect have common characteristics, although each differs in its details. Sunni In addition to the "Basic Code" of the Qur'an and Sunnah, traditional Sunni Muslims also add the consensus (ijma) of Muhammad's companions (sahaba) and Islamic jurists (ulema) on certain issues. In situations where no concrete rule exists in the sources, law scholars use qiyas — various forms of reasoning, including analogy, to derive law from the essence of divine principles and preceding rulings. The consensus of the community, public interest, and other sources are used as an adjunct to Sharia where the primary and secondary sources allow.[29] This description can be applied to the major schools of Sunni fiqh, which include the Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali.

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Sharia Salafi The Salafi movement looks to the actions and sayings of the first three generations of Muslims for guidance, in addition to the Qur'an and Sunnah. Salafis take these exemplary early Muslims as the source of their fiqh. The Salafi movement has attracted followers from many Muslim cultures and schools of fiqh.[30] Muslims who subscribe to the teachings of scholar Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab are considered part of the Salafi movement.[31] Shi'a Shi'a Muslims also extend the "Basic Code" with fiqh, and in some aspects reject analogy. At the same time, they believe Islam was long designed to meets today's innovations and culture. During the period after Prophet's death, Sunni scholars developed, at the same time the Shi'a Imams were alive teaching and spreading the original message of Islam. Since the 12 Imams are descendent of the Prophet's family Shi'a believe they have a greater right on leadership and spreading the message of Islam, as a result Shi'a view them as an extension of the original Sunnah taught by the Prophet himself. A recurring theme in Shi'a jurisprudence is logic (mantiq),[32] something most Shi'a believe they mention, employ and value to a higher degree than most Sunnis do. They do not view logic as a third source for laws, rather a way to see if the derived work is compatible with the Qur'an and Sunnah. In Imami-Shi'i law, the sources of law (usul al-fiqh) are the Qur'an, anecdotes of Muhammad's practices and those of The Twelve Imams, and the intellect ('aql). The practices called Sharia today, however, also have roots in comparative law[33] and local customs (urf).[29] Most Shia Muslims follow the Ja'fari school of thought.[34]

Modern perspectives Muslims have responded in a variety of ways to the forces of modernity. These responses cross the lines of tradition, sect and school. They affect the way Sharia is interpreted by individuals in their personal lives, and the extent to which Sharia is implemented in the public sphere by the state. These diverse movements can be referred to collectively as contemporary Sharia(s).[35] Spectrum of Muslim legal systems The legal systems in 21st century Muslim majority states can be classified as follows: Sharia in the secular Muslim states: Muslim countries such as Mali, Kazakhstan and Turkey have declared themselves to be secular. Here, religious interference in state affairs, law and politics is prohibited.[36] In these Muslim countries, as well as the secular West, the role of Sharia is limited to personal and family matters. The Nigerian legal system is based on English Common Law and the constitution guarantees freedom of religion and separation of church and State. However eleven northern states have adopted Sharia law for those who practice the Muslim religion.[37] Muslim states with blended sources of law: Muslim countries including Pakistan, Indonesia, Afghanistan, Egypt, Sudan, Morocco and Malaysia have legal systems strongly influenced by Sharia, but also cede ultimate authority to their constitutions and the rule of law. These countries conduct democratic elections, although some are also under the influence of authoritarian leaders. In these countries, politicians and jurists make law, rather than religious scholars. Most of these countries have modernized their laws and now have legal systems with significant differences when compared to classical Sharia.[38] Muslim states using classical Sharia: Saudi Arabia and some of the Gulf states do not have constitutions or legislatures. Their rulers have limited authority to change laws, since they are based on Sharia as it is interpreted by their religious scholars. Iran shares some of these characteristics, but also has a parliament that legislates in a manner consistent with Sharia.[39]

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Sharia Factors influencing the modern role of Sharia Against the backdrop of differing religious sects, scholarship, classical schools of thought, and governmental implementations, the following forces are at work influencing future developments in Sharia law. Rapid exchange of cultures and ideas Around the world, Muslims are becoming more connected by the Internet and modern communications. This is leading to wider exchanges of ideas and cultures. Reactionary and fundamentalist movements are unlikely to halt this trend, as the Sharia itself defends the right to privacy within the home.[40] Schools of thought Legal scholar L. Ali Khan claims that "the concept of Sharia has been thoroughly confused in legal and common literature. For some Muslims, Sharia consists of the Qur'an and Sunnah. For others, it also includes classical fiqh. Most encyclopedias define Sharia as law based upon the Qur'an, the Sunnah, and classical fiqh derived from consensus (ijma) and analogy (qiyas). This definition of Sharia lumps together the revealed with the unrevealed. This blending of sources has created a muddled assumption that scholarly interpretations are as sacred and beyond revision as are the Qur'an and the Sunnah. The Qur'an and the Sunnah constitute the immutable Basic Code, which should be kept separate from ever-evolving interpretive law (fiqh). This analytical separation between the Basic Code and fiqh is necessary to dissipate confusion around the term Sharia."[41] Revival of the religion Simultaneously with liberalizing and modernizing forces, trends towards fundamentalism and movements for Islamic political power are also taking place. There has been a growing religious revival in Islam, beginning in the eighteenth century and continuing today. This movement has expressed itself in various forms ranging from wars to efforts towards improving education.[42] A return to traditional views of Sharia: There is a long-running worldwide movement underway by Muslims towards a better understanding and practice of their religion. Encouraged by their scholars and imams, Muslims have moved away from local customs and culture, and towards more universally accepted views of Islam. This movement towards traditional religious values served to help Muslims cope with the effects of European colonization. It also inspired modernist movements and the formation of new governments.[43] The Islamist movement: Since the 1970s, the Islamist movements have become prominent; their goals are the establishment of Islamic states and Sharia within their own borders, their means are political in nature. The Islamist power base is the millions of poor, particularly urban poor moving into the cities from the countryside. They are not international in nature (one exception being the Muslim Brotherhood). Their rhetoric opposes western culture and western power.[44] Political groups wishing to return to more traditional Islamic values are the source of threat to Turkey's secular government.[44] These movements can be considered neo-Sharism.[45] The Fundamentalist movement: Fundamentalists, wishing to return to basic religious values and law, have in some instances imposed harsh Sharia punishments for crimes, curtailed civil rights, and violated human rights. These movements are most active in areas of the world where there was contact with Western colonial powers.[46] Extremism: Extremists have used the Qur'an and their own particular version of Sharia[47] to justify acts of war and terror against Western individuals and governments, and also against other Muslims believed to have Western sympathies. [48] Friction between the West and Islam, particularly with regard to the Palestinian question, continues to fuel this conflict.[49]

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Immutability of God's will Although there are many different interpretations of Sharia, and differing perspectives on each interpretation, there is consensus among Muslims that Sharia is a reflection of God's will for humankind. Sharia must therefore be, in its purest sense, perfect and unchanging.[50] The evolution or refinement of Sharia is an effort to more perfectly reflect God's will.[51]

Confusion between Sharia and customary law According to Jan Michiel Otto, Professor of Law and Governance in Developing Countries at Leiden University, "Anthropological research shows that people in local communities often do not distinguish clearly whether and to what extent their norms and practices are based on local tradition, tribal custom, or religion. Those who adhere to a confrontational view of sharia tend to ascribe many undesirable practices to sharia and religion overlooking custom and culture, even if high ranking religious authorities have stated the opposite." Professor Otto's analysis appears in a paper commissioned by the Netherlands Foreign Ministry.[52]

Characteristics Origins According to Muslims, Sharia law is founded on the words of Allah as revealed in the Qur'an, and traditions gathered from the life of the Prophet Muhammad. Muhammad was born ca. 570 CE in Mecca, a trading city in the Arabian desert. In addition to being a center of trade on the caravan routes, Mecca was a place of pilgrimage for Arabs of many beliefs.[53] The focus of religion in Mecca was the Ka'aba, a stone building believed to have been built by Adam at the beginning of time, and rebuilt by the Prophet Abraham and his son Ishmael.[54] Mecca was inhabited by the Quraysh, a mostly pagan tribe with some Jews and Christians among them. Muhammad was orphaned at an early age, and came under the protection of an uncle. He grew up to become a trader and married his employer, a prosperous merchant named Khadija.[55] It was in middle age that Muhammad began to speak of revelations received from Allah through the angel Gabriel. Muhammad told others of his revelations, and attracted followers who transcribed them onto available materials.[56] Over the twenty three years from his first revelation until his death, Islam became the dominant force in the Arabian peninsula, and a serious challenge to the Byzantine and Sasanian empires.[57] After Muhammad's death, the revelations were collected and organized into the Qur'an, and accounts of his life eventually formed the basis for the Sunnah. In pre-Islamic Arabia, bonds of common ancestry formed the basis for tribal association.[58] The advent of Islam brought the tribes together under a single religion. As Islam is not just a religion, but also a complete way of life, a new common basis of law and personal behavior (Sharia) began to take shape.[59] Sharia continued to undergo fundamental changes, beginning with the reigns of caliphs Abu Bakr (632–34) and Umar (634–44), during which time many questions were brought to the attention of Muhammad's closest comrades for consultation.[60] During the reign of Muawiya b. Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, ca. 662 CE, Islam undertook an urban transformation, raising questions not originally covered by Islamic law.[60] Since then, changes in Islamic society have played an ongoing role in developing Sharia, which branches out into Fiqh and Qanun respectively. Among the Muslims, tribal laws were adapted to conform to Sharia "for they could not form part of the tribal law unless and until they were generally accepted as such."[58] Additionally, Noel James Coulson, Lecturer in Islamic law of the University of London, states that "to the tribe as a whole belonged the power to determine the standards by which its members should live. But here the tribe is conceived not merely as the group of its present representatives but as a historical entity embracing past, present, and future generations."[58] So, while "each and every law must be rooted in either the Qur'an or the Sunnah,"[61] without contradiction, tribal life brought about a sense of participation. Such participation was further reinforced by Muhammad who stated, "My community will

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never agree in error".[61]

Fiqh Arabic

‫ﻓﻘﻪ‬ Transliteration Fiqh Translation Islamic jurisprudence

The formative period of fiqh stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities. In this period, jurists were more concerned with pragmatic issues of authority and teaching than with theory.[62] Progress in theory happened with the coming of the early Muslim jurist Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi'i (767-820), who laid down the basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book Al-Risala. The book details the four roots of law (Qur'an, Sunnah, ijma, and qiyas) while specifying that the primary Islamic texts (the Qur'an and the hadith) be understood according to objective rules of interpretation derived from careful study of the Arabic language.[63] A number of important legal concepts and institutions were developed by Islamic jurists during the classical period of Islam, known as the Islamic Golden Age, dated from the 7th to 13th centuries.[64] [65] [66] [64] Categories of human behavior Fiqh classifies behavior into the following types or grades: fard (obligatory), mustahabb (recommended), mubah (neutral), makruh (discouraged), and haraam (forbidden). Every human action belongs in one of these five categories.[67] Actions in the fard category are those required of all Muslims. They include the five daily prayers, fasting, articles of faith, obligatory charity, and the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca.[67] The mustahabb category includes proper behavior in matters such as marriage, funeral rites and family life. As such, it covers many of the same areas as civil law in the West. Sharia courts attempt to reconcile parties to disputes in this area using the recommended behavior as their guide. A person whose behavior is not mustahabb can be ruled against by the judge.[68] All behavior which is neither discouraged nor recommended, neither forbidden nor required is of the Mubah; it is permissible.[67] Makruh behavior, while it is not sinful of itself, is considered undesirable among Muslims. It may also make a Muslim liable to criminal penalties under certain circumstances.[68] Haraam behavior is explicitly forbidden. It is both sinful and criminal. It includes all actions expressly forbidden in the Qur'an. Certain Muslim dietary and clothing restrictions also fall into this category.[67] The recommended, permissible and discouraged categories are drawn largely from accounts of the life of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. To say a behavior is sunnah is to say it is recommended as an example from the life and sayings of Muhammad. These categories form the basis for proper behavior in matters such as courtesy and manners, interpersonal relations, generosity, personal habits and hygiene.[67]

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Topics of Islamic law Sharia law can be organized in different ways: Sharia can be divided into five main branches: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

ibadah (ritual worship) mu'amalat (transactions and contracts) adab (morals and manners), i'tiqadat (beliefs) 'uqubat (punishments).

"Reliance of the Traveller", an English translation of a fourteenth century CE reference on the Shafi'i school of fiqh written by Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri, organizes Sharia law into the following topics: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Purification Prayer The Funeral Prayer The Poor Tax Fasting The Pilgrimage

7. Trade 8. Inheritance 9. Marriage 10. Divorce 11. Justice In some areas, there are substantial differences in the law between different schools of fiqh, countries, cultures and schools of thought. Purification In Islam, purification has a spiritual dimension and a physical one. Muslims believe that certain human activities and contact with impure animals and substances cause impurity. Classic Islamic law details how to recognize impurity, and how to remedy it. Muslims use water for purification in most circumstances, although earth can also be used under certain conditions. Before prayer or other religious rituals, Muslims must clean themselves in a prescribed manner. The manner of cleansing, either wudhu or ghusl, depend on the circumstances. Muslims' cleaning of dishes, clothing and homes are all done in accordance with stated laws.[69] [70] Prayer Muslims are enjoined to pray five times each day, with certain exceptions. These obligatory prayers, salat, are performed during prescribed periods of the day, and most can be performed either in groups or by oneself. There are also optional prayers which can be performed, as well as special prayers for certain seasons, days and events. Muslims must turn to face the Kaaba in Mecca when they pray, and they must be purified in order for their prayers to be accepted. Personal, informal prayer and invocation is practiced as well. Classic Islamic law details many aspects of the act of prayer, including who can pray, when to pray, how to pray, and where to pray.[71] [72] Funeral prayer Muslims are encouraged to visit those among them who are sick and dying. Dying Muslims are reminded of God's mercy, and the value of prayer, by those who visit them. In turn, the visitors are reminded of their mortality, and the transient nature of life. Upon death, the Muslim will be washed and shrouded in clean, white cloth. A special prayer, Janazah, is performed for the deceased, preferably by the assembled Muslim community. The body is taken to a place which has ground set aside for the burial of Muslims. The grave is dug perpendicular to the direction of Mecca,

Sharia and the body is lowered into the grave to rest on its side, with the face turned towards Mecca. Classic Islamic law details visitation of the ill, preparation of the dead for burial, the funeral prayer and the manner in which the Muslim is buried.[73] Taxes The Quran states all Muslims, employed or self-employed, must pay taxes to their Government. The Qur'an mentions it in the following verse: Know that whatever of a thing you acquire, a fifth of it is for Allah, for the Messenger, for the near relative, and the orphans, the needy, and the wayfarer...(8:41) The word 'Khums' is used, literally means 'one-fifth or 20%.' In Islamic legal terminology, it means 'one-fifth of certain items which a person acquires as wealth, and which must be paid as taxes.' Income tax for individuals is set at 20% and Corporate tax is set at 20% tax on profits.[74] Tax on goods and services such as Value Added Tax and Sales Tax is forbidden in Islam. Property tax, Council Tax, Inheritance Tax and Capital Gains Tax are permitted.[75] Other taxes All Muslims who live above the subsistence level must pay an annual poor tax, known as zakat. In the modern sense, this would be Islam's equivalent to US Social Security or UK National Insurance. This is not charity, but rather an obligation owed by the Muslim to the poor of the community. The amount is calculated based on the wealth of the Muslim paying the tax, not their income. The base rate of taxation is 2.5 percent, but it varies depending on the type of wealth being assessed. Wealth includes savings, jewelry and land. Classic Islamic law details the tax, how it is assessed, its collection, and its distribution.[76] [77] Fasting During the Islamic month of Ramadan, Muslims abstain from food, drink, sex, between dawn and sunset. Exceptions to this obligation are made for the young, the infirm, and women during their periods of menstruation. During Ramadan, the daylight hours will often begin and end with a large meal. After dinner, many Muslims participate in special communal prayers held during Ramadan. The end of Ramadan fasting is celebrated with special prayers, gatherings of family and friends, and specially prepared meals. Muslims may also fast on other special days of the year, and to make up for missed days of fasting. Classic Islamic law details the exact definition of the fast, the times of fasting, how a fast may be broken, who must fast, and permitted exceptions to the fast.[78] [79] Pilgrimage At least once in each Muslim's lifetime, they must attempt a visit to the Holy Places of Islam located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The focus of this journey is the Kaaba, a small rectangular building around which a huge mosque has been built. This pilgrimage, known as the Hajj, begins two months after Ramadan each year. Dressed in symbolically simple clothing, Muslim pilgrims circle the Kaaba seven times, often followed by a drink from a special stream. Next, a symbolic search for water is performed by travelling back and forth between two nearby peaks. On the eighth day of the month, the pilgrims travel to Mina in the desert and spend the night in tents. The following day, over two million Muslims gather on the slopes of Mount Arafat, where the afternoon is spent in prayer. The Feast of Sacrifice, celebrated by Muslims worldwide, is performed by pilgrims in Mina the next day, and includes the slaughter of an animal. Finally, the pilgrims perform a ritual Stoning of the Devil by tossing pebbles at three pillars. Classic Islamic law details the manner in which the pilgrim dresses, behaves, arrives, departs and performs each of these rituals.[80] [81]

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Sharia Trade Islamic law recognizes private and community property, as well as overlapping forms of entitlement for charitable purposes, known as waqf or trusts. Under Sharia law, however, ownership of all property ultimately rests with God; while individual property rights are upheld, there is a corresponding obligation to share, particularly with those in need.[82] The laws of contract and obligation are also formed around this egalitarian Qur'anic requirement, prohibiting unequal exchanges or unfair advantage in trade. On this basis, the charging of interest on loans is prohibited, as are other transactions in which risks are borne disproportionately to the potential returns between parties to a transaction. The limits on personal liability afforded by incorporation are seen as a form of usury in this sense, as is insurance. All these inequities in risk and reward between parties to a transaction, known collectively as riba, are prohibited.[83] For this reason, Islamic banking and financing are partnerships between customers and institutions, where risk and reward are distributed equitably. Partnerships, rather than corporations, are the key concept in collective Islamic business. Financing and investments are accomplished in this manner, as purchases and resales, with equity shifting over time between the institution and the client as payments are made or returns are recognized. Conversely, no individual is shielded from the consequences of poor judgement or bad timing.[84] The Islamic financial and investment models have taken root in the West and begun to flourish, even as the financial underpinnings of large Western corporations collapse under the weight of unevenly distributed risks.[85] [86] Classic Islamic law details the manner of contracting, the types of transactions, the assignment of liability and reward, and the responsibilities of the parties in Islamic trade.[87] Inheritance The rules of inheritance under Sharia law are intricate, and a female's portion is generally half the amount a male would receive under the same circumstances.[88] Up to one third of a person's property may be distributed as bequests, or wasiyya, upon their death. After debts are settled, the remainder of the estate will be divided among the family of the deceased according to the rules of inheritance, or irth.[89] In Islamic societies, inherited wealth and property do not easily accumulate to, or remain in, certain families. Large concentrations of property will be divided into smaller portions over time among male inheritors. Property will tend to flow to other families as female inheritors take their shares into their marriages.[90] Classic Islamic law details the division of property, the shares family members are entitled to, adjustments and redistributions in the shares, orders of precedence among inheritors, and substitution among inheritors.[91] Marriage The laws governing Islamic marriage vary substantially between sects, schools, states and cultures. The following outline is general in nature. There are two types of marriage mentioned in the Qur'an: nikah and nikah mut'ah. The first is more common; it aims to be permanent, but can be terminated by the husband in the talaq process, or by the wife seeking divorce using khul'. In nikah the couples inherit from each other. A dowry known as mahr is given to the bride, a legal contract is signed when entering the marriage, and the husband must pay for the wife's expenses. For the contract to be valid there must be two witnesses under Sunni jurisprudence. There is no witness requirement for Shia contracts. In Sunni jurisprudence, the contract is void if there is a determined divorce date in the nikah, whereas, in Shia jurisprudence, nikah contracts with determined divorce dates are transformed into nikah mut'ah. Under Shia jurisprudence, nikah mut'ah is the second form of marriage. It is "Haram" in sunni islam according to muslim scholars. it is a fixed-term marriage, which is a marriage with a preset duration, after which the marriage is automatically dissolved. Traditionally the couple does not inherit from each other, the man usually is not responsible for the economic welfare of the woman, and she usually may leave her home at her own discretion. Nikah mut'ah does not count towards the maximum of four wives the Quran allows to Muslim men. The woman is still given her

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Sharia mahr dowry, and the woman must still observe the iddah, a period of five months at the end of the marriage where she is not permitted to remarry in the case she may have become pregnant before the divorce took place. This maintains the proper lineage of children. There is controversy about the Islamic legality of this type of marriage since the Prophet Muhammad is said by Sunnis to have prohibited the practice after having temporarily allowed it. A third type of marriage contract, known as misyar, is emerging in Sunni Islam. This marriage is not for a fixed period of time like nikah mut'ah, but is similar in other respects including lack of inheritance, lack of financial responsibility and freedom of movement on the part of the wife. In misyar marriage, the couple need not cohabit. There is also controversy regarding this form of marriage. Muslims do, on occasion, marry according to urf, or local custom, without following the requirements set forth in Sharia law. This may be done for various reasons, such as an inability of the couple to obtain permission from the bride's guardian. In these cases, they may find their marriage to be unrecognized at a later point, and have difficulty availing themselves of legal remedies under Sharia. Requirements for Islamic Marriages: • The man who is not currently a fornicator may marry only a woman who is not currently a fornicatress or a chaste woman from the people of the Book. • The woman who is not currently a fornicatress may marry only a man who is not currently a fornicator. • The fornicator may marry only a fornicatress. • The Muslim woman may marry only a Muslim man. • Permission for a virgin female to marry must be given by her guardian, usually her father. • Any Muslim woman may demand her guardian marry her to a Muslim male, provided he is suitable. If the guardian refuses, a judge will effect the marriage.[92] • The father, or in some cases the paternal grandfather, may choose a suitable partner for a virgin girl.[93] • The guardian may not marry the divorced woman or the widow if she did not ask to be married. • It is obligatory for a man to give bride wealth (gifts) to the woman he marries – "Do not marry unless you give your wife something that is her right."[94] Polygamy In Sharia law, a Muslim man is permitted up to four wives under the rules for nikah. All wives are entitled to separate living quarters at the behest of the husband and if possible. All should receive equal attention, support, treatment and inheritance. In modern practice, it is uncommon for a Muslim man to have more than one wife; if he does so, it is often due to the infertility of his first wife. The practice of polygamy has been regulated or abolished in some Muslim states.[95] [96] Historically, Muslim rulers have often remarried the wives of their conquered opponents in order to gain ties of kinship with their new subjects. In these cases, the wives of leaders have sometimes numbered in the tens or even hundreds. In Ottoman Turkey, the practice also filtered down to the aristocracy. This became the basis for the Western image of a powerful, wealthy Muslim with a vast harem.[97]

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Sharia Divorce The laws governing divorce vary substantially between sects, schools, states and cultures. The following outline is general in nature. A marriage can be terminated by the husband in the talaq process, or by the wife seeking divorce through khul'. Under faskh a marriage may be annulled or terminated by the qadi judge. Men have the right of unilateral divorce under classical Sharia. A Sunni Muslim divorce is effective when the man tells his wife that he is divorcing her, however a Shia divorce also requires four witnesses.[98] Upon divorce, the husband must pay the wife any delayed component of the dower. If a man divorces his wife in this manner three times, he may not re-marry her unless she first marries, and is subsequently divorced from, another man. Only then, and only if the divorce from the second husband is not intended as a means to re-marry her first husband, may the first husband and the woman re-marry.[Qur'an 2:230] In practice, unilateral divorce is only common in a few areas of the Islamic world. It is much more common for divorces to be accomplished by mutual consent.[98] If the wife asks for a divorce and the husband refuses, the wife has a right, under classical Sharia, to divorce by khul'. Although this right is not recognized everywhere in Islam, it is becoming more common. In this scenario, the qadi judge will effect the divorce for the wife, and she may be required to return part, or all, of her dowry.[98] Under faskh, a qadi judge can end or annul a marriage.[98] Apostasy, on the part of the husband or wife, ends a Muslim marriage in this way. Hardship or suffering on the part of the wife in a marriage may also be remedied in this way. This procedure is also used to annul a marriage in which one of the parties has a serious disability.[99] Except in the case of a khul' divorce initiated by a woman, the divorced wife generally keeps her dowry from when she was married. A divorced woman is given child support until the age of weaning. The mother is usually granted custody of the child.[100] If the couple has divorced fewer than three times (meaning it is not a final divorce) the wife also receives spousal support for three menstrual cycles after the divorce, until it can be determined whether she is pregnant. Even in a threefold divorce, a pregnant wife will be supported during the waiting period, and the child will be supported afterwards.[101] Child custody In a divorce, the child will stay with its mother until it is weaned,[102] or until the age of discernment, when the child may choose whom it lives with. The age of discernment is 7 or 8 years.[102] Justice The concept of justice embodied in Sharia is different from that of secular Western law.[103] Muslims believe the Sharia law has been revealed by God. In Islam, the laws that govern human affairs are just one facet of a universal set of laws governing nature itself. Violations of Islamic law are offenses against God and nature, including one's own human nature. Crime in Islam is sin. Whatever crime is committed, whatever punishment is prescribed for that crime in this world, one must ultimately answer to God on the Day of Judgement.[103] Legal and court proceedings Sharia judicial proceedings have significant differences with other legal traditions, including those in both common law and civil law. Sharia courts traditionally do not rely on lawyers; plaintiffs and defendants represent themselves. Trials are conducted solely by the judge, and there is no jury system (as is found in civil law in countries such as Russia and France). There is no pre-trial discovery process, and no cross-examination of witnesses. Unlike common law, judges' verdicts do not set binding precedents[104] [105] [106] under the principle of stare decisis,[107] and unlike civil law, Sharia does not utilize formally codified statutes[108] (these were first introduced only in the late 19th century during the decline of the Ottoman Empire, cf. mecelle). Instead of precedents and codes, Sharia relies on jurists' manuals and collections of non-binding legal opinions, or hadith, (ulama, particularly a mufti); these can be

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Sharia made binding for a particular case at the discretion of a judge. There are three categories of crimes in Sharia law, qisas, hudud, and tazir. Qisas involves personal injury and has several categories: intentional murder (first-degree), quasi-intentional murder (second-degree), unintentional murder (manslaughter), intentional battery, and unintentional battery. A qisas offense is treated as a civil case rather than an actual criminal case. If the accused party is found guilty, the victim (or in death, victim's family) determines the punishment, choosing either retribution (qesas-e-nafs), which means execution in the case of intentional murder, imprisonment, and in some cases of intentional battery, the amputation of the limb that was lost; or compensation (diyya) for the loss of life/limb/injury. The Sharia judge (or in modern Sharia systems like Iran or Iraq, the state) can convict for and legally punish only qesas crimes on his own authority. However, the state itself may prosecute for crimes committed alongside the qisas offense. If the victim's family pardons the criminal, in addition to the Sharia punishment he would normally receive a tazir prison sentence (such as 10–20 years in prison) for crimes such as "intentional loss of life", "tazir assault and battery" "disturbance of the peace", and so forth. The second category of crimes is hudud (or hadd). Hadd crimes are crimes whose penalties were laid down by the Quran, and are considered to be "claims against God". Hadd crimes are: adultery (zina): includes adultery, fornication, incest/pedophilia, and rape, pimping; sodomy/lesbianism (or sodomy rape); hiraba (uniquely known as moharebeh/mofsed-e-filarz in Iran) waging war against God and society: armed robbery, terrorism, armed violence; theft; use of intoxicants (alcohol/drug use); apostasy/blasphemy; and defamation (meaning false accusation of any of these things). These cases not meant as actual punishments, but as deterrents, to simply to set an example to the general public, and to prosecute the most flagrant violations. Hudud is meant as a deterrent, not a general punishment. The process is extremely exacting, a minimum of two witnesses are required to corroborate the evidence, and in the case of sex crimes, four witnesses, thus making it in most cases hard, if not impossible, to receive the violent punishments. Circumstantial evidence is not allowed to be part of the testimony. When one does receive them, it usually would occur in a case where the offense was so obvious, obscene or flagrant that it is impossible to not be convicted. Very often, Westerners mistake hudud punishment as punishment regularly given under Sharia law, but that is inaccurate; hudud punishments are only meant as a deterrent for rare cases. Most punishments are given under tazir rules. As a result most countries do not prosecute hudud offenses (the exceptions being Saudi Arabia and Afghanistan under the Taliban, which regularly managed to prosecute offenses in the hudud manner) Almost all other countries, such as Iran, would usually punish the same offense as a tazir crime. The third category of crimes is tazir. It covers all other offenses not mentioned already. It is a "claim of the state" and it receives a discretionary sentence. The punishment may not be more severe than the punishment of a hudud crime. It can range, depending on the crime or circumstances, from death to imprisonment to even community service. Circumstantial evidence is allowed, and most countries prosecute their crimes as tazir crimes, due to the flexibility of the evidence-gathering and sentencing. The punishment is meant to fit the crime. For example, a rapist may not be able to be prosecuted for zina, but would still be convicted of tazir rape, or in theft, they would be found guilty of tazir theft and given prison time rather than amputation. A murderer would still spend time in prison if he had received the forgiveness of the family. The heavy hudud penalties of amputation and stoning are not applied (although some countries do use corporal punishment). Most modern countries such as Iran have a fixed penal code that regulate what sentences should be given depending on the crime and circumstances of the case. Sharia courts' rules of evidence also maintain a distinctive custom of prioritizing oral testimony.[109] [110] A confession, an oath, or the oral testimony of a witness are the main evidence admissible in a hudud case, written evidence is only admissible when deemed reliable by the judge, i.e. notaries.[111] Testimony must be from at least two witnesses, and preferably free Muslim male witnesses, who are not related parties and who are of sound mind and reliable character; testimony to establish the crime of adultery, or zina must be from four direct witnesses.[112] Forensic evidence (i.e. fingerprints, ballistics, blood samples, DNA etc.) and other circumstantial evidence is

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likewise rejected in hudud cases in favor of eyewitnesses, a practice which can cause severe difficulties for women plaintiffs in rape cases.[113] Testimony from women is given only half the weight of men, and testimony from non-Muslims may be excluded altogether (if against a Muslim). Non-Muslim minorities, however, could and did use Sharia courts, even amongst themselves.[114] Sharia's rules on written evidence necessarily diminish the utility of written contracts to structure economic relations, and Timur Kuran has noted the predominance of a "largely oral contracting culture" in pre-modern Islamic society.[115] In lieu of written evidence, oaths are accorded much greater weight; rather than being used simply to guarantee the truth of ensuing testimony, they are themselves used as evidence. Plaintiffs lacking other evidence to support their claims may demand that defendants take an oath swearing their innocence, refusal thereof can result in a verdict for the plaintiff.[116] Taking an oath for Muslims can be a grave act; one study of courts in Morocco found that lying litigants would often "maintain their testimony 'right up to the moment of oath-taking and then to stop, refuse the oath, and surrender the case."[117] Accordingly, defendants are not routinely required to swear before testifying, which would risk casually profaning the Qur'an should the defendant commit perjury;[117] instead oaths are a solemn procedure performed as a final part of the evidence process. In some countries, sharia courts, with their tradition of pro se representation, simple rules of evidence, and absence of appeals courts, prosecutors, cross examination, complex documentary evidence and discovery proceedings, juries and voir dire proceedings, circumstantial evidence, forensics, case law, standardized codes, exclusionary rules, and most of the other infrastructure of civil and common law court systems, have as a result, comparatively informal and streamlined proceedings. This can provide significant increases in speed and efficiency, and can be an advantage in jurisdictions where the general court system is slow or corrupt, and where few litigants can afford lawyers. In Nigeria, where imposition of Sharia was highly controversial, even Nigeria's justice minister was compelled to admit that in Sharia courts, "if a man owes you money, you can get paid in the evening. Whereas in the regular courts, you can sit in court for ten years and get no justice."[118] Other systems, such as Iran, Iraq, and Pakistan, use a civil Sharia code similar to western countries, and do have defense attorneys, prosecutors, and appeals courts. They also have a Supreme Court, and a definite civil law style penal code, but are still heavily based on the informality and simplicity of a "pure" Sharia court, and trials often still take a matter of hours or sometimes days. Penalties The punishment depends on whether the criminal was convicted of qesas, hudud, or tazir. In a tazir crime, the penalty would be usually a prison sentence, corporal punishment in some countries, or a execution in a more serious case (such as a case that was not prosecuted as hudud, like rape/drug trafficking). Since hudud crimes are extremely hard to punish, this is the usual route that would be taken. Stoning and amputation would certainly not be carried out in a tazir sentence, and the punishment would not be fixed, but discretionary. Most countries have a civil code that regulates the penalties that should be received in a tazir crime, such as a death sentence in the case of drug trafficking, aggravated rape, or prison time in the case of other offenses. In the rarest of rare case (more common in Saudi Arabia or Afghanistan under Taliban rule) when a person is convicted of a hudud crime, the punishment is much harsher. In accordance with the Qur'an and several hadith, theft is punished by imprisonment or amputation of hands.[119] Several requirements are in place for the amputation of hands, they are: • • • •

There must have been criminal intent to take private (not common) property. The theft must not have been the product of hunger, necessity, or duress. The goods stolen must: be over a minimum value, not haraam, and not owned by the thief's family. Goods must have been taken from custody (i.e. not in a public place).

• There must be reliable witnesses. All of these must be met under the scrutiny of judicial authority.[Qur'an 5:38][120]

Sharia In accordance with hadith, stoning to death is the penalty for married men and women who commit adultery. In addition, there are several conditions related to the person who commits it that must be met. One of the difficult ones is that the punishment cannot be enforced unless there is a confession of the person, or four male eyewitnesses who each saw the act being committed. All of these must be met under the scrutiny of judicial authority[121] For unmarried men and women, the punishment prescribed in the Qur'an and hadith is 100 lashes.[122] The "four witness" standard comes from the Qur'an itself, a revelation Muhammad announced in response to accusations of adultery leveled at his wife, Aisha: "Why did they not produce four witnesses? Since they produce not witnesses, they verily are liars in the sight of Allah."[Qur'an 24:13] Punishments are authorized by other passages in the Qur'an and hadiths for certain crimes (e.g., extramarital sex, adultery), and are employed by some as rationale for extra-legal punitive action while others disagree: “The woman and the man guilty of adultery or fornication—flog each of them with hundred stripes: Let no compassion move you in their case, in a matter prescribed by God, if ye believe in God and the last day.”[Qur'an 24:2] “Nor come nigh to adultery: for it is a shameful (deed) and an evil, opening the road (to other evils).”[Qur'an 17:32] Leaving Islam/Apostasy In most interpretations of Sharia, conversion by Muslims to other religions or becoming non-religious, is strictly forbidden and is termed apostasy. Non-Muslims, however, are allowed to convert into Islam.[123] Muslim theology equates apostasy to treason, and in most interpretations of Sharia, the penalty for apostasy is death. During the time of Muhammad, treason and apostasy were considered one and the same; nowadays, many scholars differentiate between treason and apostasy, believing that the punishment for apostasy is not death, while the punishment for treason is death. The accusation of apostasy may be used against non-conventional interpretations of the Qur'an. The severe persecution of the famous expert in Arabic literature, Nasr Abu Zayd, is an example of this.[124] Similar accusations and persecutions were famously leveled against the author Salman Rushdie.[125] Dietary Islamic law does not present a comprehensive list of pure foods and drinks. However, it prohibits:[126] • Swine, blood, the meat of dead animals and animals slaughtered in the name of someone other than God. • Slaughtering an animal in any other way except the prescribed manner of tazkiyah (cleansing) by taking God's name, which involves cutting the throat of the animal and draining the blood. Slaughtering with a blunt blade or physically ripping out the esophagus is strictly forbidden. Modern methods of slaughter like the captive bolt stunning and electrocuting are also prohibited. Causing the animal excessive pain during slaughter is a sin.[127] • Intoxicants The prohibition of dead meat is not applicable to fish and locusts.[128] [129] [130] Also hadith literature prohibits beasts having sharp canine teeth, birds having claws and talons in their feet,[131] Jallalah (animals whose meat carries a stink in it because they feed on filth),[132] tamed donkeys,[133] and any piece cut from a living animal.[126] [134]

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Sharia Liquor and gambling Liquor and gambling are expressly prohibited in the Qur'an, and Sharia law. Muhammad is reported to have said: "He who plays with dice is like the one who handles the flesh and blood of swine." Abd-Allah ibn Amr reported that Muhammad prohibited all games of chance and card playing that caused financial gain or loss.[135] Customs and behaviour Practitioners of Islam are generally taught to follow some specific customs in their daily lives. Most of these customs can be traced back to Abrahamic traditions in Pre-Islamic Arabian society.[136] Due to Muhammad's sanction or tacit approval of such practices, these customs are considered to be Sunnah (practices of Muhammad as part of the religion) by the Ummah (Muslim nation). It includes customs like: • Saying "Bismillah" (in the name of God) before eating and drinking.[137] • Using the right hand for drinking and eating.[138] • Saying "As-Salaam Alaikum" (peace be upon you) when meeting someone and answering with "Wa 'alaikumus salam" (and peace be upon you).[139] • Saying "Alhamdulillah" (all gratitude is for only God) when sneezing and responding with "Yarhamukallah" (God have mercy on you).[140] • Saying the "Adhan" (prayer call) in the right ear of a newborn and the Iqama in its left. • In the sphere of hygiene, it includes: • Clipping the moustache • Cutting nails • Circumcising the male offspring[141] [142] • Cleaning the nostrils, the mouth, and the teeth[143] and • Cleaning the body after urination and defecation[144] • Abstention from sexual relations during the menstrual cycle and the puerperal discharge,[Qur'an 2:222] and ceremonial bath after the menstrual cycle, and Janabah (seminal/ovular discharge or sexual intercourse).[Qur'an 4:43][Qur'an 5:6] • Burial rituals include funeral prayer[145] of bathed[146] and enshrouded body in coffin cloth[147] and burying it in a grave.[148] Rituals There are two festivals that are considered Sunnah.[148] [149] • Eid ul-Fitr • Eid al-Adha Rituals associated with these festivals:[148] • Sadaqah (charity) before Eid ul-Fitr prayer.[150] • The Prayer and the Sermon on Eid day. • Takbirs (glorifying God) after every prayer in the days of Tashriq (Normally these days are considered to be the ones in which pilgrims stay at Mina once they return from Muzdalifah i.e. 10th, 11th , 12th, and 13th of Dhu al-Hijjah.) • Sacrifice of unflawed, four legged grazing animal of appropriate age after the prayer of Eid al-Adha in the days of Tashriq.[151]

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Sharia Dress codes The Qur'an also places a dress code upon its followers. The rule for men has been ordained before the women: “say to the believing men to lower their gaze and preserve their modesty, it will make for greater purity for them and Allah is well aware of all that they do.”[Qur'an 24:30] Allah then says in the Qur'an, “And say to the believing women that they cast down their looks and guard their private parts and do not display their ornaments except what appears thereof, and let them wear their khumūr over their bosoms, and not display their ornaments except to their husbands...”[24:31] All those men in whose presence a woman is not obliged to practise the dress code are known as her mahrams. Men have a more relaxed dress code: the body must be covered from knee to waist. However, under Sharia Law, women are required to cover all of their bodies except hands and face.[152] [153] The rationale given for these rules is that men and women are not to be viewed as sexual objects. Men are required to keep their guard up and women to protect themselves. In theory, should either one fail, the other prevents the society from falling into fitna (temptation or discord). There are many different opinions, however, as to whether the veil or headscarf is a real Qur'anic obligation. Some scholars such as Yusuf al-Qaradawi claim it is, while others, such as Mohammed Arkoun, Soheib Bencheikh, Abdoldjavad Falaturi, Jamal al Banna claim it isn't. However, the first group appears dominant:[152] "Jamal al Banna has been for a number of years one of the few mainstream Muslim scholars to argue that the Muslim headscarf, or hijab, is not an Islamic obligation."[154]

Historical developments and contemporary issues During the 19th century, the history of Islamic law took a sharp turn due to new challenges the Muslim world faced: the West had risen to a global power and colonized a large part of the world, including Muslim territories. In the Western world, societies changed from the agricultural to the industrial stage, new social and political ideas emerged, and social models slowly shifted from Map of the Muslim world with the main schools of Islamic law (madhhab) hierarchical towards egalitarian. The Ottoman Empire and the rest of the Muslim world were in decline, and calls for reform became louder. In Muslim countries, codified state law started replacing the role of scholarly legal opinion. Western countries sometimes inspired, sometimes pressured, and sometimes forced Muslim states to change their laws. Secularist movements pushed for laws deviating from the opinions of the Islamic legal scholars. Islamic legal scholarship remained the sole authority for guidance in matters of rituals, worship, and spirituality, while they lost authority to the state in other areas. The Muslim community became divided into groups reacting differently to the change. This division persists until the present day (Brown 1996, Hallaq 2001, Ramadan 2005, Aslan 2006, Safi 2003, Nenezich 2006). • Secularists believe that the law of the state should be based on secular principles, not on Islamic legal doctrines. • Traditionalists believe that the law of the state should be based on the traditional legal schools. However, traditional legal views are considered unacceptable by some modern Muslims, especially in areas like women's rights or slavery.[155] • Reformers believe that new Islamic legal theories can produce modernized Islamic law[156] and lead to acceptable opinions in areas such as women's rights.[157] However, traditionalists believe that any departure from the legal teachings of the Qur'an as explained by the Prophet Muhammad and put into practice by him is an alien concept that cannot properly be attributed to "Islam".

