Issues Specific to Different Types of Writing
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Writing Techniques: Issues Specific to Different Types of Writing
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ISSUES SPECIFIC TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF WRITING: 1. THE ESSAY 1. Identify Identify the structu structure re and basic basic elements elements of the followi following ng essay and and render them them in the form of a diagram: Illegal Immigrants: A etter Approach !omplaints about illegal immigrants ha"e been increasing in the past few years. Thousands regularly stream stre am acro across ss the souther southern n border border of the #nited #nited States$ some fleeing politi political cal repression repression and other otherss fleeing economic hardship. %ur current immigration and "isa policies offer some relief for these immigrant immi grants$ s$ but these these inadequate inadequate policie policiess now e&ist e&ist along alongside side se"eral othe otherr unsatisfa unsatisfactory ctory and sometimes illegal solutions. !urrent policies for granting "isas permit entry to the #nites States for se"eral purposes but do not addres add resss the probl problems ems of mos mostt il illeg legal al im immig migran rants. ts. A limit limited ed num number ber of "isas "isas for purpos purposes es of immigration are a"ailable each year$ with most going to persons who ha"e waited for years to gain permission for entry or to persons who ha"e critically needed professional and technical s'ills. %ther "isas are issued to students who ha"e been accepted into study programs at American uni"ersities. Still Still other "isas are issued to tourists and diplomats. A small number are issued to persons designated refugees$ who are undeniably in danger of political repression and possible imprisonment or death for their political "iews. (udging from newspaper reports$ howe"er$ most illegal aliens do not qualify as refugees$ nor do they ha"e sufficient money or education to qualify for student or tourist "isas. Their suffering and po"erty need immediate relief ) they do not ha"e time to wait in the long queues for immigrant "isas$ which can ta'e years rather than a few wee's. In response to the problem of large numbers of illegal immigrants$ se"eral unsatisfac unsatisfactory tory solutions are at han hand d or ar aree alr alread eady y bei being ng applie applied. d. %ne solutio solution n has been the forming forming of the *sanctua *sanctuary ry mo"ement$+ which in"ol"es groups of Americans illegally gi"ing aid and shelter to the immigrants. ,orced repatriation is also being tried$ but as the #-S- border patrol rounds up the aliens and sends them bac'$ they simply return a few days later$ and the numbers of those entering the country illegally has reached such proportions that the border patrol force is o"erwhelmed. Another possible solution is the addition of physical barriers to the border. That solution$ howe"er$ could result in a national image that would do more damage than good$ and comparisons to the Iron !urtain and the erlin Wall would undoubtedly appear prominently in world media. Though no solution will apparently be ideal$ it should be possible to de"elop a new "isa system that would ease the problem. Wouldbe immigrants who are poor and uneducated and who are clearly sub/ect to se"ere economic or political problems could be granted temporary "isas and be restricted to certain agricultural or industrial areas where they could find employment at wages below our national standards but higher than the standards in they home countries. 0erhaps some of the technical /obs that our manufacturer manufacturerss ha"e *e&port *e&ported+ ed+ coul could d return return in this way. After After a certain certain peri period$ od$ the immigra immigrants nts could be repatriated. The nation would benefit by ha"ing a source of less e&pensi"e labour$ and the aliens needs for temporary economic or political shelter would be met.
Writing Techniques: Issues Specific to Different Types of Writing
A. Types of Writin
1. Try to pair off the follow following ing instruc instructi tional onal "erbs "erbs with the definitio definitions ns pro"ided pro"ided alongside them: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Acc ccou ount nt for Analyse
gi" i"ee re reason asons3 s3 say say 44w why hy rat rathe herr ttha han n //us ustt d deefine fine write down the information in the right order
!omm !ommen entt on !om !ompare pare !ontrast Describe Discus Dis cusss 5"aluate 5&plain Id Iden enti tify fy 7ist %utline 8e"iew Summar Sum mari9e i9e
it item emb by yit item em con consi side dera rati tion on of the the top topic ic$$ us usua uall lly y pr pres esen ente ted d one one unde underr the the ot othe her r po poin intt out out dif ifffere erence nce only only and and pr preese sen nt res esul ultt in or orde derrly fas ashi hion on estimate the "alue of$ loo'ing at positi"e and negati"e attributes elect features aacccording to the question pre present sent arg argumen umentts ffor or and again gainst st th thee top topic ic in que questio stion3 n3 you can also also gi"e i"e y you ourr o opi pin nion ion e&plain the cause of ma'e critical or e&planatory notes6obser"ations stat statee the the main main feat featur ures es of an argu argume ment nt$$ o omi mitt ttin ing g all all that that is only only pa part rtia iall lly y re rele le"a "ant nt gi"e gi"eth thee main ain featu eaturresorgener eneral al featu eaturresof a sub/e ub/ecct$omit omitti ting ngmi mino norr deta detail ilss andstre stress ssin ing g str struc ucttur uree ma'e a sur"ey of the sub/ect$ e&amining it critically point out the differences and similarities sepa separa rate te down down in into to comp compon onen entt par parts ts an and d ssho how wh how ow they they inte interr rrel elat atee w wit ith h eeac ach h othe other r
. Which Which types of writi writing ng are employed employed in the followi following ng passages passages;; 8emember 8emember that the the fourr main fou main types types on nonfi nonfict ction ion prose prose are: are: narr narratio ation, n, descript description, ion, expositi exposition on and argumentation.. argumentation a<
Docume Documenta ntary ry photograp photographers hers at the turn of the cent century ury freq frequent uently ly turne turned d the their ir atten attentio tion n to persu persuadin ading g society of the necessity of pro"iding for the poor. Typical of them was (acob 8iis. =is photographs photographs of a&ter Street Alley in 1222 shows tenements on either side of the narrow passage$ crowding so close as to shut out the daylight. %n one side the tenements are bric' and on the other wood$ but they appear ric'ety and squalid. ags of rags and bones and paper are stac'ed in the alley. A small child stands beside bes ide the bags$ bags$ iin n front front of a pile pile of scrap scrap w wood ood she appa apparen rently tly has gathere gathered d fo forr ffood. ood.
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The str stronge ongerr th thee person personal al iident dentifi ificat cation ion of a top busines businesss e&ecut e&ecuti"e i"e to his his footb football all pas past$ t$ the the m more ore "iolent "iolent his antipathy to women managers is apt to be. =e will be so con"inced business >managementfootball< is the apogee of a mans game >great men against great men< that he will feel that women are positi"ely unqualified to compete against the strongest$ most powerful$ besttrained men in the world. Such affectations are managerial daydreams$ of course$ because the game of business is not a literal physical clash between male brutes. It is a symbol$ a computer model$ a paper game$ a psychological contest. !ompetiti"e largescale business does resemble football contests$ but the business game is mental competition competi tion ) its played in the head not the stadium. ?ot a single techn technique ique needed for the game is inherited inherit ed or inborn ) the talents$ talents$ mental agility$ abiliti abilities$ es$ attitudes are learned. learned. @en teach them to each other but adamantly refuse to teach them to women. Too bad about them3 women are smart enough to teach themsel"es$ and their practice field can be e"eryday situations confronted on e"ery /ob.
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@rs. @rs. %! was somew somewhat hat deaf$ deaf$ but otherw otherwise ise in good good health. health. She li"ed li"ed in an old peo people ples s home home.. %ne night$ in (anuary 1B$ she dreamed "i"idly$ nostalgically$ of her childhood in Ireland$ and especially of the songs they danced to and sang. When she wo'e up$ the music was still going$ "ery loud and clear. 4I must still be dreaming$ dreaming$ she thought$ but this was not so. She got up$ roused and pu99led. It was the middle of the night. Someone$ she assumed$ must ha"e left a radio playing. ut why was she the only person per son to be dist disturbe urbed d by it;
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?ation ?ationalism alism is aan n amalga amalgam m of two el elements3 ements3 aan n ideolo ideology gy embroidered embroidered abou aboutt the idea of of nationality$ nationality$ and the political institutionali9ation of that ideology into the national state. The strength of nationalism rests
Writing Techniques: Issues Specific to Different Types of Writing
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on a con conse sensu nsuss of natio national nal unity unity which which ma may y stem stem fr from om ra race ce$$ lang languag uage$ e$ comm common on histo history ry and e&periences$ e&perie nces$ religion$ territory$ territory$ or other interests. interests. The national state$ reflecting reflecting the politic political al and social organi9ation of the indi"iduals which comprise it and ha"ing coerci"e power o"er them$ claims$ in their name$ so"ereignty o"er the territory in which they li"e.