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Contemporary practice There is tremendous variety in the interpretation and implementation of Islamic Law in Muslim societies today. Liberal movements within Islam have questioned the relevance and applicability of Sharia from a variety of perspectives; Islamic feminism brings multiple points of view to the discussion. Some of the largest Muslim countries, including Indonesia, Bangladesh and Pakistan, have largely secular constitutions and laws, with only a few Islamic Law provisions in family law. Turkey has a constitution that is officially strongly secular. India and the Philippines are the only countries in the world that have separate Muslim civil laws, wholly based on Sharia. In India, Muslim civil laws are framed by the Muslim Personal Law board while in the Philippines, it is framed by the Code of Muslim Personal Laws. However, the criminal laws in both the countries are uniform. In September 2008, newspapers in the United Kingdom stated the government had "quietly sanctioned" the recognition of Sharia courts. This refers to situations where both sides in a legal dispute freely choose a Sharia court as a binding arbitrator rather than taking a matter before the official courts. The decision did not break new ground: the decisions of similar Jewish beth din court arbitrations have been recognized in England for over 100 years.[158] Neither party can be forced into arbitration by a Sharia or a Jewish court. Most countries of the Middle East and North Africa maintain a dual system of secular courts and religious courts, in which the religious courts mainly regulate marriage and inheritance. Saudi Arabia and Iran maintain religious courts for all aspects of jurisprudence, and the Mutaween (religious police) assert social compliance, while Somaliland, and Maldives adopted Sharia in legal aspects but with westrn style of judiciary system (Common law or civil law). Laws derived from Sharia are also applied in Afghanistan, Libya and Sudan. Sharia law is officially recognised by the justice system in Israel in matters of personal status of Muslims if they choose a Sharia court (e.g. marriage, divorce, guardianship.) Judges' salaries are paid by the state.[159] Lebanon also incorporates Sharia law for Muslims in family matters.[160] Some states in northern Nigeria have reintroduced Sharia courts.[161] In practice the new Sharia courts in Nigeria have most often meant the re-introduction of harsh punishments without respecting the much tougher rules of evidence and testimony. The punishments include amputation of one/both hands for theft and stoning for adultery.[162] Many, including the European Court of Human Rights, consider the punishments prescribed by Sharia in some countries to be barbaric and cruel. Islamic scholars argue that, if implemented properly, the punishments serve as a deterrent to crime.[163] In international media, practices by countries applying Islamic law have fallen under considerable criticism at times. This is particularly the case when the sentence carried out is seen to greatly tilt away from established standards of international human rights. This is true for the application of the death penalty for the crimes of adultery, blasphemy, apostasy and homosexuality, amputations for the crime of theft, and flogging for fornication or public intoxication.[164] A bill proposed by lawmakers in the Indonesian province of Aceh would implement Sharia law for all non-Muslims, the armed forces and law enforcement officers, a local police official has announced. The news comes two months after the Deutsche Presse-Agentur warned of "Taliban-style Islamic police terrorizing Indonesia's Aceh".[165] [166] [167]

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Contemporary issues Democracy Further information: Islamic ethics, Islam and democracy, Shura, and Ijma On the one hand, there is much common ground between Sharia and democracy: for example, both value electoral procedure.[168] On the other hand, official institutions in democratic countries, such as the European Court of Human Rights, argue that Sharia is incompatible with a democratic state. Legal scholar L. Ali Khan concludes "that constitutional orders founded on the principles of Sharia are fully compatible with democracy, provided that religious minorities are protected and the incumbent Islamic leadership remains committed to the right to recall".[169] [170] Western courts have criticized Sharia. In 1998 the Constitutional Court of Turkey banned and dissolved Turkey's Refah Party on the grounds that the "rules of sharia", which Refah sought to introduce, "were incompatible with the democratic regime," stating that "Democracy is the antithesis of sharia." On appeal by Refah the European Court of Human Rights determined that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy".[171] [172] [173] Refah's Sharia based notion of a "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. It was determined that it would "do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy".[174] Human rights Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam Several major, predominantly Muslim countries criticized the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) for its perceived failure to take into account the cultural and religious context of non-Western countries. Iran claimed that the UDHR was "a secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law. Therefore in 1990 the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, a group representing all Muslim majority nations, adopted the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam. Ann Elizabeth Mayer points to notable absences from the Cairo Declaration: provisions for democratic principles, protection for religious freedom, freedom of association and freedom of the press, as well as equality in rights and equal protection under the law. Article 24 of the Cairo declaration states that "all the rights and freedoms stipulated in this Declaration are subject to the Islamic shari'a".[175] Professor H. Patrick Glenn asserts that the European concept of human rights developed in reaction to an entrenched hierarchy of class and privilege contrary to, and rejected by, Islam. As implemented in Sharia law, protection for the individual is defined in terms of mutual obligation rather than human rights. The concept of human rights, as applied in the European framework, is therefore unnecessary and potentially destructive to Islamic societies.[176] Many secularist, human rights, and leading organisations have criticized Islamic states' stance on human rights. In 2009, the journal Free Inquiry summarized this criticism in an editorial: "We are deeply concerned with the changes to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by a coalition of Islamic states within the United Nations that wishes to prohibit any criticism of religion and would thus protect Islam's limited view of human rights. In view of the conditions inside the Islamic Republic of Iran, Egypt, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, the Sudan, Syria, Bangdalesh, Iraq, and Afghanistan, we should expect that at the top of their human rights agenda would be to rectify the legal inequality of women, the suppression of political dissent, the curtailment of free expression, the persecution of ethnic minorities and religious dissenters — in short, protecting their citizens from egregious human rights violations. Instead, they are worrying about protecting Islam."[177]

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Sharia Freedom of speech Qadi 'Iyad argues that Sharia does not allow freedom of speech in such matters as criticism of Muhammad. Such criticism is blasphemy and punishable by death. Slander, gossip, and backbiting, or "ghiba" is regarded as a major sin.[178] Homosexuality Homosexual activity is illegal under Sharia; however, the prescribed penalties differ from one school of jurisprudence to another. For example, these Muslim-majority countries may impose the death penalty for sodomy and homosexual activities: Iran,[179] Nigeria,[180] Saudi Arabia,[181] Somalia.[182] In contrast, in some Muslim-majority countries such as Indonesia (outside of Aceh province),[183] Jordan, Egypt and Iraq same-sex sexual acts are illegal but there is no specific penalty.[184] . In Turkey, homosexual acts in private between consenting individuals are legal. Women In terms of religious obligations, such as certain elements of prayer, payment of the zakat poor-tax, observance of the Ramadan fast, and the Hajj pilgrimage, women are treated no differently from men. There are, however, some exceptions made in the case of prayers and fasting, as women are relieved from the duty of the five daily prayers or fasting during their menstruation. There are no priests or clergy needed in order to perform rites and sacraments in Islam. The leader of prayer is known as an imam. Men can lead both men and women in prayer, but women do not traditionally lead men in prayer.[185] In practice, it is much more common for men to be scholars than women, however in the early days of Islam, female scholars were much more common.[186] Islam does not prohibit women from working, as it says "Treat your women well and be kind to them for they are your partners and committed helpers."[187] Married women may seek employment although it is often thought in patriarchal societies that the woman's role as a wife and mother should have first priority. Islam unequivocally allows both single and married women to own property in their own right.[188] Islam grants women the right to inherit property from other family members, and these rights are detailed in the Qur'an. A woman's inheritance is different from a man's, both in quantity and attached obligations.[Qur'an 4:12] For instance, a daughter's inheritance is usually half that of her brothers.[Qur'an 4:11] Sharia law requires family members females or males to support each other as needed; compare female inheritance in Salic law. Men are fully obliged to financially maintain their household, whereas women are not; it is often said that even if the woman is a millionaire and he is poor, he is still obliged to spend on her. She is not obliged to share her wealth with her husband unless she does so out of kindness. Islamic jurists have traditionally held that Muslim women may enter into marriage with only Muslim men,[189] although some contemporary jurists question the basis of this restriction.[189] [190] [191] On the other hand, the Qur'an allows a Muslim man to marry a chaste woman from the People of the Book, a term that includes Jews, Sabians, and Christians.[189] [192] However, fiqh law has held that it is mukrah (reprehensible) for a Muslim man to marry a non-Muslim woman in a non-Muslim country.[189] In 2003 a Malaysian court ruled that, under Sharia law, a man may divorce his wife via text messaging as long as the message was clear and unequivocal.[193] The divorced wife always keeps her dowry from when she was married, and is given child support until the age of weaning. The mother is usually granted custody of the child.[100] If the couple has divorced fewer than three times (meaning it is not a final divorce) the wife also receives spousal support for three menstrual cycles after the divorce, until it can be determined whether she is pregnant.[101]

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Women's rights Status of women under Islamic law prior to the 19th century Islamic law grants women some legal rights they did not have under Western legal systems until the 19th and 20th centuries.[194] Noah Feldman, a Harvard University law professor, notes: As for sexism, the common law long denied married women any property rights or indeed legal personality apart from their husbands. When the British applied their law to Muslims in place of Shariah, as they did in some colonies, the result was to strip married women of the property that Islamic law had always granted them — hardly progress toward equality of the sexes.[195] Status of women under Islamic law since the 19th century Some argue that at this point in history the aforementioned exploration of freedom is no longer true — that is to say that whilst it is arguable that women had more extensive legal rights under Islamic law than they did under Western legal systems in the past, it is no longer true today.[196] Slavery and emancipation The major juristic schools of Islam have traditionally accepted the institution of slavery. However, Islam has prescribed five ways to free slaves, has severely chastised those who enslave free people, and regulated the slave trade. The source of slaves was restricted to war in preference to killing whole tribes en masse, as was the tradition at the time. Slaves also had more rights under Islam as an owner could not mistreat them. Many slaves were freed after a certain period of time, if they accepted to convert to Islam, or if they were ransomed. Sharia and non-Muslims Based on Quranic verses and Islamic traditions, classical Sharia distinguishes between Muslims, followers of other Abrahamic monotheistic religions, and pagans or people belonging to other polytheistic religions. As monotheists, Jews and Christians have traditionally been considered "People of The Book," and afforded a special status known as dhimmi derived from a theoretical contract - "dhimma" or "residence in return for taxes". There are parallels for this in Roman and Jewish law.[197] Hindus were originally considered pagans and given the choice between conversion to Islam and death (or slavery), as pagans are not afforded the rights and protections of the dhimma contract.[198] By the Middle Ages, the Hindus and Buddhists of India had come to be considered dhimmis by their Muslim rulers.[199] Eventually, the largest school of Islamic scholarship applied this term to all non-Muslims living in Islamic lands outside the sacred area surrounding Mecca, Saudi Arabia.[200] Classical Sharia attributes different legal rights and obligations to different religious groups; in practice, this consisted of curbs on the rights and freedoms of non-Muslims.[201] However, the classical dhimma contract is no longer enforced. Western influence has been instrumental in eliminating the restrictions and protections of the dhimma contract, thereby contributing to the current state of relations between Muslims and non-Muslims living in Islamic lands.[202] According to law professor H. Patrick Glenn of McGill University, "Today it is said that the dhimmi are 'excluded from the specifically Muslim privileges, but on the other hand they are excluded from the Non-Muslims protesting against Sharia. specifically Muslim duties' while (and here there are clear parallels with western public and private law treatment of aliens - Fremdenrecht, la condition de estrangers), [f]or the rest, the Muslim and the dhimmi are equal in practically the whole of the law of property and of contracts and obligations."[203]

Sharia Classical Sharia incorporated the religious laws and courts of Christians, Jews and Hindus, as seen in the early Caliphate, Al-Andalus, Indian subcontinent, and the Ottoman Millet system.[204] [205] In medieval Islamic societies, the qadi (Islamic judges) usually could not interfere in the matters of non-Muslims unless the parties voluntarily choose to be judged according to Islamic law, thus the dhimmi communities living in Islamic states usually had their own laws independent from the Sharia law, such as the Jews who would have their own Halakha courts.[206] These courts did not cover cases involved other religious groups, or capital offences or threats to public order. By the 18th century, however, dhimmis frequently attended the Ottoman Muslim courts, where cases were taken against them by Muslims, or they took cases against Muslims or other dhimmis. Oaths sworn by dhimmis in these courts tailored to their beliefs.[207] Non-Muslims were allowed to engage in certain practices (such as the consumption of alcohol and pork) that were usually forbidden by Islamic law. Zoroastrian "self-marriages", that were considered incestuous under Sharia, were also tolerated. Ibn Qayyim (1292–1350) opined that non-Muslims were entitled to such practices since they could not be presented to Sharia courts and the religious minorities in question held it permissible. This ruling was based on the precedent that the prophet Muhammad did not forbid such self-marriages among Zoroastrians despite coming into contact with Zoroastrians and knowing about this practice.[208] Religious minorities were also free to do whatever they wished in their own homes, provided they did not publicly engage in illicit sexual activity in ways that could threaten public morals.[209]

Parallels with Western legal systems Comparisons with common law Parallels to common law concepts are found in classical Islamic law and jurisprudence including ratio decidendi (illah). Several fundamental common law instutitions may have been adapted from similar legal instututions in Islamic law and jurisprudence, and introduced to England after the Norman conquest of England by the Normans, who conquered and inherited the Islamic legal administration of the Emirate of Sicily, and also by Crusaders during the Crusades. In particular, the “royal English contract protected by the action of debt is identified with the Islamic Aqd, the English assize of novel disseisin is identified with the Islamic Istihqaq, and the English jury is identified with the Islamic Lafif.” The English trust and agency institutions in common law were possible adapted from the Islamic Waqf and Hawala institutions respectively during the Crusades. It is worth noting, however, that transferring property to another for the “use” of another developed largely in response to the requirements of feudal inheritance law. Trust law, in particular, is a creature of equity which derived from the parallel jurisdiction of the Lord Chancellor to decide matters independently to the Royal Courts. Other English legal institutions such as “the scholastic method, the license to teach,” the “law schools known as Inns of Court in England and Madrasas in Islam” and the “European commenda” (Islamic Qirad) may have also originated from Islamic law. The methodology of legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (Qiyas) are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems. These similarities and influences have led some scholars to suggest that Islamic law may have laid the foundations for “the common law as an integrated whole”.[210]

Comparisons with civil law One of the institutions developed by classical Islamic jurists that influenced civil law was the Hawala, an early informal value transfer system, which is mentioned in texts of Islamic jurisprudence as early as the 8th century. Hawala itself later influenced the development of the Aval in French civil law and the Avallo in Italian law.[65] The "European commenda" limited partnerships (Islamic Qirad) used in civil law as well as the civil law conception of res judicata may also have origins in Islamic law.[64]

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International law Islamic law also made "major contributions" to international admiralty law, departing from the previous Roman and Byzantine maritime laws in several ways.[211] [212] These included Muslim sailors being "paid a fixed wage "in advance" with an understanding that they would owe money in the event of desertion or malfeasance, in keeping with Islamic conventions" in which contracts should specify "a known fee for a known duration", in contrast to Roman and Byzantine sailors who were "stakeholders in a maritime venture, in as much as captain and crew, with few exceptions, were paid proportional divisions of a sea venture's profit, with shares allotted by rank, only after a voyage's successful conclusion." Muslim jurists also distinguished between "coastal navigation, or cabotage," and voyages on the "high seas", and they also made shippers "liable for freight in most cases except the seizure of both a ship and its cargo." Islamic law also "departed from Justinian's Digest and the Nomos Rhodion Nautikos in condemning slave jettison", and the Islamic Qirad was also a precursor to the European commenda limited partnership. The "Islamic influence on the development of an international law of the sea" can thus be discerned alongside that of the Roman influence.[211]

Legal education The origins of the Ijazah dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic legal education system, which was equivalent to the Doctor of Laws qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the Madh'hab legal schools. To obtain a doctorate, a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and ten or more years for a post-graduate course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses," and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose," which were scholarly exercises practiced throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded doctorates giving them the status of faqih (meaning "master of law"), mufti (meaning "professor of legal opinions") and mudarris (meaning "teacher"), which were later translated into Latin as magister, professor and doctor respectively.[213]

Role in economic development and corporate law Sharia classically recognizes only natural persons, and never developed the concept of a legal person, or corporation, i.e. a legal entity that limits the liabilities of its managers, shareholders, and employees; exists beyond the lifetimes of its founders; and that can own assets, sign contracts, and appear in court through representatives.[214] Thus, Sharia has no native tradition of corporate law. This, combined with egalitarian rules of inheritance for male descendants (compare with primogeniture), hindered the concentration of wealth and the development of larger and more sophisticated enterprises, according to Timur Kuran of Duke University. Prohibitions on interest, or "riba" also disadvantaged Muslims vis-à-vis non-Muslim minorities in accessing banks and insurance when these services were first introduced by Westerners. Interest prohibitions, also imposed secondary costs by discouraging record keeping, and delaying the introduction of modern accounting.[215] Such factors, according to Kuran, have played a significant role in retarding economic development in the Middle East.[216] Though, it is argued, the West caught up in the economic crises at the outset of the 21st century when many of the aforementioned economic policies backfired on a global scale and threatened to bankrupt entire countries.

Qanun After the fall of the Abbasids in 1258, a practice known to the Turks and Mongols transformed itself into Qanun, which gave power to caliphs, governors, and sultans alike to "make their own regulations for activities not addressed by the sharia."[217] The Qanun began to unfold as early as Umar I (586-644 CE).[217] Many of the regulations covered by Qanun were based on financial matters or tax systems adapted through the law and regulations of those territories Islam conquered.[217] Qanun in Arabic means law or rules.

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References [1] Otto, Jan Michiel. Sharia and National Law in Muslim Countries: Tensions and Opportunities for Dutch and EU Foreign Policy . Amsterdam University Press, 2008, p. 7: "When people refer to the sharia, they are in fact referring to their sharia, in the name of the eternal will of the Almighty God." [2] "Voice of America: Aceh's Sharia Law Still Controversial in Indonesia" (http:/ / www1. voanews. com/ english/ news/ religion/ Acehs-Sharia-Law-Still-Controversial-in-Indonesia-80257482. html) [3] "Reuters: Islamic police tighten grip on Indonesia's Aceh" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ idUSTRE60D07420100114) [4] "Jakarta Post: Aceh sharia police loved and hated" (http:/ / www. thejakartapost. com/ news/ 2010/ 02/ 08/ aceh-sharia-police-loved-and-hated. html) [5] "BBC: Thousands of people have been killed in fighting between Christians and Muslims following the introduction of Sharia punishments in northern Nigerian states over the past three years." (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ africa/ 2632939. stm) [6] Johannes Harnischfeger. Democratization and Islamic law: the Sharia conflict in Nigeria. Campus Verlag: 2008. p. 16 "When the Governor of Kaduna announced the introduction of Sharia, although non-Muslims form almost half of the population, violence erupted, leaving more than 1,000 people dead." p. 189 "When a violent confrontation loomed in February 200, because the strong Christian minority in Kaduna was unwilling to accept the proposed Sharia law, the sultan and his delegation of 18 emirs went to see the governor and insisted on the passage of the bill. [7] "Independent: Fight for sharia leaves dozens dead in Nigeria" (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/ world/ africa/ fight-for-sharia-leaves-dozens-dead-in-nigeria-1763253. html) [8] "PBS: Nigeria in Transition: Recent religious tensions and violence" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ newshour/ bb/ africa/ nigeria/ religous_violence. html) [9] Aljazeera English: Timeline: Tensions in Nigeria: "Thousands of people are killed in northern Nigeria as non-Muslims opposed to the introduction of Sharia, or Islamic law, fight Muslims who demand its implementation in the northern state of Kaduna. (http:/ / english. aljazeera. net/ news/ africa/ 2010/ 01/ 201012314018187505. html) [10] Aljazeera English: Dozens killed in violence in northern Nigeria- "The group Boko Haram, which wants to impose sharia (Islamic law) across the country, has attacked police stations and churches." (http:/ / english. aljazeera. net/ news/ africa/ 2009/ 07/ 2009727182749635965. html) [11] [[Library of Congress Country Studies|Library of Congress Country Studies: Sudan: (http:/ / countrystudies. us/ sudan/ 63. htm)] "The factors that provoked the military coup, primarily the closely intertwined issues of Islamic law and of the civil war in the south, remained unresolved in 1991. The September 1983 implementation of the sharia throughout the country had been controversial and provoked widespread resistance in the predominantly non-Muslim south ... Opposition to the sharia, especially to the application of hudud (sing., hadd), or Islamic penalties, such as the public amputation of hands for theft, was not confined to the south and had been a principal factor leading to the popular uprising of April 1985 that overthrew the government of Jaafar an Nimeiri"] [12] PBS Frontline: "Civil war was sparked in 1983 when the military regime tried to impose sharia law as part of its overall policy to "Islamicize" all of Sudan." (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ frontlineworld/ stories/ sudan/ facts. html) [13] Washington Post: "The war flared again in 1983 after then-President Jaafar Nimeri abrogated the peace accord and announced he would turn Sudan into a Muslim Arab state, where Islamic law, or sharia, would prevail, including in the southern provinces. Sharia can include amputation of limbs for theft, public flogging and stoning. The war, fought between the government and several rebel groups, continued for two decades." (http:/ / media. washingtonpost. com/ wp-srv/ world/ pdf/ darfur_040707. pdf) [14] Bassam Tibi. Political Islam, World Politics and Europe. Routledge:2008 p. 33. "The shari'a was imposed on non-Muslim Sudanese peoples in September 1983, and since that time Muslims in the north have been fighting a jihad against the non-Muslims in the south." [15] Bernard G. Weiss, The Spirit of Islamic Law. Alta Mira Press, 1998, pg. 17. [16] Irshad Abdal-Haqq, Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary, Edited by Aminah Beverly McCloud, Chapter 1 Islamic Law: An Overview of its Origin and Elements. Alta Mira Press, 2006, pg. 4. [17] Omar, Abdul Mannan. Dictionary of the Holy Qur'an. NOOR Foundation International Inc., 2003, p. 287 [18] Sharia Law (http:/ / www. duhaime. org/ LegalDictionary/ S/ ShariaLaw. aspx) [19] Gibb, Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen (1970). Mohammedanism: an Historical Survey. Oxford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 0195002458. [20] Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer in Islamic Law: the Sharia from Muhammad's Time to the Present by Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer, McFarland and Co. Publishers, 2007, p.3 [21] The Sharia and the nation state: who can codify the divine law? (http:/ / www. hf. uib. no/ smi/ pao/ vikor. html), p.2 Accessed 20 September 2005 [22] Basim Musallam, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pg. 176. [23] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 3. The University of Chicago, 1958, pg. 105-108. [24] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 3. The University of Chicago, 1958, pg. 176-177. [25] Sarah Ansari, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pg. 90.

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Sharia [26] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 3. The University of Chicago, 1958, pg. 366-367. [27] Sarah Ansari, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pg. 103-111. [28] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 3. The University of Chicago, 1958, pg. 384-386. [29] H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, pg. 201. [30] John L. Esposito, The Future of Islam. Oxford University Press, 2010, pg. 74-77. [31] Khaled Abou El Fadl with Roger Boase (Editor), Islam and Global Dialogue: Religious Pluralism and the Pursuit of Peace. Ashgate Publishing, 2005, pg. 184. [32] Al-Islam.org by the Ahlul Bayt DILP - Hawza - Advanced Islamic Studies (http:/ / al-islam. org/ index. php?t=258& cat=258) [33] H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, pg. 199. [34] Hallaq 1997, Brown 1996, Aslan 2006 [35] Otto, Jan Michiel. Sharia and National Law in Muslim Countries: Tensions and Opportunities for Dutch and EU Foreign Policy . Amsterdam University Press, 2008, pp. 10 [36] Otto, Jan Michiel. Sharia and National Law in Muslim Countries: Tensions and Opportunities for Dutch and EU Foreign Policy . Amsterdam University Press, 2008, p. 9 [37] Chioma Daisy Ebeniro, PhD (April 2011). "The Problems of Administration of Justice on Female Offenders in Nigeria" (http:/ / www. umes. edu/ WorkArea/ showcontent. aspx?id=33898). African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies 4 (2). ISSN 1554-3897. . Retrieved 2011-06-26. [38] Otto, Jan Michiel. Sharia and National Law in Muslim Countries: Tensions and Opportunities for Dutch and EU Foreign Policy . Amsterdam University Press, 2008, p. 8 [39] Otto, Jan Michiel. Sharia and National Law in Muslim Countries: Tensions and Opportunities for Dutch and EU Foreign Policy . Amsterdam University Press, 2008, pp. 8-9 [40] Ira Lapidus, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pg. 293-296 see Bibliography for Conclusion. [41] The Second Era of Ijtihad (http:/ / papers. ssrn. com/ sol3/ papers. cfm?abstract_id=935607), 1 St. Thomas University Law Review 341 [42] Ira Lapidus, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pg. 292 see Bibliography for Conclusion. [43] Ira Lapidus, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 292-293 see Bibliography for Conclusion. [44] Ira Lapidus, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pg. 296 see Bibliography for Conclusion. [45] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 3. The University of Chicago, 1958, pg. 386-392. [46] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 4. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [47] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 100. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [48] Ira Lapidus, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 297-298 see Bibliography for Conclusion. [49] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pp. 96-100. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [50] "You shall not find a change in Allah's course." TMQ 48:23 [51] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), Introduction p. viii. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 "While such affiliations, and indeed much of what can be termed traditional Sunni Islam, have not been spared the criticism of certain post-Caliphal Muslim writers and theorists, the authors of the present volume and their positions do represent the orthodox Muslim intellectual and spiritual heritage that has been the strength of the Community for over a thousand years, and the means through which Allah has preserved His religion, in its purest and fullest sense, to the present day." [52] Otto, Jan Michiel. Sharia and National Law in Muslim Countries: Tensions and Opportunities for Dutch and EU Foreign Policy . Amsterdam University Press, 2008, p. 30 [53] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1958, pg. 155-156. [54] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 16. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [55] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 15. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [56] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 17. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [57] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1958, pg. 187. [58] Coulson, Noel James. A history of Islamic law (Islamic surveys). Oxford: University Press, 1964. [59] Liebesny, Majid &, and Herbert J. (Editors) Khadduri. Law in the Middle East: Volume I: Origin and Development of Islamic Law. Washington D.C.: The Middle East Institute, 1955. [60] Dien, Mawil Izzi. Islamic Law: From Historical Foundations To Contemporary Practice. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004.

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Sharia [61] Berg, Herbert. "Islamic Law." Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History 3 (2005): 1030. [62] Weiss (2002), pp.3,161 [63] Weiss (2002), p.162 [64] (Makdisi 1999) [65] (Badr 1978, pp. 196–8) [66] (El-Gamal 2006, p. 16) [67] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 46. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [68] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 46-47. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [69] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pp. 49-100. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [70] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 36-37. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [71] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pp. 101-219. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [72] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 33-37. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [73] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pp. 220-243. [74] http:/ / www. al-islam. org/ beliefs/ practices/ khums. html#1 [75] http:/ / www. khilafah. com/ index. php/ the-khilafah/ economy/ 10546-oppressive-taxes-like-vat-and-gst-are-haram-in-islam [76] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pp. 244-276. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [77] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 37-38. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [78] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pp. 277-296. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [79] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 38. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [80] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pp. 297-370. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [81] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pp. 39-43. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [82] H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, pg. 183. [83] H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, pg. 184. [84] H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, pg. 185. [85] James Crotty, Structural Causes of the Global Financial Crisis: a Critical Assessment of the 'New Financial Architecture' in The Cambridge Journal of Economics. Oxford University Press, 2009, Volume 33 Number 4, p 565. Oxfordjournals.org (http:/ / cje. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 33/ 4/ 563) [86] H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, pg. 286. [87] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pp. 371-459. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [88] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. This is so because it is considered the responsibility of the males in the family to take care of the women, their sisters (if they are unmarried) and their mothers. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pp. 52. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [89] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pp. 462-464. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [90] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1958, pg. 343. [91] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pp. 460-505. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [92] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pg. 521. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [93] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pp. 522. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [94] Islamic Law, ‫ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻳﻌﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ‬, islamic law sharia (http:/ / huquq. com/ maghniyah) [95] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pp. 50-51. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [96] Pohl, Florian (2010). "Polygamy" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=n4Eye4ilLVkC& pg=PA32). Modern Muslim Societies (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=n4Eye4ilLVkC). Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 9780761479277. . [97] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 51. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [98] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 52. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [99] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pg. 531-532. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [100] Who has more right to custody in Islam? (http:/ / www. islam-qa. com/ en/ ref/ 8189) [101] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pg. 546 (m 11.10 (2)). Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8

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Mobil Yanbu Petrochemical Co., Supreme Court of Delaware, January 14, 2005 p. 52 - "The Saudi law system differs in critically important respects from the system of legal thought employed by the common law countries, including the United States. Perhaps most significant is that Islamic law does not embrace the common law system of binding precedent and stare decisis. Indeed, in Saudi Arabia, judicial decisions are not in themselves a source of law, and with minor exceptions, court decisions in Saudi Arabia are not published or even open to public inspection. (http:/ / caselaw. findlaw. com/ data2/ delawarestatecases/ 493-2003. pdf) [108] Fatany, Samar. "Let Us Codify Shariah Laws," Arab NewsJan 31, 2008. (http:/ / archive. arabnews. com/ ?page=7& section=0& article=106293& d=31& m=1& y=2008) Codification efforts remain incomplete [109] Benjamin C. Fortna, Education and Autobiography at the End of the Ottoman Empire, Die Welt des Islams, New Series, Vol. 41, Issue 1 (Mar., 2001), pp. 1-31 "the literacy rate in the Ottoman Empire in 1900 was between five and ten percent" [110] Hamoud, Hassan, R. "Illiteracy in the Arab world," Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2006, Literacy for Life, UNESCO (http:/ / unesdoc. unesco. org/ images/ 0014/ 001462/ 146282e. pdf) [111] Introduction to Islamic Law (http:/ / www. londoninternational. ac. uk/ current_students/ programme_resources/ laws/ subject_guides/ islamic/ islamic_chpt4. pdf) [112] Alhaji A.D. Ajijola, Introduction to Islamic law. Karachi, Pakistan : International Islamic Publishers, 1989. p. 133 [113] Mohammad Hashim Kamali. "Punishment in Islamic Law: A Critique of the Hudud Bill of Kelantan, Malaysia." Arab Law Quarterly, Vol. 13, No. 3 (1998), pp. 203-234 [114] Why the Middle East Is Economically Underdeveloped-Historical Mechanisms of Institutional Stagnation, p. 21 (http:/ / www. international. ucla. edu/ cms/ files/ kuran. 0130. pdf) Some of the reasons non-Muslims used Sharia courts included more reliable enforcement, mandatory, if unequal shares in inheritance for women (cf. primogeniture), and the ability to switch between religious jurisdictions at any time, a privilege not available to Muslim litigants. [115] Explaining the Economic Trajectories of Civilizations- Musings on the Systemic Approach, pp.7,10 (http:/ / www. international. ucla. edu/ cms/ files/ kuran. 0130. pdf) [116] Matthew Lippman et al. Islamic Criminal Law and Procedure: An Introduction.Praeger Publishers:1988, p. 71 [117] Michael J. Frank. "Trying Times: The Prosecution of Terrorists in the Central Criminal Court of Iraq." Florida Journal of International Law April 2006 [118] "The attractions of Sharia: Nigeria's sharia courts are harsh, but quicker and cleaner than secular ones" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ world/ middleeast-africa/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=E1_TPTRDTJ) [119] Qur'an 5:38 [120] Islamic Law: Myths and Realities (http:/ / muslim-canada. org/ Islam_myths. htm), by Denis J. Wiechman, Jerry D. Kendall, and Mohammad K. 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Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pp. 364-365. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [128] Sunan ibn Maja 2314 [129] Al-Sunan al-Sughra 59 [130] Al-Zamakhshari. Al-Kashshaf, vol. 1, (Beirut: Daru'l-Kitab al-'Arabi), p. 215 [131] Sahih Muslim 1934 [132] Al-Sunan al-Sughra 4447 [133] Sahih al-Bukhari 4199 [134] Sunan Abi Dawood 2858 [135] Prohibited Sports (http:/ / www. jamiat. co. za/ library/ books/ Islam_and_Sport/ islam_and_sport_04. htm#Proh) [136] Ghamidi(2001), Sources of Islam (http:/ / www. renaissance. com. pk/ JulRefl2y6. html)

96

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ISBN 1843534371. . [185] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pg. 183 (f12.27). Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [186] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1958, pg. 238. [187] the last sermon of Muhammad [188] Chris Horrie and Peter Chippindale. What is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction, pg. 49. Virgin Books, 1991. ISBN 0 7535 0827 3 [189] On Christian Men marrying Muslim Women (http:/ / www. scholarofthehouse. com/ oninma. html) [190] Imam Khaleel Mohammed's defense of inter-faith marriage (http:/ / www. muslim-refusenik. com/ news/ interfaith-marriage. html) [191] Asharq Al-Awsat Interviews Sudanese Islamist leader Dr. Hassan Turabi (http:/ / www. aawsat. com/ english/ news. asp?section=3& id=4678) [192] Qur'an, [Qur'an 5:5] [193] Malaysia permits text message divorce - BBC (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 3100143. stm) [194] Dr. Badawi, Jamal A. (September 1971). "The Status of Women in Islam". Al-Ittihad Journal of Islamic Studies 8 (2) [195] Noah Feldman (March 16, 2008). "Why Shariah?" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 03/ 16/ magazine/ 16Shariah-t. html?ei=5070& em=& en=5c1b8de536ce606f& ex=1205812800& pagewanted=all). New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-10-05. [196] m. Hafez, Mohammed (September 2006). "Why Muslims Rebel". Al-Ittihad Journal of Islamic Studies 1 (2) [197] H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, pp. 217-219. [198] Bernard Lewis, The Jews of Islam, pg. 18. Princeton University Press, 1984. ISBN 9780691008073 [199] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 2. The University of Chicago, 1958, pg. 278. [200] al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib. Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pg 603. Amana Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-915957-72-8 [201] Bernard Lewis (1984). The Jews of Islam (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=W0EbKFRxrT4C). Princeton University Press. pp.  62 (http:/ / books. google. com. ph/ books?id=W0EbKFRxrT4C& pg=PA62). ISBN 9780691008073. . [202] Bernard Lewis, The Jews of Islam, pg. 184. Princeton University Press, 1984. ISBN 9780691008073 [203] H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, pg. 219. [204] (Weeramantry 1997, p. 138) [205] Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein (2001). The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195139917 [206] Mark R. Cohen (1995). Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=fgbib5exskUC& printsec=frontcover& dq=cohen+ Under+ Crescent+ and+ Cross& q). Princeton University Press. p. 74. ISBN 069101082X. . Retrieved 2010-04-10 [207] al-Qattan, Najwa (1999). "Dhimmis in the Muslim Court: Legal Autonomy and Religious Discrimination". International Journal of Middle East Studies (University of Cambridge) 31 (3): 429–444. doi:10.1017/S0020743800055501. ISSN 00207438. [208] Sherman A. Jackson (2005). Islam and the Blackamerican: looking toward the third resurrection (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=nprKYM8sleYC& pg=PA144& dq=ankiha+ fasida#v=onepage& q). Oxford University Press. p. 144. ISBN 019518081X. . Retrieved 2010-04-10 [209] Sherman A. Jackson (2005). Islam and the Blackamerican: looking toward the third resurrection (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=nprKYM8sleYC& pg=PA144& dq=ankiha+ fasida#v=onepage& q). Oxford University Press. p. 145. ISBN 019518081X. . Retrieved 2010-04-10 [210] Moghul, Umar F. (Fall/Winter 1999). "Approximating Certainty in Ratiocination: How to Ascertain the 'Illah (Effective Cause) in the Islamic Legal System and How to Determine the Ratio Decidendi in the Anglo-American Common Law". Journal of Islamic Law 4: 125 [211] Tai, Emily Sohmer (2007). "Book Review: Hassan S. Khalilieh, Admiralty and Maritime Laws in the Mediterranean Sea (ca. 800-1050): The "Kitāb Akriyat al-Sufun" vis-à-vis the "Nomos Rhodion Nautikos"". Medieval Encounters 13: 602–12 [212] Khalilieh, Hassan Salih (1998). Islamic Maritime Law. Brill Publishers. ISBN 9004109552 [213] Makdisi, George (April–June 1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West". Journal of the American Oriental Society (Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 109, No. 2) 109 (2): 175–182 [175–77]. doi:10.2307/604423. JSTOR 604423 [214] Kuran, Timur. The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law- Origins and Persistence (http:/ / www. helsinki. fi/ iehc2006/ papers3/ Kuran. pdf) [215] Kuran, Timur. "The Logic of Financial Westernization in the Middle East," Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization,Vol. 56 (2005), p. 600

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Sources • Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring 1978). "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems". The American Journal of Comparative Law (The American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 26, No. 2) 26 (2 [Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 24–25, 1977]): 187–198. doi:10.2307/839667. JSTOR 839667 • Badr, Gamal Moursi; Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (Winter 1984). "Islamic Criminal Justice". The American Journal of Comparative Law (The American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 32, No. 1) 32 (1): 167–169. doi:10.2307/840274. JSTOR 840274 • Bakhtiar, Laleh and Kevin Reinhart (1996). Encyclopedia of Islamic Law: A Compendium of the Major Schools. Kazi Publications, ISBN 1-56744-498-9 • Brown, Daniel W. (1996). Rethinking traditions in modern Islamic thought. Cambridge University Press, UK. ISBN 0-521-65394-0 • Darwish, Nonie (2008), Cruel and Usual Punishment: The Terrifying Global Implications of Islamic Law, Thomas Nelson. ISBN 9781595551610 • Doi, Abd ar-Rahman I., and Clarke, Abdassamad (2008). Shari'ah: Islamic Law. Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd., ISBN 978 1 842000 85 3 (paperback), ISBN 978 1 842000 87 8 (hardback) • El-Fadl, Khaled Abou (2003), Reasoning with God: Rationality and Thought in Islam, Oneworld, ISBN 1-85168-306-2 • Kafadar, Cemal (1996), Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-20600-2 • Mumisa, Michael (2002) Islamic Law: Theory & Interpretation, Amana Publications, ISBN 1-59008-010-6 • Musa, A. Y. Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, New York: Palgrave, 2008 • El-Gamal, Mahmoud A. (2006). Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521864143 • Gaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988). "The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College". University of Pennsylvania Law Review (University of Pennsylvania Law Review, Vol. 136, No. 4) 136 (4): 1231–1261. doi:10.2307/3312162. JSTOR 3312162 • Ayaz, Maryam (2007), "Sharia'h and Profits", Apvision Revolutionary Islamic Profitability Models (http://www. apvision.com.pk/islamic_banking_finance_economics.html) • Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq. OCLC 52901690. • Hudson, A. (2003). Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.). London: Cavendish Publishing. ISBN 1-85941-729-9 • Coulson, Noel James. A history of Islamic law (Islamic surveys). Oxford: University Press, 1964. • Dien, Mawil Izzi. Islamic Law: From Historical Foundations To Contemporary Practice. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004. • Liebesny, Majid &, and Herbert J. (Editors) Khadduri. Law in the Middle East: Volume I: Origin and Development of Islamic Law. Washington D.C.: The Middle East Institute, 1955. • Berg, Herbert. "Islamic Law." Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History 3 (2005): 1030. In History Reference Center[database online]. Available from Snowden Library (accessed February 11, 2008). • Makdisi, John A. (June 1999). "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law". North Carolina Law Review 77 (5): 1635–1739 • Safi, Omid (2003). Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1-85168-316-X

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Sharia • ash-Shafi'i, Muhammad ibn Idris (1993), Risala: Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence, Islamic Texts Society, ISBN 0-946621-15-2 • Shahin, Omar (2007), The Muslim Family in Western Society: A Study in Islamic Law (English), Cloverdale Corporation, ISBN 978-1-929569-30-4 • Weeramantry, Judge Christopher G. (1997). Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights (http://books. google.com/?id=3-1sH1wc58UC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage). Brill Publishers. ISBN 9041102418 • Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers. ISBN 9004120661.

Further reading • Ali, Abdullah Yusuf (2000), The Holy Quran * Translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali. Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 978-1-85326-782-6. A popular translation of the Quran • Khan, Muhammad Muhsin (1996), The English Translation of Sahih Al Bukhari With the Arabic Text. ISBN 978-1-88196-359-2. The complete translation (in nine volumes) of a popular Sunni collection of hadith • Hussain, Jamila, Islam: Its Law and Society. The Federation Press. ISBN 1-86287-499-9. A modern discourse on Sharia law

External links • • • • • • •

World Database for Islamic Banking and Finance (http://www.wdibf.com/) Al-Mawrid Institute of Islamic Sciences (http://www.al-mawrid.org/) Shariah Institute (http://www.shariah-institute.org/) Human Rights and Islamic Law (http://huquq.com/) The Islamic Sharia Council UK (http://www.islamic-sharia.co.uk/main.html) Muslim Arbitration Tribunal (http://www.matribunal.com/) Private Arrangements: 'Recognizing Sharia' in Britain (http://bostonreview.net/BR34.2/bowen.php) anthropologist John R. Bowen explains the working of Britain's Sharia courts in a Boston Review article • Khalid Chraibi: Reforming Islamic family law within the religious framework - The "best practices" strategy (http://tabsir.net/?p=844#more-844) • Division of Inheritance According to Qur'an (http://www.quraanicstudies.com/ no-error-in-qur-an-division-of-inheritance-according-to-quran/)

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Fiqh

101

Fiqh Arabic

‫ﻓﻘﻪ‬ Transliteration Fiqh Translation Islamic jurisprudence

Fiqh (Arabic: ‫ﻓﻘﻪ‬‎ Arabic pronunciation: [fiqh]) is Islamic jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Quran and Sunnah—that complements Sharia with evolving rulings/interpretations of Islamic jurists. Fiqh deals with the observance of rituals, morals and social legislation in Islam. There are four prominent schools (madh'hab) of fiqh within Sunni practice and two within Shi'a practice. A person trained in fiqh is known as a Faqih (plural Fuqaha).[1]

Etymology The word fiqh is an Arabic term meaning "deep understanding" or "full comprehension". Technically it refers to the science of Islamic law extracted from detailed Islamic sources (which are studied in the principles of Islamic jurisprudence)--the process of gaining knowledge of Islam through jurisprudence, and the body of legal advisements so derived, is known as fiqh. The historian Ibn Khaldun describes fiqh as "knowledge of the rules of God which concern the actions of persons who own themselves bound to obey the law respecting what is required (wajib), forbidden (haraam), recommended (mandūb), disapproved (makrūh) or merely permitted (mubah)".[2] This definition is consistent amongst the jurists. In Modern Standard Arabic, fiqh has come to mean jurisprudence in general, be it Islamic or secular. It is thus possible to speak of Chief Justice John G. Roberts, Jr. as an expert in the common law fiqh of the United States, or of Farouk Sultan as an expert in the civil law fiqh of Egypt.

Introduction There are cases where the Qur'an gives a clearly defined and concrete answer on how to deal with different issues. This includes how to perform the ritual purification (Arabic: wudu) before the obligatory daily prayers (Arabic: salat). On other issues, the Qur'an alone is not enough to make things clear. For example, the Qur'an states one needs to engage in daily prayers (Arabic: salat) and fast (Arabic: sawm) during the month of Ramadan, however, it does not define how to perform these duties. The details about these issues can be found in the traditions of Islamic prophet Muhammad (Arabic: Sunnah). This is true for most detailed issues, thus the Qur'an and Sunnah are the basis for the Islamic Divine Law (Arabic: Shariah). With regard to some topics, the Qur'an and Sunnah are simply silent. In those cases, the Muslim jurists (Arabic: Fuqaha) try to arrive at conclusions using other tools. Sunni jurists use analogy (Arabic: Qiyas) and historical consensus of the community (Arabic: Ijma). The conclusions arrived at with the aid of these additional tools constitute a wider array of laws than the Sharia consists of, and is called fiqh. Thus, in contrast to the sharia, fiqh is not regarded as sacred, and the schools of thought have differing views on its details, without viewing other conclusions as sacrilegious. This division of interpretation in more detailed issues has resulted in different schools of

Fiqh

102 thought (Arabic: madh'hab). This wider concept of Islamic jurisprudence is the source of a range of laws in different topics that govern the lives of the Muslims in all facets of everyday life.

Islamic Law Fida Hussain solangi, a renowned jurist has discoursed upon the following issues as under: Islamic law (fiqh) covers two main areas, rules in relation to actions and rules in relation to circumstances surrounding actions. Rules in relation to actions ('amaliyya — ‫ )ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ‬comprise: • • • • •

Obligation (fardh) Recommendation (mustahabb) Permissibility (mubah) Disrecommendation (makrooh) Prohibition (haraam)

Rules in relation to circumstances (wadia') comprise: • Condition (shart) • • • • •

Cause (sabab) Preventor (mani) Permit/Enforce (rukhsah, azeemah) Valid/Corrupt/Invalid (sahih, faasid, batil) In time/Debt/Repeat (adaa, al-qadaa, i'ada)

Fiqh is grouped into two parts: 1. Ibadaat (worship) 2. Mua'malaat (dealings & transactions)

Fields of jurisprudence • • • • • • • •

Islamic economical jurisprudence ‫ﻓﻘﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ‬ Islamic political jurisprudence ‫ﻓﻘﻪ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺔ‬ Islamic marital jurisprudence Islamic criminal jurisprudence ‫ﻓﻘﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻮﺑﺎﺕ‬ Islamic etiquettical jurisprudence ‫ﺍﻵﺩﺍﺏ‬ Islamic theological jurisprudence Islamic hygienical jurisprudence Islamic military jurisprudence ‫ﻓﻘﻪ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺎﺩ‬

Methodologies of jurisprudence usul al-fiqh (‫)ﺃﺻﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﻪ‬ The Modus operandi of the Muslim jurist is known as usul al-fiqh (principles of jurisprudence). There are different approaches to the methodology used in fiqh to derive sharia from the Islamic sources. The main methodologies are: • The four classical Sunni schools are, in chronological order: the Hanafi school, the Maliki school, the Shafi'i school and the Hanbali school. They represent the generally accepted Sunni authority for Islamic jurisprudence. • Jafari fiqh, or the Shi'a fiqh

Fiqh

103 Other schools are the Zaidi, Zahiri, Sufian Al'thawree, Sufian bin O'yayna, Layth bin Sa'ad, Tabari and Qurtubi schools.

The four schools of Sunnis The four schools (or Madh'hab) of Sunni Muslims are each named by students of the classical jurist who taught them. The Sunni schools (and where they are commonly found) are • Hanafi (The Levant, Turkey, the Balkans, Central Asia, Indian subcontinent, Iran, Afghanistan, Jordan, China and Egypt) Map of the Muslim world with the main madhhab's

• Maliki (North Africa, the Muslim areas of West Africa, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain)

• Shafi'i (Yemen, Somalia, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Southern Iran, Muslim Southeast Asia, Jordan, Egypt, Swahili Coast, Maldives and southern parts of India) • Hanbali (Saudi Arabia and Qatar). These four schools share most of their rulings, but differ on the particular hadiths they accept as authentic and the weight they give to analogy or reason (qiyas) in deciding difficulties. The Hanafi school was the earliest established under the jurist Imam Abu Hanifa, who was born and taught in Iraq. Imam Abu Hanifa (80A.H.–150A.H.), whose real name was Nu'man ibn Thabit, was born in the city of Kufa (modern day Iraq) in the year 80 A.H (689 A.D). Born into a family of tradesmen, the Imam's family were of Persian origin. Under Imam Abu Hanifa, the witr prayer was considered to be compulsory and the Hanafis also differed with other sects in relation to methods of taking ablution, prayers and payment of tithe or zakat. Imam Abu Hanifa also differed with the other three schools in many areas including the type of punishments meted out for various crimes in Islam. On the whole, the Hanafi school of jurisprudence could be said to have the most differences with other three schools. Students of Imam Malik established the Maliki school of which a majority now can be found in North Africa and some Persian gulf states . Imam Malik, whose real name was Abu Abdullah, Malik bin Anas, was born in Medina in the year 715 AD. His ancestral home was in Yemen, but his grandfather settled in Medina after embracing Islam. He received his education in Medina, which was the most important seat of Islamic learning, and where the immediate descendants of Muhammad's (SAW) followers lived. Imam Malik was attracted to the study of law, and devoted himself to the study of fiqh. His principal book, the Kitab al-Muwatta, is one of the earliest surviving books on hadith and fiqh. Differences under the Maliki school included the fact that those following the Maliki school could state their purpose (or niat) once only for compulsory fasting which is valid for the whole month of Ramadhan whilst for the Shafi'ie school (see below), one would have to state his purpose every day of the month of Ramadhan for his fast to be valid the next day.