C. Ident dentiify the n!rr!ti"e patterns and "ocabulary employed in the following essay: The ,rench ,oreign ,oreign 7egion was founded by a 8oyal %rdinance %rdinance$$ written on a small piece of official ,rench th
War %ffice notepaper dated @arch $ a2C1$ and signed by the then reigning monarch of ,rance$ 7ouis 0hilippe. =e had been on the throne for barely eight months when he authori9ed this measure$ which was as much a product of necessity as of careful planning$ although there may be di"ided "iews about this. The reasons for forming the ,rench ,oreign 7egion were probably twofold. In the first place the men of the disbanded royal bodyguard and the 8egiment of =ohenlohe$ suddenly turned loose on to the street of a capital cap ital seethi seething ng with with unrest$ unrest$ unemploy unemployed ed and per perhaps haps disg disgrunt runtled led at their their abrupt abrupt dismiss dismissal$ al$ wer weree a potentia pote ntially lly dange dangerous rous el eleme ement. nt. They They were were trained trained to the use use of arms arms$$ and should should they they become become tools of of the politic poli tically ally ambiti ambitious ous or disconte discontente nted d they woul would d prese present nt a distinct distinct mena menace ce to the new regime$ regime$ not yet yet too firmly established and sure of itself. ,or some time 0aris had been swarming with countless other discharged foreign soldiers who had ser"ed in the ,rench army at "arious times under the 5mpire and the 8epublic$ many of whom were in needy circumstances circumstances and open to suggestion$ whilst othe others rs were openly loo'ing for trouble and always ready to ta'e part in any disturbance. It was clearly both e&pedient and desirable to remo"e these dangers as far away from the capital as possible. ?e&t$ ?e& t$ the Alge Algeria rian n ad"e ad"entur nturee had begun$ begun$ an and d it app appear eared ed that tthis his mi might ght pr pro"e o"e e&p e&pensi ensi"e "e in li li"es. "es. T The he more ,renchmen in ?orth Africa$ the lessThe popular the go"ernment at home would be$mi&ed so if foreign cannon folder was'illed a"ailable sp much the better. Algerian landing had been "iewed with feelings in a politically di"ided ,rance$ but there does not seem to ha"e been any mar'ed indication on the part of the politic poli tician ianss that that they were were unani unanimous mous that that th thee occupa occupatio tion n should should be aabrup bruptly tly ter termin minate ated3 d3 m most ost wer weree wary wary and and many apprehensi"e as to how the Algerian business would turn out. The formation of a foreign legion seemed therefore to be an ideal method of 'illing these two birds with one stone. %nce the conditions were made clear there does not seem to ha"e been any serious opposition. So#e s$estions for $sin n!rr!tion effe%ti"e&y: • •
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Identifyy the Identif the idea idea or fee feeling ling you wis wish h to convey convey thro through ugh your narrati narrative ve Arrange Arr ange the the narr narrati ative ve events events ch chrono ronologi logical cally, ly, se selec lectin ting g the det detail ailss that wi will ll rei reinfo nforce rce th that at ide idea a or feeling fee ling Include Inc lude only those those other other deta details ils that you need to mak makee the the narr narrati ative ve ccredi redible ble Determ Det ermine ine whe whethe therr you can ga gain in gre greater ater im impact pact by rear rearrang ranging ing th thee chro chronolo nology, gy, per perhaps haps placi placing ng the most important or interesting episode at the beginning or at the end Revise Rev ise to cut ir irrel releva evant nt deta detail, il, sel select ect the m most ost appropr appropriat iatee detai detail, l, and arrive arrive at the mo most st effect effective ive order
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Identif Identify y the dominant dominant imp impression ression >i.e. >i.e. attitude$ attitude$ image$ or or feelin feeling g that the author ha hass about his his topic< and the perspecti"e employed in the following e&cerpts using 'es%ription:
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%&ford has has been rruined uined by the moto motorr industry. industry. The The peace which which %&ford %&ford once once 'new$ and and which a great great uni"ersity city should always uni"ersity always ha"e$ has been swept ruthless ruthlessly ly away3 and no benefaction benefactionss and research research endowments can ma'e up for the change in character which the city has suffered. At si& in the morning the old courts sha'e to the roar of buses ta'ing the ne&t shift to !owley and 0ressed Steel3 great lorries with a double dec' cargo of cars for e&port lumber past @agdalen and the #ni"ersity !hurch. 7oads of motorengines are hurried hither and thither and the streets are thronged with a population which has no interest in learning and 'nows no studies beyond ser"osystems and distributors$ compression ratios and camshafts.
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An ear earthqu thqua'e a'e comes comes li'e a thi thief ef in the ni night ght$$ without without warning warning.. It was nece necessa ssary$ ry$ theref therefore$ ore$ to in"ent in"ent instruments that neither slumbered nor slept. Some de"ices were quite simple. %ne$ for instance$ consisted of rods of "arious lengths and thic'nesses$ which stand up on end li'e ninepins. When a shoc' came it shoo' the rigid table upon which these stood. If it were gentle$ only the more unstable rods fell. If it were se"ere$ they all fell. Thus the rods by falling$ and by the direction in which they fell$ recorded for the slumbering scientist the strength of a shoc' that was too wea' to wa'en him and the direction from which it came.
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Then Then the can cannons nons of th thee anchore anchored d wars warships hips th thunde undered red a sal salute ute to which which th thee Vasa Vasa fired fired in reply. As she emerged from her drifting cloud of gun smo'e with the water churned to foam beneath her bow$ her flags flying$ pennants wa"ing$ sails filling in the bree9e$ and the red and gold of her superstructure abla9e with colour$ she presented a more ma/estic spectacle than Stoc'holmers had e"er seen before. All gunports were open and the mu99les peeped wic'edly from them. So#e s$estions for 'e"e&opin !n effe%ti"e 'es%ription: • •
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Determine Determ ine the purpose purpose of tthe he d descr escripti iption on Determ Det ermine ine the dominan dominantt iimpre mpressio ssion n you you w want ant to crea create, te, and select select deta details ils that wil willl rreinf einforc orcee that impression Draw deta details ils fro from m tthe he othe otherr sense sensess – hear hearing, ing, smell, smell, taste, taste, and touc touch h – in addi addition tion to sig sight ht
F. What form orms of of e(position are used in the following passages; a<
Golcan Golcanoes$ oes$ wate waterfa rfalls$ lls$ battle battle scenes$ scenes$ rescu rescues es on horseba horsebac'$ c'$ ama9i ama9ing ng transf transform ormati ations ons ) all were done often on the stages of the nineteenth nineteenth century century.. ut the questions of how ) and of how well ) are more diffic difficult ult to answer. answer. !er !ertain tainly ly the handling handling of scenic scenic effect effectss was oft often en crude crude and blunder blundering ing.. A 0hiladelphia manager famous for his dramatic spectacles almost failed once when a gau9e representing rain fell properly properly on the stage$ but had to be remo"e remo"ed d by drawing it up again. The sight of rain rising offended the audiences sense of reality$ but$ impressed with the other scenery$ they chose to be amused rather than angered. The failure of Gesu"ius to erupt on cue$ howe"er$ totally ruined a la"ish production of he !ast Days of "ompeii. "ompeii . The stage manager ordered the curtain down and managed to get the eruption going$ but by the time the curtain was reopened the disappointed audience$ already lea"ing the theatre$ saw only the last sputters of the cataclysm.
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In a wooded wooded count country ry you will not ta'e the time to fool wit with h tentpoles tentpoles.. A stout stout line run through through the eyeletss and along the ape& will string it successfully betwee eyelet between n your two trees. Draw the line as tight as possible poss ible$$ but but do not be ttoo oo unhap unhappy py if$ if$ af after ter your your best best effort efforts$ s$ it still still sags sags a littl little. e. T That hat is what what your your long long crotched stic' is for. Sta'e out your four corners. If you get them in a good rectangle and in such relati relation on to the ape& as to form two isos isoscel celes es triang triangles les of the ends$ your tent will stand smooth smoothly. ly. Therefore$ There fore$ be an artist and do it right. %nce the four corner cornerss are well placed$ the rest follows follows naturally naturally.. %ccasionally in the ?orth !ountry it will be found that the soil is too thin$ o"er the roc's$ to grip the tentpegs. In that case dri"e them at a sharp angle as deep as they they will go$ and then lay a large flat stone across the slant of them. Thus anchored$ you will ride out a gale. ,inally$ wedge your long sapling crotch under the line ) outside the tent$ of course ) to tighten it. Hour shelter is up. If you are a woodsman$ ten or fifteen minutes has sufficed to accomplish all this.