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Ja'fari jurisprudence The Ja'fari school (Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Lebanon, Afghanistan, Bahrain, Pakistan, India and Saudi Arabia) is associated with Imam Jafar-as-Sadiq. The fatwas, or time and space bound rulings of early jurists, are taken rather more seriously in this school, due to the more hierarchical structure of Shia Islam, which is ruled by the Imams. But they are also more flexible, in that every jurist has considerable power to alter a decision according to his opinion. The Jafari school uses 'aql "intellect" instead of qiyas in the Sunni schools, when establishing Islamic laws.

Ismaili Fatimid jurisprudence Daim al-Islam is a book on the rulings of Islam followed by Ismaili Muslims who adhere to the Shi'a Ismaili Fatimid fiqh. It describes manners and etiquette, including Ibadat in the light of guidance provided by the Ismaili Imams. The book emphasizes what importance Islam has given to manners and etiquette along with the worship of God, citing the traditions of the first four Imams of the Shi'a Ismaili Fatimid school of thought.

Arguments for and against reform Each school reflects a unique al-urf or culture (a cultural practice that was influenced by traditions), that the classical jurists themselves lived in, when rulings were made. Some suggest that the discipline of isnad, which developed to validate hadith made it relatively easy to record and validate also the rulings of jurists. This, in turn, made them far easier to imitate (taqlid) than to challenge in new contexts. The argument is, the schools have been more or less frozen for centuries, and reflect a culture that simply no longer exists. Traditional scholars hold that religion is there to regulate human behavior and nurture peoples moral side and since human nature has not fundamentally changed since the beginning of Islam a call to modernize the religion is essentially one to relax all laws and institutions. Early shariah had a much more flexible character, and some modern Muslim scholars believe that it should be renewed, and that the classical jurists should lose special status. This would require formulating a new fiqh suitable for the modern world, e.g. as proposed by advocates of the Islamization of knowledge, which would deal with the modern context. This modernization is opposed by most conservative ulema. Traditional scholars hold that the laws are contextual and consider circumstance such as time, place and culture, the principles they are based upon are universal such as justice, equality and respect. Many Muslim scholars argue that even though technology may have advanced, the fundamentals of human life have not and is in the scope of current laws.

Early history Further information: Islamic economics in the world The formative period of Islamic jurisprudence stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities. In this period, jurists were more concerned with pragmatic issues of authority and teaching than with theory.[3] Progress in theory happened with the coming of the early Muslim jurist Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i (767–820), who codified the basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah. The book details the four roots of law (Qur'an, Sunnah, ijma, and qiyas) while specifying that the primary Islamic texts (the Qur'an and the hadith) be understood according to objective rules of interpretation derived from scientific study of the Arabic language.[4]

Possible links with Western law A number of important legal institutions were developed by Muslim jurists during the classical period of Islam, known as the Islamic Golden Age. One such institution was the Hawala, an early informal value transfer system, which is mentioned in texts of Islamic jurisprudence as early as the 8th century. Hawala itself later influenced the development of the agency in common law and in civil laws such as the aval in French law and the avallo in Italian law.[5] The "European commenda" (Islamic Qirad) used in European civil law may have also originated from Islamic law.[6]

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105 The Waqf in Islamic law, which developed during the 7th–9th centuries, bears a notable resemblance to the trusts in the English trust law.[7] For example, every Waqf was required to have a waqif (settlor), mutawillis (trustee), qadi (judge) and beneficiaries.[8] The trust law developed in England at the time of the Crusades, during the 12th and 13th centuries, was introduced by Crusaders who may have been influenced by the Waqf institutions they came across in the Middle East.[9] [10] The Islamic lafif was a body of twelve members drawn from the neighbourhood and sworn to tell the truth, who were bound to give a unanimous verdict, about matters "which they had personally seen or heard, binding on the judge, to settle the truth concerning facts in a case, between ordinary people, and obtained as of right by the plaintiff." The only characteristic of the English jury which the Islamic lafif lacked was the "judicial writ directing the jury to be summoned and directing the bailiff to hear its recognition." According to Professor John Makdisi, "no other institution in any legal institution studied to date shares all of these characteristics with the English jury." It is thus likely that the concept of the lafif may have been introduced to England by the Normans, who conquered both England and the Emirate of Sicily, and then evolved into the modern English jury.[6] Several other fundamental common law institutions may have been adapted from similar legal institutions in Islamic law and jurisprudence, and introduced to England by the Normans after the Norman conquest of England and the Emirate of Sicily, and by Crusaders during the Crusades. In particular, the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt is identified with the Islamic Aqd, the English assize of novel disseisin is identified with the Islamic Istihqaq, and the English jury is identified with the Islamic lafif." Other English legal institutions such as "the scholastic method, the licence to teach", the "law schools known as Inns of Court in England and Madrasas in Islam" and the "European commenda" (Islamic Qirad) may have also originated from Islamic law.[6] The methodology of legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (Qiyas) are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems.[11] These influences have led some scholars to suggest that Islamic law may have laid the foundations for "the common law as an integrated whole".[6]

Notes [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Glasse, Cyril, The New Encyclopedia of Islam, Altamira, 2001, p.141 Levy (1957). Page 150. Weiss (2002), pp.3, 161. Weiss (2002), p.162. Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring, 1978). "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems". The American Journal of Comparative Law (American Society of Comparative Law) 26 (2 – Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 24–25, 1977): 187–198 [196–8]. doi:10.2307/839667. JSTOR 839667 [6] Makdisi 1999 [7] Gaudiosi 1988 [8] Gaudiosi 1988, pp. 1237–40 [9] Hudson 2003, p. 32 [10] Gaudiosi 1988, pp. 1244–5 [11] El-Gamal, Mahmoud A. (2006). Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice. Cambridge University Press. p. 16. ISBN 0521864143

References • Doi, Abd ar-Rahman I., and Clarke, Abdassamad (2008). Shari'ah: Islamic Law. Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd., ISBN 978-1842000878 (hardback) • Gaudiosi (April 1988). "The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England_ The Case of Merton College". University of Pennsylvania Law Review (The University of Pennsylvania Law Review) 136 (4): 1231–1261. doi:10.2307/3312162. JSTOR 3312162. • Levy, Reuben (1957). The Social Structure of Islam. UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521091824. • Makdisi, John A. (June 1999). "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law". North Carolina Law Review 77 (5): 1635–1739.

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External links • imamfaisal.com (http://www.imamfaisal.com/) - Several mp3s explaining the fiqh of tahara and fiqh of marriage according to the scholars.

Islamic studies Islamic studies is an ambiguous term with one connotation in a traditional near-Eastern context and another in a Western context. In a Muslim context, "Islamic studies" can be an umbrella term for all virtually all of academia, both originally researched and as defined by the Islamization of knowledge. It includes all the traditional forms of religious thought, such as Kalam (Islamic theology) and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and also assimilates fields generally considered to be secular in the West, such as Islamic science and Islamic economics.

Qur'anic education for offenders at the Central

Jail Faisalabad in Faisalabad, Pakistan In a non-Muslim context, Islamic studies generally refers to the historical study of Islam, Muslim culture, Muslim history and Islamic philosophy. Academics from diverse disciplines participate and exchange ideas about predominantly Muslim societies, past and present. In spite of their non-religious approach, some non-Muslim scholars have written works which are widely read by Muslims. Before 1980, such non-Muslim scholars in this field had been called "Islamicists" and their discipline came under the field often called Oriental studies, now often Asian studies. Many universities offer academic degrees on the subject of Islamic studies.

Themes It greatly aids understanding of list of Islamic terms in Arabic especially as used in early Muslim philosophy, since these provide the ontology upon which all sects of Islam later built.

History Islamic history presents several instances in which foreign ideas have intruded within the world view of Muslim civilizations, ideas which have in more than one instance been secular in the sense defined above. The first set of historical circumstances in the career of islam concerned the Arab environment where islam was finally revealed. There were many "pagan" Arabian practices and traditions such as blood-feuds, absolute allegiance to the tribe and cults of idol worship which were banned in the universal perspective of Islam. (Chapter 4, Islamic Studies, by:Nasar S) The field of Islamic history includes the early development of the Islamic faith, as well as its continuation into the different rulers and denominations of the Islamic civilization, and confluence of its philosophy and history where these affected each other: • Historiography of early Islam • Muslim historians • Sociology in medieval Islam • Timeline of Muslim history • Caliphate • Muslim conquests • Islamic Golden Age

Islamic studies • Early Islamic philosophy • Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe • Islamic Civilization during the European Renaissance

Philosophy Islamic philosophy is a part of Islamic studies. It is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between faith, reason or philosophy, and the religious teachings of Islam. A Muslim engaged in this field is called a Muslim philosopher. It is divided in fields like: • Early Islamic philosophy • Avicennism • Averroism • Modern Islamic philosophy • Sufi philosophy • Transcendent theosophy • List of Muslim philosophers • Illuminationist philosophy • Islamic ethics • Islamic metaphysics • Sufi metaphysics

Theology Kalam (‫ )ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﻼﻡ‬is one of the "religious sciences" of Islam. In Arabic the word means "discussion", and refers to the Islamic tradition of seeking theological principles through dialectic. A scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim. • Islamic eschatology

Mysticism Sufism (Arabic: ‫ ;ﺗﺼﻮﻑ‬taṣawwuf‎) is a mystic tradition of Islam based on the pursuit of spiritual truth as it is gradually revealed to the heart and mind of the Sufi (one who practices Sufism). It might also be referred to as Islamic mysticism. While other branches of Islam generally focus on exoteric aspects of religion, Sufism is mainly focused on the direct perception of truth or God through mystic practices based on divine love. Sufism embodies a number of cultures, philosophies, central teachings and bodies of esoteric knowledge.

Law Islamic jurisprudence relates to everyday and social issues in the life of Muslims. It is divided in fields like: • • • • • •

the study of sharia law Islamic economics Islamic finance Islamic commercial law Islamic family law Qur'an and Hadith studies

Key distinctions include those between fiqh, hadith and ijtihad.

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Sciences Islam and science is science in the context of traditional religious ideas of Islam, including its ethics and prohibitions. A Muslim engaged in this field is called a Muslim scientist This is not the same as science as conducted by any Muslim in a secular context. Certain liberal movements in Islam eschew the practice of Islamic science, arguing that science should be considered separate from religion as it is today in the West. As in Catholicism however, believers argue that the guiding role of religion in forming ethics of science cannot be ignored and must impose absolute constraints on inquiry. • Qur'an and science • Islamic creationism Science in medieval Islam examines the full range of scientific investigation in the Muslim world, whether performed within a religious or secular context. Significant progress in science was made in the Muslim world during the Middle Ages, especially during the Islamic Golden Age, which is considered a major period in the history of science. • Timeline of Islamic science and engineering • Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam • Astronomy in medieval Islam • Islamic astrology • Inventions in medieval Islam • Inventions in the modern Islamic world • Islamic sociology • Sociology in medieval Islam • Mathematics in medieval Islam • Medicine in medieval Islam • Ophthalmology in medieval Islam • Physics in medieval Islam • Psychology in medieval Islam

Art • Islamic calligraphy • Islamic pottery • Muslim music Islamic art, a part of the Islamic studies, has throughout history has been mainly abstract and decorative, portraying geometric, floral, Arabesque, and calligraphic designs. Unlike the strong tradition of portraying the human figure in Christian art, Islamic art does not include depictions of human beings. The lack of portraiture is due to the fact that early Islam forbade the painting of human beings, including the Prophet, as Muslims believe this tempts followers of the Prophet to idolatry. This prohibition against human beings or icons is called aniconism. Over the past two centuries, especially given increased contact with Western civilization, this prohibition has relaxed.

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Islamic studies Literature • Arabic literature • Arabic epic literature • Islamic poetry • Arabic poetry • Persian literature This field includes the study of modern and classical Arabic and the literature written in those languages. It also often includes other modern, classic or ancient languages of the Middle East and other areas that are or have been part of, or influenced by, Islamic culture, such as Hebrew, Turkish, Persian, Armenian and Uzbek. Architecture Islamic architecture is the entire range of architecture that has evolved within Muslim culture in the course of the history of Islam. Hence the term encompasses religious buildings as well as secular ones, historic as well as modern expressions and the production of all places that have come under the varying levels of Islamic influence. It is very common to mistake Persian Architecture for Islamic Architecture and thus advisable to read both articles.

Sociology and psychology • Psychology in medieval Islam • Sociology in medieval Islam • Sufi psychology

Comparative religion Islamic comparative religion is the study of religions in the view of Islam. This study may be undertaken from a conservative Muslim perspective, which often sees Judaism and Christianity as having been originally similar to Islam, and later developing away from the root monotheist religion. However, some liberal movements within Islam dispute the conservative view as being ahistorical; they claim that Islam is the end-result rather than the origin point of monotheist thought. • Islam and Christianity • Islam and Jainism • Islam and Judaism • Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800 - 1400)

Economics Islamic economics is economics in accordance with Islamic law. Because the Qur'an spoke against usury in the context of early Muslim society, it generally entails trying to remove or redefine interest rates from financial institutions. In doing so, Islamic economists hope to produce a more "Islamic society". However, liberal movements within Islam may deny the need for this field, since they generally see Islam as compatible with modern secular institutions and law. • Islamic banking • Islamic economics in the world

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Journals • • • • • • • •

Die Welt des Islams (Brill) Islamic Law and Society (Brill Publishers|Brill) Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations (Routledge) Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies Open access (Lancaster University) Journal of Islamic Studies (Oxford University Press) The Muslim World (Blackwell Publishing) Studia Islamica (Maisonneuve & Larose) Pax Islamica [1] (Mardjani Publishing House)

Notes [1] http:/ / www. paxislamica. ru

External links • Islamic University Jamia Arabia Ahsan-Ul-Uloom (http://www.ahsanululoom.com/) • College of Da’wa and Usul-ud-Din at Umm Al Qura University (http://www.uqu.edu.sa/page/en/224) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies (http://www.lancs.ac.uk/jais) European Institute of Human Sciences and Islamic Sharia (http://www.eihs.org.uk) Zwemer Center for Muslim Studies (http://www.zwemercenter.com) Network for Islamic Studies (http://www.arts.auckland.ac.nz/islamic/) Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies (http://www.oxcis.ac.uk/) MA degree in Islamic Studies through distance learning (http://www.openstudy.org/) Institute of Islamic Studies at McGill University (http://www.mcgill.ca/islamicstudies/) Article from The University of Chicago Chronicle (http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/050714/islamicstudies. shtml) Study Islamic Business in Indonesia (http://www.acicis.murdoch.edu.au/hi/uii.html) A history of Islamic culture (http://www.muslimheritage.com/) Islamic Civilization (http://www.cyberistan.org/) Institute of Ismaili Studies (http://www.iis.ac.uk/) Muslim Philosophy (http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/) Portal for Islamic studies according to Quran and Sunnah per Ahl as Sunnah wal Jamah - Salaf as Salih (http:// abdurrahman.org/sitemap.html) Reading Quran (http://www.readquran.blogspot.com) Digital Islam (http://www.digitalislam.eu/): A research project on the Middle East, Islam, and digital media. Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies (http://pakistaniaat.org/) Islamology site for Islamic References (http://www.islamology.com/)

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Science in medieval Islam Science in medieval Islam, also known as Islamic science or Arabic science, is the science developed in the Islamic world during the Islamic Golden Age between the 7th and 15th centuries. During this time, Indian, Iranian and especially Greek knowledge was translated into Arabic. These translations became a wellspring for scientific advances, by scientists from the Islamic civilization, during the Middle Ages.[1] Scientists within the Islamic civilization were of diverse ethnicities. A great portion were Persians[2] [3] and Arabs,[3] in addition to Berbers, Moors and Turks. They were also from diverse religious backgrounds. Most were Muslims,[4] [5] [6] but there were also many Christians and Jews,[7] [8] as well as Sabians, Zoroastrians and the irreligious.[9] [10]

Science in the context of Islamic civilization The term Islam refers to the religion of Islam, and also the Islamic civilization which formed around it.[11] Islamic civilization is composed of many faiths and cultures, although the proportion of Muslims among its population has increased over time.[12] The religion of Islam was founded during the lifetime of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. After his death in 632, Islam continued to expand under the leadership of its Muslim rulers, known as Caliphs. Struggles for leadership of the growing religious community began at this time, and continue today. The early periods of Islamic history after the death of Muhammad can be referred to as the Orthodox and Umayyad Caliphates.[13] During the Umayyad Caliphate, the Islamic empire began to consolidate its territorial gains. Arabic became the language of administration. The Arabs became a ruling class assimilated into their new surroundings across the empire, rather than occupiers of conquered territories.[14]

The crystallization of Islamic thought and civilization

The Abbasid Caliphate at its greatest extent, c. 850

Through the Umayyad and, in particular, the succeeding Abbasid Caliphate's early phase, lies the period of Islamic history known as the High Caliphate. This era can be identified as the years between 692 and 945,[13] and ended when the caliphate was marginalized by local Muslim rulers in Baghdad – its traditional seat of power. From 945 onward until the sacking of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1238, the Caliph continued on as a figurehead, with power devolving more to local amirs.[15]

During the High Caliphate, stable political structures were established and trade flourished. The Chinese were undergoing a revolution in commerce, and the trade routes between the lands of Islam and China boomed both overland and along the coastal routes between the two civilizations.[15] Islamic civilization continued to be primarily based upon agriculture, but commerce began to play a more important role as the caliphate secured peace within the empire. The wars and cultural divisions that had separated peoples before the Arab conquests gradually gave way to a new civilization encompassing diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. This new Islamic civilization used the Persian, Syriac and Arabic languages as transmitters of culture. Arabic increasingly became the language of commerce and government.[16] Over time, the great religious and cultural works of the empire were translated into Arabic, the population increasingly understood Arabic, and they increasingly professed Islam as their religion. The cultural heritages of the area included strong Indic and Persian influences as well as the Hellenic tradition left by Alexander the Great and the Byzantines. The Greek intellectual traditions were recognized, translated and studied broadly. Through this process,

Science in medieval Islam the population of the lands of Islam gained access to all the important works of all the cultures of the empire, and a new common civilization formed in this area of the world, based on the religion of Islam. A new era of high culture and innovation ensued, where these diverse influences were recognized and given their respective places in the social consciousness.[17]

Domains of thought and culture in the High Caliphate The pious scholars of Islam, men and women collectively known as the ulama, were the most influential element of society in the fields of Sharia law, speculative thought and theology. Their pronouncements defined the external practice of Islam, including prayer, as well as the details of the Islamic way of life. They held strong influence over government, and especially the laws of commerce. They were not rulers themselves, but rather keepers and upholders of the rule of law.[18] Conversely, among the religious, there were inheritors of the more charismatic expressions of Christianity and Buddhism, in the Sufi orders. These Muslims had a more informal and varied approach to their religion. Islam also expressed itself in other, more esoteric forms that could have significant influence over public discourse during times of social unrest.[19] Among the more worldly, adab – polite, worldly culture - permeated the lives of the professional, the courtly and genteel classes. Art, literature, poetry, music and even some aspects of religion were among the areas widely appreciated by those of a more refined taste among Muslim and non-Muslim alike. New trends and new topics flowed from the center of the Baghdad courts, to be adopted both quickly and widely across the lands of Islam.[19] Apart from these other traditions stood falsafa; Greek philosophy, inclusive of the sciences as well as the philosophy of the ancients. This science had been widely known across Mesopotamia and Iran since before the advent of Islam. These "sciences" were in many ways contrary to the teachings of Islam and the ways of the adab, but were nonetheless highly regarded in society. The ulama tolerated these outlooks and practices with reservation. Some faylasufs made a good living in the practices of astrology and medicine.[19]

Medieval Islamic science Notable fields of inquiry The roots of Islamic science drew primarily upon Iranian, Indian and Greek learning. The extent of Islamic scientific achievement is not as yet fully understood, but it is vast.[1] These achievements encompass a wide range of subject areas; most notably[1] • Mathematics • Astronomy • Medicine Other notable areas, and specialized subjects, of scientific inquiry include • • • • • • •

Physics Alchemy and chemistry Cosmology Ophthalmology Geography and cartography Sociology Psychology

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Notable scientists In medieval Islam, the sciences, which included philosophy, were viewed holistically. The individual scientific disciplines were approached in terms of their relationships to each other and the whole, as if they were branches of a tree. In this regard, the most important scientists of Islamic civilization have been the polymaths, known as hakim or sages. Their role in the transmission of the sciences was central.[20] The hakim was most often a poet and a writer, skilled in the practice of medicine as well as astronomy and mathematics. These multi-talented sages, the central figures in Islamic science, elaborated and personified the unity of the sciences. They orchestrated scientific development through their insights, and excelled in their explorations as well.[21] Jabir ibn Hayyan (ca. 8th – 9th centuries) was an alchemist who used extensive experimentation and produced many works on science and alchemy which have survived to the present day. Jabir described the laboratory techniques and experimental methods of chemistry. He identified many substances including sulfuric and nitric acid. He described processes including sublimation, reduction and distillation. He utilized equipment such as the alembic and the retort. There is considerable uncertainty as to the actual provenance of many works that are ascribed to him.[22] [23] The Banu Musa brothers, Jafar-Muhammad, Ahmad and al-Hasan (ca. early 9th century) were three sons of a colorful astronomer and astrologer. They were scholars close to the court of caliph al-Mamun, and contributed greatly to the translation of ancient works into Arabic. They elaborated the mathematics of cones and ellipses, and performed astronomic calculations. Most notably, they contributed to the field of automation with the creations of automated devices such as the ones described in their Book of Ingenious Devices.[24] [25] [26] Ibn Ishaq al-Kindi (801–873) was a philosopher and polymath scientist heavily involved in the translation of Greek classics into Arabic. He worked to reconcile the conflicts between his Islamic faith and his affinity for reason; a conflict that would eventually lead to problems with his rulers. He criticized the basis of alchemy and astrology, and contributed to a wide range of scientific subjects in his writings. He worked on cryptography for the caliphate, and even wrote a piece on the subject of time, space and relative movement.[27] Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809–873) was one of the most important translators of the ancient Greek works into Arabic. He was also a physician and a writer on medical subjects. His translations interpreted, corrected and extended the ancient works. Some of his translations of medical works were used in Europe for centuries. He also wrote on medical subjects, particularly on the human eye. His book Ten Treatises on the Eye was influential in the West until the 17th century.[28] Abbas ibn Firnas (810–887) was an Andalusian scientist, musician and inventor. He developed a clear glass used in drinking vessels, and lenses used for magnification and the improvement of vision. He had a room in his house where the sky was simulated, including the motion of planets, stars and weather complete with clouds, thunder and lightning. He is most well know for reportedly surviving an attempt at controlled flight.[29] Thabit ibn Qurra (835–901) was a Sabian translator and mathematician from Harran, in what is now Turkey. He is known for his translations of Greek mathematics and astronomy, but as was common, he also added his own work to the translations. He is known for having calculated the solution to a chessboard problem involving an exponential series.[30] al-Khwarizmi (ca. 8th–9th centuries) was a Persian mathematician[31] , geographer and astronomer. He is regarded as the greatest mathematician of Islamic civilization. He was instrumental in the adoption of the Indian numbering system, later known as Arabic numerals. His developed algebra, which also had Indian antecedents, by introducing methods of simplifying the equations. He used Euclidian geometry in his proofs.[32] al-Battani (850–922) was an astronomer who accurately determined the length of the solar year. He contributed to numeric tables, such as the Tables of Toledo, used by astronomers to predict the movements of the sun, moon and planets across the sky. Some of Battani's astronomic tables were later used by Copernicus. Battani also developed numeric tables which could be used to find the direction of Mecca from different locations. Knowing the direction of

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Science in medieval Islam Mecca is important for Muslims, as this is the direction faced during prayer.[33] Abu Bakr Zakariya al-Razi (ca. 854–925/935) was born in Rayy, Iran. He was a polymath who wrote on a variety of topics, but his most important works were in the field of medicine. He identified smallpox and measles, and recognized fever was part of the body's defenses. He wrote a 23-volume compendium of Chinese, Indian, Persian, Syriac and Greek medicine. al-Razi questioned some aspects of the classical Greek medical theory of how the four humors regulate life processes. He challenged Galen's work on several fronts, including the treatment of bloodletting. His trial of bloodletting showed it was effective; a result we now know to be erroneous.[34] al-Farabi (ca. 870–950) was a rationalist philosopher and mathematician who attempted to describe, geometrically, the repeating patterns popular in Islamic decorative motifs. His book on the subject is titled Spiritual Crafts and Natural Secrets in the Details of Geometrical Figures.[35] Ibrahim ibn Sina (Avicenna) (908–946) was a physician, astronomer, physicist and mathematician from Bukhara, Uzbekistan. In addition to his master work, The Canon of Medicine, he also made important astronomical observations, and discussed a variety of topics including the different forms energy can take, and the properties of light. He contributed to the development of mathematical techniques such as Casting out nines.[36] al-Zahrawi (936–1013) was an Andalusian surgeon who is known as the greatest surgeon of medieval Islam. His most important surviving work is referred to as al-Tasrif (Medical Knowledge). It is a 30 volume set discussing medical symptoms, treatments, and mostly pharmacology, but it is the last volume of the set which has attracted the most attention over time. This last volume is a surgical manual describing surgical instruments, supplies and procedures. Scholars studying this manual are discovering references to procedures previously believed to belong to more modern times.[37] ibn al-Haytham (965–1040) was an Egyptian scientist who worked in several fields, but is now known primarily for his achievements in astronomy and optics. He was an experimentalist who questioned the ancient Greek works of Ptolemy and Galen. At times, al-Haytham suggested Ptolomey's celestial model, and Galen's explanation of vision, had problems. The prevailing opinion of the time, Galen's opinion, was that vision involved transmission of light from the eye, an explanation al-Haytham cast doubt upon. He also studied the effects of light refraction, and suggested the mathematics of reflection and refraction needed to be consistent with the anatomy of the eye.[38] al-Zarqali (1028–1087) was an Andalusian artisan, skilled in working sheet metal, who became a famous maker of astronomical equipment, an astronomer, and a mathematician. He developed a new design for a highly accurate astrolabe which was used for centuries afterwards. He constructed a famous water clock that attracted much attention in Toledo for centuries. He discovered that the Sun's apogee moves slowly relative to the fixed stars, and obtained a very good estimate[39] for its rate of change.[40] Omar Khayyam (1048–1131) was a poet and mathematician who calculated the length of the year to within 5 decimal places. He found geometric solutions to all 13 forms of cubic equations. He developed some quadratic equations still in use. He is well known in the West for his poetry (rubaiyat).[41] al-Idrisi (1100–1166) was an Andalusian traveler, cartographer and geographer famous for a map of the world he created for Roger, the Norman King of Sicily. al-Idrisi also wrote the Book of Roger, a geographic study of the peoples, climates, resources and industries of all the world known at that time. In it, he incidentally relates the tale of a Moroccan ship blown west in the Atlantic, and returning with tales of faraway lands.[42] ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288) was a physician who was born in Damascus and practiced medicine as head physician at the al-Mansuri hospital in Cairo. He wrote an influential book on medicine, believed to have replaced ibn-Sina's Canon in the Islamic world – if not Europe. He wrote important commentaries on Galen and ibn-Sina's works. One of these commentaries was discovered in 1924, and yielded a description of pulmonary transit, the circulation of blood from the right to left ventricles of the heart through the lungs.[43] Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) was a Persian astronomer and mathematician whose life was overshadowed by the Mongol invasions of Genghis Khan and his grandson Helagu. al-Tusi wrote an important revision to Ptolemy's

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Science in medieval Islam celestial model, among other works. When he became Helagu's astrologer, he was furnished with an impressive observatory and gained access to Chinese techniques and observations. He developed trigonometry to the point it became a separate field, and compiled the most accurate astronomical tables available up to that time.[44]

The views of historians and scholars On the impact of medieval Islamic science There are several different views on Islamic science among historians of science. • The traditionalist view, as exemplified by Bertrand Russell,[45] holds that Islamic science, while admirable in many technical ways, lacked the intellectual energy required for innovation and was chiefly important as a preserver of ancient knowledge and transmitter to medieval Europe. • The revisionist view, as exemplified by Abdus Salam,[46] George Saliba[47] and John M. Hobson[48] holds that a Muslim scientific revolution occurred during the Middle Ages,[49] • Scholars such as Donald Routledge Hill and Ahmad Y Hassan express the view that Islam was the driving force behind the Muslim achievements,[50] • Robert Briffault even sees Islamic science as the foundation of modern science.[51] • Toby E. Huff[52] [53] takes the view that, although Islamic science did produce a number of innovations, it did not lead to the Scientific Revolution. • Will Durant,[54] Fielding H. Garrison,[55] Hossein Nasr and Bernard Lewis[56] held that Muslim scientists helped in laying the foundations for an experimental science with their contributions to the scientific method and their empirical, experimental and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry.

On the historiography of medieval Islamic science The history of science in the Islamic world, like all history, is filled with questions of interpretation. Historians of science generally consider that the study of Islamic science, like all history, must be seen within the particular circumstances of time and place. • A. I. Sabra opened a recent overview of Arabic science by noting, "I trust no one would wish to contest the proposition that all of history is local history ... and the history of science is no exception."[57] Some scholars avoid such local historical approaches and seek to identify essential relations between Islam and science that apply at all times and places. • The Persian philosopher and historian of science, Seyyed Hossein Nasr saw a more positive connection in "an Islamic science that was spiritual and antisecular" which "point[ed] the way to a new 'Islamic science' that would avoid the dehumanizing and despiritualizing mistakes of Western science."[58] [59] Nasr identified a distinctly Muslim approach to science, flowing from Islamic monotheism and the related theological prohibition against portraying graven images. In science, this is reflected in a philosophical disinterest in describing individual material objects, their properties and characteristics and instead a concern with the ideal, the Platonic form, which exists in matter as an expression of the will of the Creator. Thus one can "see why mathematics was to make such a strong appeal to the Muslim: its abstract nature furnished the bridge that Muslims were seeking between multiplicity and unity."[60] Some historians of science, however, question the value of drawing boundaries that label the sciences, and the scientists who practice them, in specific cultural, civilizational, or linguistic terms. • Some scholars consider the practice to be an example of "boosterism" and object that it "defines the achievements of scholars... in terms of their religion rather than their research."[61]

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Science in medieval Islam • While others simply consider it futile. For example, Nasir al-Din Tusi (1201–1274), invented his mathematical theorem, the Tusi Couple, while he was director of Maragheh observatory. Tusi's patron and founder of the observatory was the non-Muslim Mongol conqueror of Baghdad, Hulagu Khan. The Tusi-couple "was first encountered in an Arabic text, written by a man who spoke Persian at home, and used that theorem, like many other astronomers who followed him and were all working in the "Arabic/Islamic" world, in order to reform classical Greek astronomy, and then have his theorem in turn be translated into Byzantine Greek towards the beginning of the 14th century, only to be used later by Copernicus and others in Latin texts of Renaissance Europe."[62]

Notes [1] Robinson, Francis (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson. Cambridge University Press. p. 228–229. [2] Joseph A. Schumpeter, Historian of Economics: Selected Papers from the History of Economics Society Conference, 1994, y Laurence S. Moss, Joseph Alois Schumpeter, History of Economics Society. Conference, Published by Routledge, 1996, ISBN 0-415-13353-X, p.64. [3] Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (1967), The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, p. 430, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01754-9. [4] Howard R. Turner (1997), Science in Medieval Islam, p. 270 (book cover, last page), University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-78149-0 [5] Hogendijk, Jan P. (January 1999), Bibliography of Mathematics in Medieval Islamic Civilization (http:/ / www. math. uu. nl/ people/ hogend/ Islamath. html) [6] A. I. Sabra (1996). "Greek Science in Medieval Islam". In Ragep, F. J.; Ragep, Sally P.; Livesey, Steven John. Tradition, Transmission, Transformation: Proceedings of Two Conferences on Pre-modern Science held at the University of Oklahoma. Brill Publishers. pp. 20. ISBN 9004091262 [7] Bernard Lewis, The Jews of Islam, 1987, page 6 [8] Salah Zaimeche (2003), Introduction to Muslim Science. [9] Hogendijk 1989 [10] Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response [11] Lewis, Brenard (1987). The Jews of Islam. Princeton University Press. pp. 5–6. [12] Courbage, Youssef; Fargues, Phillipe (1995). Christians and Jews under Islam. London: I.B. Tauris Publishers. pp. ix-x. ISBN 1-86064-285-3. [13] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1974, pg. 234. [14] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1974, pg. 230. [15] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1974, pg. 233. [16] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1974, pg. 235. [17] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1974, pg. 236–238. [18] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1974, pg. 238. [19] Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1974, pg. 238–239. [20] Nasr, Seyyed (1968). Science and Civilization in Islam. Harvard University Press. p. 41. [21] Nasr, Seyyed (1968). Science and Civilization in Islam. Harvard University Press. p. 41. [22] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. p. 153–155. [23] Lagerkvist, Urf (2005). The Enigma of Ferment: from the Philosopher's Stone to the First Biochemical Nobel Prize. World Scientific Publishing. p. 32. [24] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. p. 161–163. [25] Lindberg, David (1978). Science in the Middle Ages. The University of Chicago Press. p. 23,56. [26] Selin, Helaine (1997). Helaine Selin. ed. Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 151,235,375. [27] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 49–52. [28] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 47–48, 59, 96–97, 171–172. [29] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 71–73. [30] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 48–49. [31] Toomer, Gerald (1990). "Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 7. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-684-16962-2. [32] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 139–145. [33] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 74, 148–150. [34] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 74,99-105.

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Science in medieval Islam [35] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 148–149. [36] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 104–105. [37] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 108–109. [38] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 173–175. [39] Linton (2004, p.97) (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=B4br4XJFj0MC& pg=PA97). Owing to the unreliability of the data al-Zarqali relied on for this estimate its remarkable accuracy was somewhat fortuitous. [40] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 73–75. [41] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 5, 104, 145–146. [42] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 79-–80. [43] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 110–111. [44] Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. pp. 132–135. [45] Bertrand Russell (1945), History of Western Philosophy, book 2, part 2, chapter X [46] Abdus Salam, H. R. Dalafi, Mohamed Hassan (1994). Renaissance of Sciences in Islamic Countries, p. 162. World Scientific, ISBN 9971-5-0713-7. [47] (Saliba 1994, pp. 245, 250, 256–257) [48] (Hobson 2004, p. 178) [49] Abid Ullah Jan (2006), After Fascism: Muslims and the struggle for self-determination, "Islam, the West, and the Question of Dominance", Pragmatic Publishings, ISBN 978-0-9733687-5-8. [50] Ahmad Y Hassan and Donald Routledge Hill (1986), Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History, p. 282, Cambridge University Press [51] Robert Briffault (1928). The Making of Humanity, p. 191. G. Allen & Unwin Ltd. [52] (Huff 2003) [53] Saliba, George (Autumn 1999). "Seeking the Origins of Modern Science? Review of Toby E. Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West" (http:/ / www. riifs. org/ review_articles/ review_v1no2_sliba. htm). Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies 1 (2). . Retrieved 2008-04-10. [54] Will Durant (1980). The Age of Faith (The Story of Civilization, Volume 4), p. 162–186. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-01200-2. [55] Fielding H. Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine: with Medical Chronology, Suggestions for Study and Biblographic Data, p. 86 [56] Edmund, Norman W. (2005). End the Biggest Educational and Intellectual Blunder in History: A $100,000 Challenge to Our Top Educational Leaders. Scientific Method Publishing. p. 447. ISBN 0963286668. [57] Sabra (2000) p. 216. [58] F. Jamil Ragep, "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science," Osiris, topical issue on Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 301979), n.s. 16(2001): 49–50, note 3 [59] Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1968). "The Principles of Islam" (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ med/ nasr. html). Science and Civilization in Islam. Harvard University Press. ISBN 094662111X. . Retrieved 2008-02-03. [60] Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam. (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ med/ nasr. html) [61] Aaen-Stockdale, C.R. (2008). "Ibn al-Haytham and psychophysics". Perception 37 (4): 636–638. doi:10.1068/p5940. PMID 18546671. [62] George Saliba (1999). Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe? (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ ~gas1/ project/ visions/ case1/ sci. 1. html)

References • Campbell, Donald (2001). Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages. Routledge. (Reprint of the London, 1926 edition). ISBN 0-415-23188-4. • d'Alverny, Marie-Thérèse. "Translations and Translators", in Robert L. Benson and Giles Constable, eds., Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, p. 421–462. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr., 1982. • Hobson, John M. (2004). The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521547245. • Hudson, A. (2003). Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.). London: Cavendish Publishing. ISBN 1-85941-729-9 • Huff, Toby E. (2003). The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52994-8 • Joseph, George G. (2000). The Crest of the Peacock. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00659-8. • Katz, Victor J. (1998). A History of Mathematics: An Introduction. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-321-01618-1. • Levere, Trevor Harvey (2001). Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6610-3.

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Science in medieval Islam • Linton, Christopher M. (2004), From Eudoxus to Einstein—A History of Mathematical Astronomy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-82750-8 • Masood, Ehsan (2009). Science and Islam A History. Icon Books Ltd. • Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. 3. Routledge. ISBN 0415124107 • Phillips, William D.; Carla Rahn Phillips, Jr. Phillips (1992). The Worlds of Christopher Columbus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44652-X. • Sabra, A. I. (2000) "Situating Arab Science: Locality versus Essence," Isis, 87(1996):654–70; reprinted in Michael H. Shank, ed., The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages," (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr.), pp. 215–231. • Saliba, George (1994). A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. New York University Press. ISBN 0814780237 • Turner, Howard R. (1997). Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292781490

Further reading • Daffa, Ali Abdullah al-; Stroyls, J.J. (1984). Studies in the exact sciences in medieval Islam. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0471903205. • Nader El-Bizri, 'A Philosophical Perspective on Alhazen's Optics', Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), Vol. 15 (2005), pp. 189–218. • Nader El-Bizri, 'In Defence of the Sovereignty of Philosophy: al-Baghdadi's Critique of Ibn al-Haytham's Geometrisation of Place', Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), Vol. 17 (2007), pp. 57–80. • Hogendijk, Jan P.; Abdelhamid I. Sabra (2003). The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-19482-1. Reviewed by Robert G. Morrison at (http://www.ircps.org/publications/aestimatio/pdf/ 2004-02-02_Morrison.pdf) • Hogendijk, Jan P.; Berggren, J. L. (1989). "Episodes in the Mathematics of Medieval Islam by J. Lennart Berggren" (http://jstor.org/stable/604119). Journal of the American Oriental Society 109 (4): 697–698. doi:10.2307/604119.) • Hill, Donald Routledge, Islamic Science And Engineering, Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3 • Huff, Toby E. (1993, 2nd edition 2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52994-8. Reviewed by George Saliba at Seeking the Origins of Modern Science? (http://www.riifs.org/review_articles/review_v1no2_sliba.htm) • Huff, Toby E. (2000). "Science and Metaphysics in the Three Religions of the Books" (http://www.umassd. edu/media/umassdartmouth/seppce/departmentofpublicpolicy/ScienceandMetaphyics.pdf). Intellectual Discourse 8 (2): 173–198. • Kennedy, Edward S. (1970). "The Arabic Heritage in the Exact Sciences". Al-Abhath 23: 327–344. • Kennedy, Edward S. (1983). Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0815660677. • Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. 2-3. Routledge. ISBN 0415020638 • Saliba, George (2007). Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. The MIT Press. ISBN 0262195577. • Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1976). Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study. Kazi Publications. ISBN 1567443125. • Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2003). Science & Civilization in Islam (2nd ed.). Islamic Texts Society. ISBN 1903682401.

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• Suter, Heinrich (1900). Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber und ihre Werke. Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathematischen Wissenschaften Mit Einschluss Ihrer Anwendungen, X Heft. Leipzig. Popular • Deen, S M (2007). Science Under Islam: Rise, Decline, Revival (http://www.scienceunderislam.com). LULU. ISBN 978-1-84799-942-9. Television • BBC (2010). Science and Islam.

External links Academic institutes • Commission on the History of Science and Technology in Islamic Societies (http://www.ub.edu/islamsci/) at University of Barcelona Other • "How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs" (http://www.aina.org/books/hgsptta.htm) by De Lacy O'Leary • Saliba, George. "Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?" (http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/ project/visions/case1/sci.1.html). • Habibi, Golareh. Review article (http://www.scq.ubc.ca/?p=574), Science Creative Quarterly. • Islam, Knowledge, and Science (http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/introduction/woi_knowledge.html) • The Islamization of science or the marginalization of Islam (http://www.smi.uib.no/paj/Stenberg.html)

Astronomy in medieval Islam Islamic astronomy or Arabic astronomy comprises the astronomical developments made in the Islamic world, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age (8th–15th centuries),[1] and mostly written in the Arabic language. These developments mostly took place in the Middle East, Central Asia, Al-Andalus, and North Africa, and later in the Far East and India. It closely parallels the genesis of other Islamic sciences in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science with Islamic characteristics. These included Sassanid, Hellenistic and Indian works in particular, which were translated and built upon.[2] In turn, Islamic astronomy later had a significant influence on Indian,[3] Byzantine[4] and European[5] astronomy (see Latin translations of the 12th century) as well as Chinese astronomy[6] and Malian astronomy.[7] [8]

An 18th century Persian Astrolabe, kept at The Whipple Museum of the History of Science in Cambridge, England.

A significant number of stars in the sky, such as Aldebaran and Altair, and astronomical terms such as alhidade, azimuth, and almucantar, are still referred to by their Arabic names.[9] A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering approximately 10,000 manuscripts scattered throughout the world, many of which have not been read or catalogued. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed.[10]

Astronomy in medieval Islam

History Pre-Islamic Arabs had no scientific astronomy. Their knowledge of stars was only empirical, limited to what they observed regarding the rising and setting of stars. The rise of Islam provoked increased Arab thought in this field.[11] Science historian Donald. R. Hill has divided Islamic Astronomy into the four following distinct time periods in its history. 700-825 The period of assimilation and syncretisation of earlier Hellenistic, Indian, and Sassanid astronomy. During this period many Indian and Persian texts were translated into Arabic. The most notable of the texts was Zij al-Sindhind,[12] translated by Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari and Yaqub ibn Tariq in 777. Sources indicate that the text was translated after, in 770, an Indian astronomer visited the court of Caliph Al-Mansur. Another text translated was the Zij al-Shah, a collection of astronomical tables compiled in Persia over two centuries. Fragments of text during this period indicate that Arabs adopted the sine function (inherited from India) in place of the chords of arc used in Greek trignometry.[11] 825-1025 This period of vigorous investigation, in which the superiority of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy was accepted and significant contributions made to it. Astronomical research was greatly supported by the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun. Baghdad and Damascus became the centers of such activity. The caliphs not only supported this work financially, but endowed the work with formal prestige. The first major Muslim work of astronomy was Zij al-Sindh by al-Khwarizimi in 830. The work contains tables for the movements of the sun, the moon and the five planets known at the time. The work is significant as it introduced Ptolemaic concepts into Islamic The Tusi-couple is a mathematical device invented by Nasir al-Din sciences. This work also marks the turning point in al-Tusi in which a small circle rotates inside a larger circle twice the Islamic astronomy. Hitherto, Muslim astronomers had diameter of the smaller circle. Rotations of the circles cause a point adopted a primarily research approach to the field, on the circumference of the smaller circle to oscillate back and forth in linear motion along a diameter of the larger circle. translating works of others and learning already discovered knowledge. Al-Khwarizmi's work marked the beginning of nontraditional methods of study and calculations.[13] In 850, al-Farghani wrote Kitab fi Jawani (meaning "A compendium of the science of stars"). The book primarily gave a summary of Ptolemic cosmography. However, it also corrected Ptolemy based on findings of earlier Arab astronomers. Al-Farghani gave revised values for the obliquity of the ecliptic, the precessional movement of the apogees of the sun and the moon, and the circumference of the earth. The book was widely circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into Latin.[14]

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Astronomy in medieval Islam 1025-1450 The period when a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. The period began as the Muslim astronomers began questioning the framework of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. These criticisms, however, remained within the geocentric framework and followed Ptolemy's astronomical paradigm; one historian described their work as "a reformist project intended to consolidate Ptolemaic astronomy by bringing it into line with its own principles."[15] In 1070, Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani published the Tarik al-Aflak. In his work, he indicated the so-called An illustration from al-Biruni's astronomical works, explains the "equant" problem of the Ptolemic model. Al-Juzjani different phases of the moon. even proposed a solution for the problem. In al-Andalus, the anonymous work al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus (meaning "Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy"), included a list of objections to the Ptolemic astronomy. The most important work, however, was Al-Shuku ala Batlamyus (meaning "Doubts on Ptolemy"). In this, the author summed up the inconsistencies of the Ptolemic models. Many astronomers took up the challenge posed in this work, namely to develop alternate models that evaded such errors. The most important of these astronomers include: Muayyad al-Din Urdi (circa 1266), Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–74), Qutb al-Din al Shirazi (circa 1311), Sadr al-Sharia al-Bukhari (circa 1347), Ibn al-Shatir (circa 1375), and Ala al-Qushji (circa 1474).[16] 1450-1900 The period of stagnation, when the traditional system of astronomy continued to be practised with enthusiasm, but with rapidly decreasing innovation of any major significance. A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering around some 10,000 manuscript volumes scattered throughout the world. Much of this has not even been catalogued. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed.

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Observatories The first systematic observations in Islam are reported to have taken place under the patronage of al-Mamun. Here, and in many other private observatories from Damascus to Baghdad, meridian degrees were measured, solar parameters were established, and detailed observations of the Sun, Moon, and planets were undertaken. In the 10th century, the Buwayhid dynasty encouraged the undertaking of extensive works in Astronomy, such as the construction of a large scale instrument with which observations were made in the year 950. We know of this by recordings made in the zij of astronomers such as Ibn al-Alam. The great astronomer Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi was patronised by prince Adud o-dowleh, who systematically revised Ptolemy's catalogue of stars. Sharaf al-Daula also established a similar observatory in Baghdad. And reports by Ibn Yunus and al-Zarqall in Toledo and Cordoba indicate the use of sophisticated instruments for their time. Medieval manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi

It was Malik Shah I who established the first large observatory, depicting an epicyclic planetary model. probably in Isfahan. It was here where Omar Khayyám with many other collaborators constructed a zij and formulated the Persian Solar Calendar a.k.a. the jalali calendar. A modern version of this calendar is still in official use in Iran today. The most influential observatory was however founded by Hulegu Khan during the 13th century. Here, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi supervised its technical construction at Maragha. The facility contained resting quarters for Hulagu Khan, as well as a library and mosque. Some of the top astronomers of the day gathered there, and from their collaboration resulted important modifications to the Ptolemaic system over a period of 50 years. In 1420, prince Ulugh Beg, himself an astronomer and mathematician, founded another large observatory in Samarkand, the remains of which were excavated in 1908 by Russian teams. And finally, Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf founded a large observatory in Istanbul in 1577, which was on the same scale as those in Maragha and Samarkand. The observatory was short-lived however, as opponents of the observatory and prognostication from the heavens prevailed and the observatory was destroyed in 1580.[17] Other sources give the "rise of a clerical faction," which opposed or The Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarqand. at least was indifferent to science,[18] and specifically to "the recommendation of the Chief Mufti" of the Ottomans, as the explanation for the destruction of the observatory.[19]

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Instruments Our knowledge of the instruments used by Muslim astronomers primarily comes from two sources. First the remaining instruments in private and museum collections today, and second the treatises and manuscripts preserved from the Middle Ages. Muslims made many improvements to instruments already in use before their time, such as adding new scales or details. Their contributions to astronomical instrumentation are abundant.

Celestial globes and armillary spheres Celestial globes were used primarily for solving problems in celestial astronomy. Today, 126 such instruments remain worldwide, the oldest from the 11th century. The altitude of the sun, or the Right Ascension and Declination of stars could be calculated with these by inputting the location of the observer on the meridian ring of the globe. An armillary sphere had similar applications. No early Islamic armillary spheres survive, but several treatises on “the instrument with the rings” were written. In this context there is also an Islamic development, the spherical astrolabe, of which only one complete instrument, from the 14th century, has survived.

Astrolabes Brass astrolabes were developed in much of the Islamic world, chiefly as an aid to finding the qibla. The earliest known example [20] is dated 315 (in the Islamic calendar, corresponding to 927-8). The first person credited for building the Astrolabe in the Islamic world is reportedly Fazari (Richard Nelson Frye: Golden Age of Persia. p163). He only improved it though, the Greeks had already invented astrolabes to chart the stars. The Arabs then took it during the Abbasid Dynasty and perfected it to be used to find the beginning of Ramadan, the hours of prayer, and the direction of Mecca. The instruments were used to read the rise of the time of rise of the Sun and fixed stars. al-Zarqall of Andalusia constructed one such instrument in which, unlike its predecessors, did not depend on the latitude of the observer, and could be used anywhere. This instrument became known in Europe as the Saphaea.

Sundials Muslims made several important improvements to the theory and construction of sundials, which they inherited from their Indian and Greek predecessors. Khwarizmi made tables for these instruments which considerably shortened the time needed to make specific calculations.

The Timbuktu Manuscripts showing both mathematics and astronomy.

Sundials were frequently placed on mosques to determine the time of prayer. One of the most striking examples was built in the 14th century by the muwaqqit (timekeeper) of the Umayyid Mosque in Damascus, ibn al-Shatir.[21]

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Quadrants Several forms of quadrants were invented by Muslims. Among them was the sine quadrant used for astronomical calculations and various forms of the horary quadrant, used to determine time (especially the times of prayer) by observations of the Sun or stars. A center of the development of quadrants was ninth-century Baghdad.[22]

Equatorium The Equatorium is an Islamic invention from Al-Andalus. The earliest known was probably made around 1015. It is a mechanical device for finding the positions of the Moon, Sun, and planets, without calculation using a geometrical model to represent the celestial body's mean and anomalistic position.

Famous Muslim astronomy books • al-Khwarizmi (c. 830), Zij al-Sindhind • al-Farghani (d. c. 850), Kitab fi Jawami Ilm al-Nujum

Ibn al-Shatir's model for the appearances of Mercury, showing the multiplication of epicycles using the Tusi-couple, thus eliminating the Ptolemaic eccentrics and equant.

Notes [1] (Saliba 1994b, pp. 245, 250, 256–257) [2] (Gingerich 1986) [3] Sharma, Virendra Nath (1995), Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., pp. 8–10, ISBN 8120812565 [4] Joseph Leichter (June 27, 2009). "The Zij as-Sanjari of Gregory Chioniades" (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ TheZijAs-sanjariOfGregoryChioniades). Internet Archive. . Retrieved 2009-10-02. [5] Saliba (1999). [6] van Dalen, Benno (2002), "Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li", in Ansari, S. M. Razaullah, History of Oriental Astronomy, Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 19–32, ISBN 1402006578 [7] African Cultural Astronomy By Jarita C. Holbrook, R. Thebe Medupe, Johnson O. Urama (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4DJpDW6IAukC& pg=PA180) [8] Medupe, Rodney Thebe; Warner, Brian; Jeppie, Shamil; Sanogo, Salikou; Maiga, Mohammed; Maiga, Ahmed; Dembele, Mamadou; Diakite, Drissa et al. (2008), "The Timbuktu Astronomy Project", African Cultural Astronomy, Astrophysics and Space Science Proceedings, pp. 179, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6639-9_13, ISBN 978-1-4020-6638-2. [9] "Arabic Star Names" (http:/ / www. icoproject. org/ star. html). Islamic Crescents' Observation Project. 2007-05-01. . Retrieved 2008-01-24. [10] (Ilyas 1997) [11] Dallal (1999), pg. 162 [12] This book is not related to al-Khwarizmi's Zij al-Sindh. On zijes see E. S. Kennedy, "A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables". [13] Dallal (1999), pg. 163 [14] Dallal (1999), pg. 164 [15] Sabra, "Configuring the Universe," p. 322. [16] Dallal (1999), pg. 171 [17] John Morris Roberts, The History of the World, pp. 264-74, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195210439 [18] Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History by Ahmad Y. al-Hassan and Donald Hill, Cambridge University Press, 1986, p.282 [19] Aydin Sayili, The Observatory in Islam and its place in the General History of the Observatory (Ankara: 1960), pp. 289 ff [20] http:/ / www. soas. ac. uk/ gallery/ Previous/ IslamicPatronage/ 19. html [21] David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy," pp. 168-9. [22] David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy," pp. 167-8.

Astronomy in medieval Islam

References • Abdulhak Adnan, La science chez les Turcs ottomans, Paris, 1939. • Ahmad Dallal, "Science, Medicine and Technology.", in The Oxford History of Islam, ed. John Esposito, New York: Oxford University Press, (1999). • Antoine Gautier, L'âge d'or de l'astronomie ottomane, in L'Astronomie, (Monthly magazine created by Camille Flammarion in 1882), December 2005, volume 119. • Donald R. Hill, Islamic Science And Engineering, Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3 • E. S. Kennedy, "A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables," Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 46, 2 (1956). • David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", in Astronomy before the telescope, ed. Christopher Walker. British Museum Press, (1999), pp. 143–174. ISBN 0-7141-2733-7 • A. I. Sabra, "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy", Perspectives on Science, 6 (1998): 288-330. • George Saliba, "Arabic versus Greek Astronomy: A Debate over the Foundations of Science", Perspectives on Science, 8 (2000): 328-41.

External links • "Tubitak Turkish National Observatory Antalya" (http://sunucu1.tug.tubitak.gov.tr/index.html?en) • "Scientific American" article on Islamic Astronomy (http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/phys/alshukri/PHYS215/ Islamic astronomy.htm) • The Arab Union for Astronomy and Space Sciences (AUASS) (http://www.auass.org/) • King Abdul Aziz Observatory (http://www.kacst.edu.sa/eng/inst/agri/dept4.php) • History of Islamic Astrolabes (http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/isaslabecalen.html)

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Islam and science

Islam and science Islam and science describes the relationship between Muslim communities and science in general. From an Islamic standpoint, science, the study of nature, is considered to be linked to the concept of Tawhid (the Oneness of God), as are all other branches of knowledge.[1] In Islam, nature is not seen as a separate entity, but rather as an integral part of Islam’s holistic outlook on God, humanity, and the world. This link implies a sacred aspect to the pursuit of scientific knowledge by Muslims, as nature itself is viewed in the Qur’an as a compilation of signs pointing to the Divine.[2] It was with this understanding that the pursuit of science was tolerated in Islamic civilizations, specifically during the eighth to sixteenth centuries, prior to the colonization of the Muslim world.[3] According to most historians, the modern scientific method was pioneered by Islamic scientist Ibn Al-Haytham (known to the west as “Alhazen”);[4] Alhazen helped shift the emphasis on abstract theorizing onto systematic and repeatable experimentation, followed by careful criticism of premises and inferences.[5] Robert Briffault, in The Making of Humanity, asserts that the very existence of science, as it is understood in the modern sense, is rooted in the scientific thought and knowledge that emerged in Islamic civilizations during this time.[6] Muslim scientists and scholars have subsequently developed a spectrum of viewpoints on the place of scientific learning within the context of Islam, none of which are universally accepted.[7] However, most maintain the view that the acquisition of knowledge and scientific pursuit in general is not in disaccord with Islamic thought and religious belief.[1] [7] Physicist Taner Edis argues this is because some Muslims are reading into the metaphorical language of the Holy books what is not there, including recent scientific discoveries.[8]

Overview The religion Islam has its own worldview system including beliefs about "ultimate reality, epistemology, ontology, ethics, purpose, etc."[9] Muslims believe that the Qur'an is the final revelation of God for the guidance of humankind. Science in the broadest sense refers to any falsifiable system of knowledge attained by verifiable means,[10] and in a narrower sense to a system of acquiring knowledge based on empiricism, experimentation, and methodological naturalism, as well as to the organized body of knowledge humans have gained by such research. Scientists maintain that scientific investigation must adhere to the scientific method, a process for evaluating empirical knowledge that explains observable events in nature as results of natural causes, rejecting supernatural notions. Islam also does not accept the possibility of a supernatural (that is accessible or interacts with Man in this life), as Muslims believe Allah's Creation, and Allah, is perfect, and He would not break His own laws. Islam was one of the first religions to reject superstition for what it was - unfounded . One of the most important features of Science is the precise quantitative prediction. In this aspect it differs from many religious texts where physical phenomena are depicted in a very qualitative way, often by the use of words carrying several meanings.

History Classical Islamic science In the history of science, Islamic science refers to the science developed under Islamic civilization between the 8th and 16th centuries,[11] during what is known as the Islamic Golden Age.[12] It is also known as Arabic science since the majority of texts during this period were written in Arabic, the lingua franca of Islamic civilization. Despite these terms, not all scientists during this period were Muslim or Arab, as there were a number of notable non-Arab scientists (most notably Persians), as well as some non-Muslim scientists, who contributed to scientific studies in the Islamic world.

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Islam and science A number of modern scholars such as Fielding H. Garrison,[13] Abdus Salam and Hossein Nasr consider modern science and the scientific method to have been greatly inspired by Muslim scientists who introduced a modern empirical, experimental and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry. Some scholars, notably Donald Routledge Hill, Ahmad Y Hassan,[14] Abdus Salam,[15] and George Saliba,[16] have referred to their achievements as a Muslim scientific revolution,[17] [18] though this does not contradict the traditional view of the Scientific Revolution which is still supported by most scholars.[19] [20] [21] It is believed that it was the empirical attitude of the Qur'an and Sunnah which inspired medieval Muslim scientists, in particular Alhazen (965-1037),[22] [23] to develop the scientific method.[24] [25] [26] It is also known that certain advances made by medieval Muslim astronomers, geographers and mathematicians was motivated by problems presented in Islamic scripture, such as Al-Khwarizmi's (c. 780-850) development of algebra in order to solve the Islamic inheritance laws,[27] and developments in astronomy, geography, spherical geometry and spherical trigonometry in order to determine the direction of the Qibla, the times of Salah prayers, and the dates of the Islamic calendar.[28] The increased use of dissection in Islamic medicine during the 12th and 13th centuries was influenced by the writings of the Islamic theologian, Al-Ghazali, who encouraged the study of anatomy and use of dissections as a method of gaining knowledge of God's creation.[29] In al-Bukhari's and Muslim's collection of sahih hadith it is said: "There is no disease that Allah has created, except that He also has created its treatment." (Bukhari 7-71:582), which may have prompted much medical study. This culminated in the work of Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), who discovered the pulmonary circulation in 1242 and used his discovery as evidence for the orthodox Islamic doctrine of bodily resurrection.[30] Ibn al-Nafis also used Islamic scripture as justification for his rejection of wine as self-medication.[31] Criticisms against alchemy and astrology were also motivated by religion, as orthodox Islamic theologians viewed the beliefs of alchemists and astrologers as being superstitious.[32] Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209), in dealing with his conception of physics and the physical world in his Matalib, discusses Islamic cosmology, criticizes the Aristotelian notion of the Earth's centrality within the universe, and "explores the notion of the existence of a multiverse in the context of his commentary," based on the Qur'anic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds." He raises the question of whether the term "worlds" in this verse refers to "multiple worlds within this single universe or cosmos, or to many other universes or a multiverse beyond this known universe." On the basis of this verse, he argues that God has created more than "a thousand thousand worlds (alfa alfi 'awalim) beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has."[33] Ali Kuşçu's (1403–1474) support for the Earth's rotation and his rejection of Aristotelian cosmology (which advocates a stationary Earth) was motivated by religious opposition to Aristotle by orthodox Islamic theologians, such as Al-Ghazali.[34] [35] According to many historians, science in Islamic civilization flourished during the Middle Ages, but began declining at some time around the 14th[36] to 16th[11] centuries. At least some scholars blame this on the "rise of a clerical faction which froze this same science and withered its progress."[37] Examples of conflicts with prevailing interpretations of Islam and science - or at least the fruits of science - thereafter include the demolition of Taqi al-Din's great Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din in Galata, "comparable in its technical equipment and its specialist personnel with that of his celebrated contemporary, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe." But while Brahe's observatory "opened the way to a vast new development of astronomical science," Taqi al-Din's was demolished by a squad of Janissaries, "by order of the sultan, on the recommendation of the Chief Mufti," sometime after 1577 AD.[37] [38]

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Arrival of modern science in Islamic world At the beginning of the nineteenth century, modern science arrived in the Muslim world but it wasn't the science itself that affected Muslim scholars. Rather, it "was the transfer of various philosophical currents entangled with science that had a profound effect on the minds of Muslim scientists and intellectuals. Schools like Positivism and Darwinism penetrated the Muslim world and dominated its academic circles and had a noticeable impact on some Islamic theological doctrines." There were different responses to this among the Muslim scholars:[39] These reactions, in words of Professor Mehdi Golshani, were the following:

“

1. Some rejected modern science as corrupt foreign thought, considering it incompatible with Islamic teachings, and in their view, the only [39] remedy for the stagnancy of Islamic societies would be the strict following of Islamic teachings. 2. Other thinkers in the Muslim world saw science as the only source of real enlightenment and advocated the complete adoption of modern science. In their view, the only remedy for the stagnation of Muslim societies would be the mastery of modern science and the replacement of the religious worldview by the scientific worldview. 3. The majority of faithful Muslim scientists tried to adapt Islam to the findings of modern science; they can be categorized in the following subgroups: (a) Some Muslim thinkers attempted to justify modern science on religious grounds. Their motivation was to encourage Muslim societies to acquire modern knowledge and to safeguard their societies from the criticism of Orientalists and Muslim intellectuals. (b) Others tried to show that all important scientific discoveries had been predicted in the Qur'an and Islamic tradition and appealed to modern science to explain various aspects of faith. (c) Yet other scholars advocated a re-interpretation of Islam. In their view, one must try to construct a new theology that can establish a viable relation between Islam and modern science. The Indian scholar, Sayyid Ahmad Khan, sought a theology of nature through which one could re-interpret the basic principles of Islam in the light of modern science. (d) Then there were some Muslim scholars who believed that empirical science had reached the same conclusions that prophets had been advocating several thousand years ago. The revelation had only the privilege of prophecy. 4. Finally, some Muslim philosophers separated the findings of modern science from its philosophical attachments. Thus, while they praised the attempts of Western scientists for the discovery of the secrets of nature, they warned against various empiricist and materialistic interpretations of scientific findings. Scientific knowledge can reveal certain aspects of the physical world, but it should not be identified with the alpha and omega of knowledge. Rather, it has to be integrated into a metaphysical framework—consistent with the Muslim [9] worldview—in which higher levels of knowledge are recognized and the role of science in bringing us closer to God is fulfilled.

”

Compatibility of Islam and the development of science Whether Islamic culture has promoted or hindered scientific advancement is disputed. Islamists such as Sayyid Qutb argue that since "Islam appointed" Muslims "as representatives of God and made them responsible for learning all the sciences,"[40] science cannot but prosper in a society of true Muslims. Many "classical and modern [sources] agree that the Qur'an condones, even encourages the acquisition of science and scientific knowledge, and urges humans to reflect on the natural phenomena as signs of God's creation." Some scientific instruments produced in classical times in the Islamic world were inscribed with Qur'anic citations. Many Muslims agree that doing science is an act of religious merit, even a collective duty of the Muslim community.[41] Others claim traditional interpretations of Islam are not compatible with the development of science. Author Rodney Stark, argues that Islam's lag behind the West in scientific advancement after (roughly) 1500 AD was due to opposition by traditional ulema to efforts to formulate systematic explanation of natural phenomenon with "natural laws." He claims that they believed such laws were blasphemous because they limit "Allah's freedom to act" as He wishes, a principle enshired in aya 14:4: "Allah sendeth whom He will astray, and guideth whom He will," which (they believed) applied to all of creation not just humanity.[42]

Islam and science

Decline In the early twentieth century ulema forbade the learning of foreign languages and dissection of human bodies in the medical school in Iran.[43] The ulama at the Islamic university of Al-Azhar in Cairo taught the Ptolemaic astronomical system (in which the sun circles the earth) until compelled to adopt the Copernican system by the Egyptian government in 1961.[44] In recent years, the lagging of the Muslim world in science is manifest in the disproportionately small amount of scientific output as measured by citations of articles published in internationally circulating science journals, annual expenditures on research and development, and numbers of research scientists and engineers.[45] Skepticism of science among some Muslims is reflected in issues such as resistance in Muslim northern Nigeria to polio inoculation, which some believe is "an imaginary thing created in the West or it is a ploy to get us to submit to this evil agenda."[46]

Scientific issues in the Qur'an and Hadith The belief that the Qur'an had prophesied scientific theories and discoveries has become a strong and widespread belief in the contemporary Islamic world; these prophecies are often offered as evidence of the divine origin of the Qur'an [47] ; see scientific foreknowledge in sacred texts for further discussion of this issue. Taner Edis wrote An Illusion of Harmony: Science and Religion in Islam.[48] Edis worries that secularism in Turkey, one of the most westernized Muslim nations, is on its way out; he points out that Turkey rejects evolution by a large majority. To Edis, many Muslims appreciate technology and respect the role that science plays in its creation. As a result, he says there is a great deal of Islamic pseudoscience attempting to reconcile this respect with other respected religious beliefs. Edis maintains that the motivation to read modern scientific truths into holy books is also stronger for Muslims than Christians.[8] This is because, according to Edis, true criticism of the Qur'an is almost non-existent in the Muslim world. While Christianity is less prone to see its Holy Book as the direct word of God, fewer Muslims will compromise on this idea - causing them to believe that scientific truths simply must appear in the Qur'an. However, Edis opines that there are endless examples of scientific discoveries that could be read into the Bible or Qur'an if one would like to.[8] Edis qualifies that 'Muslim thought' certainly cannot be understood by looking at the Qur'an alone - cultural and political factors play large roles.[8] Russel Glasser (Skeptic on "The Atheist Experience" TV show with Matt Dillahunty and Jeff Dee) argues that interpreting the Qur'an like this is cherry picking and risks simply confirming the biases of the investigator.[49]

Conception and inherited characteristics The most prominent of the ancient Greek thinkers who wrote on medicine were Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen. Hippocrates and Galen, in contrast with Aristotle, wrote that the contribution of females to children is equal to that of males, and the vehicle for it is a substance similar to the semen of males.[50] Basim Musallam writes that the ideas of these men were widespread through the pre-modern Middle East: "Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen were as much a part of Middle Eastern Arabic culture as anything else in it."[50] The sayings in the Qur'an and those attributed to Muhammad in the Hadith influenced generations of Muslim scientists by siding with Galen and Hippocrates. Basim Musallam writes: "... the statements about parental contribution to generation in the hadith paralleled the Hippocratic writings, and the view of fetal development in the Qur'an agreed in detail with Galen's scientific writings."[50] He reports that the highly influential medieval Hanbali scholar Ibn Qayyim, in his book Kitab al-tibyan fi aqsam al-qur'an, cites the following statement of the prophet from the Sahih Muslim: Ibn Qayyim also quotes a different hadith from the same collection, which is quoted by other Muslim authors as well. Having been asked the question "from what is man created," the Prophet replies:

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„

He is created of both, the semen of the man and the semen of the woman. The man's semen is thick and forms the bones and the tendons. The [50] woman's semen is fine and forms the flesh and blood.

Creation and evolution The Quran contains many verses describing creation of the universe; God created heavens and earth in six heavenly days[7:54] the earth was created in two days[41:9], and in two other days (into a total of four) God furnished the creation of the earth with mountains, rivers and fruit-gardens [41:10]. Then heavens and earth formed from an integrated disk-shaped mass which had to be split [21:30], the seven heavens were created from smoke [41:11], forming layers, one above the other [67:3]. The angels inhabit the seventh heavens. The lowest heaven is adorned with lights [41:12] , the sun and the moon (which follow a regular path) [71:16][14:33], the stars [37:6] and the constellations of the Zodiac [15:16].[51]

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Muzaffar Iqbal (2007). Science & Islam. Greenwood Press. 2. Toshihiko Izutsu (1964). God and Man in the Koran. Weltansckauung. Tokyo. 3. Situating Arabic Science: Locality versus Essence (A.I. Sabra) The 'first true scientist' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ 7810846. stm) Rosanna Gorini (2003). "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience. First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy. Quote from article: "According to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method...and established experiments as the norm of the proof in the field. His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable." (http:/ / www. ishim. net/ ishimj/ 4/ 10. pdf) [6] Robert Briffault (1928). The Making of Humanity, p. 190-202. G. Allen & Unwin Ltd. [7] Seyyid Hossein Nasr. “Islam and Modern Science” [8] http:/ / castroller. com/ podcasts/ ReasonableDoubtsPodcast/ 1625411-rd09%20Islam,%20Science%20and%20Modernity%20Part%20One%20with%20Guest%20Taner%20Edis [9] Mehdi Golshani, Can Science Dispense With Religion? [10] See, e.g., the entry Science in the Oxford English Dictionary ISBN 0-19-522217-2 [11] Ahmad Y Hassan, Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century (http:/ / www. history-science-technology. com/ Articles/ articles 8. htm) [12] Sabra, A. I. (1996), "Situating Arabic Science: Locality versus Essence", Isis 87 (4): 654–670, doi:10.1086/357651, JSTOR 235197.

"Let us begin with a neutral and innocent definition of Arabic, or what also may be called Islamic, science in terms of time and space: the term Arabic (or Islamic) science the scientific activities of individuals who lived in a region that might extended chronologically from the eighth century A.D. to the beginning of the modern era, and geographically from the Iberian Peninsula and north Africa to the Indus valley and from the Southern Arabia to the Caspian Sea—that is, the region covered for most of that period by what we call Islamic Civilization, and in which the results of the activities referred to were for the most part expressed in the Arabic Language. We need not be concerned over the refinements that obviously need to be introduced over this seemingly neutral definition." [13] Fielding H. Garrison, History of Medicine [14] Ahmad Y Hassan and Donald Routledge Hill (1986), Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History, p. 282, Cambridge University Press. [15] Abdus Salam, H. R. Dalafi, Mohamed Hassan (1994). Renaissance of Sciences in Islamic Countries, p. 162. World Scientific, ISBN 9971507137. [16] George Saliba (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, p. 245, 250, 256-257. New York University Press, ISBN 0814780237. [17] Abid Ullah Jan (2006), After Fascism: Muslims and the struggle for self-determination, "Islam, the West, and the Question of Dominance", Pragmatic Publishings, ISBN 978-0-9733687-5-8. [18] Salah Zaimeche (2003), An Introduction to Muslim Science (http:/ / www. muslimheritage. com/ uploads/ Introduction_to_Muslim Science. pdf), FSTC. [19] Grant, Edward. The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1996.

Islam and science [20] Herbert Butterfield, The Origins of Modern Science, 1300-1800. [21] Thomas Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution, (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr., 1957), p. 142. [22] Bettany, Laurence (1995), "Ibn al-Haytham: an answer to multicultural science teaching?", Physics Education 30 (4): 247–252 [247], doi:10.1088/0031-9120/30/4/011. [23] Steffens, Bradley (2006), Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246 (cf. Steffens, Bradley, Who Was the First Scientist?, Ezine Articles) [24] Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002), The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study (http:/ / images. agustianwar. multiply. com/ attachment/ 0/ RxbYbQoKCr4AAD@kzFY1/ IslamicCalendar-A-Case-Study. pdf), Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity, Al Akhawayn University. Retrieved on 2008-01-31. [25] C. A. Qadir (1990), Philosophy and Science in the lslumic World, Routledge, London) [26] Ahmad, I. A. (1995), "The impact of the Qur'anic conception of astronomical phenomena on Islamic civilization", Vistas in Astronomy 39 (4): 395–403, Bibcode 1995VA.....39..395A, doi:10.1016/0083-6656(95)00033-X [27] Gandz, Solomon (1938), "The Algebra of Inheritance: A Rehabilitation of Al-Khuwārizmī", Osiris 5: 319–391, doi:10.1086/368492, ISSN 0369–7827. [28] Gingerich, Owen (April 1986), "Islamic astronomy" (http:/ / faculty. kfupm. edu. sa/ PHYS/ alshukri/ PHYS215/ Islamic_astronomy. htm), Scientific American 254 (10): 74, , retrieved 2008-05-18 [29] Savage-Smith, Emilie (1995), "Attitudes Toward Dissection in Medieval Islam", Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (Oxford University Press) 50 (1): 67–110, doi:10.1093/jhmas/50.1.67, PMID 7876530 [30] Fancy, Nahyan A. G. (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)" (http:/ / etd. nd. edu/ ETD-db/ theses/ available/ etd-11292006-152615), Electronic Theses and Dissertations (University of Notre Dame): 232–3, [31] Fancy, Nahyan A. G. (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)" (http:/ / etd. nd. edu/ ETD-db/ theses/ available/ etd-11292006-152615), Electronic Theses and Dissertations (University of Notre Dame): 49–59 & 232–3, [32] Saliba, George (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, New York University Press, pp. 60 & 67–69, ISBN 0814780237 [33] Adi Setia (2004), "Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on Physics and the Nature of the Physical World: A Preliminary Survey" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0QYQ/ is_2_2/ ai_n9532826/ ), Islam & Science 2, , retrieved 2010-03-02 [34] Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context", Science in Context (Cambridge University Press) 14 (1–2): 145–163 [35] F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science", Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. 16, Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions, p. 49-64, 66-71. [36] Islam by Alnoor Dhanani in Science and Religion, 2002, p.88 [37] Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History by Ahmad Y. al-Hassan and Donald Hill, Cambridge University Press, 1986, p.282 [38] Aydin Sayili, The Observatory in Islam and its place in the General History of the Observatory (Ankara: 1960), pp. 289 ff. [39] Mehdi Golshani, Does science offer evidence of a transcendent reality and purpose?, June 2003 [40] Qutb, Sayyid, Milestones, p.112 [41] Qur'an and Science, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an [42] Stark, Rodney, The Victory of Reason, Random House, 2005, p.20-1 [43] Mackey, The Iranians : Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation, 1996, p.179 [44] In the Path of God : Islam and Political Power by Daniel Pipes, c1983 p.113 [45] Abdus Salam, Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam (Philadelphia: World Scientific, 1987), p. 109. [46] Nafiu Baba Ahmed, Secretary General of the Supreme Council for Sharia in Nigeria, telling the BBC his opinion of polio and vaccination. In northern Nigeria "more than 50% of the children have never been vaccinated against polio," and as of 2006 and more than half the world's polio victims live. Nigeria's struggle to beat polio, BBC News, 31 March 20 (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ africa/ 4862012. stm) [47] Ahmad Dallal, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Quran and science [48] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Illusion-Harmony-Science-Religion-Islam/ dp/ 1591024498 [49] The Atheist Experience, on "the Quran and the Speed of Light", quote:"A contemporary person who knows some science can make passages of the Quran superficially resemble scientific insights by manipulating verses that have nothing to do with science and trying to pigeonhole them into something resembling contemporary knowledge." (http:/ / atheistexperience. blogspot. com/ 2010/ 08/ quran-and-speed-of-light. html) [50] Basim Musallam, Sex and Society in Islam. Cambridge University Press. [51] Angelika Neuwirth , Cosmology, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an

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External links • Science and the Islamic world—The quest for rapprochement (http://ptonline.aip.org/journals/doc/ PHTOAD-ft/vol_60/iss_8/49_1.shtml) - by Pervez Hoodbhoy • Islamic Science (http://www.islamonline.net/english/Contemporary/2002/05/Article21.shtml) by Ziauddin Sardar, 2002 By Professor Mehdi Golshani • Can Science Dispense With Religion? (http://www.csc.twu.ca/byl/golshani.doc) • Does science offer evidence of a transcendent reality and purpose? (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/ mi_m0QYQ/is_1_1/ai_n6145343) • Some important questions concerning the relationship between science and religion (http://findarticles.com/p/ articles/mi_m0QYQ/is_1_3/ai_n15947582) By Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr • Islam, science and Muslims (http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0QYQ/is_1_1/ai_n6145347) • Islam, Muslims, and modern technology (http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0QYQ/is_2_3/ ai_n15944549)

Others • • • •

Center for Islam and Science (http://www.cis-ca.org/index.php) Explore Islamic achievements and contributions to science (http://www.muslimheritage.com/) Commission on Scientific Signs (http://www.nooran.org/en/index.htm) Is There Such A Thing As Islamic Science? The Influence Of Islam On The World Of Science (http://www.scq. ubc.ca/is-there-such-a-thing-as-islamic-science-the-influence-of-islam-on-the-world-of-science/) • How Islam Won, and Lost, the Lead in Science (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage. html?sec=technology&res=9802E4D91730F933A05753C1A9679C8B63) • Radicalism among Muslim professionals worries many (http://iht.com/articles/2007/07/14/africa/ 14doctors-web.php) • Islamology the science of peace (http://www.islamology.com)

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Mathematics in medieval Islam In the history of mathematics, mathematics in medieval Islam, often termed Islamic mathematics or Arabic mathematics, covers the body of mathematics preserved and developed under the Islamic civilization between circa 622 and 1600.[1] Islamic science and mathematics flourished under the Islamic caliphate established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south.

The Caliphate in 750

Katz, in A history of mathematics says that:[2] "A complete history of mathematics of medieval Islam cannot yet be written, since so many of these Arabic manuscripts lie unstudied... Still, the general outline... is known. In particular, Islamic mathematicians fully developed the decimal place-value number system to include decimal fractions, systematised the study of algebra and began to consider the relationship between algebra and geometry, studied and made advances on the major Greek geometrical treatises of Euclid, Archimedes, and Apollonius, and made significant improvements in plane and spherical geometry."

"Cubic equation and intersection of conic sections" the first page of two-chaptered manuscript from the works of Omar Khayyám.

Matrakçı Nasuh's triangular lattice multiplication.

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An important role was played by the translation and study of Greek mathematics, which was the principal route of transmission of these texts to Western Europe. Smith notes that:[3] "the world owes a great debt to Arab scholars for preserving and transmitting to posterity the classics of Greek mathematics... their work was chiefly that of transmission, although they developed considerable ingenuity in algebra and showed some genius in their work in trigonometry." Adolph P. Yushkevich states regarding the role of Islamic mathematics:[4] The Islamic mathematicians exercised a prolific influence on the development of science in Europe, enriched as much by their own discoveries as those they had inherited by the Greeks, the Indians, the Syrians, the Babylonians,etc.

History

A page from the The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing by Al-Khwarizmi.

Algebra The most important contribution of the Islamic mathematicians was the development of algebra; combining Indian and Babylonian material with the Greek geometry to develope algebra. Irrational numbers The Greeks had discovered Irrational numbers, but were not happy with them and only able to cope by drawing a distinction between magnitude and number. In the Greek view, magnitudes varied continuously and could be used for entities such as line segments, whereas numbers were discrete. Hence, irrationals could only be handled geometrically; and indeed Greek mathematics was mainly geometrical. Islamic mathematicians including Abū Kāmil Shujāʿ ibn Aslam slowly removed the distinction between magnitude and number, allowing irrational quantities to appear as coefficients in equations and to be solutions of algebraic equations. Induction The earliest implicit traces of mathematical induction can be found in Euclid's [5] proof that the number of primes is infinite. The first explicit formulation of the principle of induction was given by Pascal in his Traité du triangle arithmétique (1665). In between, implicit proof by induction for arithmetic sequences was introduced by al-Karaji around 1000 AD and continued by al-Samaw'al, who used it for special cases of the binomial theorem and properties of Pascal's triangle.

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Major figures and developments Omar Khayyám Omar Khayyám (c. 1038/48–1123/24)[6] wrote the Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra containing the systematic solution of third-degree equations, going beyond the Algebra of al-Khwārizmī.[7] Khayyám obtained the solutions of these equations by finding the intersection points of two conic sections. This method had been used by the Greeks,[8] but they did not generalize the method to cover all equations with positive roots.[9]

To solve the third-degree equation x3 + a2x = b Khayyám constructed the parabola x2 = ay, a circle with diameter b/a2, and a vertical line through the intersection point. The solution is given by the length of the horizontal line segment from the origin to the intersection of the vertical line and the x-axis.

Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī (? in Tus, Iran – 1213/4) developed a novel approach to the investigation of cubic equations—an approach which entailed finding the point at which a cubic polynomial obtains its maximum value. For example, in order to solve the equation , with a and b positive, he would note that the maximum point of the curve

occurs at

, and that the equation would have no solutions, one solution

or two solutions, depending on whether the height of the curve at that point was less than, equal to, or greater than . His surviving works give no indication of how he discovered his formulae for the maxima of these curves. Various conjectures have been proposed to account for his discovery of them.[10]

Other major figures • • • • • • • • • • •

Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (c. 780 – c. 850) 'Abd al-Hamīd ibn Turk (fl. 830) (quadratics) Thabit ibn Qurra (826–901) Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam (c. 850 – 930) (irrationals) Abū Sahl al-Qūhī (c. 940–1000) (centers of gravity) Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi (952 – 953) (arithmetic) 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Qabisi Abū al-Wafā' Būzjānī (940 – 998) (spherical trigonometry) Al-Karaji (c. 953 – c. 1029) (algebra, induction) Abu Nasr Mansur (c. 960 – 1036) (spherical trigonometry) Ibn Tahir al-Baghdadi (c. 980–1037) (irrationals)

Mathematics in medieval Islam • • • • • • •

Ibn al-Haytham (ca. 965–1040) Abū al-Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī (973 – 1048) (trigonometry) Al-Khayyam (1048 – 1131) (cubic equations, parallel postulate) Ibn Yaḥyā al-Maghribī al-Samawʾal (c. 1130 – c. 1180) Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī (c. 1150 – 1215) (cubics) Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī (1201 – 1274) (parallel postulate) Jamshīd al-Kāshī (c. 1380 – 1429) (decimals)

See Also • Timeline of Islamic science and technology • Islamic Golden Age • Hindu and Buddhist contribution to science in medieval Islam

Notes [1] Hogendijk 1999. [2] Katz 1993. [3] Smith 1958, Vol. 1, Chapter VII.4. [4] Sertima, Ivan Van (1992). Golden age of the Moor, Volume 11. Transaction Publishers. p. 394. ISBN 1560005815. [5] Proof due to Euclid http:/ / primes. utm. edu/ notes/ proofs/ infinite/ euclids. html http:/ / www. mathsisgoodforyou. com/ conjecturestheorems/ euclidsprimes. htm http:/ / www. hermetic. ch/ pns/ proof. htm [6] Struik 1987, p. 96. [7] Boyer 1991, pp. 241–242. [8] Struik 1987, p. 97. [9] Boyer 19991, pp. 241–242. [10] Berggren, J. Lennart (1990). "Innovation and Tradition in Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī's al-Muʿādalāt" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 604533). Journal of the American Oriental Society 110 (2). .

References • Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration, and The Arabic Hegemony". A History of Mathematics (2nd ed.). New York City: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471543977. • Katz, Victor J. (1993). A History of Mathematics: An Introduction. HarperCollins college publishers. ISBN 0-673-38039-4.. • Ronan, Colin A. (1983). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the World's Science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521258448. • Smith, David E. (1958). History of Mathematics. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-20429-4. • Struik, Dirk J. (1987). A Concise History of Mathematics (4th rev. ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 0486602559.

Further reading Books on Islamic mathematics • Berggren, J. Lennart (1986), Episodes in the Mathematics of Medieval Islam, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-96318-9 • Review: Toomer, Gerald J.; Berggren, J. L. (1988), "Episodes in the Mathematics of Medieval Islam", American Mathematical Monthly (Mathematical Association of America) 95 (6): 567, doi:10.2307/2322777, JSTOR 2322777 • Review: Hogendijk, Jan P.; Berggren, J. L. (1989), "Episodes in the Mathematics of Medieval Islam by J. Lennart Berggren", Journal of the American Oriental Society (American Oriental Society) 109 (4): 697–698, doi:10.2307/604119, JSTOR 604119)

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Mathematics in medieval Islam • Daffa', Ali Abdullah al- (1977), The Muslim contribution to mathematics, London: Croom Helm, ISBN 0-85664-464-1 • Rashed, Roshdi (2001), The Development of Arabic Mathematics: Between Arithmetic and Algebra, Transl. by A. F. W. Armstrong, Springer, ISBN 0792325656 • Youschkevitch, Adolf P.; Boris A. Rozenfeld (1960), Die Mathematik der Länder des Ostens im Mittelalter, Berlin Sowjetische Beiträge zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaft pp. 62–160. • Youschkevitch, Adolf P. (1976), Les mathématiques arabes: VIIIe–XVe siècles, translated by M. Cazenave and K. Jaouiche, Paris: Vrin, ISBN 978-2-7116-0734-1 Book chapters on Islamic mathematics • Berggren, J. Lennart (2007), "Mathematics in Medieval Islam", in Victor J. Katz, The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook (Second ed.), Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University, ISBN 9780691114859 • Cooke, Roger (1997), "Islamic Mathematics", The History of Mathematics: A Brief Course, Wiley-Interscience, ISBN 0471180823 Books on Islamic science • Daffa, Ali Abdullah al-; Stroyls, J.J. (1984), Studies in the exact sciences in medieval Islam, New York: Wiley, ISBN 0471903205 • Kennedy, E. S. (1984), Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences, Syracuse Univ Press, ISBN 0815660677 Books on the history of mathematics • Joseph, George Gheverghese (2000), The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (2nd ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691006598 (Reviewed: Katz, Victor J.; Joseph, George Gheverghese (1992), "The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics by George Gheverghese Joseph", The College Mathematics Journal (Mathematical Association of America) 23 (1): 82–84, doi:10.2307/2686206, JSTOR 2686206) • Youschkevitch, Adolf P. (1964), Gesichte der Mathematik im Mittelalter, Leipzig: BG Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft Journal articles on Islamic mathematics • Høyrup, Jens. “The Formation of «Islamic Mathematics»: Sources and Conditions” (http://akira.ruc.dk/~jensh/ Publications/1987_Formation of Islamic mathematics.PDF). Filosofi og Videnskabsteori på Roskilde Universitetscenter. 3. Række: Preprints og Reprints 1987 Nr. 1. Bibliographies and biographies • Brockelmann, Carl. Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur. 1.–2. Band, 1.–3. Supplementband. Berlin: Emil Fischer, 1898, 1902; Leiden: Brill, 1937, 1938, 1942. • Sánchez Pérez, José A. (1921), Biografías de Matemáticos Árabes que florecieron en España, Madrid: Estanislao Maestre • Sezgin, Fuat (1997) (in German), Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 9004020071 • Suter, Heinrich (1900), Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber und ihre Werke, Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathematischen Wissenschaften Mit Einschluss Ihrer Anwendungen, X Heft, Leipzig Television documentaries • Marcus du Sautoy (presenter) (2008). "The Genius of the East". The Story of Maths. BBC. • Jim Al-Khalili (presenter) (2010). Science and Islam. BBC.

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External links • Hogendijk, Jan P. (January 1999). "Bibliography of Mathematics in Medieval Islamic Civilization" (http://www. jphogendijk.nl/publ/Islamath.html). • O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Arabic mathematics: forgotten brilliance?" (http://www-history. mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Arabic_mathematics.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.

Physics in medieval Islam Physics in medieval Islam is the development of physics in the medieval Islamic world in the history of physics. In the course of the expansion of the Islamic world, Muslim scholars encountered the science, mathematics, and medicine of antiquity through the works of Aristotle, Archimedes, Galen, Ptolemy, Euclid, and others. These works and the important commentaries on them were the wellspring of science during the Medieval period. They were translated into Arabic, the lingua franca of this period. Islamic scholarship had inherited Aristotelian physics from the Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further, especially placing emphasis on observation and a priori reasoning, formulating crude forms of the scientific method. Fields of physics studied included optics and magnetism, mechanics (including statics, dynamics, kinematics and motion), and astronomy.

References • Briffault, Robert (1919), The Making of Humanity [1], G. Allen & Unwin Ltd. • Duhem, Pierre (1969) [1908], To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo, University of Chicago Press • Gill, Mohammad (August 2005). "Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?" [2]. Chowk.com. Retrieved 2010-05-06. • Howard, Ian P.; Wade, Nicholas J. (1996), "Ptolemy's contributions to the geometry of binocular vision", Perception 25 (10): 1189–1201, doi:10.1068/p251189, PMID 9027922 • Huff, Toby (2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-52994-8 • King, David A. (1983), "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", Isis 74 (4): 531–555, doi:10.1086/353360 • Marshall, O. S. (1950), "Alhazen and the Telescope", Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets 6: 4 • Nasr, Seyyed H. (1st edition in 1964, 2nd edition in 1993), An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines (2nd ed.), 1st edition by Harvard University Press, 2nd edition by State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-1515-5 • Plott, John C.; Gray, Wallace; Dolin, James Michael (2000) [1989] The Period of Scholasticism (part two) Global History of Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 81-208-0552-6 OCLC 491274936 • Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context", Science in Context (Cambridge University Press) 14 (1-2): 145–163. • Ragep, F. Jamil (2001b), "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science", Osiris, 2nd Series 16 (Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64 & 66–71, Bibcode 2001Osir...16...49R. • Rashed, Roshdi (2007), "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press) 17 (01): 7–55 [19], doi:10.1017/S0957423907000355. • Rosen, Edward (1985), "The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres", Journal of the History of Ideas (University of Pennsylvania Press) 46 (1): 13–31, doi:10.2307/2709773, JSTOR 2709773

138

Physics in medieval Islam • Rozhanskaya, Mariam; Levinova, I. S. (1996), Roshdi Rashed & Régis Morelon, ed., Statics, 2/3, New York, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-12411-5. • Russell, Gul A. (1996), Roshdi Rashed & Régis Morelon, ed., Emergence of Physiological Optics, 1/3, New York, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-12410-7. • Saliba, George (1980), "Al-Biruni", in Strayer, Joseph, Dictionary of the Middle Ages, 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York • Saliba, George (1994a), "Early Arabic Critique of Ptolemaic Cosmology: A Ninth-Century Text on the Motion of the Celestial Spheres", Journal for the History of Astronomy 25: 115–141, Bibcode 1994JHA....25..115S. • Saliba, George (1994b), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, New York University Press, ISBN 0-8147-8023-7 • Saliba, George (1999), Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe? [3], Columbia University, retrieved 2008-01-22 • Sayılı, Aydın (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1): 477–482, Bibcode 1987NYASA.500..477S, doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37219.x. • Wade, Nicholas J. (1998), A Natural History of Vision, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press • Zaimeche, Salah; Al-Hassani, Salim; Alp, Talip; Salem, Ahmed; Mohammed Abattouy, Mohammed El-Gomati, Salim Ayduz, Savas Konur, Cem Nizamoglu, Anne-Maria Brennan, Maurice Coles, Ian Fenn, Amar Nazir, and Margaret Morris (December 2001) "Astronomical Observatories in the Classical Islamic Culture" [4] MuslimHeritage.com Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation. Retrieved 2010-05-08

References [1] [2] [3] [4]

http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=usdCAAAAIAAJ http:/ / www. chowk. com/ articles/ 9489 http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ ~gas1/ project/ visions/ case1/ sci. 1. html http:/ / www. muslimheritage. com/ topics/ default. cfm?ArticleID=235

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Cosmology in medieval Islam

Cosmology in medieval Islam Islamic cosmology refers to cosmology in Islamic societies. It is mainly derived from the Qur'an, Hadith, Sunnah, and current Islamic as well as other pre-Islamic sources. The Qur'an itself mentions seven heavens[1] and a vast universe sustained by Allah.