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Two main main tech techniques niques ha ha"e "e been used for for training training elephants$ elephants$ which which we may call call respe respecti"ely cti"ely the toug tough h and the gentle. The former method simply consists of setting an elephant to wor' and beating him until he does what is e&pected of him. Apart from any moral considerations this is a stupid method of training$ for it produces a resentful animal who at a later stage may well turn man'iller. The gentle method requires more patience in the early stages$ but produces a cheerful$ goodtempered elephant who will gi"e many years of loyal ser"ice.
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We thin' thin' of males as lar large ge and powe powerfu rful$ l$ fema females les as smaller smaller and and wea'e wea'er$ r$ but the opposit oppositee patte pattern rn pre"ails pre"ai ls throug throughout hout natu nature re ) mal males es are generally generally sma smaller ller tha than n female females$ s$ and for good reason$ reason$ humans humans
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and most other mammals notwithstanding. Sperm is small and cheap$ easily manufactured in large quantities by little creatures. A sperm cell is little more than a nucleus of na'ed D?A with a deli"ery system.. 5ggs$ on the other hand$ must be larger$ for they pro"ide the cytoplast >all the rest of the cell< system with mitochondria mitochondria >or energy factorie factories<$ s<$ chloroplasts >for photosynthe photosynthesi9ers< si9ers<$$ and all other parts that a 9ygote needs to begin the process of embryonic growth. In addition$ eggs generally supply the initial nutriment$ or food for the de"eloping embryo. ,inally$ females usually perform the tas's of primary care$ either retaining the eggs within their bodies for a time or guarding them after they are laid. ,or all these reasons$ females are larger than males in most species of animals. e<
If a nation nation is essent essential ially ly disu disunit nited$ ed$ it is left to the go go"er "ernmen nmentt to hold it toget together her.. This incr increas eases es the e&pense of go"ernment$ and reduces correspondingly correspondingly the amount of economic resources that could be used for de"eloping the country. Where the cost of go"ernment is high$ resources for de"elopment are correspondingly low. This may be illustrated by comparing the position of a nation with that of a pri"ate pri "ate busi busines nesss ente enterpr rprise ise.. An enterpri enterprise se has to incur certain certain costs and e&penses e&penses in orde orderr to stay in business busi ness.. ,or our pur purpose poses$ s$ we are concern concerned ed only wit with h one 'ind of cos costt ) the cost of managing managing and and administering the business. Such administrati"e o"erhead in a business is analogous to the cost of go"ernment in a nation. The administrati"e o"erhead of a business is low to the e&tent that e"eryone wor'ing in the business can be trusted to beha"e in a way that best promotes the interests of the firm. If they can each be trusted to ta'e such responsibilities$ and to e&ercise such initiati"e as falls within their sphere$ then administrati"e o"erhead will be low. It will be low because it will be necessary to ha"e only one man loo'ing after each /ob$ without ha"ing another man to chec' upon what he is doing$ 'eep him in a line$ and report on him to someone else. ut if no one can be trusted trusted to act in a loyal and responsible respons ible manner towards his /ob$ then the business business will require armies of administra administrators$ tors$ chec'ers$ and foremen$ and administration will rise correspondingly3 and de"elopment. the business will ha"e less money to distribute as di"idends oro"erhead in"est directly in its future progress and
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There There are thre threee main stag stages es to Heats Heatss s de"el de"elopme opment nt as a poet. The fir first st phase$ phase$ when he was asso associa ciated ted both with the Aes Aesthet thetic ic mo"eme mo"ement nt of the 12E 12Ess and the !el !eltic tic Twil Twiligh ight$ t$ is charac character terised ised by a self self conscious 8omanticism. The poetry is sometimes based on Irish myth and fol'lore and has a mystical$ dreamli'e quality to it. The second main phase of Heatss poetic career was dominated by his commitment to Irish nationalism$ and it was Irish nationalism which first sent Heats in search of a consistently consist ently simpler$ simpler$ popular and more accessibl accessiblee style. As Heats became more and more in"ol"ed in"ol"ed in public publ ic nati national onalist ist iss issues ues$$ so his poetry became became more more publi publicc and conce concerne rned d with issues issues of the moder modern n Irish state. In the final phase of his career$ Heats reconciles elements from both his earlier periods$ fusing them into a mature lyricism. The poetry is less public and more personal. =e de"elops his theories of contraries and of the progression that can result from reconciling them. The later poems e&plore contrasts between physical and spiritual dimensions to life$ between sensuality and rationality$ betwee bet ween n turbul turbulenc encee an and d calm calm..