Metaphysical principles Duality Islamic thought categorizes the entire cosmos into two domains: the Unseen Universe (Arabic ‫ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺐ‬, Aalam-ul-Ghaib), which is imperceptible to mankind in general, has properties unknown to us, and includes Allah, angels, Paradise, Hell, seven heavens, and Al-Arsh (the Divine Throne)[2]; and the Observable Universe (Arabic ‫ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﺸﻬﻮﺩ‬, Alam-ul-Shahood), perceptible through the five senses (possibly enhanced by means of instruments). The Qur'an says: "Allah is He, Who is the only God, the knower of the Unseen and the Observed."[3]

Teleology In the light of a detailed description of the creation of the Universe drawn from the Qur'an and Sunnah, the purpose of existence is for God to become known, to be discovered by human beings. Before the creation, Allah was known only to himself, because nothing existed but he. It was part of his grand design that through created beings the Attributes of Allah were to be fulfilled. Allah may be known in two ways: through revelation and by means of reasoning. In the former case, he has conveyed his presence to humankind by sending messengers. Individuals also may become aware of Allah's existence through personal revelations, much as a schoolchild learns from teachers and books. Reasoning may lead to awareness of God's existence through formal logic, rational arguments, or deductions from the results of scientific or historical research, according to the individual's interests, education, and aptitudes. Those who choose to study the Qur'an and Hadith may obtain further understanding of Allah, his rights, and his judgement of the beings in both the unseen and observable universes.

Sufi cosmology Sufi cosmology (Arabic: ‫ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺯﻣﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﻓﻴﺔ‬‎) is a general term for cosmological doctrines associated with the mysticism of Sufism. These may differ from place to place, order to order and time to time, but overall show the influence of several different cosmographies: • The Quran's testament concerning God and immaterial beings, the soul and the afterlife, the beginning and end of things, the seven heavens etc. • The Neoplatonic views cherished by Islamic philosophers like Avicenna and Ibn Arabi. • The Hermetic-Ptolemaic spherical geocentric world. • The Ishraqi visionary universe as expounded by Suhrawardi Maqtul.

Quranic interpretations There are several verses in the Qur'an (610-632) which some medieval and modern writers have interpreted as foreshadowing modern cosmological theories.[4] An early example of this can be seen in the work of the Islamic theologian Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209), in dealing with his conception of physics and the physical world in his Matalib. He discusses Islamic cosmology, criticizes the idea of the Earth's centrality within the universe, and explores "the notion of the existence of a multiverse in the context of his commentary" on the Qur'anic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds." He raises the question of whether the term "worlds" in this verse refers

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Cosmology in medieval Islam to "multiple worlds within this single universe or cosmos, or to many other universes or a multiverse beyond this known universe." He rejects the Aristotelian view of a single world or universe in favour of the existence of multiple worlds and universes, a view that he believed to be supported by the Qur'an and by the Ash'ari theory of atomism.[5]

Cosmology in the medieval Islamic world Cosmology was studied extensively in the Muslim world during what is known as the Islamic Golden Age from the 7th to 15th centuries. There are exactly seven verses in the Quran that specify that there are seven heavens. One verse says that each heaven or sky has its own order, possibly meaning laws of nature. Another verse says after mentioning the seven heavens "and similar earths". In 850, al-Farghani wrote Kitab fi Jawani ("A compendium of the science of stars"). The book primarily gave a summary of Ptolemic cosmography. However, it also corrected Ptolemy's Almagest based on findings of earlier Iranian astronomers. Al-Farghani gave revised values for the obliquity of the ecliptic, the precessional movement of the apogees of the sun and the moon, and the circumference of the earth. The books were widely circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into Latin.[6]

Cosmography ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt (Arabic: ‫ﻋﺠﺎﺋﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﻠﻮﻗﺎﺕ ﻭ ﻏﺮﺍﺋﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺍﺕ‬‎, meaning Marvels of creatures and Strange things existing) is an important work of cosmography by Zakariya ibn Muhammad ibn Mahmud Abu Yahya al-Qazwini who was born in Qazwin year 600 (AH (1203 AD).

Temporal finitism In contrast to ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning, medieval philosophers and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning (see Temporal finitism). This view was inspired by the creation myth shared by the three Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The Christian philosopher, John Philoponus, presented the first such argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. His arguments were adopted by many most notably; early Muslim philosopher, Al-Kindi (Alkindus); the Jewish philosopher, Saadia Gaon (Saadia ben Joseph); and the Muslim theologian, Al-Ghazali (Algazel). They used two "logical" arguments against an infinite past, the first being the "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states:[7] "An actual infinite cannot exist." "An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite." "∴ An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist." The second argument, the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition", states:[7] "An actual infinite cannot be completed by successive addition." "The temporal series of past events has been completed by successive addition." "∴ The temporal series of past events cannot be an actual infinite." Both arguments were adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians, and the second argument in particular became more famous after it was adopted by Immanuel Kant in his thesis of the first antimony concerning time.[7]

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Galaxy observation The Persian astronomer Alhazen (965–1037) made the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way's parallax,[8] and he thus "determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it was very remote from the earth and did not belong to the atmosphere."[9] The Persian astronomer Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973–1048) proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be "a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars."[10] The Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah ("Avempace", d. 1138) proposed that the Milky Way was made up of many stars which almost touched one another and appeared to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction from sublunary material, citing his observation of the conjunction of Jupiter and Mars on 500 AH (1106/1107 AD) as evidence.[11] [12] Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars".[13] In the 10th century, the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (known in the West as Azophi) made the earliest recorded observation of the Andromeda Galaxy, describing it as a "small cloud".[14] Al-Sufi also identified the Large Magellanic Cloud, which is visible from Yemen, though not from Isfahan; it was not seen by Europeans until Magellan's voyage in the 16th century.[15] [16] These were the first galaxies other than the Milky Way to be observed from Earth. Al-Sufi published his findings in his Book of Fixed Stars in 964.

Possible worlds Al-Ghazali, in The Incoherence of the Philosophers, defends the Ash'ari doctrine of a created universe that is temporally finite, against the Aristotelian doctrine of an eternal universe. In doing so, he proposed the modal theory of possible worlds, arguing that their actual world is the best of all possible worlds from among all the alternate timelines and world histories that God could have possibly created. His theory parallels that of Duns Scotus in the 14th century. While it is uncertain whether Al-Ghazali had any influence on Scotus, they both may have derived their theory from their readings of Avicenna's Metaphysics.[17]

Multiversal cosmology Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209), in dealing with his conception of physics and the physical world in his Matalib al-'Aliya, criticizes the idea of the Earth's centrality within the universe and "explores the notion of the existence of a multiverse in the context of his commentary" on the Qur'anic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds." He raises the question of whether the term "worlds" in this verse refers to "multiple worlds within this single universe or cosmos, or to many other universes or a multiverse beyond this known universe." In volume 4 of the Matalib, Al-Razi states:[5] It is established by evidence that there exists The Tusi-couple is a mathematical device invented by Nasir al-Din beyond the world a void without a terminal limit al-Tusi in which a small circle rotates inside a larger circle twice the (khala' la nihayata laha), and it is established as diameter of the smaller circle. Rotations of the circles cause a point well by evidence that God Most High has power on the circumference of the smaller circle to oscillate back and forth in linear motion along a diameter of the larger circle. over all contingent beings (al-mumkinat). Therefore He the Most High has the power (qadir) to create a thousand thousand worlds (alfa alfi 'awalim) beyond this world such that each one of those

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Cosmology in medieval Islam worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has of the throne (al-arsh), the chair (al-kursiyy), the heavens (al-samawat) and the earth (al-ard), and the sun (al-shams) and the moon (al-qamar). The arguments of the philosophers (dala'il al-falasifah) for establishing that the world is one are weak, flimsy arguments founded upon feeble premises. Al-Razi rejected the Aristotelian and Avicennian notions of a single universe revolving around a single world. He describes the main arguments against the existence of multiple worlds or universes, pointing out their weaknesses and refuting them. This rejection arose from his affirmation of atomism, as advocated by the Ash'ari school of Islamic theology, which entails the existence of vacant space in which the atoms move, combine and separate. He discussed in greater detail the void, the empty space between stars and constellations in the Universe, in volume 5 of the Matalib.[5] He argued that there exists an infinite outer space beyond the known world,[18] and that God has the power to fill the vacuum with an infinite number of universes.[19]

Refutations of astrology The study of astrology was refuted by several Muslim writers at the time, including al-Farabi, Ibn al-Haytham, Avicenna, Biruni and Averroes. Their reasons for refuting astrology were often due to both scientific (the methods used by astrologers being conjectural rather than empirical) and religious (conflicts with orthodox Islamic scholars) reasons.[20] Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350), in his Miftah Dar al-SaCadah, used empirical arguments in astronomy in order to refute the practice of astrology and divination.[21] He recognized that the stars are much larger than the planets, and thus argued:[13] "And if you astrologers answer that it is precisely because of this distance and smallness that their influences are negligible, then why is it that you claim a great influence for the smallest heavenly body, Mercury? Why is it that you have given an influence to al-Ra's and al-Dhanab, which are two imaginary points [ascending and descending nodes]?" Al-Jawziyya also recognized the Milky Way galaxy as "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars" and thus argued that "it is certainly impossible to have knowledge of their influences."[13]

Early heliocentric models The Babylonian astronomer, Seleucus of Seleucia, who advocated a heliocentric model in the 2nd century BC, wrote a work that was later translated into Arabic. A fragment of his work has survived only in Arabic translation, which was later referred to by the Persian philosopher Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (865-925).[22] In the late ninth century, Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (Albumasar) developed a planetary model which some have interpreted as a heliocentric model. This is due to his orbital revolutions of the planets being given as heliocentric revolutions rather than geocentric revolutions, and the only known planetary theory in which this occurs is in the heliocentric theory. His work on planetary theory has not survived, but his astronomical data was later recorded by al-Hashimi, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and al-Sijzi.[23] In the early eleventh century, al-Biruni had met several Indian scholars who believed in a heliocentric system. In his Indica, he discusses the theories on the Earth's rotation supported by Brahmagupta and other Indian astronomers, while in his Canon Masudicus, al-Biruni writes that Aryabhata's followers assigned the first movement from east to west to the Earth and a second movement from west to east to the fixed stars. Al-Biruni also wrote that al-Sijzi also believed the Earth was moving and invented an astrolabe called the "Zuraqi" based on this idea:[24] "I have seen the astrolabe called Zuraqi invented by Abu Sa'id Sijzi. I liked it very much and praised him a great deal, as it is based on the idea entertained by some to the effect that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky. By my life, it is a problem difficult of solution and refutation. [...] For it is the same whether you take it that the Earth is in motion or the sky. For, in both cases, it does not affect

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the Astronomical Science. It is just for the physicist to see if it is possible to refute it." In his Indica, al-Biruni briefly refers to his work on the refutation of heliocentrism, the Key of Astronomy, which is now lost:[24] "The most prominent of both modern and ancient astronomers have deeply studied the question of the moving earth, and tried to refute it. We, too, have composed a book on the subject called Miftah 'ilm al-hai'ah (Key of Astronomy), in which we think we have surpassed our predecessors, if not in the words, at all events in the matter."

Early Hay'a program During this period, a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. It was Greek tradition to separate mathematical astronomy (as typified by Ptolemy) from philosophical cosmology (as typified by Aristotle). Muslim scholars developed a program of seeking a physically real configuration (hay'a) of the universe, that would be consistent with both mathematical and physical principles. Within the context of this hay'a tradition, Muslim astronomers began questioning technical details of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy.[25] The Timbuktu Manuscripts showing both mathematics and astronomy.

Some Muslim astronomers, however, most notably Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, discussed whether the Earth moved and considered how this might be consistent with astronomical computations and physical systems.[26] Several other Muslim astronomers, most notably those following the Maragha school of astronomy, developed non-Ptolemaic planetary models within a geocentric context that were later adapted by the Copernican model in a heliocentric context. Between 1025 and 1028, Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized as Alhazen), began the hay'a tradition of Islamic astronomy with his Al-Shuku ala Batlamyus (Doubts on Ptolemy). While maintaining the physical reality of the geocentric model, he was the first to criticize Ptolemy's astronomical system, which he criticized on empirical, observational and experimental grounds,[27] and for relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines and circles.[28] Ibn al-Haytham developed a physical structure of the Ptolemaic system in his Treatise on the configuration of the World, or Maqâlah fî hay'at al-‛âlam, which became an influential work in the hay'a tradition.[29] In his Epitome of Astronomy, he insisted that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the laws of physics."[30] In 1038, Ibn al-Haytham described the first non-Ptolemaic configuration in The Model of the Motions. His reform was not concerned with cosmology, as he developed a systematic study of celestial kinematics that was completely geometric. This in turn led to innovative developments in infinitesimal geometry.[31] His reformed model was the first to reject the equant[32] and eccentrics,[33] separate natural philosophy from astronomy, free celestial kinematics from cosmology, and reduce physical entities to geometrical entities. The model also propounded the Earth's rotation about its axis,[34] and the centres of motion were geometrical points without any physical significance, like Johannes Kepler's model centuries later.[35] Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of Occam's razor, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the cosmological hypotheses that cannot be observed from Earth.[36] In 1030, Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī discussed the Indian planetary theories of Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Varahamihira in his Ta'rikh al-Hind (Latinized as Indica). Biruni stated that Brahmagupta and others consider that the earth rotates on its axis and Biruni noted that this does not create any mathematical problems.[37] Abu Said al-Sijzi, a contemporary of al-Biruni, suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which al-Biruni did not reject.[38] Al-Biruni agreed with the Earth's rotation about its own axis, and while he was

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initially neutral regarding the heliocentric and geocentric models,[39] he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem.[40] He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters:[41] [42] [43] "Rotation of the earth would in no way invalidate astronomical calculations, for all the astronomical data are as explicable in terms of the one theory as of the other. The problem is thus difficult of solution."

Andalusian Revolt In the 11th-12th centuries, astronomers in al-Andalus took up the challenge earlier posed by Ibn al-Haytham, namely to develop an alternate non-Ptolemaic configuration that evaded the errors found in the Ptolemaic model.[44] Like Ibn al-Haytham's critique, the anonymous Andalusian work, al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus (Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy), included a list of objections to Ptolemic astronomy. This marked the beginning of the Andalusian school's revolt against Ptolemaic astronomy, otherwise known as the "Andalusian Revolt".[45] In the 12th century, Averroes rejected the eccentric deferents introduced by Ptolemy. He rejected the Ptolemaic model and instead argued for a strictly concentric model of the universe. He wrote the following criticism on the Ptolemaic model of planetary motion:[46]

Averroes rejected the eccentric deferents introduced by Ptolemy. He rejected the Ptolemaic model and instead argued for a strictly concentric model of the universe.

"To assert the existence of an eccentric sphere or an epicyclic sphere is contrary to nature. [...] The astronomy of our time offers no truth, but only agrees with the calculations and not with what exists." Averroes' contemporary, Maimonides, wrote the following on the planetary model proposed by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace): "I have heard that Abu Bakr [Ibn Bajja] discovered a system in which no epicycles occur, but eccentric spheres are not excluded by him. I have not heard it from his pupils; and even if it be correct that he discovered such a system, he has not gained much by it, for eccentricity is likewise contrary to the principles laid down by Aristotle.... I have explained to you that these difficulties do not concern the astronomer, for he does not profess to tell us the existing properties of the spheres, but to suggest, whether correctly or not, a theory in which the motion of the stars and planets is uniform and circular, and in agreement with observation."[47] Ibn Bajjah also proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be made up of many stars but that it appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction in the Earth's atmosphere.[11] Later in the 12th century, his successors Ibn Tufail and Nur Ed-Din Al Betrugi (Alpetragius) were the first to propose planetary models without any equant, epicycles or eccentrics. Their configurations, however, were not accepted due to the numerical predictions of the planetary positions in their models being less accurate than that of the Ptolemaic model,[48] mainly because they followed Aristotle's notion of perfectly uniform circular motion.

Maragha Revolution The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the Maragheh school's revolution against Ptolemaic astronomy. The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the Maragheh observatory and continuing with astronomers from Damascus and Samarkand. Like their Andalusian predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the equant problem and produce alternative configurations to the Ptolemaic model. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with empirical observations.[40] The most important of the Maragha astronomers included Mo'ayyeduddin

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Urdi (d. 1266), Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1201–1274), Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī (d. 1277), Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236–1311), Sadr al-Sharia al-Bukhari (c. 1347), Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375), Ali Qushji (c. 1474), al-Birjandi (d. 1525) and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550).[49] Some have described their achievements in the 13th and 14th centuries as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution", or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance". An important aspect of this revolution included the realization that astronomy should aim to describe the behavior of physical bodies in mathematical language, and should not remain a mathematical hypothesis, which would only save the phenomena. The Maragha astronomers also realized that the Aristotelian view of motion in the universe being only circular or linear was not true, as the Tusi-couple showed that linear motion could also be produced by applying circular motions only.[50] Unlike the ancient Greek and Hellenistic astronomers who were not concerned with the coherence between the mathematical and physical principles of a planetary theory, Islamic astronomers insisted on the need to match the mathematics with the real world surrounding them,[51] which Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī resolved significant gradually evolved from a reality based on Aristotelian physics to one based problems in the Ptolemaic system with the Tusi-couple, which later played an on an empirical and mathematical physics after the work of Ibn al-Shatir. The important role in the Copernican model. Maragha Revolution was thus characterized by a shift away from the philosophical foundations of Aristotelian cosmology and Ptolemaic astronomy and towards a greater emphasis on the empirical observation and mathematization of astronomy and of nature in general, as exemplified in the works of Ibn al-Shatir, Qushji, al-Birjandi and al-Khafri.[52] [53] [54] Other achievements of the Maragha school include the first empirical observational evidence for the Earth's rotation on its axis by al-Tusi and Qushji,[55] the separation of natural philosophy from astronomy by Ibn al-Shatir and Qushji,[56] the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than philosophical grounds by Ibn al-Shatir,[40] and the development of a non-Ptolemaic model by Ibn al-Shatir that was mathematically identical to the heliocentric Copernical model.[57] Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (d. 1266) was the first of the Maragheh astronomers to develop a non-Ptolemaic model, and he proposed a new theorem, the "Urdi lemma".[58] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1201–1274) resolved significant problems in the Ptolemaic system by developing the Tusi-couple as an alternative to the physically problematic equant introduced by Ptolemy.[59] Tusi's student Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236–1311), in his The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens, discussed the possibility of heliocentrism. Al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī, who also worked at the Maragheh observatory, in his Hikmat al-'Ain, wrote an argument for a heliocentric model, though he later abandoned the idea.[38]

Ibn al-Shatir's model for the appearances of Mercury, showing the multiplication of epicycles using the Tusi-couple, thus eliminating the Ptolemaic eccentrics and equant.

Cosmology in medieval Islam

Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375) of Damascus, in A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory, incorporated the Urdi lemma, and eliminated the need for an equant by introducing an extra epicycle (the Tusi-couple), departing from the Ptolemaic system in a way that was mathematically identical to what Nicolaus Copernicus did in the 16th century. Unlike previous astronomers before him, Ibn al-Shatir was not concerned with adhering to the theoretical principles of natural philosophy or Aristotelian cosmology, but rather to produce a model that was more consistent with empirical observations. For example, it was Ibn al-Shatir's concern for observational accuracy which led him to eliminate the epicycle in the Ptolemaic solar model and all the eccentrics, epicycles and equant in the Ptolemaic lunar model. His model was thus in better agreement with empirical observations than any previous model,[40] and was also the first that permitted empirical testing.[60] His work thus marked a turning point in astronomy, which may be considered a "Scientific Medieval manuscript by Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi Revolution before the Renaissance".[40] His rectified model was later depicting an epicyclic planetary model. adapted into a heliocentric model by Copernicus,[59] which was mathematically achieved by reversing the direction of the last vector connecting the Earth to the Sun.[40] In the published version of his masterwork, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, Copernicus also cites the theories of al-Battani, Arzachel and Averroes as influences,[61] while the works of Ibn al-Haytham and al-Biruni were also known in Europe at the time. An area of active discussion in the Maragheh school, and later the Samarkand and Istanbul observatories, was the possibility of the Earth's rotation. Supporters of this theory included Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, Nizam al-Din al-Nisaburi (c. 1311), al-Sayyid al-Sharif al-Jurjani (1339–1413), Ali Qushji (d. 1474), and Abd al-Ali al-Birjandi (d. 1525). Al-Tusi was the first to present empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation, using the location of comets relevant to the Earth as evidence, which Qushji elaborated on with further empirical observations while rejecting Aristotelian natural philosophy altogether. Both of their arguments were similar to the arguments later used by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 to explain the Earth's rotation (see Astronomical physics and Earth's motion section below).[55]

Experimental astrophysics and celestial mechanics In the 9th century, the eldest Banū Mūsā brother, Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir, made significant contributions to Islamic astrophysics and celestial mechanics. He was the first to hypothesize that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres are subject to the same laws of physics as Earth, unlike the ancients who believed that the celestial spheres followed their own set of physical laws different from that of Earth.[62] In his Astral Motion and The Force of Attraction, Muhammad ibn Musa also proposed that there is a force of attraction between heavenly bodies,[63] foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation.[64] In the early 11th century, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Maqala fi daw al-qamar (On the Light of the Moon) some time before 1021. This was the first attempt successful at combining mathematical astronomy with physics and the earliest attempt at applying the experimental method to astronomy and astrophysics. He disproved the universally held opinion that the moon reflects sunlight like a mirror and correctly concluded that it "emits light from those portions of its surface which the sun's light strikes." In order to prove that "light is emitted from every point of the moon's illuminated surface," he built an "ingenious experimental device." Ibn al-Haytham had "formulated a clear conception of the relationship between an ideal mathematical model and the complex of observable phenomena; in particular, he was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a

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Cosmology in medieval Islam constant and uniform manner, in an experiment showing that the intensity of the light-spot formed by the projection of the moonlight through two small apertures onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up."[65] Ibn al-Haytham, in his Book of Optics (1021), was also the first to discover that the celestial spheres do not consist of solid matter, and he also discovered that the heavens are less dense than the air. These views were later repeated by Witelo and had a significant influence on the Copernican and Tychonic systems of astronomy.[66] In the 12th century, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi participated in the debate among Islamic scholars over whether the celestial spheres or orbits (falak) are "to be considered as real, concrete physical bodies" or "merely the abstract circles in the heavens traced out year in and year out by the various stars and planets." He points out that many astronomers prefer to see them as solid spheres "on which the stars turn," while others, such as the Islamic scholar Dahhak, view the celestial sphere as "not a body but merely the abstract orbit traced by the stars." Al-Razi himself remains "undecided as to which celestial models, concrete or abstract, most conform with external reality," and notes that "there is no way to ascertain the characteristics of the heavens," whether by "observable" evidence or by authority (al-khabar) of "divine revelation or prophetic traditions." He concludes that "astronomical models, whatever their utility or lack thereof for ordering the heavens, are not founded on sound rational proofs, and so no intellectual commitment can be made to them insofar as description and explanation of celestial realities are concerned."[5] The theologian Adud al-Din al-Iji (1281–1355), under the influence of the Ash'ari doctrine of occasionalism, which maintained that all physical effects were caused directly by God's will rather than by natural causes, rejected the Aristotelian principle of an innate principle of circular motion in the heavenly bodies,[67] and maintained that the celestial spheres were "imaginary things" and "more tenuous than a spider's web".[56]

Astronomical physics and Earth's motion The work of Ali Qushji (d. 1474), who worked at Samarkand and then Istanbul, is seen as a late example of innovation in Islamic theoretical astronomy and it is believed he may have possibly had some influence on Nicolaus Copernicus due to similar arguments concerning the Earth's rotation. Before Qushji, the only astronomer to present empirical evidence for the Earth's rotation was Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (d. 1274), who used the phenomena of comets to refute Ptolemy's claim that a stationary Earth can be determined through observation. Al-Tusi, however, eventually accepted that the Earth was stationary on the basis of Aristotelian cosmology and natural philosophy. By the 15th century, the influence of Aristotelian physics and natural philosophy was declining due to religious opposition from Islamic theologians such as Al-Ghazali who opposed to the interference of Aristotelianism in astronomy, opening up possibilities for an astronomy unrestrained by philosophy. Under this influence, Qushji, in his Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy, rejected Ali Qushji provided empirical evidence for the Aristotelian physics and completely separated natural philosophy from Earth's motion and developed an astronomical astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purely empirical and physics independent from Aristotelian physics and natural philosophy. mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationary Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth. He also observed comets and elaborated on al-Tusi's argument. He took it a step further and concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just

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Cosmology in medieval Islam as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory and that it is not possible to empirically deduce which theory is true.[55] [56] [68] His work was an important step away from Aristotelian physics and towards an independent astronomical physics.[69] Despite the similarity in their discussions regarding the Earth's motion, there is uncertainty over whether Qushji had any influence on Copernicus. However, it is likely that they both may have arrived at similar conclusions due to using the earlier work of al-Tusi as a basis. This is more of a possibility considering "the remarkable coincidence between a passage in De revolutionibus (I.8) and one in Ṭūsī’s Tadhkira (II.1[6]) in which Copernicus follows Ṭūsī’s objection to Ptolemy’s “proofs” of the Earth’s immobility." This can be considered as evidence that not only was Copernicus influenced by the mathematical models of Islamic astronomers, but may have also been influenced by the astronomical physics they began developing and their views on the Earth's motion.[70] In the 16th century, the debate on the Earth's motion was continued by al-Birjandi (d. 1528), who in his analysis of what might occur if the Earth were moving, develops a hypothesis similar to Galileo Galilei's notion of "circular inertia",[71] which he described in the following observational test (as a response to one of Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi's arguments): "The small or large rock will fall to the Earth along the path of a line that is perpendicular to the plane (sath) of the horizon; this is witnessed by experience (tajriba). And this perpendicular is away from the tangent point of the Earth’s sphere and the plane of the perceived (hissi) horizon. This point moves with the motion of the Earth and thus there will be no difference in place of fall of the two rocks."[72]

Notes [1] [2] [3] [4]

Qur'an 2:29 http:/ / qurancomplex. org/ Quran/ Targama/ Targama. asp?L=eng& Page=2 Qur'an:59:22 Kamel Ben Salem (2007), "The Evolution of the Universe: A New Vision" (http:/ / www. akamaiuniversity. us/ pdf/ BenSalem_JAHC_051. pdf), European Journal of Science and Theology, , retrieved 2010-03-19 [5] Adi Setia (2004), "Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on Physics and the Nature of the Physical World: A Preliminary Survey" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0QYQ/ is_2_2/ ai_n9532826/ ), Islam & Science 2, , retrieved 2010-03-02 [6] (Dallal 1999, p. 164) [7] Craig, William Lane (June 1979), "Whitrow and Popper on the Impossibility of an Infinite Past", The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 30 (2): 165–170 [165–6], doi:10.1093/bjps/30.2.165 [8] Mohamed, Mohaini (2000). Great Muslim Mathematicians. Penerbit UTM. pp. 49–50. ISBN 9835201579. OCLC 48759017. [9] Bouali, Hamid-Eddine; Zghal, Mourad; Lakhdar, Zohra Ben (2005). "Popularisation of Optical Phenomena: Establishing the First Ibn Al-Haytham Workshop on Photography" (http:/ / spie. org/ etop/ ETOP2005_080. pdf) (PDF). The Education and Training in Optics and Photonics Conference. . Retrieved 2008-07-08. [10] O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ Biographies/ Al-Biruni. html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, . [11] Josep Puig Montada (September 28, 2007). "Ibn Bajja" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ ibn-bajja). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. . Retrieved 2008-07-11. [12] Table 2.1, p. 25, A history of physical theories of comets, from Aristotle to Whipple, Tofigh Heidarzadeh, Springer, 2008, ISBN 140208322X. [13] Livingston, John W. (1971). "Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation". Journal of the American Oriental Society 91 (1): 96–103 [99]. doi:10.2307/600445. [14] Kepple, George Robert; Glen W. Sanner (1998). The Night Sky Observer's Guide, Volume 1. Willmann-Bell, Inc.. pp. 18. ISBN 0-943396-58-1. [15] "Observatoire de Paris (Abd-al-Rahman Al Sufi)" (http:/ / messier. obspm. fr/ xtra/ Bios/ alsufi. html). . Retrieved 2007-04-19. [16] "Observatoire de Paris (LMC)" (http:/ / messier. obspm. fr/ xtra/ ngc/ lmc. html). . Retrieved 2007-04-19. [17] Taneli Kukkonen (2000), "Possible Worlds in the Tahâfut al-Falâsifa: Al-Ghazâlî on Creation and Contingency", Journal of the History of Philosophy 38 (4): 479–502 [18] Muammer İskenderoğlu (2002), Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī and Thomas Aquinas on the question of the eternity of the world, Brill Publishers, p. 79, ISBN 9004124802 [19] John Cooper (1998), "al-Razi, Fakhr al-Din (1149-1209)" (http:/ / www. muslimphilosophy. com/ ip/ rep/ H044. htm), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Routledge), , retrieved 2010-03-07 [20] (Saliba 1994b, pp. 60 & 67–69)

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Cosmology in medieval Islam [21] Livingston, John W. (1971), "Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation", Journal of the American Oriental Society 91 (1): 96–103, doi:10.2307/600445 [22] Shlomo Pines (1986), Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science, 2, Brill Publishers, pp. viii & 201–17, ISBN 9652236268 [23] Bartel Leendert van der Waerden (1987). "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), 525–545 [534-537]. [24] (Nasr 1993, pp. 135–136) [25] (Sabra 1998, pp. 293–8) [26] (Ragep, Teresi & Hart 2002) [27] (Sabra 1998, p. 300) [28] "Nicolaus Copernicus" (http:/ / setis. library. usyd. edu. au/ stanford/ entries/ copernicus/ index. html), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2004, , retrieved 2008-01-22 [29] (Langermann 1990, pp. 25–34) [30] (Duhem 1969, p. 28) [31] (Rashed 2007) [32] (Rashed 2007, pp. 20 & 53) [33] (Rashed 2007, pp. 33–4) [34] (Rashed 2007, pp. 20 & 32–33) [35] (Rashed 2007, pp. 51–2) [36] (Rashed 2007, pp. 35–6) [37] (Nasr 1993, p. 135, n. 13) [38] (Baker & Chapter 2002) [39] (Marmura 1965) [40] (Saliba 1994b, pp. 233–234 & 240) [41] "Khwarizm" (http:/ / muslimheritage. com/ topics/ default. cfm?ArticleID=482). Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation. . Retrieved 2008-01-22. [42] (Saliba 1980, p. 249) [43] G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, UNESCO. [44] (Saliba 1981, p. 219) [45] Sabra, A. I., "The Andalusian Revolt Against Ptolemaic Astronomy: Averroes and al-Bitrûjî", in Mendelsohn, Everett, Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences: Essays in honor of I. Bernard Cohen, Cambridge University Press, pp. 233–53 [46] Gingerich, Owen (April 1986), "Islamic astronomy" (http:/ / faculty. kfupm. edu. sa/ PHYS/ alshukri/ PHYS215/ Islamic_astronomy. htm), Scientific American 254 (10): 74, , retrieved 2008-05-18 [47] Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy", Isis 63 (1): 39-47 [40-41]. [48] "Ptolemaic Astronomy, Islamic Planetary Theory, and Copernicus's Debt to the Maragha School" (http:/ / www. bookrags. com/ research/ ptolemaic-astronomy-islamic-planeta-scit-021234), Science and Its Times, Thomson Gale, 2005-2006, , retrieved 2008-01-22 [49] (Dallal 1999, p. 171) [50] (Saliba 1994b, pp. 245, 250, 256–257) [51] Saliba, George (Autumn 1999), "Seeking the Origins of Modern Science?" (http:/ / www. riifs. org/ review_articles/ review_v1no2_sliba. htm), BRIIFS 1 (2), , retrieved 2008-01-25 [52] (Saliba 1994b, pp. 42 & 80) [53] Dallal, Ahmad (2001-2002), The Interplay of Science and Theology in the Fourteenth-century Kalam (http:/ / humanities. uchicago. edu/ orgs/ institute/ sawyer/ archive/ islam/ dallal. html), From Medieval to Modern in the Islamic World, Sawyer Seminar at the University of Chicago, , retrieved 2008-02-02 [54] (Huff 2003, pp. 217–8) [55] (Ragep 2001a) [56] (Ragep 2001b) [57] (Saliba 1994b, pp. 254 & 256–257) [58] (Saliba 1979) [59] (Gill 2005) [60] Y. M. Faruqi (2006). "Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise", International Education Journal 7 (4): 395-396. [61] Covington, Richard, "Rediscovering Arabic science", Saudi Aramco World (May-June 2007 ed.), pp. 2–16 [62] (Saliba 1994a, p. 116) [63] Waheed, K. A. (1978), Islam and The Origins of Modern Science, Islamic Publication Ltd., Lahore, p. 27 [64] (Briffault 1938, p. 191) [65] Toomer, G. J. (December 1964), "Review: Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik by Matthias Schramm", Isis 55 (4): 463–465 [463–4], doi:10.1086/349914 [66] (Rosen 1985, pp. 19–20 & 21)

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Cosmology in medieval Islam [67] Huff, Toby (2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West, Cambridge University Press, p. 175, ISBN 0521529948 [68] Edith Dudley Sylla, "Creation and nature", in Arthur Stephen McGrade (2003), pp. 178-179, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521000637. [69] Ragep, F. Jamil (2004), "Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks", Filozofski vestnik XXV (2): 125–142 [139] [70] Ragep, F. Jamil (2004), "Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks", Filozofski vestnik XXV (2): 125–142 [137–9] [71] (Ragep 2001b, pp. 63–4) [72] (Ragep 2001a, pp. 152–3)

References • Ali, Maulana Muhammad, The Holy Qur'an: Text, ISBN 0-913321-11-7 • Baker, A.; Chapter, L. (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences", in Sharif, M. M., "A History of Muslim Philosophy", Philosophia Islamica • Briffault, Robert (1938), The Making of Humanity • Dallal, Ahmad (1999), "Science, Medicine and Technology", in Esposito, John, The Oxford History of Islam, Oxford University Press, New York • Daryabadi, Abdul Majid (1941), The Holy Qur'an, English Translation, 57, Lahore • Duhem, Pierre (1908, 1969), To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo, University of Chicago Press, Chicago • Gill, M. (2005), Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism? (http://www.chowk.com/articles/ 9489), retrieved 2008-01-22 • Huff, Toby (2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521529948 • Langermann, Y. Tzvi, ed. and trans. (1990), Ibn al-Haytham's On the Configuration of the World, Harvard Dissertations in the History of Science, New York: Garland, ISBN 0824000412 • Marmura, Michael E. (1965), "Review: An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina by Seyyed Hossein Nasr", Speculum 40 (4): 744–746, doi:10.2307/2851429 • Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1993), An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines: Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina, State University of New York Press • Nasr, Seyyed H. (1st edition in 1964, 2nd edition in 1993), An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines (2nd ed.), 1st edition by Harvard University Press, 2nd edition by State University of New York Press, ISBN 0791415155 • Pickthall, Marmaduke, The Glorious Qu'ran, ISBN 1-879402-51-3 • Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context", Science in Context (Cambridge University Press) 14 (1-2): 145–163 • Ragep, F. Jamil (2001b), "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science", Osiris, 2nd Series 16 (Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64 & 66–71 • Ragep, F. Jamil; Teresi, Dick; Hart, Roger (2002), Ancient Roots of Modern Science (http://www.npr.org/ templates/story/story.php?storyId=885213), Talk of the Nation (National Public Radio discussion; astronomy is discussed in the first fifteen-minute segment), retrieved 2008-01-22 • Rashed, Roshdi (2007), "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press) 17: 7–55, doi:10.1017/S0957423907000355 • Rosen, Edward (1985), "The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres", Journal of the History of Ideas 46 (1): 13–31, doi:10.2307/2709773 • Sabra, A. I. (1998), "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy", Perspectives on Science 6: 288–330 • Saliba, George (1979), "The First Non-Ptolemaic Astronomy at the Maraghah School", Isis 70 (4): 571–576, doi:10.1086/352344

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Cosmology in medieval Islam • Saliba, George (1980), "Al-Biruni", in Strayer, Joseph, Dictionary of the Middle Ages, 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York • Saliba, George (1981), "Review: Geschichte des arabischen Schriftiums. Band VI: Astronomie bis ca. 430 H by F. Sezgin", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (2): 219–221, doi:10.2307/601763 • Saliba, George (1994a), "Early Arabic Critique of Ptolemaic Cosmology: A Ninth-Century Text on the Motion of the Celestial Spheres", Journal for the History of Astronomy 25: 115–141 • Saliba, George (1994b), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, New York University Press, ISBN 0814780237 • Saliba, George (1999), Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe? (http://www.columbia.edu/ ~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html), Columbia University, retrieved 2008-01-22

External links • The Quran and Cosmology (http://www.alislam.org/library/books/revelation/part_4_section_5.html) • Dr Israr Ahmed (http://islam.islamabad.net/)

Islamic philosophy Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies. It is the continuous search for Hekma (Wisdom) in the light of Islamic view of life, universe, ethics, society, and so on. It is also a longstanding tradition in the compatibility between aql (intellect) and iman (faith).

Introduction Islamic philosophy refers to philosophy produced in an Islamic society. It is not necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor exclusively produced by Muslims. [Oliver Leaman, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]

Formative influences Islamic philosophy as the name implies refers to philosophical activity within the Islamic milieu. The main sources of classical or early Islamic philosophy are the religion of Islam itself (especially ideas derived and interpreted from the Quran), Greek philosophy which the early Muslims inherited as a result of conquests when Alexandria, Syria and Jundishapur came under Muslim rule, along with pre-Islamic Indian philosophy and Iranian philosophy. Many of the early philosophical debates centered around reconciling religion and reason, the latter exemplified by Greek philosophy. One aspect which stands out in Islamic philosophy is that, the philosophy in Islam travels wide but comes back to conform it with the Quran and Sunna.

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Early Islamic philosophy In early Islamic thought, which refers to philosophy during the "Islamic Golden Age", traditionally dated between the 8th and 12th centuries, two main currents may be distinguished. The first is Kalam, that mainly dealt with Islamic theological questions, and the other is Falsafa, that was founded on interpretations of Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. There were attempts by later philosopher-theologians at harmonizing both trends, notably by Ibn Sina (Avicenna) who founded the school of Avicennism, Ibn Rushd (Averroës) who founded the school of Averroism, and others such as Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) and Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,

Kalam Kalām (Arabic: ‫ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﻼﻡ‬‎) is the philosophy that seeks Islamic An Arabic manuscript from the 13th century depicting theological principles through dialectic. In Arabic the word Socrates (Soqrāt) in discussion with his pupils. literally means "speech". One of first debates was that between partisan of the Qadar (Arabic: qadara‎, to have power), who affirmed free will, and the Jabarites (jabar, force, constraint), who believed in fatalism. At the second century of the Hijra, a new movement arose in the theological school of Basra, Iraq. A pupil, Wasil ibn Ata, who was expelled from the school because his answers were contrary to then sunni tradition and became leader of a new school, and systematized the radical opinions of preceding sects, particularly those of the Qadarites and Jabarites. This new school was called Mutazilite (from i'tazala, to separate oneself). The Mutazilites, compelled to defend their principles against the sunni Islam of their day, looked for support in philosophy, and are one of the first to pursue a rational theology called Ilm-al-Kalam (Scholastic theology); those professing it were called Mutakallamin. This appellation became the common name for all seeking philosophical demonstration in confirmation of religious principles. But subsequent generations were to large extent critical towards the Mutazilite school, especially after formation of the Asharite concepts. More simply put Kalam means duties of the heart as opposed to (or in conjunction with) fikh duties of the body. Theology verses jurisprudence.[1]

Falsafa Falsafa is a Greek loan word meaning "philosophy". "Science" is the Latin word for "philosophy". Divisions of the Philosophic Sciences These sciences, in relation to the aim we have set before us, may be divided into six, sections:[2] (1) Mathematics (2) Logic (3) Physics (The object of this science is the study of the bodies which compose the universe: the sky and the stars, and, here below, simple elements such as air, earth, water, fire, and compound bodies animals, plants, and minerals; the reasons of their changes, developments, and intermixture.) also includes medicine. (4) Metaphysics (5) Politics (6) Moral Philosophy (ethics)

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Islamic philosophy From the ninth century onward, owing to Caliph al-Ma'mun and his successor, Greek philosophy was introduced among the Arabs, and the Peripatetic school began to find able representatives among them; such were Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Ibn Rushd (Averroës), all of whose fundamental principles were considered as criticized by the Mutakallamin. Another trend, represented by the Brethren of Purity, used Aristotelian language to expound a fundamentally Neoplatonic and Neopythagorean world view. During the Abbasid caliphate a number of thinkers and scientists, some of them heterodox Muslims or non-Muslims, played a role in transmitting Greek, Hindu, and other pre-Islamic knowledge to the Christian West. They contributed to making Aristotle known in Christian Europe. Three speculative thinkers, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and al-Kindi, combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam. From Spain Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew and Latin, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy.

Some differences between Kalam and Falsafa Aristotle attempted to demonstrate the unity of God; but from the view which he maintained, that matter was eternal, it followed that God could not be the Creator of the world. According to Aristotelianism, the human soul is simply man's substantial form, the set of properties that make matter into a living human body.[3] This seems to imply that the human soul cannot exist apart from the body. Indeed, Aristotle writes, "It is clear that the soul, or at least some parts of it (if it is divisible), cannot be separated from the body. [...] And thus, those have the right idea who think that the soul does not exist without the body."[4] In Aristotelianism, at least one psychological force, the active intellect, can exist apart from the body.[5] However, according to many interpretations, the active intellect is a superhuman entity emanating from God and enlightening the human mind, not a part of any individual human soul.[6] [7] Thus, Aristotle's theories seem to deny the immortality of the individual human soul. Wherefore the Mutakallamin had, before anything else, to establish a system of philosophy to demonstrate the creation of matter, and they adopted to that end the theory of atoms as enunciated by Democritus. They taught that atoms possess neither quantity nor extension. Originally atoms were created by God, and are created now as occasion seems to require. Bodies come into existence or die, through the aggregation or the sunderance of these atoms. But this theory did not remove the objections of philosophy to a creation of matter. For, indeed, if it be supposed that God commenced His work at a certain definite time by His "will," and for a certain definite object, it must be admitted that He was imperfect before accomplishing His will, or before attaining His object. In order to obviate this difficulty, the Motekallamin extended their theory of the atoms to Time, and claimed that just as Space is constituted of atoms and vacuum, Time, likewise, is constituted of small indivisible moments. The creation of the world once established, it was an easy matter for them to demonstrate the existence of a Creator, and that God is unique, omnipotent, and omniscient.

Main protagonists of Falsafa and their critics The twelfth century saw the apotheosis of pure philosophy and the decline of the Kalam, which latter, being attacked by both the philosophers and the orthodox, perished for lack of champions. This supreme exaltation of philosophy may be attributed, in great measure, to Al-Ghazali (1005–1111) among the Persians, and to Judah ha-Levi (1140) among the Jews. It can be argued that the attacks directed against the philosophers by Ghazali in his work, "Tahafut al-Falasifa" (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), not only produced, by reaction, a current favorable to philosophy, but induced the philosophers themselves to profit by his criticism. They thereafter made their theories clearer and their logic closer. The influence of this reaction brought forth the two greatest philosophers that the Islamic Peripatetic school ever produced, namely, Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) and Ibn Rushd (Averroës). Since no idea and no literary or philosophical movement ever germinated on Persian or Arabian soil without leaving its impress on the Jews, the Persian Ghazali found an imitator in the person of Judah ha-Levi. This poet also took upon himself to free his religion from what he saw as the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to this end wrote

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Islamic philosophy the "Kuzari," in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike. He passes severe censure upon the Mutakallamin for seeking to support religion by philosophy. He says, "I consider him to have attained the highest degree of perfection who is convinced of religious truths without having scrutinized them and reasoned over them" ("Kuzari," v.). Then he reduced the chief propositions of the Mutakallamin, to prove the unity of God, to ten in number, describing them at length, and concluding in these terms: "Does the Kalam give us more information concerning God and His attributes than the prophet did?" (Ib. iii. and iv.) Aristotelianism finds no favor in Judah ha-Levi's eyes, for it is no less given to details and criticism; Neoplatonism alone suited him somewhat, owing to its appeal to his poetic temperament. Ibn Rushd or Ibn Roshd (Averroës), the contemporary of Maimonides, was one of the last of the Islamic Peripatetics. The theories of Ibn Rushd do not differ fundamentally from those of Ibn Bajjah and Ibn Tufail, who only follow the teachings of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi. Like all Islamic Peripatetics, Ibn Rushd admits the hypothesis of the intelligence of the spheres and the hypothesis of universal emanation, through which motion is communicated from place to place to all parts of the universe as far as the supreme world—hypotheses which, in the mind of the Arabic philosophers, did away with the dualism involved in Aristotle's doctrine of pure energy and eternal matter. But while Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and other Persian and Muslim philosophers hurried, so to speak, over subjects that trenched on traditional beliefs, Ibn Rushd delighted in dwelling upon them with full particularity and stress. Thus he says, "Not only is matter eternal, but form is potentially inherent in matter; otherwise, it were a creation ex nihilo" (Munk, "Mélanges," p. 444). According to this theory, therefore, the existence of this world is not only a possibility, as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) declared, but also a necessity. Islamic philosophy found an audience with the Jews, to whom belongs the honor of having transmitted it to the Christian world. A series of eminent men—such as the Ibn Tibbons, Narboni, Gersonides—joined in translating the Arabic philosophical works into Hebrew and commenting upon them. The works of Ibn Rushd especially became the subject of their study, due in great measure to Maimonides, who, in a letter addressed to his pupil Joseph ben Judah, spoke in the highest terms of Ibn Rushd's commentary. It should be mentioned that this depiction of intellectual tradition in Islamic Lands is mainly dependent upon what West could understand and received (or was willing to understand) from this long era. In contrast, there are some historians and philosophers who do not agree with this account and describe this era in a completely different way. Their main point of dispute is on the influence of different philosophers on Islamic Philosophy, especially the comparative importance of eastern intellectuals such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and of western thinkers such as Ibn Rushd. (For more discussion, refer to the History of Islamic Philosophy by Henry Corbin.)

Judeo-Islamic philosophies The oldest Jewish religio-philosophical work preserved in Arabic is that of Saadia Gaon (892-942), Emunot ve-Deot, "The Book of Beliefs and Opinions". In this work Saadia treats the questions that interested the Mutakallamin, such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc. Saadia criticizes other philosophers severely. For Saadia there was no problem as to creation: God created the world ex nihilo, just as the Bible attests; and he contests the theory of the Mutakallamin in reference to atoms, which theory, he declares, is just as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of the philosophers professing the eternity of matter. To prove the unity of God, Saadia uses the demonstrations of the Mutakallamin. Only the attributes of essence (sifat al-dhatia) can be ascribed to God, but not the attributes of action (sifat-al-fi'aliya). The soul is a substance more delicate even than that of the celestial spheres. Here Saadia controverts the Mutakallamin, who considered the soul an "accident" 'arad (compare Guide for the Perplexed i. 74), and employs the following one of their premises to justify his position: "Only a substance can be the substratum of an accident" (that is, of a non-essential property of things). Saadia argues: "If the soul be an accident only, it can itself have no such accidents as wisdom, joy, love," etc. Saadia was thus in every way a supporter of the Kalam; and if at times he deviated from its doctrines, it was owing to his religious views.

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Islamic philosophy From the ninth century onward, owing to Caliph al-Ma'mun and his successor, Greek philosophy was introduced among the Persians and Arabs, and the Peripatetic school began to find able representatives among them; such were Al-Kindi, Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Ibn Rushd (Averroës), all of whose fundamental principles were considered as criticized by the Mutakallamin. Another trend, represented by the Brethren of Purity, used Aristotelian language to expound a fundamentally Neoplatonic and Neopythagorean world view. During the Abbasid caliphate a number of thinkers and scientists, some of them heterodox Muslims or non-Muslims, played a role in transmitting Greek, Hindu, and other pre-Islamic knowledge to the Christian West. They contributed to making Aristotle known in Christian Europe. Three speculative thinkers, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and al-Kindi, combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam. From Spain Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew and Latin, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy.

Later Islamic philosophy The death of Ibn Rushd (Averroës) effectively marks the end of a particular discipline of Islamic philosophy usually called the Peripatetic Arabic School, and philosophical activity declined significantly in western Islamic countries, namely in Islamic Spain and North Africa, though it persisted for much longer in the Eastern countries, in particular Iran and India. Contrary to the traditional view, Dimitri Gutas and the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy consider the period between the 11th and 14th centuries to be the true "Golden Age" of Arabic and Islamic philosophy, initiated by Al-Ghazali's successful integration of logic into the Madrasah curriculum and the subsequent rise of Avicennism.[8] Since the political power shift in Western Europe (Spain and Portugal) from Muslim to Christian control, the Muslims naturally did not practice philosophy in Western Europe. This also led to some loss of contact between the 'west' and the 'east' of the Islamic world. Muslims in the 'east' continued to do philosophy, as is evident from the works of Ottoman scholars and especially those living in Muslim kingdoms within the territories of present day Iran and India, such as Shah Waliullah and Ahmad Sirhindi. This fact has escaped most pre-modern historians of Islamic (or Arabic) philosophy. In addition, logic has continued to be taught in religious seminaries up to modern times. After Ibn Rushd, there arose many later schools of Islamic Philosophy. We can mention just a few, such as the those founded by Ibn Arabi and Mulla Sadra. These new schools are of particular importance, as they are still active in the Islamic world. The most important among them are: • • • •

School of Illumination (Hikmat al-Ishraq) Transcendent Theosophy (Hikmat Muta'aliah) Sufi philosophy Traditionalist School

Illuminationist school Illuminationist philosophy was a school of Islamic philosophy founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi in the 12th century. This school is a combination of Avicenna's philosophy and ancient Iranian philosophy, with many new innovative ideas of Suhrawardi. It is often described as having been influenced by Neoplatonism. In logic in Islamic philosophy, systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the Illuminationist school, founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155-1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation.[9]

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Transcendent school Transcendent Theosophy is the school of Islamic philosophy founded by Mulla Sadra in the 17th century. His philosophy and ontology is considered to be just as important to Islamic philosophy as Martin Heidegger's philosophy later was to Western philosophy in the 20th century. Mulla Sadra bought "a new philosophical insight in dealing with the nature of reality" and created "a major transition from essentialism to existentialism" in Islamic philosophy, several centuries before this occurred in Western philosophy.[10] The idea of "essence precedes existence" is a concept which dates back to Ibn Sina (Avicenna)[11] and his school of Avicennism as well as Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi[12] and his Illuminationist philosophy. The opposite idea of "Existence precedes essence" was thus developed in the works of Averroes[11] and Mulla Sadra[13] as a reaction to this idea and is a key foundational concept of existentialism. For Mulla Sadra, "existence precedes the essence and is thus principle since something has to exist first and then have an essence." This is primarily the argument that lies at the heart of Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Theosophy. Sayyid Jalal Ashtiyani later summarized Mulla Sadra's concept as follows:[14] "The existent being that has an essence must then be caused and existence that is pure existence ... is therefore a Necessary Being." More careful approaches are needed in terms of thinking about philosophers (and theologians) in Islam in terms of phenomenological methods of investigation in ontology (or onto-theology), or by way of comparisons that are made with Heidegger's thought and his critique of the history of metaphysics.[15]

Logic Al-Ghazali's successful integration of logic into the Madrasah curriculum in the 11th century led to increased activity in logic, mainly focusing on Avicennian logic.[8] Ibn Hazm (994-1064) wrote the Scope of Logic, in which he stressed on the importance of sense perception as a source of knowledge.[9] Al-Ghazali (Algazel) (1058–1111) had an important influence on the use of logic in theology, making use of Avicennian logic in Kalam.[16] Despite the logical sophistication of al-Ghazali, the rise of the Ash'ari school in the from the 12th century slowly suffocated original work on logic in much of the Islamic world, though logic continued to be studied in some Islamic regions such as Persia and the Levant. Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (b. 1149) criticised Aristotle's "first figure" and developed a form of inductive logic, foreshadowing the system of inductive logic developed by John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). Systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the Illuminationist school, founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155–1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation.[9] Another systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328), the Ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin (Refutation of Greek Logicians), where he argued against the usefulness, though not the validity, of the syllogism[17] and in favour of inductive reasoning.[9]

Philosophy of history The first detailed studies on the subject of historiography and the first critiques on historical methods appeared in the works of the Arab Ash'ari polymath Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), who is regarded as the father of historiography, cultural history,[18] and the philosophy of history, especially for his historiographical writings in the Muqaddimah (Latinized as Prolegomena) and Kitab al-Ibar (Book of Advice).[19] His Muqaddimah also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,[20] and he discussed the rise and fall of civilizations. Franz Rosenthal wrote in the History of Muslim Historiography: "Muslim historiography has at all times been united by the closest ties with the general development of scholarship in Islam, and the position of historical knowledge in MusIim education has exercised a decisive

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influence upon the intellectual level of historicai writing....The Muslims achieved a definite advance beyond previous historical writing in the sociological understanding of history and the systematisation of historiography. The development of modern historical writing seems to have gained considerably in speed and substance through the utilization of a Muslim Literature which enabled western historians, from the seventeenth century on, to see a large section of the world through foreign eyes. The Muslim historiography helped indirectly and modestly to shape present day historical thinking."[21]

Social philosophy The most famous social philosopher was the Ash'ari polymath Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), who was the last major Islamic philosopher from North Africa. In his Muqaddimah, he developed the earliest theories on social philosophy, in formulating theories of social cohesion and social conflict. His Muqaddimah was also the introduction to a seven volume analysis of universal history. He is considered the "father of sociology", "father of historiography", and "father of the philosophy of history", for being the first to discuss the topics of sociology, historiography and the philosophy of history in detail.

Contemporary Islamic philosophy The tradition of Islamic Philosophy is still very much alive today despite the belief in many Western circles that this tradition ceased after the golden ages of Suhrawardi's Hikmat al-Ishraq (Illumination Philosophy) or, at the latest, Mulla Sadra's Hikmat-e-Mota'aliye or Transcendent (Exalted) Philosophy. Another unavoidable name is Allama Muhammad Iqbal who reshaped and revitalized Islamic philosophy amongst the Muslims of the Indian sub-continent in the early 20th century [22]. Beside his Urdu and Persian poetical work, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam [23] is a milestone in the modern political philosophy of Islam. In contemporary Islamic Lands, the teaching of hikmat or hikmah has continued and flourished. • Ayatullah Ruhollah Khomeini, founder of the Islamic Rebublic of Iran, was a famous teacher of the philosophical school of Hikmat-ul-Mutaliya. Before the victory of the Islamic Revolution, he was one of the few who formally taught philosophy at the Religious Seminary at Qum.

Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938), a notable Muslim philosopher, poet and scholar from (then British India)

• the Iranian ‫ ﻋﻼﻣﻪ ﻃﺒﺎﻃﺒﺎﺋﻰ‬or Allameh Tabatabaei, the author of numerous works including the twenty seven-volume Quranic commentary al-Mizan (‫)ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺰﺍﻥ‬, • Buya Hamka or Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amirullah was a prominent Indonesian author, ulema politician, philosophical thinker, and author of Tafir Al Azhar. He was head of Indonesian mufti council(MUI). He resigned when his fatwa for moslem to do not celebrate Christmas condemned by Suharto regime.Not just as a scholar and a writer in his country, but he was also highly appreciated in Malaysia and Singapore. • Murtaza Motahhari, the best student of Allamah Tabatabai, a martyr of the Iran Islamic Revolution; and author of numerous books (an incomplete compilation of his works consists of 25 volumes). He, like his teachers Allama Tabatabai and Ayatullah Khomeini, belong to the philosophical schools of Hikmat-ul-Mutaliya • Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, who is credited with creating modern Islamist political thought in the 20th century, was the founder of "Jamaat e Islami" and spent his life in attempting to revive the Islamic Intellectual Tradition.

Islamic philosophy • Muhammad Hamidullah (February 9, 1908 - December 17, 2002) belonged to a family of scholars, jurists, writers and sufis. He was a world-renowned scholar of Islam and International Law from India, who was known for contributions to the research of the history of Hadith, translations of the Koran, the advancement of Islamic learning, and to the dissemination of Islamic teachings in the Western world. • Fazlur Rahman was professor of Islamic thought at the University of Chicago • Wahid Hasyim first Indonesian minister of religious affair. Former head of Indonesian Nahdwatul Ulema, and founder of Islamic state universities in Indonesia. His most renowed idea is reformation of Madrasah curriculum. • Seyyed Hossein Nasr. • Imran Nazar Hosein.- Author of Jerusalem in the Quran • Javed Ahmad Ghamidi is a well-known Pakistani Islamic scholar, exegete, and educator. A former member of the Jamaat-e-Islami, who extended the work of his tutor, Amin Ahsan Islahi. • In Malaysia, Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas is a prominent metaphysical thinker.; • In Southern/South East Europe the teachings of the skeptic Al-Ibn Theodorakis have found considerable favour.

Criticism Philosophy as such has not been without criticism amongst Muslims, both contemporary and past. The imam Hanbali, for whom the Hanbali school of thought is named, rebuked philosophical discussion, once telling proponents of it that he was secure in his religion, but that they were "in doubt, so go to a doubter and argue with him (instead)."[24] Today, Islamic philosophical thought has also been criticized by scholars of the modern Salafi movement. There would be many Islamic thinkers who were not as enthusiastic about its potential. But it would be incorrect to assume that they opposed philosophy simply because it was a "foreign science". Oliver Leaman, an expert on Islamic philosophy, points out that the objections of notable theologians are rarely directed at philosophy itself, but rather at the conclusions the philosophers arrived at. Even al-Ghazali, who is famous for his critique of the philosophers, was himself an expert in philosophy and logic. And his criticism was that they arrived at theologically erroneous conclusions. The three most serious of these, in his view, were believing in the co-eternity of the universe with God, denying the bodily resurrection, and asserting that God only has knowledge of abstract universals, not of particular things (but it should be noted that not all philosophers subscribed to these same views).[25] In recent studies by Muslim contemporary thinkers that aim at 'renewing the impetus of philosophical thinking in Islam', Nader El-Bizri offers a critical analysis of the conventions of methodology and historiography that dominate the mainstream academic and epistemic approaches in studying 'Islamic philosophy' from 'archival' standpoints, within Oriental and Mediaevalist Studies, which fail to recognize the fact that 'philosophy in Islam' can still be a living intellectual tradition, and that its renewal requires a radical reform in ontology and epistemology within Islamic thought.[26]

Further reading 1. Corbin, Henry (April 1993). History of Islamic Philosophy. Liadain Sherrard (trans). London and New York: Kegan Paul International. ISBN 0-710-30416-1. 2. History of Islamic Philosophy (Routledge History of World Philosophies) by Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman [ed.] 3. History of Islamic Philosophy by Majid Fahkry 4. Islamic Philosophy by Oliver Leaman http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/H057 5. The Study of Islamic Philosophy by Ibrahim Bayyumi Madkour 6. Falsafatuna (Our Philosophy) by Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr

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External links • • • • • • • • • • •

Philosophy in Oxford Islamic Studies Online [27] Islamic Ethics and Philosophy Dictionary [28] Islamic Philosophy Online [29] In the Footsteps of Averroes - The Reformist Islamic Thinker Muhammad Shahrur by Loay Mudhoon [30] History of Philosophy in Islam [31] by T. J. De Boer(1903) The Study of Islamic Philosophy [32] Islamic Philosophy From the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy [33] Can the Islamic Intellectual Heritage Be Recovered? [34] History of Islamic philosophy [35] by Henry Corbin, part one History of Islamic philosophy [36] by Henry Corbin, part two The Parables of Sophism - Islam Redefined Through Western Philosophy [37]

References [1] Wolfson, Harry Austryn (1976). The philosophy of the Kalam (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fuv8J-g7EdAC& pg=PA1). Harvard University Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 9780674665804. . Retrieved 28 May 2011. [2] "The Confessions of al-Ghazli # Divisions of the phiosophic sciences" (http:/ / en. wikisource. org/ wiki/ The_Confessions_of_al-Ghazali#Divisions_of_the_Philosophic_Sciences). . Retrieved 28 May 2011. [3] Anthony Kenny, Aquinas on Mind (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 24, 26, 28 [4] De Anima 413a4-5; 414a19-20 [5] "This intellect is separate, unaffected, and unmixed [...] In separation, it is just what it is, and this alone is immortal and eternal" (De Anima 430a18, 23-24). [6] Medieval Philosophy, ed. John Marenbon (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 54 [7] Timothy Robinson, Aristotle in Outline (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1995) p. 51 [8] Tony Street (July 23, 2008). "Arabic and Islamic Philosophy of Language and Logic" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ arabic-islamic-language). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. . Retrieved 2008-12-05. [9] Science and Muslim Scientists (http:/ / www. islamherald. com/ asp/ explore/ science/ science_muslim_scientists. asp), Islam Herald [10] Kamal, Muhammad (2006). Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. pp. 9 & 39. ISBN 0754652718. [11] Irwin, Jones (Autumn 2002). "Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam". The Philosopher LXXXX (2). [12] (Razavi 1997, p. 129) [13] (Razavi 1997, p. 130) [14] (Razavi 1997, pp. 129–30) [15] For recent studies that engage in this line of research with care and thoughtful deliberation, see: Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000); and Nader El-Bizri, 'Avicenna and Essentialism', Review of Metaphysics 54 (2001), 753-778; and Nader El-Bizri, 'Avicenna's De Anima Between Aristotle and Husserl', in The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003), 67-89 [16] ""The Canon of Medicine" (work by Avicenna)" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ topic-92902/ The-Canon-of-Medicine). Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. . Retrieved 2008-06-11. [17] See pp. 253–254 of Street, Tony (2005). "Logic". In Peter Adamson and Richard C. Taylor (edd.). The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 247–265. ISBN 9780521520690. [18] Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", Islam & Science 5 (1), p. 61-70. [19] S. Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569. [20] H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1. [21] Historiography (http:/ / members. tripod. com/ ~salems2/ historiography. htm). The Islamic Scholar. [22] http:/ / www. allamaiqbal. com/ [23] http:/ / www. allamaiqbal. com/ works/ prose/ english/ reconstruction/ [24] al-Hilyah (6/324) [25] Leaman, O. (1999). A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy Polity Press. p21. [26] Nader El-Bizri, 'The Labyrinth of Philosophy in Islam', Comparative Philosophy 1.2 (2010), 3-23 -- See also references above in this section of the footnotes to some of El-Bizri's other related earlier studies. [27] http:/ / www. oxfordislamicstudies. com/ article/ opr/ t125/ e1854?_hi=4& _pos=1 [28] http:/ / majalla. org/ souaiaia/ ethics/ dictionary/ index. htm [29] http:/ / www. muslimphilosophy. com/

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http:/ / www. qantara. de/ webcom/ show_article. php/ _c-478/ _nr-882/ i. html http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ isl/ hpi/ index. htm http:/ / www. al-islam. org/ al-tawhid/ study-philosophy. htm http:/ / www. muslimphilosophy. com/ ip/ rep. htm http:/ / www. academicinfoshare. com/ cantheislamicintellectualberecovered. htm http:/ / www. amiscorbin. com/ textes/ anglais/ Hist_Iran_Phil_Corbin_part_I. pdf http:/ / www. amiscorbin. com/ textes/ anglais/ Hist_Iran_Phil_Corbin_p2. pdf http:/ / alifba. tv/ learnarabic/ index. php/ islam-resources. html

Islamic art Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by or ruled by culturally Islamic populations.[1] The huge field of Islamic architecture is the subject of a separate article, leaving fields as varied as calligraphy, painting, glass, ceramics, and textiles, among others. Islamic art is not at all restricted to religious art, but includes all the art of the rich and varied cultures of Islamic societies as well. It frequently includes secular elements and Arabesque inlays at the Mughal Agra Fort elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, by some Islamic theologians.[2] Apart from the ever-present calligraphic inscriptions, specifically religious art is actually less prominent in Islamic art than in Western medieval art, with the exception of Islamic architecture where mosques and their complexes of surrounding buildings are the most common remains. Figurative 18th-century Ottoman levha, or calligraphic painting may cover religious scenes, but panel, which depicts the Shi'i phrase "Ali is the normally in essentially secular contexts such vicegerent of God" (Arabic ‫ )ﻋﻠﻲ ﻭﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ‬in as the walls of palaces or illuminated books obverse and reverse, creating an exact mirror of poetry. The calligraphy and decoration of image. manuscript Qu'rans is an important aspect, but other religious art such as glass mosque lamps and other mosque fittings such as tiles, woodwork and carpets usually have the same style and motifs as contemporary secular art, although with religious inscriptions even more prominent.

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"Islamic art developed from many sources: Roman, Early Christian art, and Byzantine styles were taken over in early Islamic art and architecture; the influence of the Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia was of paramount significance; Central Asian styles were brought in with various nomadic incursions; and Chinese influences had an formative effect on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles."[3] Though the whole concept of "Islamic art" has been criticised by some modern art historians, the similarities between art produced at widely different times and places in the Islamic world have been sufficient to keep the term in wide use by scholars. There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the arabesque. The arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of God.[4] Mistakes in repetitions may be intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believes only God can produce perfection, although this theory is disputed.[5] [6] [7]

Embroidered panel, 18th to 19th century, from the Caucasus, possibly Karabagh. These colorful textiles of the Caucasus region were a domestic art made for home use and local commerce, and may have inspired the better-known Caucasian rugs made for export. Textile Museum collections.

Typically, though not entirely, Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns and Arabic calligraphy, rather than on figures, because it is feared by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is idolatry and thereby a sin against God, forbidden in the Qur'an. Human portrayals can be found in all eras of Islamic art, above all in the more private form of miniatures, where their absence is rare. Human representation for the purpose of worship is considered idolatry and is duly forbidden in Islamic law, known as Sharia law. There are also many depictions of Muhammad, Islam's chief prophet, in historical Islamic art.[8] [9] Small decorative figures of animals and humans, especially if they are hunting the animals, are found on secular pieces in many media from many periods, but portraits were slow to develop.

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Calligraphy Calligraphic design is omnipresent in Islamic art, where, as in Europe in the Middle Ages, religious exhortations, including Qur'anic verses, may be included in secular objects, especially coins, tiles and metalwork, and most painted miniatures include some script, as do many buildings. Other inscriptions include verses of poetry, and inscriptions recording ownership or donation. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts, which can be found adorning and enhancing the visual appeal of the walls and domes of buildings, the sides of minbars, and metalwork.[4] East Persian pottery from the 9th to 11th centuries decorated only with highly stylised inscriptions, called "epigraphic ware", has been described as "probably the most refined and sensitive of all Persian pottery".[10] Large inscriptions made from tiles, sometimes with the letters raised in relief, or the background cut away, are found on the interiors and exteriors of many important buildings. Complex carved calligraphy also decorates Part of a 15th century ceramic panel from Samarkand with arabesque buildings. For most of the Islamic period the majority background of coins only showed lettering, which are often very elegant despite their small size and nature of production. The tughra or monogram of an Ottoman sultan was used extensively on official documents, with very elaborate decoration for important ones. Other single sheets of calligraphy, designed for albums, might contain short poems, Qu'ranic verses, or other texts. The main languages, all using Arabic script, are Arabic, always used for Qu'ranic verses, Persian in the Persianate world, especially for poetry, and Turkish, with Urdu appearing in later centuries. Calligraphers usually had a higher status than other artists.

Painting Although there has been a tradition of wall-paintings, especially in the Persianate world, the best-surviving and highest developed form of painting in the Islamic world is the miniature in illuminated manuscripts, or later as a single page for inclusion in a muraqqa or bound album of miniatures and calligraphy. The tradition of the Persian miniature has been dominant since about the 13th century, strongly influencing the Ottoman miniature of Turkey and the Mughal miniature in India. Miniatures were especially an art of the court, and because they were not seen in public, constraints on the depiction of the human figure were much more relaxed, and indeed miniatures often contain great numbers of small figures, and from the 16th century portraits of single ones.

Scene from the Khamsa of Nizami, Persian, 1539-43

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The largest commissions were usually classics of Persian poetry such as the epic Shahnameh, although the Mughals and Ottomans both produced lavish manuscripts of more recent history with the autobiographies of the Mughal emperors, and more purely military chronicles of Turkish conquests. Portraits of rulers developed in the 16th century, and later in Persia, then becoming very popular. Mughal portraits, normally in profile, are very finely drawn in a realist style, while the best Ottoman ones are vigorously stylized. Album miniatures typically featured picnic scenes, portraits of individuals or (in India especially) animals, or idealized youthful beauties of either sex. Chinese influences included the early adoption of the vertical format natural to a book, which led to the development of a birds-eye view where a very carefully depicted background of hilly landscape or palace buildings rises up to leave only a small area of sky. The figures are arranged in different planes on the background, with recession (distance from the viewer) indicated by placing more distant figures higher up in the space, but at essentially the same size. The colours, which are often very well preserved, are strongly contrasting, bright and clear. The tradition reached a climax in the 16th and early 17th centuries, but continued until the early 19th century, and has been revived in the 20th.

Rugs and carpets Further information: rug and Persian carpet

Oriental

No Islamic artistic product has become better known outside the Islamic world than the pile carpet, more commonly referred to as the Oriental carpet From the yarn fiber to the colors, every part of the Persian rug is traditionally hand made (oriental rug). Their versatility is from natural ingredients over the course of many months. utilized in everyday Islamic and Muslim life, from floor coverings to architectural enrichment, from cushions to bolsters to bags and sacks of all shapes and sizes, and to religious objects (such as a prayer rug, which would provide a clean place to pray). They have been a major export to other areas since the late Middle Ages, used to cover not only floors but tables, for long a widespread European practice that is now common only in the Netherlands. Carpet weaving is a rich and deeply embedded tradition in Islamic societies, and the practice is seen in large city factories as well as in rural communities and nomadic encampments. In earlier periods, special establishments and workshops were in existence that functioned directly under court patronage.[11] Very early Islamic carpets, which means before the 16th century, are extremely rare, indeed more have survived in the West, and oriental carpets in Renaissance painting from Europe are a major source of information on them, as they were valuable imports that were painted accurately.[12] The most natural and easy designs for a carpet weaver to produce consist of straight lines and edges, and the earliest Islamic carpets to survive or be shown in paintings have geometric designs, or centre on very stylized animals, made up in this way. Since the flowing loops and curves of the arabesque are central to Islamic art, the interaction and tension between these two styles was long a major feature of carpet design.

Corner of a 16th century Persian carpet

There are a few survivals of the grand Egyptian 16th century carpets, including one almost as good as new discovered in the attic of the Pitti Palace in Florence, whose complex patterns of octagon roundels and stars, in just a few colours, shimmer before the viewer.[13] Production of this style of carpet began under the Mamluks but continued after the Ottomans conquered Egypt.[14] The other sophisticated tradition was the Persian carpet which

Islamic art reached its peak in the 16th and early 17th century in works like the Ardabil Carpet and Coronation Carpet; during this century the Ottoman and Mughal courts also began to sponsor the making in their domains of large formal carpets, evidently with the involvement of designers used to the latest court style in the general Persian tradition. These use a design style shared with non-figurative Islamic illumination and other media, often with a large central gul motif, and always with wide and strongly demarcated borders. The grand designs of the workshops patronized by the court spread out to smaller carpets for the merely wealthy and for export, and designs close to those of the 16th and 17th centuries are still produced in large numbers today. The description of older carpets has tended to use the names of carpet-making centres as labels, but often derived from the design rather than any actual evidence that they originated from around that centre. Research has clarified that designs were by no means always restricted to the centre they are traditionally associated with, and the origin of many carpets remains unclear. As well as the major Persian, Turkish and Arab centres, carpets were also made across Central Asia, in India, and in Spain and the Balkans. Spanish carpets, which sometimes interrupted typical Islamic patterns to include coats of arms, enjoyed high prestige in Europe, being commissioned by royalty and for the Papal Palace, Avignon, and the industry continued after the Reconquista.[15] Armenian carpet-weaving is mentioned by many early sources, and may account for a much larger proportion of East Turkish and Caucasian production than traditionally thought. The Berber carpets of North Africa have a distinct design tradition. Apart from the products of city workshops, in touch with trading networks that might carry the carpets to markets far away, there was also a large and widespread village and nomadic industry producing work that stayed closer to traditional local designs. As well as pile carpets, kelims and other types of flat-weave or embroidered textiles were produced, for use on both floors and walls. Figurative designs, sometimes with large human figures, are very popular in Islamic countries but relatively rarely exported to the West, where abstract designs are generally what the market expects.

Ceramics Islamic art has very notable achievements in ceramics, both in pottery and tiles for walls, which in the absence of wall-paintings were taken to heights unmatched by other cultures. Early pottery is often unglazed, but tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics, originating from 9th century Iraq.[16] The first industrial complex for glass and pottery production was built in Ar-Raqqah, Syria, in the 8th century.[17] Other centers for innovative pottery in the Islamic world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), 10th century dish, East Persia or Central Asia Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550).[18] Lusterwares with iridescent colours may have continued pre-Islamic Roman and Byzantine techniques, but were either invented or considerably developed on pottery and glass in Persia and Syria from the 9th century onwards.[19] Islamic pottery was often influenced by Chinese ceramics, whose achievements were greatly admired and emulated.[20] This was especially the case in the periods after the Mongol invasions and those of the Timurids. Techniques, shapes and decorative motifs were all affected. Until the Early Modern period Western ceramics had very little influence, but Islamic pottery was very sought after in Europe, and often copied. An example of this is the albarello, a type of maiolica earthenware jar originally designed to hold apothecaries' ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of pharmacy jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. Hispano-Moresque examples were exported to Italy, stimulating the earliest Italian examples, from 15th century Florence.

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The Hispano-Moresque style emerged in Al-Andaluz or Muslim Spain in the 8th century, under Egyptian influence, but most of the best production was much later, by potters presumed to have been largely Muslim but working in areas reconquered by the Christian kingdoms. It mixed Islamic and European elements in its designs, and much was exported across neighbouring European countries. It had introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Ottoman İznik pottery produced most of the best work in the 16th century, in tiles and large Tiled exterior of the Friday Mosque of Herat, vessels boldly decorated with floral motifs influenced, once again, by Afghanistan Chinese Yuan and Ming ceramics. These were still in earthenware; there was no porcelain made in Islamic countries until modern times, though Chinese porcelain was imported and admired.[21] The medieval Islamic world also had pottery with painted animal and human imagery. Examples are found throughout the medieval Islamic world, particularly in Persia and Egypt.[22]

Tiling The earliest grand Islamic buildings, like the Dome of the Rock, in Jerusalem had interior walls decorated with mosaics in the Byzantine style, but without human figures. From the 9th century onwards the distinctive Islamic tradition of glazed and brightly coloured tiling for interior and exterior walls and domes developed. Some earlier schemes create designs using mixtures of tiles each of a single colour that are either cut to shape or are small and of a few shapes, used to create abstract geometric patterns. Later large painted schemes use tiles painted before firing with a part of the scheme - a technique requiring confidence in the consistent results of firing. Some elements, especially the letters of inscriptions, may be moulded in three dimensional relief, and in especially in Persia certain tiles in a Wall-tile from Kashan ca. 1270-75, with a Chinese-influenced dragon, decorated with relief design may have figurative painting of animals or single human moulding and lustre glazes. figures. These were often part of designs mostly made up of tiles in plain colours but with larger fully painted tiles at intervals. The larger tiles are often shaped as eight-pointed stars, and may show animals or a human head or bust, or plant or other motifs. The geometric patterns, such as modern North African zellige work, made of small tiles each of a single colour but different and regular shapes, are often referred to as "mosaic", which is not strictly correct. The Mughals made much less use of tiling, preferring (and being able to afford) "parchin kari", a type of pietra dura decoration from inlaid panels of semi-precious stones, with jewels in some cases. This can be seen at the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort and other imperial commissions. The motifs are usually floral, in a simpler and more realistic style than Persian or Turkish work, relating to plants in Mughal miniatures.

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Glass For most of the Middle Ages Islamic glass was the most sophisticated in Eurasia, exported to both Europe and China. Islam took over much of the traditional glass-producing territory of Sassanian and Ancient Roman glass, and since figurative decoration played a small part in pre-Islamic glass, the change in style is not abrupt, except that the whole area initially formed a political whole, and, for example, Persian innovations were now almost immediately taken up in Egypt. For this reason it is often impossible to distinguish between the various centres of production, of which Egypt, Syria and Persia were the most important, except by scientific analysis of the material, which itself has difficulties.[23] From various documentary references glassmaking and glass trading seems to have been a speciality of the Jewish minority in several centres.[24] Between the 8th and early 11th centuries the emphasis in luxury glass is on effects achieved by "manipulating the surface" of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief.[25] The very massive Hedwig glasses, only found in Europe, but normally considered Islamic (or possibly from Muslim craftsmen in Norman Sicily), are an example of this, though puzzlingly late in date.[26] These and other glass pieces probably represented cheaper versions of vessels of carved rock crystal (clear quartz), themselves influenced by earlier glass vessels,[27] and there is some evidence that at this period glass and hardstone cutting were regarded as the same craft.[28] From the 12th century the industry in Persia and Mesopotamia appears to decline, and the main production of luxury glass shifts to Egypt and Syria, and decorative effects of colour on smooth surfaced glass.[29] Throughout the period local centres made simpler wares such as Hebron glass in Palestine. "The Luck of Edenhall", a 13th century Syrian beaker, in England since the Middle Ages.

Lustre painting, by techniques similar to lustreware in pottery, dates back to the 8th century in Egypt, and became widespread in the 12th century. Another technique was decoration with threads of glass of a different colour, worked into the main surface, and sometimes manipulated by combing and other effects. Gilded, painted and enamelled glass were added to the repertoire, and shapes and motifs borrowed from other media, such as pottery and metalwork. Some of the finest work was in mosque lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man. As decoration grew more elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it "often has a brownish-yellow tinge, and is rarely free from bubbles".[30] Aleppo seems to have ceased to be a major centre after the Mongol invasion of 1260, and Timur appears to have ended the Syrian industry about 1400 by carrying off the skilled workers to Samarkand. By about 1500 the Venetians were receiving large orders for mosque lamps.[31]

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Metalwork Medieval Islamic metalwork offers a complete contrast to its European equivalent, which is dominated by modelled figures and brightly coloured decoration in enamel, some pieces entirely in precious metals. In contrast surviving Islamic metalwork consists of practical objects mostly in bronze, brass and steel, with simple, but often monumental, shapes, and surfaces highly decorated with dense decoration in a variety of techniques, but colour mostly restricted to inlays of gold, silver or black niello. The use of drinking and eating vessels in gold and silver, the ideal in ancient Rome and Persia as well as medieval Christian societies, is prohibited by the Hadiths, as was the wearing of gold rings.[32] One thing Islamic metalworkers shared with European ones was high social status compared to other artists and craftsmen, and many larger pieces are signed. Islamic work includes some three-dimensional animal figures as fountainheads or aquamaniles, but only one significant enamelled object is known, using Byzantine cloisonne techniques.[33] The Pisa Griffin is the largest surviving bronze animal, probably from 11th century Al-Andaluz. More common objects given elaborate Mughal dagger with hilt in jade, gold, rubies and emeralds. Blade decoration include massive low candlesticks and of damascened steel inlaid with gold. lamp-stands, lantern lights, bowls, dishes, basins, buckets [34] (these probably for the bath), and ewers, as well as caskets, pen-cases and plaques. Ewers and basins were brought for hand-washing before and after each meal, so are often lavishly treated display pieces. Specialized objects include knives, arms and armour (always of huge interest to the elite) and scientific instruments such as astrolabes, as well as jewellery. Decoration is typically densely packed and very often includes arabesques and calligraphy, sometimes naming an owner and giving a date.[35]

Other applied arts Very high levels of achievement were reached in other materials, including, hardstone carvings and jewellery, ivory carving, textiles and leatherwork. In the Middle Ages Islamic work in these fields was highly valued in other parts of the world, and often traded outside the Islamic zone. Apart from miniature painting and calligraphy, other arts of the book are decorative illumination, the only type found in Qu'ran manuscripts, and Islamic book covers, which are often highly decorative in luxury manuscripts, using either the geometric motifs found in illumination, or sometimes figurative images probably drawn for the craftsmen by miniature painters. Materials include coloured, tooled and stamped leather and lacquer over paint.[36]

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Ottoman marquetry and tile-top table, about 1560

169 Egyptian carving of rock crystal into vessels appears in the late 10th century, and virtually disappears after about 1040. There are a number of these vessels in the West, which apparently came on the market after the Cairo palace of the Fatimid Caliph was looted by his mercenaries in 1062, and were snapped up by European buyers, mostly ending up in church treasuries. From later periods, especially the hugely wealthy Ottoman and Mughal courts, there are a considerable number of very lavish objects carved in semi-precious stones, with little surface decoration, but inset with jewels. Such objects may have been made in earlier periods, but very few have survived.[37]

Older wood carving is typically relief or pierced work on flat objects for architectural use, such as screens, doors, roofs, beams and friezes. An important exception are the complex muqarnas and mocárabe designs giving roofs and other architectural elements a stalactite-like appearance. These are often in wood, sometimes painted on the wood but often plastered over before painting; the examples at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain are among the best known. Traditional Islamic furniture, except for chests, tended to be covered with cushions, with cupboards rather than cabinets for storage, but there are some pieces, including a low round (strictly twelve-sided) table of about 1560 from the Ottoman court, with marquetry inlays in light wood, and a single huge ceramic tile or plaque on the tabletop.[38] The very fine inlays typical of Ottoman court furniture may have developed from styles and techniques used in weapons and musical instruments, for which the finest craftsmanship available was used.[39] There are also intricately decorated caskets and chests from various periods. A spectacular and famous (and far from flat) roof was one of the Islamic components of the 12th century Norman Cappella Palatina in Palermo, which picked from the finest elements of Catholic, Byzantine and Islamic art. Other famous wooden roofs are in the Alhambra in Granada. Ivory carving centred on the Mediterranean, spreading from Egypt, where a thriving Coptic industry had been inherited; Persian ivory is rare. The normal style was a deep relief with an even surface; some pieces were painted. Spain specialized in caskets and round boxes, which were probably used to keep jewels and perfumes. They were produced mainly in the approximate period 930-1050, and widely Ivory with traces of paint, 11th–12th century, Egypt exported. Many pieces are signed and dated, and on court pieces the name of the owner is often inscribed; they were typically gifts from a ruler. As well as a court workshop, Cordoba had commercial workshops producing goods of slightly lower quality. In the 12th and 13th century workshops in Norman Sicily produced caskets, apparently then migrating to Granada and elsewhere after persecution. Egyptian work tended to be in flat panels and friezes, for insertion into woodwork and probably furniture - most are now detached from their settings. Many were calligraphic, and others continued Byzantine traditions of hunting scenes, with backgrounds of arabesques and foliage in both cases.[40]

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Despite Hadithic sayings against the wearing of silk, the Byzantine and Sassanian traditions of grand figured silk woven cloth continued under Islam. Some designs are calligraphic, especially when made for palls to cover a tomb, but more are surprisingly conservative versions of the earlier traditions, with many large figures of animals, especially majestic symbols of power like the lion and eagle. These are often enclosed in roundels, as found in the pre-Islamic traditions. The majority of early silks have been recovered from tombs, and in Europe reliquaries, where the relics were often wrapped in silk. European clergy and nobility were keen buyers of Islamic silk from an early date and, for example, the body of an early bishop of Toul in France was wrapped in a silk from the Bukhara area in modern Uzbekistan, Ilkhanid piece in silk, cotton and gold, Iran or Iraq, early 14th century probably when the body was reburied in 820.[41] The Shroud of St Josse is a famous samite cloth from East Persia, which originally had a carpet-like design with two pairs of confronted elephants, surrounded by borders including rows of camels and an inscription in Kufic script, from which the date appears to be before 961.[42] Other silks were used for clothes, hangings, altarcloths, and church vestments, which have nearly all been lost, except for some vestments. Ottoman silks were less exported, and the many surviving royal kaftans have simpler geometric patterns, many featuring stylized "tiger-stripes" below three balls or circles. Other silks have foliage designs comparable to those on Iznik pottery or carpets, with bands forming ogival compartments a popular motif. Some designs begin to show Italian influence. By the 16th century Persian silk was using smaller patterns, many of which showed relaxed garden scenes of beautiful boys and girls from the same world as those in contemporary album miniatures, and sometimes identifiable scenes from Persian poetry. A 16th century circular ceiling for a tent, 97 cm across, shows a continuous and crowded hunting scene; it was apparently looted by the army of Suleiman the Magnificent in his invasion of Persia in 1543-45, before being taken by a Polish general at the Siege of Vienna in 1683. Mughal silks incorporate many Indian elements, and often feature relatively realistic "portraits" of plants, as found in other media.[43]

History of Islamic art The beginnings of Islamic art Before the Dynasties The period of a rapid expansion of the Islamic era forms a reasonably accurate beginning for the label of Islamic art. Early geographical boundaries of the Islamic culture were in present-day Syria. It is quite difficult to distinguish the earliest Islamic objects from their predecessors in Persian or Sassanid and Byzantine art, and the conversion of the mass of the population, including artists, took a significant period, sometimes centuries, after the initial Muslim conquest. There was, notably, a significant production of unglazed ceramics, witnessed by a famous small bowl preserved in the Louvre, whose inscription assures its attribution to the Islamic period. Plant motifs were the most important in these early productions. Influences from the Sassanian artistic tradition include the image of the king as a warrior and the lion as a symbol of nobility and virility. Bedouin tribal traditions mixed with the more sophisticated styles of the conquered territories. For an initial period coins had human figures in the Byzantine and Sassanian style, perhaps to reassure users of their continued value, before the Islamic style with lettering only took over.

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Umayyad art Religious and civic architecture were developed under the Umayyads, when new concepts and new plans were put into practice. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture, marked by a strong Byzantine influence (mosaic against a gold background, and a central plan that recalls that of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), but already bearing purely Islamic elements, such as the great epigraphic frieze. The desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for example, Mshatta, Qasr Amra, and Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated, including some wall-paintings, to promote an image of royal luxury.

Mosaics from the riwaq (portico) of the Great Mosque of Damascus.

Work in ceramics was still somewhat primitive (unglazed) during this period. Some metal objects have survived from this time, but it remains rather difficult to distinguish these objects from those of the pre-Islamic period. 'Abd al-Malik introduced standard coinage that featured Arabic inscriptions, instead of images of the monarch. The quick development of a localized coinage around the time of the Dome of the Rock's construction demonstrates the reorientation of Umayyad acculturation. This period saw the genesis of a particularly Islamic art. In this period, Umayyad artists and artisans did not invent a new vocabulary, but began to prefer those received from Mediterranean and Iranian late antiquity, which they adapted to their own artistic conceptions. For example, the mosaics in the Great Mosque of Damascus are based on Byzantine models, but replace the figurative elements with images of trees and cities. The desert palaces also bear witness to these influences. By combining the various traditions that they had inherited, and by readapting motifs and architectural elements, artists created little by little a typically Muslim art, particularly discernible in the aesthetic of the arabesque, which appears both on monuments and in illuminated Qur'ān. Abbasid art The Abbasid dynasty (750 A.D.- 1258[44] ) witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, and then from Baghdad to Samarra. The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. Art historian Robert Hillenbrand (1999) likens the movement to the foundation of an "Islamic Rome", because the meeting of Eastern influences from Iranian, Eurasian steppe, Chinese, and Indian sources created a new paradigm for Islamic art. Classical forms inherited from Byzantine Europe and Greco-Roman sources were discarded in favor of those drawn from the new Islamic hub. Even the design of the city of Baghdad placed it in the "navel of the world," as 9th-century historian al-Ya'qubi wrote.[45]

Luster-ware bowl from Susa, 9th century, today in the Louvre.