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othic othic was was originall originally y a term of abuse hurled hurled at the archite architectur cturee of the @iddle Ag Ages es by a pupil pupil of @ich @ichel elang angel elo o whos whosee ob/ec ob/ectt was was to ad"a ad"ance nce the inter interes ests ts of the the *n *new ew++ style style >n >now ow 'nown 'nown as 8enaissance< 8enais sance< at the e&pense of the old. The style he wrongly termed othic actually began in twelfth century ,rance and flourished o"er much of 5urope$ especially the north$ for the following four centuries. It is now used to describe a splendid$ soaring style typified by the pointed arches and rose windows of cathedrals$ and found repeated in miniature on much of the furniture that has sur"i"ed.
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8isi 8ising ng ai air$ r$ li'e li'e ai airr fl flow owing ing ttow owar ard d a low low$$ mo"es spirally in a countercloc'wise manner$ thereby causing e&tremely low pressure in the centre of the rising column. The lower the pressure$ the stronger the winds$ the greater the gyratory action in the updraft and the more intense the low pressure becomes. The lowering pressure cools the air rapidly to below the dew point3 as a result$ a cloud de"elops in conformity conform ity with this chimney of low pressur pressure3 e3 hence$ the characteris characteristic tic funnelshap funnelshaped ed cloud . . . . The "ery low pressure causes buildings to e&plode when the funnel cloud reaches the ground$ and the terrific "elocities of the wind ) perhaps as great as FEE miles per hour ) usually prostrate e"ery standing ob/ect in the tornadoes path.
Writing Techniques: Issues Specific to Different Types of Writing
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Writing Techniques: Issues Specific to Different Types of Writing
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T!s)s re*$ire' +y 'ifferent types of e(position: E(e#p&ifi%!tion# •
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give your readers give readers en enough ough ev evide idence nce to conv convince ince them them of the reasona reasonable bleness ness of yo your ur general gene ral obse observat rvation ion or main main idea use specific details
Pro%ess !n!&ysis# • •
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present ste present steps ps in in a cle clear ar order order,, iindic ndicatin ating gw when hen a particu particular lar orde orderr is is es essen sential tial to make the process simple to follow, follow, organi$e the many small steps involved involved in the process proc ess int into o a few main main steps steps define any technical terminology that may be unfamiliar to your audience
Co#p!rison,Contr!st: • • • •
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identify points of comparison %the similarities& identify points of contrast %the differences& determine the points you wish to emphasi$e choose cho ose an order order of discu discussio ssion n %treat %treat all of topi topicc A, then then all of topic ', or use alternating treatments of A and '& arrange the material to highlight the most significant significant similaritie similaritiess or differe differences nces at the beginning or at the end of your discussion
An!&oy# • • • •
decide on the impression you wish to give your audience about your sub(ect think of another sub(ect that lends itself to a comparison with your sub(ect find fin d areas areas of likene likeness ss b betw etween een the two sub( sub(ect ectss draw the comparison between the sub(ects
C&!ssifi%!tion# • • • •
determine the group of items to be classified choose the classification basis most useful to your audience verify if the categories of the classification system are mutually exclusive verify if all items in the group can fit into the classification
Definition# •
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whet whethe herr yo you u use narra narrati tion, on, ana analog logy, y, or any othe otherr me means ans of de deve velo lopme pment nt in con(unction with definition, you must at some point state term, class, and differentia see that your defi definit nition ion is suf suffic ficient iently ly elabor elaborate, ate, that the ter term m you are defining defining is clearly distinguished from other terms in the same class
C!$se !n' effe%t: • • •
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verify if the cause and effect relationship indeed exists identify the cause as contributing or sufficient provide prov ide suppo supporti rting ng evide evidence nce by by usi using ng na narrat rration, ion, descrip description tion,, or a anot nother her a appro ppropria priate te means of development if using an analogy for clarification, do not mistake it for supporting evidence