The ancient city of Baghdad cannot be excavated well, as it lies beneath the modern city. However, Samarra has been well studied, and is known for its extensive cultivation of the art of stucco. Motifs known from the stucco at Samarra permit the dating of structures built elsewhere, and are furthermore found on portable objects, particular in wood, from Egypt through to Iran. Samarra witnessed the "coming of age" of Islamic art. Polychrome painted stucco allowed for experimentation in new styles of moulding and carving. The Abbasid period also coincided with two major innovations in the ceramic arts: the invention of faience, and of metallic lusterware. Hadithic prohibition of the use of golden or silver vessels

Islamic art led to the development of metallic lusterware in pottery, which was made by mixing sulphur and metallic oxides to ochre and vinegar, painted onto an already glazed vessel and then fired a second time. It was expensive, and difficult to manage the second round through the kiln, but the need to replace fine Chinese pottery led to the development of this technique.[46] Though the common perception of Abbasid artistic production focuses largely on pottery, the greatest development of the Abbasid period was in textiles. Government-run workshops known as tiraz produced silks bearing the name of the monarch, allowing for aristocrats to demonstrate their loyalty to the ruler. Other silks were pictorial. The utility of silk-ware in wall decor, entrance adornment, and room separation were not as important as their cash value along the "silk route". Calligraphy began to be used in surface decoration on pottery during this period. Illuminated Qur'ans gained attention, letter-forms now more complex and stylized to the point of slowing down the recognition of the words themselves.[47]

The medieval period (9th–15th centuries) Beginning in the 9th century, Abbasid sovereignty was contested in the provinces furthest removed from the Iraqi center. The creation of a Shi'a dynasty, that of the north African Fatimids, followed by the Umayyads in Spain, gave force to this opposition, as well as small dynasties and autonomous governors in Iran. Spain and the Arab Maghreb The first Islamic dynasty to establish itself in Spain (or al-Andalus) was that of the Spanish Umayyads. As their name indicates, they were descended from the great Umayyads of Syria. After their fall, the Spanish Umayyads were replaced by various autonomous kingdoms, the taifas (1031–91), but the artistic production from this period does not differ significantly from that of the Umayyads. At the end of the 11th century, two Berber tribes, the Almoravids and the Almohads, captured the head of the Maghreb and Spain, successively, bringing Maghrebi influences into art. A series of military victories by Christian monarchs had reduced Islamic Spain by the end of the 14th century to the city of Granada, ruled by the Nasirid dynasty, who managed to maintain their hold until 1492. Al-Andalus was a great cultural center of the Middle Ages. Besides the great universities, which taught philosophies and sciences yet unknown in Christendom (such as those of Averroes), the territory was an equally vital center for art. Many techniques were employed in the manufacture of objects. Ivory Pyxis of al-Mughira, Madinat al-Zahra, Spain, 968. was used extensively for the manufacture of boxes and caskets. The pyxis of al-Mughira is a masterwork of the genre. In metalwork, large sculptures in the round, normally rather scarce in the Islamic world, served as elaborate receptacles for water or as fountain spouts. A great number of textiles, most notably silks, were exported: many are found in the church treasuries of Christendom, where they served as covering for saints’ reliquaries. From the periods of Maghrebi rule one may also note a taste for painted and sculpted woodwork. The art of north Africa is not as well studied. The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties are characterized by a tendency toward austerity, for example in mosques with bare walls. Nevertheless, luxury arts continued to be produced in great quantity. The Marinid and Hafsid dynasties developed an important, but poorly understood, architecture, and a

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significant amount of painted and sculpted woodwork. Arab Mashriq The Fatamid dynasty, which reigned in Egypt from 909 and 1171 introduced crafts and knowledge from politically troubled Baghdad to Cairo. By the year 1070 the Seljuks emerged as the dominant political force in the Muslim world after they liberated Baghdad and defeated the Byzanties at Manzikert, during the rule of Malik Shah the Seljuks excelled in arcetecture at the same time in Syria, the atabegs (governors of Seljuk princes) assumed power. Quite independent, they capitalized on conflicts with the Frankish crusaders. In 1171, Saladin Detail of the "Baptistère de Saint-Louis," c. 1300, seized Fatimid Egypt, and installed the transitory Ayyubid dynasty on a Mamluk basin. the throne. This period is notable for innovations in metallurgy and the widespread manufacture of the Damascus steel swords and daggers and the production ceramics, glass and metalwork of a high quality were produced without interruption, and enameled glass became another important craft. In 1250 the Mamluks seized control of Egypt from the Ayyubids, and by 1261 had managed to assert themselves in Syria as well their most famous ruler was Baibars. The Mamluks were not, strictly speaking, a dynasty, as they did not maintain a patrilineal mode of succession; in fact, Mamluks were freed Turkish and Caucasian slaves, who (in theory) passed the power to others of like station. This mode of government persevered for three centuries, until 1517, and gave rise to abundant architectural projects (many thousands of buildings were constructed during this period), while patronage of luxury arts favored primarily enameled glass and metalwork, and is remembered as the golden age of medieval Egypt. The "Baptistère de Saint-Louis" in the Louvre is an example of the very high quality of metalwork at this period. Iran and Central Asia In Iran and the north of India, the Tahirids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, and Ghurids struggled for power in the 10th century, and art was a vital element of this competition. Great cities were built, such as Nishapur and Ghazni, and the construction of the Great Mosque of Isfahan (which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated. Funerary architecture was also cultivated, while potters developed quite individual styles: kaleidoscopic ornament on a yellow ground; or marbled decorations created by allowing colored glazes to run; or painting with multiple layers of slip under the glaze. The Seljuqs, nomads of Turkic origin from present-day Mongolia, appeared on the stage of Islamic history toward the end of the 10th century. They seized Baghdad in 1048, before dying out in 1194 in Iran, although the production of “Seljuq” works continued through the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th century under the auspices of smaller, independent sovereigns and patrons. During their time, the center of culture, politics and art production shifted from Damascus and Baghdad to Merv, Nishapur, Rayy, and Isfahan, all in Iran.[48] Bibi-Khanym Mosque, Samarkand, Uzbekistan, built by Timur in 1399.

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Popular patronage expanded because of a growing economy and new urban wealth. Inscriptions in architecture tended to focus more on the patrons of the piece. For example, sultans, viziers or lower ranking officials would receive often mention in inscriptions on mosques. Meanwhile, growth in mass market production and sale of art made it more commonplace and accessible to merchants and professionals.[49] Because of increased production, many relics have survived from the Seljuk era and can be easily dated. In contrast, the dating of earlier works is more ambiguous. It is, therefore, easy to mistake Seljuk art as new developments rather than inheritance from classical Iranian and Turkic sources.[50] Innovations in the ceramic arts that date to this period include the production of minai ware and the manufacture of vessels, not out of clay, but out of a silicon paste (“frit-ware”), while metalworkers began to encrust bronze with precious metals. Across the Seljuk era, from Iran to Iraq, a unification of book painting can be seen. These paintings have animalistic figures that convey strong symbolic meaning of fidelity, treachery, and courage.[51] In the 13th century the Mongols, under the leadership of Genghis Khan, swept through the Islamic world. Upon the death of Genghis Khan, his empire was divided among his sons and many dynasties were thus formed: the Yuan in China, the Ilkhanids in Iran, and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and southern Russia. The Ilkhanids A rich civilization developed under these “little khans,” who were originally subservient to the Yuan emperor, but rapidly became independent. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary, and retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north-south orientation of the buildings. At the same time a process of “iranisation” took place, and construction according to previously established types, such as the “Iranian plan” mosques, was resumed. The art of the Persian book was also born under this dynasty, and was encouraged by aristocratic patronage of large manuscripts such as the Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani. New techniques in ceramics appeared, such as the lajvardina (a variation on luster-ware), and Chinese influence is perceptible in all arts. The Golden Horde and the Timurids Iskandar at the talking tree, from an Ilkhanid

The early arts of the nomads of the Golden Horde are poorly Shahnameh, ca. 1330-1340, Smithsonian. understood. Research is only beginning, and evidence for town planning and architecture has been discovered. There was also a significant production of works in gold, which often show a strong Chinese influence. Much of this work is preserved today in the Hermitage.

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175 The beginning of the third great period of medieval Iranian art, that of the Timurids , was marked by the invasion of a third group of nomads, under the direction of Timur. During the 15th century this dynasty gave rise to a golden age in Persian manuscript painting, including renowned painters such as Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, but also a multitude of workshops and patrons. Syria, Iraq, and Anatolia

The Seljuq Turks pushed beyond Iran into Anatolia, winning a victory over the Byzantine Empire in the Battle of Manzikert (1071), and setting up a sultanate independent of the Iranian branch of the dynasty. Their power seems largely to have waned following the Mongol invasions in 1243, but coins were struck under their name until 1304. Architecture and objects synthesized various styles, both Iranian and Syrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions difficult. The art of woodworking was cultivated, and at least one illustrated manuscript Yusuf and Zulaikha (Joseph chased by Potiphar's dates to this period. Caravanserais dotted the major trade routes across wife), miniature by Behzād, 1488. the region, placed at intervals of a day's travel. The construction of these caravanserai inns improved in scale, fortification, and replicability. Also, they began to contain central mosques. The Turkmen, nomads who settled in the area of Lake Van, were responsible for a number of mosques, such as the Blue Mosque in Tabriz, and they had a decisive influence after the fall of the Anatolian Seljuqs. Starting in the 13th century, Anatolia was dominated by small Turkmen dynasties, which progressively chipped away at Byzantine territory. Little by little a major dynasty emerged, that of the Ottomans, who, after 1450, are referred to as the “first Ottomans.” Patronage was exercised primarilyso be seen as the forerunners of Ottoman art, in particular the “Milet” ceramics and the first blue-and-white Anatolian works. Islamic book painting witnessed its first golden age in the thirteenth century, mostly from Syria and Iraq. Influence from Byzantine visual vocabulary (blue and gold coloring, angelic and victorious motifs, symbology of drapery) combined with Mongoloid facial types in 12th-century book frontispieces. Earlier coinage necessarily featured Arabic epigraphs, but as Ayyubid society became more cosmopolitan and multi-ethnic, coinage began to feature astrological, figural (featuring a variety of Greek, Seleucid, Byzantine, Sasanian, and contemporary Turkish rulers' busts), and animal images. Hillenbrand suggests that the medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat, copied and illustrated by Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti were some of the earliest "coffee table books." They were among the first texts to hold up a mirror to daily life in Islamic art, portraying humorous stories and showing little to no inheritance of pictorial tradition.[52] South Asia The Indian subcontinent, some northern parts of which conquered by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in the 9th century, did not become autonomous until 1206, when the Muizzi, or slave-kings, seized power, marking the birth of the Delhi Sultanate. Later other competing sultanates were founded in Bengal, Kashmir, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Malwa, and in the north Deccan (the Bahmanids). They separated themselves little by little from Persian traditions, giving birth to an original approach to architecture and urbanism, marked in particular by interaction with Hindu art. Study of the production of objects has hardly begun, but a lively art of manuscript illumination is known. The period of the sultanates ended with the arrival of the Mughals, who progressively seized their territories.

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The Three Empires Ottomans The Ottoman Empire, whose origins lie in the 14th century, continued in existence until shortly after World War I. This impressive longevity, combined with an immense territory (stretching from Anatolia to Tunisia), led naturally to a vital and distinctive art, including plentiful architecture, mass production of ceramics for both tiles and vessels, most notably Iznik ware, important metalwork and jewellery, Turkish paper marbling Ebru, Turkish carpets as well as tapestries and exceptional Ottoman miniatures and decorative Ottoman illumination. Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two “books of festivals,” one dating from the end of the 16th century, and the other from the era of Sultan Murad III. These books contain numerous illustrations and exhibit a strong Safavid influence; thus they may have been inspired by books captured in the course of the Ottoman-Safavid wars of the 16th century.

Section of 16th century İznik pottery tile panel

The Ottomans are also known for their development of a bright red pigment, “Iznik red,” in ceramics, which reached their height in the 16th century, both in tile-work and pottery, using floral motifs that were considerably trasformed from their Chinese and Persian models. From the 18th century Ottoman art came under considerable European influence, the Turks adopting versions of Rococo which had a lasting and not very beneficial effect, leading to over-fussy decoration. Mughals The Mughal Empire in India lasted from 1526 until (technically) 1858, although from the late 17th century power flowed away from the emperors to local rulers, and later European powers, above all the British Raj, who were the main power in India by the late 18th century. The period is most notable for luxury arts of the court, and Mughal styles heavily influenced local Hindu and later Sikh rulers as well. The Mughal miniature began by importing Persian artists, especially a group brought back by Humayun when in exile in Safavid Persia, but soon local artists, many Hindu, were trained in the style. Realistic portraiture, and images of animals and plants, was developed in Mughal art beyond what the Persians had so far achieved, and the size of miniatures increased, sometimes onto canvas. The Mughal court had The Emperor Jahangir receiving his two sons, an access to European prints and other art, and these had increasing album-painting of c 1605-06 influence, shown in the gradual introduction of aspects of Western graphical perspective, and a wider range of poses in the human figure. Some Western images were directly copied or borrowed from. As the courts of local Nawabs developed, distinct provincial styles with stronger influence from traditional Indian painting developed in both Muslim and Hindu princely courts. The arts of jewelry and hardstone carving of gemstones, such as jasper, jade, adorned with rubies, diamonds and emeralds are mentioned by the Mughal chronicler Abu'l Fazl, and a range of examples survive; the series of hard stone daggers in the form of horses’ heads is particularly impressive.

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The Mughals were also fine metallurgists they introduced Damascus steel and refined the locally produced Wootz steel, the Mughals also introduced the "bidri" technique of metalwork in which silver motifs are pressed against a black background. Famous Mughal metallurgists like Ali Kashmiri and Muhammed Salih Thatawi created the seamless celestial globes. Safavids and Qajars The Iranian Safavids, a dynasty stretching from 1501 to 1786, is distinguished from the Mughal and Ottoman Empires, and earlier Persian rulers, in part through the Shi'a faith of its shahs, which they succeeded in making the majority denomination in Persia. Ceramic arts are marked by the strong influence of Chinese porcelain, often executed in blue and white. Architecture flourished, attaining a high point with the building program of Shah Abbas in Isfahan, which included numerous gardens, palaces (such as Ali Qapu), an immense bazaar, and a large imperial mosque. Entrance to Sheykh Lotfollah mosque, Naqsh-e Jahan Square, Isfahan

The art of manuscript illumination also achieved new heights, in particular in the Shah Tahmasp Shahnameh, an immense copy of Ferdowsi’s poem containing more than 250 paintings. In the 17th century a new type of painting develops, based around the album (muhaqqa). The albums were the creations of conoisseurs who bound together single sheets containing paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists, sometimes excised from earlier books, and other times created as independent works. The paintings of Reza Abbasi figure largely in this new art of the book, depicting one or two larger figures, typically idealized beauties in a garden setting, often using the grisaille techniques previously used for border paintings for the background. After the fall of the Safavids, the Qajars, a Turkmen tribe established from centuries on the banks of the Caspian Sea, assumed power. Qajar art displays an increasing European influence, as in the large oil paintings portraying the Qajar shahs. Steelwork also assumed a new importance. Like the Ottomans, the Qajar dynasty survived until 1925, a few years after the First World War.

Indonesian Batik The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth owed much to Islam. The religious prohibition on certain images encouraged batik design to become more abtstract and intricate. Realistic depictions of animals and humans are now rare on traditional batik, but puppet-shaped humans, dragons, and the Garuda of Hindu mythology are all commonplace. Therefore, although its existence in Indonesia pre-dates Islam, batik reached its high point in the royal Muslim courts such as Mataram and Yogyakarta.

Javanese court batik, in typical reddish-brown colour, from Indonesia.

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Modern period

Complex Mosaic patterns also known as Girih are popular forms of architectural art in many Muslim cultures.

From the 15th century the number of smaller Islamic courts began to fall, as the Ottoman Empire, and later the Safavids and European powers, swallowed them up; this had an effect on Islamic art, which was usually strongly led by the patronage of the court. From at least the 18th century onwards, elite Islamic art was increasingly influenced by European styles, and in the applied arts either largely adopted Western styles, or ceased to develop, retaining whatever style was prevalent at some point in the late 18th or early 19th centuries. Many industries with very long histories, such as pottery in Iran, largely closed, while others, like metalwork in brass, became generally frozen in style, with much of their production going to tourists or exported as oriental exotica. The carpet industry has remained large, but mostly uses designs that originated before 1700, and competes with machine-made imitations both locally and around the world. Arts and crafts with a broader social base, like the zellige mosaic tiles of the Mahgreb, have often survived better. Islamic countries have developed modern and contemporary art, with very vigorous art worlds in some countries, but the degree to which these should be grouped in a special category as "Islamic art" is questionable, although many artists deal with Islam-related themes, and use traditional elements such as calligraphy.

Moroccan zellige work

Notes Art history series

Prehistoric art Ancient art history Western art history Eastern art history Islamic art history Western painting

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179 History of painting Art history History of art

[1] Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghausen and Oleg Grabar, 2001, Islamic Art and Architecture: 650-1250, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08869-4, p.3; Brend, 10 [2] Davies, Penelope J.E. Denny, Walter B. Hofrichter, Frima Fox. Jacobs, Joseph. Roberts, Ann M. Simon, David L. Janson's History of Art, Prentice Hall; 2007, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Severth Edition, ISBN 0-13-193455-4 pg. 277 [3] "MSN Encarta: Islamic Art and architecture" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5kwrZY56V). Archived from the original (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761577725/ Islamic_Art_and_Architecture. html) on 2009-10-31. . [4] Madden (1975), pp.423-430 [5] Thompson, Muhammad; Begum, Nasima. "Islamic Textile Art: Anomalies in Kilims" (http:/ / www. turkotek. com/ salon_00101/ salon. html). Salon du Tapis d'Orient. TurkoTek. . Retrieved 25 August 2009. [6] Alexenberg, Melvin L. (2006). The future of art in a digital age: from Hellenistic to Hebraic consciousness. Intellect Ltd. p. 55. ISBN 1841501360. [7] Backhouse, Tim. "Only God is Perfect" (http:/ / www. geometricdesign. co. uk/ perfect. htm). Islamic and Geometric Art. . Retrieved 25 August 2009. [8] The Arab Contribution to Islamic Art: From the Seventh to the Fifteenth Centuries (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rpUuqLPPKK4C& dq=wijdan& printsec=frontcover& source=web& ots=QXySmKzsy6& sig=a9V6tTTfsrTT5Ex01QGnwrL7XYY), Wijdan Ali, American Univ in Cairo Press, December 10, 1999, ISBN 977-424-476-1 [9] From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art (http:/ / www2. let. uu. nl/ solis/ anpt/ EJOS/ pdf4/ 07Ali. pdf), Wijdan Ali, EJOS (Electronic Journal of Oriental Studies) (http:/ / www2. let. uu. nl/ Solis/ anpt/ ejos/ EJOS-1. html), volume IV, issue 7, p. 1-24, 2001 [10] Arts, p. 223. see nos. 278-290 [11] Davies, Penelope J.E. Denny, Walter B. Hofrichter, Frima Fox. Jacobs, Joseph. Roberts, Ann M. Simon, David L. Janson's History of Art, Prentice Hall; 2007, Upper Saddle, New Jersey. Seventh Edition, ISBN 0-13-193455-4 pg. 298 [12] King and Sylvester, throughout, but 9-28, 49-50, & 59 in particular [13] King and Sylvester, 27, 61-62, as "The Medici Mamluk Carpet" [14] King and Sylvester, 59-66, 79-83 [15] King and Sylvester: Spanish carpets: 11-12, 50-52; Balkans: 77 and passim [16] Mason (1995), p. 5 [17] Henderson, J.; McLoughlin, S. D.; McPhail, D. S. (2004). "Radical changes in Islamic glass technology: evidence for conservatism and experimentation with new glass recipes from early and middle Islamic Raqqa, Syria". Archaeometry 46 (3): 439–68. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2004.00167.x [18] Mason (1995), p. 7 [19] Arts, 206-207 [20] See Rawson throughout; Canby, 120-123, and see index; Jones & Mitchell, 206-211 [21] Savage, 175, suggests that the Persians had made some experiments towards producing it, and the earliest European porcelain, Medici porcelain, was made in the late 16th century, perhaps with a Persian or Levantine assistant on the team. [22] Baer, Eva (1983). Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art. State University of New York Press. pp. 58, 86, 143, 151, 176, 201, 226, 243, 292, 304. ISBN 0873956028 [23] Arts, 131, 135. The Introduction (pp. 131-135) is by Ralph Pinder-Wilson, who shared the catalogue entries with Waffiya Essy. [24] Encyclopaedia Judaica, "Glass", Online version (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ judaica/ ejud_0002_0007_0_07392. html) [25] Arts, 131-133 [26] Arts, 131, 141 [27] Arts, 141 [28] Endnote 111 in Roman glass: reflections on cultural change (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=ONUFZfcEkBgC& pg=RA1-PA88& dq=Islamic+ glass+ Jewish& hl=en& ei=CRdUTcrcFYHQhAepnb2vCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=8& ved=0CFMQ6AEwBw#v=onepage& q=Islamic glass Jewish& f=false), Fleming, Stuart. see also endnote 110 for Jewish glassworkers [29] Arts, 131, 133-135 [30] Arts, 131-135, 141-146; quote, 134 [31] Arts, 134-135 [32] Hadithic texts against gold and silver vessels (http:/ / www. searchtruth. com/ book_display. php?book=24& translator=2) [33] Arts, 201, and earlier pages for animal shapes. [34] But see Arts, 170, where the standard view is disputed [35] Arts, 157-160, and exhibits 161-204 [36] See the relevant sections in "Arts"

Islamic art [37] Arts, 120-121 [38] Table in the Victoria & Albert Museum [39] Rogers and Ward, 156 [40] Arts, 147-150, and exhibits following [41] Arts, 65-68; 74, no. 3 [42] Louvre, Suaire de St-Josse (http:/ / www. louvre. fr/ llv/ oeuvres/ detail_notice_popup. jsp?CONTENT<>cnt_id=10134198673226262& CURRENT_LLV_NOTICE<>cnt_id=10134198673226262& FOLDER<>folder_id=9852723696500781). Exhibited as no. 4 in Arts, 74. [43] Arts, 68, 71, 82-86, 106-108, 110-111, 114-115; File:Shirleys.JPG\Image of Persian silks from c. 1627 [44] Gruber, World of Art [45] Hillenbrand (1999), p.40 [46] Hillenbrand (1999), p.54 [47] Hillenbrand (1999), p.58 [48] Hillenbrand (1999), p.89 [49] Hillenbrand (1999), p.91 [50] Hillenbrand (1999), Chapter 4 [51] Hillenbrand, p.100 [52] Hillenbrand, p.128-131

References Books and journals • Ettinghausen, Richard; Oleg Grabar, Marilyn Jenkins-Madina (2003). Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 (2nd ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300088694. • Bloom, Sheila and Jonathan, eds., Rivers of Paradise: Water in Islamic Art and Culture, Yale University Press, 2009. • Canby, Sheila R. (ed). Shah Abbas; The Remaking of Iran, 2009, British Museum Press, ISBN 9780714124520 • "Arts": Jones, Dalu & Michell, George, (eds); The Arts of Islam, Arts Council of Great Britain, 1976, ISBN 0728700816 • King, Donald and Sylvester, David eds. The Eastern Carpet in the Western World, From the 15th to the 17th century, Arts Council of Great Britain, London, 1983, ISBN 0728703629 • Madden, Edward H. (1975). "Some Characteristics of Islamic Art". Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 33 (4). • Mason, Robert B. (1995). "New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture (Brill Academic Publishers) XII. ISBN 90-04-10314-7. • Ali, Wijdan (2001). "From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art" (http://www2.let.uu.nl/solis/anpt/ EJOS/pdf4/07Ali.pdf) (PDF). EJOS 4 (7). • Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978050020305. • Levey, Michael; The World of Ottoman Art, 1975, Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0500270651 • Rawson, Jessica, Chinese Ornament: The lotus and the dragon, 1984, British Museum Publications, ISBN 0714114316 • Rogers J.M. and Ward R.M.; Süleyman the Magnificent, 1988, British Museum Publications ISBN 0714114405 • Savage, George. Porcelain Through the Ages, Penguin, (2nd edn.) 1963 Encyclopedias • The New Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Incorporated; Rev Ed edition. 2005. ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9.

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External links • • • • • • • • • •

Museum With No Frontiers (http://www.lslam.info/): extensive site on Islamic art Muslim Heritage (http://www.muslimheritage.com/virtual_civilization/default.cfm) CalligraphyIslamic: Extensive site on Islamic Visual Art (http://calligraphyislamic.com/) BBC Four documentary on art in Islamic Spain (http://video.google.co.uk/ videoplay?docid=-5737979011492845533&hl=en-GB) Palace and Mosque: Islamic Art from the Victoria and Albert Museum at the National Gallery of Art, Washington (http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/2004/islamic/index.shtm) Artistic Exchange: Europe and the Islamic World Selections from the Permanent Collection at the National Gallery of Art (http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/2004/artexchange/artexchange_ss.shtm) Islamic Art Network - Thesaurus Islamicus Foundation (http://www.islamic-art.org) Islamic Art Review (http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/art/index.html) What is Islamic Art? (http://www.islamicamagazine.com/content/view/81/61/) an article by Lucien de Guise "Style in Islamic Art" (http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/1342_islamic_middle_east/index. php?id=1000). Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2007-06-16.

List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world A number of inventions were developed in the medieval Islamic world, a geopolitical region that has at various times extended from Spain and Africa in the west to the Indian subcontinent in the east.[1] The inventions listed here were developed during the medieval Islamic world, which covers the period from the early Caliphate to the later Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal empires.[2] In particular, the majority of inventions here date back to the Islamic Golden Age, which is traditionally dated from the 8th to the 13th centuries.[3] [4]

Chemistry See Medicine in medieval Islam This list is incomplete. • Acetic acid: Jābir ibn Hayyān isolated acetic acid from vinegar.[5] • Citric acid Jābir ibn Hayyān is also credited with the discovery and isolation of citric acid, the sour component of lemons and other unripe fruits.[5] • Nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid: The mineral acids nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid were first isolated by Jābir ibn Hayyān. He originally referred to sulfuric acid as the oil of vitriol.[6] • Tartaric acid: Jābir ibn Hayyān isolated tartaric acid from wine-making residues.[5]

List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world

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Civil engineering This list is incomplete.

Architecture • Arabesque: An elaborative application of repeating geometric forms often found decorating the walls of mosques. • Minaret: The minaret is a distinctive architectural feature of Islamic architecture, especially mosques, dating back to the early centuries of Islam. Minarets are generally tall spires with onion-shaped crowns, usually either free standing or much taller than any surrounding support structure. The tallest minaret in pre-modern times was the Qutub Minar, which was 72.5 meters (237.9 ft) tall and was built in the 12th century, and it remains the tallest brick and stone minaret in the world. • Prefabricated home and movable structure: The first prefabricated homes and movable structures were invented in 16th century Mughal India by Akbar the Great. These structures were reported by Arif Qandahari in 1579.[7]

Milling • Bridge mill: The bridge mill was a unique type of watermill that was built as part of the superstructure of a bridge. The earliest record of a bridge mill is from Córdoba, Spain in the 12th century.[8]

The interiors of the Alhambra in Spain are decorated with arabesque designs.

• Vertical-axle windmill: A small wind wheel operating an organ is described as early as the 1st century AD by Hero of Alexandria.[9] [10] The first vertical-axle windmills were eventually built in Sistan, Afghanistan as described by Muslim geographers. These windmills had long vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades.[11] They may have been constructed as early as the time of the second Rashidun caliph Umar (634-644 AD), though some argue that this account may have been a 10th century amendment.[12] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind corn and draw up water, and used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[13] Horizontal axle windmills of the type generally used today, however, were developed in Northwestern Europe in the 1180s.[9] [10]

Military This list is incomplete. • Marching band and military band: The marching band and military band both have their origins in the Ottoman military band, performed by the Janissary since the 16th century.[14]

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Pottery This list is incomplete.

At 72.5 meters, the Qutab Minar was the tallest minaret until the 20th century, and remains the tallest brick and stone minaret in the world.

• Albarello: An albarello is a type of maiolica earthenware jar originally designed to hold apothecaries' ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of pharmacy jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. • Fritware: It refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, where production is dated to the late 1st millennium AD through the second millennium AD Frit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for "fritware" dating to c. 1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim reports that the ratio of quartz to "frit-glass" to white clay is 10:1:1.[15] This type of pottery has also been referred to as "stonepaste" and "faience" among other names.[16] A 9th century corpus of "proto-stonepaste" from Baghdad has "relict glass fragments" in its fabric.[17]

Tin-glazed Hispano-Moresque ware with lusterware decoration, from Spain circa 1475.

• Hispano-Moresque ware: This was a style of Islamic pottery created in Islamic Spain, after the Moors had introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Hispano-Moresque ware was distinguished from the pottery of Christendom by the Islamic character of its decoration.[18]

List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world • Iznik pottery: Produced in Ottoman Turkey as early as the 15th century AD[19] It consists of a body, slip, and glaze, where the body and glaze are "quartz-frit."[20] The "frits" in both cases "are unusual in that they contain lead oxide as well as soda"; the lead oxide would help reduce the thermal expansion coefficient of the ceramic.[21] Microscopic analysis reveals that the material that has been labeled "frit" is "interstitial glass" which serves to connect the quartz particles.[22] • Lusterware: Lustre glazes were applied to pottery in Mesopotamia in the 9th century; the technique soon became popular in Persia and Syria.[23] Lusterware was later produced in Egypt during the Fatimid caliphate in the 10th-12th centuries. While the production of lusterware continued in the Middle East, it spread to Europe—first to Al-Andalus, notably at Málaga, and then to Italy, where it was used to enhance maiolica. • Stonepaste ceramic: Invented in 9th-century Iraq,[24] it was a vitreous or semivitreous ceramic ware of fine texture, made primarily from non-refactory fire clay.[25] • Tin-glazing: The tin-glazing of ceramics was invented by Muslim potters in 8th-century Basra, Iraq. The first examples of this technique can be found as blue-painted ware in 8th-century Basra.[26] The oldest fragments found to-date were excavated from the palace of Samarra about fifty miles north of Baghdad.[27]

Other This list is incomplete. • Attempt at gliding: According to the 17th century historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari, Abbas Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain made in 875 the first − unsuccessful − attempt at a heavier-than-air glider flight in aviation history.[28] [29] It may have inspired the attempt by Eilmer of Malmesbury between 1000 and 1010 in England, recorded by the medieval historian William of Malmesbury in about 1125, although there is no evidence that the earlier recorded event in Anglo-Saxon England took place with foreign stimulus.[29] • Coffee: The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia.[30] [31] It was in Yemen that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed as they are today. From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa,[32] and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Muslim world, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas.[33] • Madrasah: The earliest mosque schools were the Madrasa of Al-Karaouine in Fez, Morocco, (founded 859) and the Al-Azhar in Cairo, Egypt (founded around 970).[34]

Notes [1] Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong:

"There have been many civilizations in human history, almost all of which were local, in the sense that they were defined by a region and an ethnic group. This applied to all the ancient civilizations of the Middle East—Ancient Egypt, Babylon, Persia; to the great civilizations of Asia—India, China; and to the civilizations of Pre-Columbian America. There are two exceptions: Christianity and Islam. These are two civilizations defined by religion, in which religion is the primary defining force, not, as in India or China, a secondary aspect among others of an essentially regional and ethnically defined civilization. Here, again, another word of explanation is necessary." [2] Danny Yee. "Islam: The Straight Path, John L. Esposito, Oxford University Press 1998" (http:/ / dannyreviews. com/ h/ Islam. html). Danny Yee's Book Reviews. . Retrieved 2009-10-10. [3] p. 45, Islamic & European expansion: the forging of a global order, Michael Adas, ed., Temple University Press, 1993, ISBN 1-56639-068-0. [4] Max Weber & Islam, Toby E. Huff and Wolfgang Schluchter, eds., Transaction Publishers, 1999, ISBN 1-56000-400-2, p. 53 [5] Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007), "On wine, chirality and crystallography", Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography 64 (Pt 1): 246–258 [247], doi:10.1107/S0108767307054293, PMID 18156689 [6] Khairallah, Amin A. (1946), Outline of Arabic Contributions to Medicine, chapter 10, Beirut

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List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world [7] Habib Irfan (1992), "Akbar and Technology" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 3517712), Social Scientist 20 (9-10): 3–15 [3–4], doi:10.2307/3517712, . [8] Lucas, Adam (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, Brill Publishers, pp. 62 & 64, ISBN 9004146490 [9] Drachmann A.G. (1961), "Heron's Windmill", Centaurus 7: 145–151. [10] Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1-30 (10f.) [11] Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6. [12] Dietrich Lohrmann (1995). "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte 77 (1), p. 1-30 (8). [13] Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64-9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering (http:/ / home. swipnet. se/ islam/ articles/ HistoryofSciences. htm)) [14] Bowles, Edmund A. (2006), "The impact of Turkish military bands on European court festivals in the 17th and 18th centuries", Early Music (Oxford University Press) 34 (4): 533–60, doi:10.1093/em/cal103 [15] Bernsted A.K. (2003), "Early Islamic Pottery: Materials and Techniques, London: Archetype Publications Ltd., 25; R.B. Mason and M.S. Tite 1994, The Beginnings of Islamic Stonepaste Technology", Archaeometry 36 (1): 77. [16] Mason and Tite 1994, 77. [17] Mason and Tite 1994, 79-80. [18] Caiger-Smith, 1973, p.65 [19] Tite M.S. (1989), "Iznik Pottery: An Investigation of the Methods of Production", Archaeometry 31 (2): 115. [20] Tite 1989, 120. [21] Tite 1989, 129. [22] Tite 1989, 120, 123. [23] Ten thousand years of pottery, Emmanuel Cooper, University of Pennsylvania Press, 4th ed., 2000, ISBN 0-8122-3554-1, pp. 86–88. [24] Mason, Robert B. (1995), "New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World", Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture (Brill Academic Publishers) XII: 5, ISBN 90-04-10314-7. [25] Standard Terminology Of Ceramic Whiteware and Related Products. ASTM Standard C242. [26] Mason, Robert B. (1995), "New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World", Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture (Brill Academic Publishers) XII: 1, ISBN 90-04-10314-7. [27] Caiger-Smith, 1973, p.23 [28] Harding, John (2006), Flying's strangest moments: extraordinary but true stories from over one thousand years of aviation history, Robson, pp. 1–2, ISBN 1861059345 [29] Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", Technology and Culture 2 (2), p. 97-111 [100f.] [30] Weinberg, Bennett Alan; Bennett Alan Weinberg, Bonnie K. Bealer (2001), The world of caffeine (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Qyz5CnOaH9oC& pg=PA3& dq=coffee+ goat+ ethiopia+ Kaldi), Routledge, pp. Page 3–4, ISBN 9780415927239, [31] Ireland, Corydon. "Of the bean I sing" (http:/ / news. harvard. edu/ gazette/ ?p=86444& utm_source=SilverpopMailing& utm_medium=email& utm_campaign=07_21_11%20(1)& utm_content). Harvard Gazette. . Retrieved 21 July 2011. [32] John K. Francis. "Coffea arabica L. RUBIACEAE" (http:/ / www. fs. fed. us/ global/ iitf/ pdf/ shrubs/ Coffea arabica. pdf#search=""Coffea Arabica" native"). Factsheet of U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. . Retrieved 2007-07-27. [33] Meyers, Hannah (2005-03-07). ""Suave Molecules of Mocha" -- Coffee, Chemistry, and Civilization" (http:/ / www. newpartisan. com/ home/ suave-molecules-of-mocha-coffee-chemistry-and-civilization. html). . Retrieved 2007-02-03. [34] Peter Barrett (2004), Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding, p. 18, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 0-567-08969-X

External links • "How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs" (http://www.aina.org/books/hgsptta.htm) by De Lacy O'Leary

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Medicine in the medieval Islamic world In the history of medicine, Islamic medicine, Arabic medicine or Arabian medicine refers to medicine developed in the Islamic Golden Age, and written in Arabic, the lingua franca of Islamic civilization. Latin translations of Arabic medical works had a significant influence on the development of medicine in the high Middle Ages and early Renaissance, as did Arabic texts chronicling the medical works of earlier cultures.[1]

Terminology Some consider the label "Arab-Islamic" as historically inaccurate, arguing it does not appreciate the rich diversity of Eastern scholars who contributed to Islamic science in this era.[2]

A Latin copy of the Canon of Medicine, dated 1484, located at the P.I. Nixon Medical Historical Library of The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio.

Overview Medicine was a central part of medieval Islamic culture. Responding to circumstances of time and place, Islamic physicians and scholars developed a large and complex medical literature exploring and synthesizing the theory and practice of medicine.[3] Islamic medicine was initially built on tradition, chiefly the theoretical and practical knowledge developed in Arabia and was known at Muhammad's time, ancient Hellenistic medicine such as Unani, ancient Indian medicine such as Ayurveda, and the ancient Iranian Medicine of the Academy of Gundishapur. The works of ancient Greek and Roman physicians Hippocrates,[4] Galen and Dioscorides[4] also had a lasting impact on Islamic medicine.[5] Ophthalmology has been described as the most successful branch of medicine researched at the time, with the works of Ibn Al-Haitham remaining an authority in the field until early modern times.[6]

Medical ethics The earliest surviving Arabic work on medical ethics is Ishaq ibn 'Ali al-Ruhawi's Adab al-Tabib ("Practical Ethics of the Physician" or "Practical Medical Deontology") and was based on the works of Hippocrates and Galen.[7] Al-Ruhawi regarded physicians as "guardians of souls and bodies", and wrote twenty chapters on various topics related to medical ethics.[8]

Encyclopedias The first encyclopedia of medicine in Arabic language[9] was Persian scientist Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari's Firdous al-Hikmah ("Paradise of Wisdom"), written in seven parts, c. 860. Al-Tabari, a pioneer in the field of child development, emphasized strong ties between psychology and medicine, and the need for psychotherapy and counseling in the therapeutic treatment of patients. His encyclopedia also discussed the influence of Sushruta and Chanakya on medicine, including psychotherapy.[10]

Medicine in the medieval Islamic world

Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) the Arab scientist wrote the Comprehensive Book of Medicine in the 9th century. The Large Comprehensive was the most sought after of all his compositions, in which Rhazes recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. Al-Razi was "the first of the (physicians of medieval Islam) to treat medicine in a comprehensive and encyclopedic manner, surpassing probably in voluminousness Galen himself...Rhazes is deservedly remembered as having first described small-pox and measles in an accurate manner".[11]

Women in medicine The role of women as practitioners appears in a number of works. Two female physicians from Ibn Zuhr's family served the Almohad ruler Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur in the 12th century.[12] Later in the 15th century, female surgeons were illustrated for the first time in Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu's Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye (Imperial Surgery).[13]

Notes and references Notes [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Siraisi, Nancy G. (2001). Medicine and the Italian universities 1250-1600. Leiden: Brill. p. 203. ISBN 9004119426. Behrooz Broumand, The contribution of Iranian scientists to world civilization, Arch Iranian Med 2006; 9 (3): 288 – 290 National Library of Medicine digital archives. Science, civilization and society (http:/ / www. es. flinders. edu. au/ ~mattom/ science+ society/ lectures/ lecture11. html) Saad, Bashar; Azaizeh, Hassan, Said, Omar (1 January 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2 (4): 475–479. doi:10.1093/ecam/neh133. PMID 16322804. [6] Saunders 1978, p. 193. [7] Prioreschi, Plinio (2001). A History of Medicine: Byzantine and Islamic medicine (1st ed.). Omaha, NE: Horatius Press. p. 394. ISBN 1888456043. [8] Levey, Martin (1967). "Medical Ethics of Medieval Islam with Special Reference to Al-Ruhāwī's "Practical Ethics of the Physician"". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. New Series (American Philosophical Society) 57 (3): 1–100. ISSN 00659746. JSTOR 1006137. [9] Selin, Helaine (1997). Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology and medicine in non-western cultures. Kluwer. p. 930. ISBN 0792340663. [10] Haque Amber (2004). "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists". Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357–377 [361]. doi:10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z. [11] Deming, David (2010). Science and technology in world history/ the ancient world and classical civilization. Jefferson: Mcfarland. p. 93. ISBN 0786439327. [12] The Art as a Profession (http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ exhibition/ islamic_medical/ islamic_13. html), United States National Library of Medicine [13] Bademci G (2006). "First illustrations of female "Neurosurgeons" in the fifteenth century by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu". Neurocirugía 17: 162–165.

Citations Bibliography • Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. 3. Routledge. ISBN 0415124107 • Browne, Edward G. (2002). Islamic Medicine. Goodword Books. ISBN 81-87570-19-9.

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• Dols, Michael W. (1984). Medieval Islamic Medicine: Ibn Ridwan's Treatise "On the Prevention of Bodily Ills in Egypt". Comparative Studies of Health Systems and Medical Care. University of California Press. ISBN 0520048369. • Pormann, Peter E.; Savage-Smith, Emilie (2007). Medieval Islamic Medicine. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0748620664. • Porter, Roy (2001). The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521002524. • Ullmann, Manfred (1978). Islamic Medicine. Islamic Surveys. 11. Edinburgh: Univ. Press. ISBN 0852243251.* • Saunders, John J. (1978). A History of Medieval Islam. Routledge. ISBN 9780415059145.

External links • Islamic Medical Manuscripts (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/arabichome.html) at the National Library of Medicine. • Islamic Culture and the Medical Arts (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_00.html) at the National Library of Medicine. • Influence On the Historical Development of Medicine (http://www.levity.com/alchemy/) by Prof. Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead. • Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis) - A light in the Middle Ages in Europe (http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/3/08.pdf) by Dr. Sharif Kaf Al-Ghazal • Contagion - Perspectives from Pre-Modern Societies (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC1044687)

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Astrology (Arabic: ‫’ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﺠﻮﻡ‬Ilm an-Nujūm or ‫‘ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﻚ‬Ilm al-Falak) was a subject of study and debate by early Muslims. In early Arabic sources, ilm al-nujum was used to refer to both astronomy and astrology. In medieval sources, however, a clear distinction was made between ilm al-nujum (science of the stars) or ilm al-falak (science of the celestial orbs), referring to astrology, and ilm al-hay'ah (science of the figure of the heavens), referring to astronomy. Both fields were rooted in Arabian, Persian, Babylonian, Hellenistic and Indian traditions. Astrology was subject to consistent critiques by Muslim religious scholars and scientists. Astrological prognostications nevertheless required a fair amount of exact scientific knowledge and thus gave partial incentive for the study and development of astronomy.

History Medieval Islamic astronomy and astronomy continued Hellenistic and Roman era traditions based on Ptolemy's Almagest. Centres of learning in medicine and astronomy/astrology were set up in Baghdad and Damascus, and the Caliph Al-Mansur of Baghdad established a major observatory and library in the city, making it the world's astronomical centre. During this time knowledge of astronomy was greatly increased, and the astrolabe was invented by Al Fazari. Many modern star names are derived from their Arabic names. Albumasur or Abu Ma'shar (805 - 885) was the greatest of the Arab astrologers. His treatise 'Introductoriam in Astronomium' spoke of how 'only by observing the great diversity of planetary motions can we comprehend the unnumbered varieties of change in this world'. The 'Introductoriam' was one of the first books to find its way in translation through Spain and into Europe in the Middle Ages, and was highly influential in the revival of astrology and astronomy there. Muslims also combined the disciplines of medicine and astrology by being linking the curative properties of herbs with specific zodiac signs and planets.[1] Mars, for instance, was considered hot and dry and so ruled plants with a hot or pungent taste - like hellebore, tobacco or mustard. These beliefs were adopted by European herbalists like Culpeper right up until the development of modern medicine. The Muslims also developed a system called Arabic parts by which the difference between the ascendant and each planet of the zodiac was calculated. This new position then became a 'part' of some kind.[2] For example the 'part of fortune' is found by taking the difference between the sun and the ascendant and adding it to the moon. If the 'part' thus calculated was in the 10th House in Libra, for instance, it suggested that money could be made from some kind of partnership. Al Khwarizmi was one of the foremost medieval Islamic astronomers.

Astrology in medieval Islam The calendar introduced by Omar Khayyám Neyshabouri, based on the classical zodiac, remains in effect in Afghanistan and Iran as the official Persian calendar. The Almagest together with the original contributions of 9th to 10th century Islamic astronomy such as the astrolabe was introduced to Christian Europe beginning in the 11th century, by contact with Islamic Spain. Another notable astrologer and astronomer was Qutb al-Din al Shirazi (1236–1311). He wrote critiques of Ptolemy's Almagest and produced two prominent works on astronomy: 'The Limit of Accomplishment Concerning Knowledge of the Heavens' in 1281 and 'The Royal Present' in 1284, both of which commented upon and improved on Ptolemy's work, particularly in the field of planetary motion. Al-Shirazi was also the first person to give the correct scientific explanation for the formation of a rainbow. Ulugh Beyg was a fifteenth-century Persian Sultan and also a mathematician and astronomer. He built an observatory in 1428 and produced the first original star map since Ptolemy, which corrected the position of many stars, and included many new ones.