Writing Techniques: Issues Specific to Different Types of Writing
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J. 8ead the follo following wing essay essay and identify identify the princip principles les and techniq techniques ues of its !r$#ent: I am always ama9ed when I hear people saying that sport create createss goodwill between the nations$ and that if only the common peoples of the world could meet one another at football or cric'et$ they would ha"e no inclination inclina tion to meet on the battle field. 5"en if one didnt 'now from concret concretee e&les >the 1CJ %lympic ames$ for instance< that international sporting contests lead to orgies of hatred$ one could deduce it from general principles. ?early ?ea rly all the sports sports pra practi ctised sed nowadays nowadays are comp competi etiti"e ti"e.. Hou play to win win$$ and the gam gamee has little little meaning unless you do your utmost to win. %n the "illage green green$$ where you pic' up sides and no feeling of local patriotism is in"ol"ed$ it is possible to play simply for the fun and e&ercise: but as soon as the question of prestige arises$ as soon as you feel that you and some larger unit will be disgraced it you lose$ the most sa"age combati"e instincts are aroused. Anyone who has played e"en in a school football match 'nows this. At the international le"el sport is fran'ly mimic warfare. ut the significant thing is not the beha"iour of the players play ers but the att attitud itudee of the specta spectators tors:: and$ and$ behi behind nd tthe he spec spectat tators$ ors$ of the nat nations ions who wor' wor' th thems emsel"e el"ess iinto nto furies o"er these absurd contests$ and seriously belie"e ) at any rate for short periods ) that running$ /umping /ump ing and 'ic 'ic'ing 'ing a ba ball ll aare re test testss of of na natio tional nal "irtue "irtue.. Prin%ip&es !n' te%-ni*$es of !r$#ent!tion: • • • • • • •
)sing generalisations formed through inductive reasoning# )sing authority for support )sing positive, not negative, support )sing specific evidence )sing cause and effect *onsidering the alternatives Arguing Arg uing ob(e ob(ecti ctivel velyy
B. What &oi%!& f!&&!%ies are present in the following e&les; a< b< c< d< e< f< g< h<
0enal reform reform is necessary necessary becaus becausee of prison corruption$ corruption$ whi which ch shows the the need for for prison reform reform.. If tea teache chers rs ccanno annott ffi& i& the problem problemss in in sc school hoolss tthey hey shou should ld stay out of the debate debate altoget altogether her.. Why aare re m men en more more ag aggr gress essi" i"ee tha than n wom women en;; This This ac action tion is wron wrong g becaus becausee it is is immor immoral. al. Art courses courses shou should ld be requ required ired in se secondary condary sschools chools be because cause ther theree is no reason reason that they they shoul should d not be. ?e"er ?e"er tr trus ustt aany nyone one o"e o"err tthir hirty ty.. Thirty Thirty Kero& photo photocopi copiers ers ga"e clear repro reproduct ductions ions when teste tested. d. This thirtyfir thirtyfirst st one one$$ the theref refore ore$$ will will ma'e clear reproductions. As mor moree women ha"e /oin /oined ed the wor' wor' force$ force$ /u"en /u"enile ile crim crimee has increase increased. d. If mo mothers thers would would stay stay home where they belong$ the crime rate would drop.
Writing Techniques: Issues Specific to Different Types of Writing
1J
. Intro'$%tions !n' %on%&$sions
1. =ow do the followi following ng essay essay introdu introduct ction ionss compar compare; e; Which Which of each each pair pair do yo you u consider to be more effecti"e; =i =itl tler ers s mur murde derr of eeig ight ht mil milli lion on (ews (ews has has gi"en West ermany a legacy of guilt e"ident
=itlers murder of eight million (ews ) one more chapter in the long history of mans inhumanity to
in some of its ma/or foreign policies.
man hasnations$ gi"en moder modern n of West ermany any$ $ li'e some )other a legacy guilterm that is e"ident in some of its ma/or foreign policies.
b<
0ra 0ractic ctically ally sin since ce the beg beginni inning ng of time the *generation gap+ has constantly opposed the yo young ung an and d th thee olde olderr pe peopl ople. e. ut ut th thee tw two o groups are ali'e$ ali'e$ because because the only difference difference betwee bet ween n an old old man and a young young man man is tha thatt the young man has a glorious future before him and the old one has a splendid future behind beh ind him.