Medieval refutations Some of the principles of astrology were refuted by several medieval Muslim astronomers such as Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), Avicenna, Abu Rayhan al-Biruni and Averroes. Their reasons for refuting astrology were often due to both scientific (the methods used by astrologers being conjectural rather than empirical) and religious (conflicts with orthodox Islamic scholars) reasons.[3] However these refutations mainly concerned the judicial branches of astrology rather than the natural principles of it. For example, Avicenna’s refutation of astrology (in the treatise titled Resāla fī ebṭāl aḥkām al-nojūm) revealed support for its overarching principles. He stated that it was true that each planet had some influence on the earth, but his argument was the difficulty of astrologers being able to determine the exact effect of it. In essence, Avicenna did not refute astrology, but denied man’s limited capacity to be able to know the precise effects of the stars on the sublunar matter. With that, he did not refute the essential dogma of astrology, but only refuted our ability to fully understand it.[4] Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350), in his Miftah Dar al-SaCadah, used empirical arguments in astronomy in order to refute the judicial practice of astrology which is most closely aligned to divination.[5] He recognized that the stars are much larger than the planets, and thus argued:[6] "And if you astrologers answer that it is precisely because of this distance and smallness that their influences are negligible, then why is it that you claim a great influence for the smallest heavenly body, Mercury? Why is it that you have given an influence to al-Ra's and al-Dhanab, which are two imaginary points [ascending and descending nodes]?" Al-Jawziyya also recognized the Milky Way galaxy as "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars" and thus argued that "it is certainly impossible to have knowledge of their influences."[6]

Opinions of contemporary Muslim scholars According to jurists, the study of astronomy (ilm al-hay'ah) is lawful, as it is useful in predicting the beginning of months and seasons, determining the direction of salat (prayer), and navigation. They agree that this branch of science is used in determining the beginning and end of the lunar months, e.g, that of Ramadan. As for astrology, this is considered by many Islamic scholars as haram (unlawful), as knowledge of the Unseen is known only by Allah(God). Dr. Husam al-Din Ibn Musa `Afana, a Professor of the Principles of Fiqh at Al-Quds University, Palestine, states the following: "First of all, it is worth noting that the Arabs knew astronomy a long time ago. They would predict time through observing the movements of stars. According to the scholars of Shar`iah, there are two terms confused in many people's minds when it comes to dealing with the question in hand. These terms are astronomy and astrology. Astronomy is the science that deals with studying the movements of the celestial bodies and

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Astrology in medieval Islam reducing observations to mathematical order. That science is useful in determining time, seasons, the direction of Prayer, etc. Astrology, on the other hand, is concerned with studying the positions and aspects of celestial bodies in the belief that they have an influence on the course of natural earthly occurrences and human affairs. Astrologists believe that the movements of stars have an influence on people's lives. Both Muslim astronomers and [religious] scholars refuse the prophecies of astrologists."[7] The Turkish government-sponsored Diyanet Vakfı, which represents the official Sunni view, likewise draws a distinction between astronomy and astrology, identifying the latter with non-Islamic influences on Arab culture, specifically Sabean and Hindu astrology. Astrology is seen as unscientific and conducive of a view of humans as helpless in the face of natural forces.[8] Amongst the general population, however, astrology is popular, with most major newspapers running astrology columns.[9] Some scholars believe that astrology is a prohibited field of study. Imam Ibn Taymiyah said: “Astrology that is concerned with studying the positions and aspects of celestial bodies in the belief that they have an influence on the course of natural earthly occurrences and human affairs is prohibited by the Quran, the Sunnah, and the unanimous agreement of the Muslim scholars. Furthermore, astrology was considered forbidden by all Messengers of Almighty Allah(God).” The Saudi scholar, Muhammad ibn al Uthaymeen, said: “Astrology is a kind of sorcery and fortune-telling. It is forbidden because it is based on illusions, not on concrete facts. There is no relation between the movements of celestial bodies and what takes place on the Earth.”[10]

References [1] Parker & Parker, ibid, 1990 [2] Sasha Fenton, ibid [3] Saliba, George (1994b), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, New York University Press, pp. 60 & 67–69, ISBN 0814780237 [4] George Saliba, Avicenna: 'viii. Mathematics and Physical Sciences'. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, 2011, available at http:/ / www. iranica. com/ articles/ avicenna-viii [5] Livingston, John W. (1971), "Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 600445), Journal of the American Oriental Society 91 (1): 96–103, doi:10.2307/600445, [6] Livingston, John W. (1971), "Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 600445), Journal of the American Oriental Society 91 (1): 96–103 [99], doi:10.2307/600445, [7] excerpted from a lecture given by Dr. Yusuf Marwah under the title Astronomy and the Beginning of the Lunar Months [8] diyanet.gov.tr (http:/ / www. diyanet. gov. tr/ turkish/ dy/ WebYayinOku. aspx?Sayfa=11& ID=36) [9] Milliyet (http:/ / astroloji. milliyet. com. tr/ Astroloji/ Default. aspx), Hürriyet (http:/ / astronet. hurriyet. com. tr), Posta (http:/ / www. posta. com. tr/ astroloji). [10] Islamonline.com

• Saliba, George (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, New York University Press, ISBN 0814780237 • E.S. Kennedy (1962). "Ramifications of the World Year Concept in Islamic Astrology". Ithaca 26 VIII-2 IX. • Edward S. Kennedy (1998), Astronomy and Astrology in the Medieval Islamic World. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate.

External links • James H. Holden. Arabian Astrology (http://cura.free.fr/xxv/23hold1.html). • Article Mentioning Persian-Arabic astrology (http://www.astro.com/astrology/in_postmodern_e.htm) www.persian astrology.persianblog.ir

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Astrology is the study of celestial bodies as they relate to personality, human affairs, and natural events. The primary astrological bodies are the Sun, Moon, and planets, which are analyzed by their aspects (relative positions to one another), by their placement in 'houses' (spatial divisions of the sky), and their movement through signs of the zodiac (spatial divisions of the ecliptic). Astrology’s origins trace to the third millennium BCE. Ancient civilizations developed it as a calendrical system to predict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as ‘signs’ of ‘divine communications’. Historically it was a learned tradition, sustained in courts, cultural centers and universities, and was closely related to the studies of astronomy, alchemy, meteorology, and medicine. Yet despite their closely connected histories, astrology and astronomy separated at the end of the 17th century, when astronomy redefined many of the theoretical concepts that the two disciplines had previously shared. Subsequently, astrology suffered a decline in academic and theoretical credibility. The 20th century brought renewed attention, partly through the popularizing effect of newspaper horoscopes and New Age philosophies, and through re-kindled intellectual interest in statistically testing astrology's claims Astrologers have long debated the degree of determinism in astrology. Some believe that celestial movements control fate, others that they determine only disposition and potential. While most astrologers contend there is no direct influence from the stars (only a synchronistic correlation between the celestial and terrestrial) astrology has been criticized for not offering a clear account of its physical mechanism and failing to develop new theories in line with modern scientific principles. It has thus been called a pseudoscientific subject by members of the modern scientific community. Show new selections [1] WikiProject: Astrology Here are some Astrology related tasks you can do: • Requested articles: Agricultural astrology, Anareta, Aspect patterns, Astrological year, Astrotheology, Harmonic astrology, Heliocentric astrology, Kolisko effect, Medieval astrology, Partile (astrology), Scout planet More...

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Occult is a short-hand label for the entirety of European, Mediterranean, and Middle Eastern thought that emphasises developing a spiritual center within oneself or opening up to the one of which everyone is part. To refine further: the philosophical foundations of the occult tradition are most often within the bounds of Abrahamic, Hellenistic, Chaldean and Celtic inspired cultural groups; thus the word occult sums up the esoteric teachings of all the Indoeuropean peoples. The ways to achieve a deeper understanding of both the inner and outer world are varied; but most schools choose meditation and ritual as their primary teachings. The modern meaning of the word occult is: "to be associated with magic, ritual and esoteric sub-culture". (The modern meaning given here is what anthropologists call an associative definition. This is not terribly precise. Actually the word "occult" is taken from the Latin and means literally "to hide" or "hidden". It is an adverb and has no philosophical connotations. For verification pick up any Latin grammar.) This portal will therefore concentrate on occult authors, practitioners, philosophy, rituals, and the related field of magic(k). Most often this is referred to either as the Western Esoteric Tradition, Western mystery tradition, the Western Mystery Schools, or Western Thought. Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD, based on the teachings of Plato and earlier Platonists. Neoplatonists considered themselves simply "Platonists", and the modern distinction is due to the perception that their philosophy contained enough unique interpretations of Plato to make it substantively different from what Plato wrote and believed.

Portal:Occult Neoplatonism took definitive shape with the philosopher Plotinus, who claimed to have received his teachings from Ammonius Saccas, a dock worker and philosopher in Alexandria. Plotinus was also influenced by Alexander of Aphrodisias and Numenius. Plotinus's student Porphyry assembled his teachings into the six Enneads. Subsequent Neoplatonic philosophers included Hypatia of Alexandria, Iamblichus, Proclus, Hierocles of Alexandria, Simplicius of Cilicia, and Damascius, who wrote On First Principles. Born in Damascus, he was the last teacher of Neoplatonism at Athens. Neoplatonism strongly influenced Christian thinkers (such as Augustine, Boethius, Pseudo-Dionysius, John Scotus Eriugena, and Bonaventura). Neoplatonism was also present in medieval Islamic and Jewish thinkers such as al-Farabi and Maimonides, and experienced a revival in the Renaissance with the acquisition and translation of Greek and Arabic Neoplatonic texts. The World Tree is a motif present in several religions, particularly Indo-European religions. The world tree is represented as a colossal tree which supports the heavens, thereby connecting the heavens, the earth, and, through its roots, the underground. Specific World Trees include Yggdrasil (or Irminsul) in Norse mythology, the Oak in Slavic and Finnish mythology, and in Hinduism, a banyan tree. Robert Anton Wilson or RAW (January 18, 1932 – January 11, 2007) was a prolific American novelist, essayist, philosopher, psychologist, futurologist, anarchist, and conspiracy theory researcher. A painting of yggdrasil by Oluf His writing, which often shows a sense of humor and optimism, is described by him Olufsen as an "attempt to break down conditioned associations--to look at the world in a new way, with many models recognized as models (maps) and no one model elevated to the Truth. And: "My goal is to try to get people into a state of generalized agnosticism, not agnosticism about God alone, but agnosticism about everything."

Chaos magic is a form of ritual magic with which practitioners claim they can shape reality. Although there are a few techniques unique to chaos magic (such as some forms of sigil magic), practices can be highly individualistic, borrowing liberally from other belief systems; in this light, chaos magic acts as a metabelief. Some common sources of inspiration and techniques include ceremonial magic, chaos theory, science fiction, OBEs, and divination. Chaos magic is not necessarily syncretic; that is to say, practitioners do not always try to fit together these different ideas so that they make sense. Rather, they temporarily assume the truth of parts of particular The chaos star (called a 'chaosphere' by some systems in order to accomplish their goals. Although chaos magicians practitioners) is the most popular symbol of chaos differ widely, they often sympathize with the psychonaut magic. Many variants exist. counterculture (Terence McKenna and Robert Anton Wilson are particularly influential) and chaotic aspects of particular religions (including Taoism and Discordianism), and a number of chaos magic techniques rely on humor and the absurd. ...that the O.T.O. was described by Crowley as the "first of the great Old Æon orders to accept The Book of the Law".. ...That all the knowledge of the universe is containted within one apple? Try it out; cut an apple horizontally in half and the seeds will form a pentagram...

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...that the word occult comes from the Latin word occultus (clandestine, hidden, secret), referring to "knowledge of the hidden"... Nothing is hidden so much that it wouldn’t be revealed through its fruit.-- Paracelsus

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Rosae Crucis Ancient Mystical Order of the Rose Cross, Builders of the Adytum, Fellowship of the Rosy Cross, FUDOFSI, FUDOSI, Fraternitas Rosae Crucis, Mystical Order of the Temple of the Rosy Cross, Order of the Temple of the Rosy Cross, Rosicrucian, Rosicrucian Fellowship, Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship. Societas Rosicruciana Golden Dawn Alpha et Omega, Fraternity of the Inner Light, Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn Thelemic and O.T.O. Abbey of Thelema, Argenteum Astrum, Brotherhood of Saturn, Ordo Templi Orientis, Ordo Templi Orientis (Typhonian) Satanic and Left-hand Path Church of Satan, Temple of Set Chaos Magick Illuminates of Thanateros, Thee Temple ov Psychick Youth Miscellaneous Church of the Universal Bond, Servants of the Light, Theosophical Society

Occult Literature Thelemic Texts 777 and other Qabalistic writings, The Book of Lies, The Book of Thoth, The Book of the Law, The Confessions of Aleister Crowley, Diary of a Drug Fiend, The Equinox, Holy Books of Thelema, Simon Iff, Konx om Pax, The Law is for All, Liber Aleph, Little Essays Toward Truth, Magick (Book 4), Magick Without Tears, Moonchild, The Vision and the Voice, Works of Aleister Crowley Grimoires Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches, Arbatel de magia veterum, The Lesser Key of Solomon, Black Pullet, Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie, The Book of the Sacred Magic of Abramelin the Mage, Goetia, The Grand Grimoire, Pietro d'Abano, Key of Solomon, Kybalion, Three Books of Occult Philosophy, The Magus, Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception, Secretum Secretorum, Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses, The Sworn Book of Honorius, Testament of Solomon, The Perfect Matrimony Satanism The Church of Satan, The Devil's Notebook, The Satanic Bible, The Satanic Rituals, The Satanic Witch Miscellaneous Necronomicon, Simon Necronomicon, Malleus Maleficarum, To Ride A Silver Broomstick, Voodoo and Obeahs, A Witch Alone

Occult Terms and Traditions Magical techniques Astral projection, Automatic writing, Banishing, Bibliomancy, Black magic, Cartomancy, Ceremonial magic, Chaos magic, Cleromancy, Consecration, Curse, Divination, Dowsing, Elemental magick, Evocation, Enochian, Galdr, Gematria, Geomancy, Gyromancy, Invocation, Literomancy, Magic circle, Magical formula, Mantra, Meditation, Necromancy, Prayer, Rhabdomancy, Runic divination, Scrying, Seid, Sex magic, Spell, Thaumaturgy, Theurgy, Trance, Witchcraft, Yoga Philosophical and Meta-physical Concepts Astrological age, Astrological aspect, Classical planets in Western alchemy, Astrology and the classical elements, Baphomet, Body of light, Chakra, Classical element, Collective unconscious, 8-Circuit Model of Consciousness, Elemental, Familiar spirit Esoteric cosmology, Geomantic figures, Goetia, Hadit, Holy Guardian Angel, Kundalini, Nuit, Obeah and Wanga, Psionics, Reality hacking, Seven Rays, Spirit, Table of correspondences, True Will

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Occult schools Alchemy, Anthroposophy, Astrology, Astrology and numerology, Nazi mysticism, Druidism, Feri Tradition, Hermeticism, Hoodoo, Kabbalah, Mysticism, Neo-druidism, Neopaganism, Obeah, Pow-wow, Psychonautics, Quantum mysticism, Rosicrucianism, Santería, Satanism, Tantra, Tarot divination, Thelema, Thelemic mysticism, Theosophy, Wicca, Zos Kia Cultus Magical and Ceremonial Tools and Fetishes Abramelin oil, Athame, Chalice, Gand, Grimoire, Juju, Mathers table, Mojo, Ouija, sigil, Talisman Magical Ranks Adept, Ascended master, Augur, Initiation, Secret Chiefs, Volva • • • •

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Therion is a Swedish symphonic metal band. It takes its name from the Greek word therion (θηρίον), which means beast, in reference to the "beast" of the Christian Book of Revelation. However, the band's name itself originates from the Celtic Frost album To Mega Therion. Therion was founded by Christofer Johnsson in 1987. Beginning as a death metal band, they later turned to combining orchestral elements with their metal music, employing heavy use of choirs and classical musicians, not only as additions to but also as integral parts of the composition. Therion's music takes its themes from different mythologies and is based on concepts ranging from occultism, magic and ancient traditions and writings. The majority of their lyrics are written by Thomas Karlsson, head and founder of the magical order Dragon Rouge, of which Johnsson is a member. The band has seen many changes in line-up and style throughout its history. •

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Article Sources and Contributors User:Rajah2770  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=416910398  Contributors: ArcAngel, JohnCD, MatthewVanitas, Rajah2770 Islam  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=444274692  Contributors: (, *Kat*, *drew, -- April, .c, 0, 05dalesteyn, 09.arif, 130.182.125.xxx, 151.170.240.xxx, 172.147.65.xxx, 1Chunk, 1pezguy, 213.131.76.xxx, 24.12.199.xxx, 24.93.53.xxx, 334a, 4r2emi, 63.109.248.xxx, 64.105.112.xxx, 928s4, 99DBSIMLR, @, A Doon, A Kaffir, A. 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Connolley, Wj32, Woohookitty, Wzhao553, X42bn6, Xashaiar, Xiquet, YSSYguy, Yahel Guhan, Yolocavo, Yuber, Zeeshan Arshad, Zeeshanhasan, Zeno of Elea, Zereshk, Zigger, Zincox, ZooFari, Zora, ‫ﻋﻠﯽ ﻭﯾﮑﯽ‬, 253 anonymous edits Astronomy in medieval Islam  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=443753222  Contributors: Ahmednayyer, Alangnixon, Alansohn, Alavirad, Andreasmperu, AndrewHowse, Anonymous editor, Antandrus, Aquib American Muslim, ArglebargleIV, Astrologist, Athenean, Benlives, Bless sins, Bloodofox, Bluerasberry, Bolivian Unicyclist, Brianhe, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carcharoth, Cbdorsett, Cenarium, Chris the speller, Cimon Avaro, Closedmouth, CommonsDelinker, Conscious, Crohnie, Cybercobra, Cyfal, D4g0thur, DVD R W, Daatass, David J Wilson, Dbfirs, Dep4e, Dgrowe, Dispenser, Editor2020, El C, Engleback, FayssalF, Flybywire e2c, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Freakr7, Full Shunyata, Fæ, Gadget850, Gattan, Gguidelas, Giraffedata, GoingBatty, GreatWhiteNortherner, Gun Powder Ma, Hafizbar, Headbomb, Hemlock Martinis, Hinio, Hmains, Houutata, Icairns, Iceblock, Iridescent, IronGargoyle, Itaqallah, J04n, J8079s, Jagged 85, Jamesontai, Jangalinn, Jibran1, John of Reading, Jonathan.kade, Josh Parris, JzG, Kaka Mughal, KathrynLybarger, Keyssoon, Kozuch, Kurtan, Kwamikagami, LOTRrules, Lao Wai, Lemmey, LilHelpa, Limttado, Machine Elf 1735, Maestlin, Materialscientist, Mboverload, Meaningful Username, MegA, Meisam, Mgiganteus1, Michael Daly, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy, Modernist, Moonriddengirl, Morutyta, Mxn, NJGW, Nasa-verve, NawlinWiki, Neftchi, Nihiltres, Njaelkies Lea, Nono64, Nousernamesleft, Novangelis, Ntsimp, OlEnglish, OneTopJob6, Onmywaybackhome, Ospalh, Paddles, Philip Trueman, Pushnell, Pustelnik, RG2, RandomP, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rupert Clayton, Rursus, Ruud Koot, Sa.vakilian, SamuelTheGhost, Sarranduin, SchfiftyThree, Selfworm, Shogartu, Siffler, Signalhead, Someguy1221, Someone65, Spacepotato, Spectral Diagram, Stan Shebs, SteveMcCluskey, Striver, Svick, Syncategoremata, Szczepan1990, Tanthalas39, Tariqabjotu, TimBentley, Tommy2010, Trughioy, Useight, Vanished User 0001, Vgent, Vice regent, Viridian, Vittsadaf, WadeSimMiser, Wavelength, WikHead, WikipedianMarlith, Wilstrup, Wiqi55, Wjejskenewr, Woohookitty, XPTO, Yahel Guhan, Zereshk, ZooFari, ‫ﻋﻠﯽ ﻭﯾﮑﯽ‬, 152 anonymous edits Islam and science  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=441769707  Contributors: AAA765, Aaliasache, Abunakhli14, Adamrce, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Allen3, Aquib American Muslim, Arrow740, Balagh, Bihco, Boing! said Zebedee, BoogaLouie, CBM, ClovisPt, Cpl Syx, Dialectric, Dirkbb, Dsmurat, Elazeez, Eyebeeuk, Faro0485, FightIdiocy, Friedonc, Globera, Gmoose1, Hmains, Imad marie, Iridescent, IronGargoyle, Ixfd64, J04n, Jagged 85, Jeff5102, Johnuniq, Joyson Noel, Khanasfar73, Koavf, Kri.umd, LOTRrules, LeContexte, Lkmen, Logos384, Lost on belmont, MBisanz, Michael Hardy, Msin10, Nishidani, Niyazsl, Ohnoitsjamie, Papajohnin, Paxsimius, Peaceworld111, Quackquack32, Qwyrxian, Rjwilmsi, S.M.Muslim, SamuelTheGhost, Sean.hoyland, Shadowjams, Shaikhsi, Shawn in Montreal, Stevey7788, Svick, Syncategoremata, Tauhidaerospace, Tesseract2, Testbed, Tim Ross, Turaab84, Ufo973, UncleDouggie, Useight, Velanthis, William M. Connolley, Wiqi55, Woohookitty, Zeeair, Zeeshan Arshad, Écrasez l'infâme, 112 anonymous edits Mathematics in medieval Islam  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=444270874  Contributors: 3rdAlcove, Aftermath, Ahsaniqbal 93, Al-Andalusi, Algorithme, Altzinn, AndrewHowse, Angusmclellan, Anlace, Anonymous editor, Antandrus, Aquib American Muslim, Arash the Archer, Arkuat, Arthena, AstroWiki, Athenean, Aziz1005, BD2412, Bakasuprman, Behmod, Bejnar, BerelZ, Bless sins, Bloodofox, Bradtcordeiro, Bulldog123, Bunich, CBM, Charles Matthews, Chris the speller, Chuunen Baka, Closedmouth, CltFn, CommonsDelinker, Coramaroc, CreazySuit, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, David Eppstein, DavidCBryant, Davshul, Deville, Dialectric, Dogears, Doug, Electronicaleditor, EoGuy, Epeefleche, FaerieInGrey, Fieldday-sunday, Friendly troll, Full Shunyata, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Gadget850, Garzo, Giftlite, GoingBatty, GrahamHardy, Grenavitar, Gun Powder Ma, Hemlock Martinis, Hinio, Hmains, Homer Landskirty, I dream of horses, Intothefire, Iridescent, Islami, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, J04n, J8079s, Jagged 85, Jahangard, JamesPen, Jeff3000, Jheald, Jibran1, Jim.belk, Johnuniq, JonBrisk,

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Connolley, Wiqi55, Woohookitty, Wzhao553, Xashaiar, Xiquet, Zereshk, ZooFari, 173 anonymous edits Physics in medieval Islam  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=428219777  Contributors: Acroterion, AdultSwim, Al-Andalusi, Cavila, Chris the speller, Chrono1084, Cobaltcigs, CommonsDelinker, Cybercobra, Dbachmann, Dialectric, Dr Philip Toop, Ed Poor, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Fragma08, Grafen, Headbomb, Hemlock Martinis, J8079s, JaGa, Jagged 85, Jerome Charles Potts, Jmcc150, Johnuniq, Koavf, Kwamikagami, LilHelpa, Marek69, Mohummy, Neophaze, Nsk92, Ospalh, Oxguy3, R'n'B, Rasel70, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, SamuelTheGhost, Schmloof, Someone65, Srleffler, Syncategoremata, TheTito, Tkech, Tomasz Prochownik, Uncle Dick, William M. Connolley, Woohookitty, Xiquet, ZooFari, 20 anonymous edits Cosmology in medieval Islam  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=444395635  Contributors: Aquib American Muslim, Autoerrant, Crystallina, David J Wilson, Fortdj33, IsometricCube, Jagged 85, Khari Sharif, Mandosalama, Mann jess, Mpatel, Neier, Neoman2026, Nepaheshgar, Nick Number, Nneonneo, Nqp143, Odysseus1479, Ramymamlouk, Rjwilmsi, Sai 123, Sajid Mhmood Muslim, Sdedeo, Seaphoto, Someone65, SteveMcCluskey, Stevic20, Syncategoremata, The Thing That Should Not Be, Warrior4321, Wiki-uk, William M. Connolley, ‫ﻋﻠﯽ‬ ‫ﻭﯾﮑﯽ‬, 65 anonymous edits Islamic philosophy  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=442357195  Contributors: AZ1001, Abdullah mk, Abu121276tpal, Ahoerstemeier, Alro, Amin625, Andrew Lancaster, Anonymous editor, Arab Hafez, Aranel, Aratak80, Ashley Y, Asikhi, Azeemrags, Balloonguy, Bejnar, Belovedfreak, Bhadani, Bibliobaggins, Boogieknight, Brujo, Burnett3434, BurstMinor, Cemyilmaz79, Charles Matthews, Chris the speller, Christopher Parham, Ckatz, Closedmouth, CommonsDelinker, Csloomis, CybernautiqueMMX, Dalauzad, Delirium, DerHexer, Deviathan, Deville, Dirayah, Edward, Eeekster, Eequor, Eik Corell, El C, ElRoberto4, Emmetfahy, Erud, Faigl.ladislav, FallenSpartan, FayssalF, Flammifer, Freestylefrappe, Fuhghettaboutit, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Gnowor, Goethean, Gondooley, Good Olfactory, Grafen, Gregkaye, Grenavitar, Heimstern, Howcheng, Hozien, IZAK, Ibnzubair, Impaciente, Iolaire, Irishpunktom, IronGargoyle, Isnow, J8079s, JaGa, Jacobolus, Jagged 85, Jheald, Jidan, JohnOwens, Kafka Liz, Kanags, Kimchi.sg, Kkrystian, Klingsor, Lilliputian, Lionmoreh, Lucent474, Lucidish, M.Imran, Mahmagin, Matthew Fennell, Maxim, Mbahrami, MezzoMezzo, Michael Hardy, Mischa 667, Mladifilozof, Modulatum, Moopiefoof, MosheA, Mporter, Msin10, Muchness, Natgoo, NatusRoma, Noosphere, Nosang515, Oda Mari, Palaeovia, Patstuart, Pdfpdf, Phatius McBluff, PigFlu Oink, Pollinosisss, Prodego, Quangbao, R'n'B, RJC, RK, Rjwilmsi, Rursus, SQL, Sa.vakilian, Salmaakbar, Sangak, Savidan, SchuminWeb, Seancasey00, Seraphimblade, Shahab, Shifra t, Sina Kardar, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Skittleys, So8ra6, Sonjaaa, Stevertigo, Stoa, Striver, Superbeecat, Syncategoremata, Taus33, Template namespace initialisation script, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tomisti, Trinidadmuslim, Vegetator, Vonaurum, Why My Fleece?, Why Not A Duck, William M. Connolley, Woohookitty, Xashaiar, Xiquet, Yossi Shamit, Ypacaraí, Zereshk, Zfr, 279 anonymous edits Islamic art  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=443588144  Contributors: 00X00, A8UDI, AAA765, Abid6814, Access Denied, Adunbar505, Afghana, Ajsfiremouse, Alex S, AlexKarpman, Alexius08, Allstarecho, Almaaida, Almuhajabat, Anaxial, Ancheta Wis, Angr, Angusmclellan, AnnaFrance, Anonymous editor, Arab Hafez, Arabist, ArtHafez, Arthena, Arthur Rubin, Atifrahimkhan, Aylahs, Aymatth2, Azeemrags, Aziz1005, BabəkXürrəmi, Baher, Bartledan, Beetstra, BehroozZ, Bhadani, Billbalina, Billybobjoe11, Bobllfixit, Bobo192, Bodhicide, Bontenbal, Boris Živ, Bridesmill, Brz7, BurstMinor, Béka, CALR, CAPS LOCK, Calliopejen1, CambridgeBayWeather, CanadianLinuxUser, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Cate, Chibeca, Circeus, Codeman505, Culture editor, D99figge, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Damnreds, DanielCD, David1776, Delirium, Deviathan, Discospinster, Doctormatt, Dpasi97, DragonflySixtyseven, Drmies, Drpickem, 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Connolley, Woohookitty, Xiquet, Yahel Guhan, 193 anonymous edits Medicine in the medieval Islamic world  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=441933979  Contributors: ABCD, Abductive, Adashiel, Aeonx, Afadel, Aksi great, Al-Andalusi, Alexander Bakunin, Andy mci, Angusmclellan, Anonymous editor, Aquib American Muslim, Arab Hafez, Ashashyou, Athenean, BD2412, Barkeep, Barticus88, Bballstud10, BeNothing, Beagel, Belgrade18, Belovedfreak, Ben Ben, Bloodofox, Bobo192, Brandon, Brokenearth, Cartwarmark, Casper2k3, Cathcart5, Ccacsmss, Chris the speller, ChrisHodgesUK, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Craxyxarc, Crohnie, Crum375, Daedalus969, Dancter, Daniel Case, David Eppstein, Dbachmann, DeadEyeArrow, Debresser, Delldot, Dialectric, Discospinster, Doseiai2, DuncanHill, Earle Martin, EastTN, Elkman, Esfandieasil, Explicit, Famousdog, FayssalF, Flammifer, FlyingToaster, Fuzbaby, Gadget850, Gaius Cornelius, Gil-Galad, Gilliam, Gobbleswoggler, GoingBatty, Gun Powder Ma, Guy M, Halimahbintdavid, Hemlock Martinis, Hhaaf000, Hmains, HssanKachal, Hut 8.5, Ian Pitchford, Immunize, Iop7789, Irishpunktom, J.delanoy, J8079s, JLaTondre, Jagged 85, Jezhotwells, Jheald, Johnson5 jr., Johnuniq, Kbdank71, Keegan, Kefi, King of things98, Kkrystian, Knight1993, Koavf, Krylonblue83, Kwamikagami, LOTRrules, Lamaybe, LilHelpa, Lowe4091, MEDISLAR, MPerel, Ma000055, Maurice Carbonaro, Meamwye, Medicineman84, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mindmatrix, Misconceptions2, Mitso Bel, Mohummy, Msin10, NawlinWiki, Neelix, Neutrality, Neverquick, Nicolae Coman, Nono64, Ohnoitsjamie, Openstrings, Orpheus, Pablo2garcia, ParthianShot, Philip Trueman, Physicistjedi, Pigman, Plastikspork, Poetaris, Poolback, Porturology, R'n'B, RandomP, Reinis, Reyk, Rich Farmbrough, Riddleme, Rjwilmsi, Ruud Koot, Ryan, Sahar N Saleem, SamuelTheGhost, ScottSteiner, ShelfSkewed, Shirulashem, Shoplifter, Signalhead, Someone65, Squids and Chips, SteveMcCluskey, Storyof, Striver, Syncategoremata, Tabletop, Tanthalas39, Taryakii, Tassedethe, Tentontunic, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thegingerninja, Thingg, Thom85, Tide rolls, Timrollpickering, Tktktk, Twirligig, UkPaolo, UnknownForEver, VQuakr, Veraisme, Verbal, Versus22, WRK, Wickedrob, WikHead, William Avery, William M. Connolley, Wilson44691, WilyD, Witchwooder, Wizardman, Woohookitty, Xiquet, Yahel Guhan, Zereshk, ‫ﻣﺎﻧﻲ‬, 186 anonymous edits Astrology in medieval Islam  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=440352092  Contributors: Alimostofi, Astrologist, Bendykes, Blueboy96, Bomac, Ckatz, Cyrus111, Dbachmann, Dougweller, Edward, Epolk, Favonian, Hadal, Hsriniva, J.delanoy, Jagged 85, Koavf, Lionhead99, Maurice Carbonaro, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Neelmack, Neutrality, Otarod55, Per Honor et Gloria, Pxma, Radagast83, Rjwilmsi, Rursus, Ruud Koot, Samuella, Searchme, Siddhant, Siddharthanandagiri, Spacepotato, Syncategoremata, Tadorne, Yaago, Yahel Guhan, Zachariel, 39 anonymous edits Portal:Astrology  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=422431264  Contributors: Achillu, Alex Shih, Andrewpmk, Astrologist, B, Bedford, C.Fred, Jaway, Kiril Simeonovski, Samuella, Searchme, Soap, Sushant gupta, Vishvax, WOSlinker, Ywtnss22, 2 anonymous edits Portal:Occult  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423428556  Contributors: CJ, Cro..Scream, DCLXVI, Doug Bell, Düşünenadam, Eep², Iketsi, Jannizz, Kiril Simeonovski, Light Warrior, Manyminds17, Nishkid64, Quiddity, RichardF, Steelstring, Swissbosta, Synergy, 9 anonymous edits

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors Image:Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika & his kids.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dr.A.B.Rajib_Hazarika_&_his_kids.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Rajah2770 File:Kaaba at night.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kaaba_at_night.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Medineli at en.wikipedia File:Speaker Icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Mobius, 2 anonymous edits File:Dcp7323-Edirne-Eski Camii Allah green3.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dcp7323-Edirne-Eski_Camii_Allah_green3.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Nevit Dilmen File:FirstSurahKoran.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FirstSurahKoran.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Baba66, Bestiasonica, Dbachmann, Denniss, Grenavitar, Izehar, Johnbod, Kintetsubuffalo, Meno25, Neukoln, Ras67, Wouterhagens, 14 anonymous edits Image:Mosque.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mosque.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Antonio Melina/ABr (Original uploader was Hajor at en.wikipedia) Image:Ottoman miniature painters.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ottoman_miniature_painters.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ottoman miniature painter File:Hijabexamples2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hijabexamples2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: DesertEagle File:Madina Haram at evening .jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Madina_Haram_at_evening_.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ahmed Medineli Image:Age of Caliphs.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Age_of_Caliphs.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: United States of America federal government Image:Kairouan's Great Mosque courtyard.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kairouan's_Great_Mosque_courtyard.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Alexandre Moreau File:Mosque of Cordoba Spain.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mosque_of_Cordoba_Spain.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Steven J. Dunlop, Nerstrand, MN Image:TajMahalbyAmalMongia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajMahalbyAmalMongia.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: amaldla from san francisco File:Sultan Ahmed Mosque, Istambul.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sultan_Ahmed_Mosque,_Istambul.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: travisreitter File:Madhhab Map2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Madhhab_Map2.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Ghibar File:Divisions of Islam.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Divisions_of_Islam.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: BenAveling File:Whirling Dervishes 2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Whirling_Dervishes_2.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: shioshvili File:World Muslim Population Pew Forum.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_Muslim_Population_Pew_Forum.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: HaireDunya Image:Mazar-e sharif - Steve Evans.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mazar-e_sharif_-_Steve_Evans.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Calliopejen1, Darwinek, FlickreviewR, Gilliam, Ivanhoe, Juiced lemon, Tabb File:Lunar libration with phase Oct 2007 450px.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lunar_libration_with_phase_Oct_2007_450px.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Tomruen File:Islam_branches_and_schools.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Islam_branches_and_schools.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Angelpeream File:ImamAliMosqueNajafIraq.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ImamAliMosqueNajafIraq.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Toushiro File:Liwa-e-ahmadiyya 1-2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Liwa-e-ahmadiyya_1-2.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: derivative work: Ceddyfresse File:Liwa-e-ahmadiyya_1-2.png: Ahmadi File:MuslimDistribution3b.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MuslimDistribution3b.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Angr, AnonMoos, Joey-das-WBF, Kralizec!, L33t.79, Pensionero, Tarih, 3 anonymous edits File:Muslim majority countries2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muslim_majority_countries2.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: Vob08 File:Islam World.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Islam_World.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Ichwan Palongengi File:World Muslim Population Map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_Muslim_Population_Map.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: TheGreenEditor File:Cairo - Islamic district - Al Azhar Mosque and University.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cairo_-_Islamic_district_-_Al_Azhar_Mosque_and_University.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: Daniel Mayer File:Kairouan Mosque Stitched Panorama.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kairouan_Mosque_Stitched_Panorama.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: MAREK SZAREJKO from CLONMEL, IRELAND - POLAND File:Loudspeaker.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Myself488, Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 9 anonymous edits File:Age-of-caliphs.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Age-of-caliphs.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Brian Szymanski File:Selimiye Mosque, Dome.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Selimiye_Mosque,_Dome.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Ekabhishek, G.dallorto, Look2See1, Murdjo, Olivier2, Pitert, Tomia, 1 anonymous edits File:Taj Mahal, Agra, India edit2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_Mahal,_Agra,_India_edit2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: Yann; edited by King of Hearts File:Ali-Baba.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ali-Baba.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Maxfield Parrish File:Vasnetsov samolet.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vasnetsov_samolet.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Butko, Fryed-peach, Ghirlandajo, J.M.Domingo, Kalki, Mattes, Megapixie, Meno25, Rohieb, Sergey kudryavtsev, Shakko, Simonizer, Zzyzx11, 5 anonymous edits File:Ventanas con arabescos en la Alhambra.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ventanas_con_arabescos_en_la_Alhambra.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Anual, Aziz1005, Balbo, G.dallorto, JMCC1, Javier Carro, Leavade, Panarria, Ranveig, 1 anonymous edits File:Zahrawi1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zahrawi1.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Abulcasis, also known as Abu'l Qasim al-Zahrawi File:OttomanJanissariesAndDefendingKnightsOfStJohnSiegeOfRhodes1522.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OttomanJanissariesAndDefendingKnightsOfStJohnSiegeOfRhodes1522.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gryffindor, World Imaging, 1 anonymous edits File:ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Danieliness at en.wikipedia. Image:BaburCruise1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BaburCruise1.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Raza0007 Image:Madhhab Map2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Madhhab_Map2.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Ghibar Image:MuslimDistribution3b.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MuslimDistribution3b.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Angr, AnonMoos, Joey-das-WBF, Kralizec!, L33t.79, Pensionero, Tarih, 3 anonymous edits Image:World Muslim Population Pew Forum.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_Muslim_Population_Pew_Forum.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: HaireDunya

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors Image:World Muslim Population Map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_Muslim_Population_Map.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: TheGreenEditor Image:Countries with Sharia rule.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Countries_with_Sharia_rule.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Based on Image:BlankMap-World.png Image:OIC Member States.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OIC_Member_States.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Mohsin File:Countries with Sharia rule.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Countries_with_Sharia_rule.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Based on Image:BlankMap-World.png File:Ground Zero Mosque Protesters 11.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ground_Zero_Mosque_Protesters_11.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: David Shankbone from USA File:Correctional Activities at Central Jail Faisalabad, Pakistan in 2010 - Convicted prisoners receiving Quranic education.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Correctional_Activities_at_Central_Jail_Faisalabad,_Pakistan_in_2010_-_Convicted_prisoners_receiving_Quranic_education.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Tariq Babur - en:User:Tariq babur Image:Abbasids850.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Abbasids850.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Gabagool Image:Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic  Contributors: Andrew Dunn Image:Tusi couple.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tusi_couple.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bontenbal, Konstable, Leinad-Z, Mdd, Shakko, SteveMcCluskey, WikipediaMaster File:Lunar eclipse al-Biruni.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lunar_eclipse_al-Biruni.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:Al-BiruniAl-Biruni Image:Ghotb2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ghotb2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Zereshk at en.wikipedia File:Samarkand-06.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Samarkand-06.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Sigismund von Dobschütz File:Timbuktu-manuscripts-astronomy-mathematics.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Timbuktu-manuscripts-astronomy-mathematics.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Olybrius Image:Shatir500.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shatir500.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Azdi80, Konstable, Leinad-Z, 1 anonymous edits File:Caliphate 750.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caliphate_750.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Sheperd, William R. Historical Atlas. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1911. 53. Image:Khayyam-paper-1stpage.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Khayyam-paper-1stpage.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Xashaiar (talk) File:Matraki2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Matraki2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Corlumeh File:Image-Al-Kitāb al-muḫtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-ğabr wa-l-muqābala.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Image-Al-Kitāb_al-muḫtaṣar_fī_ḥisāb_al-ğabr_wa-l-muqābala.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: al-Khwarizmi Image:Omar Kayyám - Geometric solution to cubic equation.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Omar_Kayyám_-_Geometric_solution_to_cubic_equation.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Pieter Kuiper Image:AverroesColor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AverroesColor.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Admrboltz, Frank C. Müller, Jcb, Mattes, Sailko, Sparkit, 1 anonymous edits Image:Al-Tusi Nasir.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Al-Tusi_Nasir.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bontenbal, Interfase, Konstable, Lotse, Melanom, Xhienne Image:Ali Kuşçu Portre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ali_Kuşçu_Portre.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Polysynaptic, Wayiran File:Sughrat.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sughrat.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ilse@, Pieter Kuiper, Shizhao, Tomisti, Urban, 1 anonymous edits Image:Iqbal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iqbal.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: GeorgHH, Maksim, Martin H., Mu, Rootology, Siebrand, 2 anonymous edits File:RedFortAgra-Musamman-Burj-20080211-2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RedFortAgra-Musamman-Burj-20080211-2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Haros, Johnbod File:Mirror writing2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mirror_writing2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mahmoud Ibrahim File:Caucasian panel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caucasian_panel.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Tillman File:Turquoise epigraphic ornament MBA Lyon A1969-333.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Turquoise_epigraphic_ornament_MBA_Lyon_A1969-333.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Jastrow File:Khamseh Nizami 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Khamseh_Nizami_001.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Sultam Muhammed Original uploader was Евгений Ардаев at ru.wikipedia Image:Farsh1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Farsh1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Zereshk at en.wikipedia, File:Mantes carpet Louvre OA6610 detail1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mantes_carpet_Louvre_OA6610_detail1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jastrow File:Iran orientale o asia centrale, coppa, x sec 02.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iran_orientale_o_asia_centrale,_coppa,_x_sec_02.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: sailko File:HeratFridayMosque.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HeratFridayMosque.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Artacoana File:BLW Wall-tile with Dragon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BLW_Wall-tile_with_Dragon.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Johnbod, Memorato Image:Luckofedenhall.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Luckofedenhall.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: VAwebteam File:Dagger horse head Louvre OA7891.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dagger_horse_head_Louvre_OA7891.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jastrow File:WLA vanda Ottoman marquetry and tile-top table 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WLA_vanda_Ottoman_marquetry_and_tile-top_table_2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Wikipedia Loves Art participant " VeronikaB" File:Panel hunters Louvre OA 6265-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jastrow File:IlkhanateSilkCircular.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IlkhanateSilkCircular.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown / (of the reproduction) Davids Samling, Copenhagen Image:Umayyad Mosque-Mosaics west.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Umayyad_Mosque-Mosaics_west.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Heretiq, Johnbod, Juiced lemon, Look2See1 Image:Cup Susa Louvre MAO568.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cup_Susa_Louvre_MAO568.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jastrow Image:Pyxid Al Mughira OA 4068.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pyxid_Al_Mughira_OA_4068.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jastrow Image:Bassin Syrie 1.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bassin_Syrie_1.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Calame, Fabos, G.dallorto, Jastrow, Man vyi, Miniwark, Vlad2i, Wst, 2 anonymous edits File:SamarkandBibiKhanym.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SamarkandBibiKhanym.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Doron Image:Iskandar (Alexander the Great) at the Talking Tree.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iskandar_(Alexander_the_Great)_at_the_Talking_Tree.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Calame, Grenavitar, Johnbod, Shakko, Wst File:Yusef Zuleykha.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yusef_Zuleykha.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, FA2010, Shakko Image:Tile panel flowers Louvre OA3919-2-297.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tile_panel_flowers_Louvre_OA3919-2-297.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jastrow File:Emperor Jahangir receiving his two sons, an album-painting in gouache on paper, c 1605-06.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emperor_Jahangir_receiving_his_two_sons,_an_album-painting_in_gouache_on_paper,_c_1605-06.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Manohar

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors File:Sheykh lotfollah mosque.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sheykh_lotfollah_mosque.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Ladsgroup File:Batik Indonesia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Batik_Indonesia.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: MartijnL File:Roof hafez tomb.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roof_hafez_tomb.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Pentocelo File:Fes Medersa Bou Inania Mosaique2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fes_Medersa_Bou_Inania_Mosaique2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnRo0002, Fabos, Johnbod, Look2See1 Image:Adolf Seel Innenhof der Alhambra.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Adolf_Seel_Innenhof_der_Alhambra.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Balbo, Bukk, FA2010, Goldfritha, JMCC1, Olivier2, Wst, 1 anonymous edits Image:Delhi Qutub 01.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Delhi_Qutub_01.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Original uploader was Airknight at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Ashishbhatnagar72 at en.wikipedia. Image:Lustreware.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lustreware.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was VAwebteam at en.wikipedia Image:Canons of medicine.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canons_of_medicine.JPG  License: Public domain  Contributors: en:User:Zereshk Image:Persian Zakaria Razi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Persian_Zakaria_Razi.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fredou, Mattes, Wayiran Image:Astrological_Chart_-_New_Millennium.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Astrological_Chart_-_New_Millennium.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Cflm001, Gerbrant, Jkelly, Kordas, Liftarn, Maksim, Samuel Grant, 3 anonymous edits File:Venice ast sm.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Venice_ast_sm.jpg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: User:Zachariel Image:Pentagram (Levi).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pentagram_(Levi).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Eliphas Levi image:yggdrasil.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yggdrasil.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, Baisemain, Damouns, Gryffindor, Helios, Kjetil r, Nillerdk, 1 anonymous edits Image:chaosphere.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chaosphere.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Fibonacci

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License

License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/

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