0eople are always tal'ing about 4the problem of youth. If there is one ) which I ta'e lea"e to doubt ) then it is older people who create it$ not th thee youn young g them themse sel" l"es es.. 7et us ge gett down down to fundamentals and agree that the young are after all human beings ) people /ust li'e their elders. There is only one difference between an old man and a young one: the young man has a glorious future before bef ore him and the old one has a splendi splendid d future behind beh ind him: him: aand nd m mayb aybee that that is whe where re the rub is.
c<
?atur ?ature$ e$ li'e li'e grea greatt art art$$ is li li'el 'ely y to ind induce uce an an intense intense aes aesthet thetic ic e&pe e&perie rience nce$$ to suggest suggest a world beyond which can seldom be described in words: for language$ which was in"ented to con"ey the meanings of this world$ cannot readily be fitted to the uses of another.
A youn young g ma man n se sees es a suns sunset et and$ and$ unab unable le to understand or to e&press the emotion that it rouses in him$ concludes that is must be the gateway to a world that lies beyond. It is difficult for any of us in mom moment entss of inte intense nse aes aesthet thetic ic e&p e&peri erience ence to re resis sistt the sugg sugges estio tion n that that we ar aree ca catch tchin ing g a glimp glimpse se fr from om a diff differ eren entt re real alm m of e& e&is iste tence nce$$ different and$ because the e&perience is intensely mo mo"i "ing ng$$ in some some way way grea greate terr than than we ca can n descri des cribe3 be3 for lang language uage$$ which which was in"ente in"ented d to con"ey the meanings of this world$ cannot readily be fitted fitted to the uses of another. another. That That all great art has this power of suggesting a world beyond is undeniable$ but in some moods ?ature shares it.
d<
Accor Accordin ding g to the Words Wordswo wort rth h 5n 5ncy cyclo clope pedia dia$$ * *ud uddh dhis ism m is on onee of th thee gre great at world world religions$ which originated in India about FEE !+. !+. The fo foun unde derr of udd uddhi hism sm was th Si Sidd ddhar harth th a aut utam ama. a. %n his CF birthday$ after a night of transcending re"elations$ he awa'ened awa'ene d *uddha+$ *uddha+$ the 5nlightened %ne$ and he set out for himself the mission to impart the secret of enlightenment to all who desire sal"ation.
*7et my s'in wither$ my hands grow numb$ my bones di bones dissol ssol"e3 "e3 until until I ha" ha"ee attai attained ned u under ndersta standin nding g I will not rise from here.+ Dus' had come $ and the resolute prince ) the day was his CF th birthday ) sa satt do down wn cr cross ossle legg gged ed and be bega gan n to me medi ditat tatee through the watches of the night. And when he finally rose$ there arose with him a new religion. ,or he was Siddh dhaarth autama and the under dersta standin ding he attained in a nig night of tr tran ansc scen endin ding g re re"e "ela latio tions ns ma made de him u uddh ddha$ a$ *awa'ened+ ) the 5nlightened %ne. %ut of the mission he then set for himself ) to impart the secret of enlightenment to all who desire sal"ation ) came came the faith faith we ccall all uddhis uddhism. m.
a<
Writing Techniques: Issues Specific to Different Types of Writing
1B
e<
Al Alco coho holl cons consum umpt ptio ion n is th thee caus causee of ma many ny car accidents.
,u ,ull lly y ha half lf the the fa fata tall autom automob obile ile ac acci cide dents nts in 5ngland in"ol"e a drun' dri"er$ according to the State Di"ision of @otor Gehicles.
f<
The The pur purpo pose se of tthi hiss pa pape perr is to pr pro" o"id idee an an answ swer er to th thee ques questi tion on *Who *Who in in"e "ent nted ed Ireland;+.
If od in"ented whis'ey to pre"ent the Irish from ruling the world$ then who in"ented Ireland;
S$estions for 'e"e&opin !n intro'$%tion: • • • • • •
+pen with the thesis statement +pen with a broad statement +pen with a scenesetter +pen with a -uotation +pen with an anecdote +pen with a statistic or fact
.
%on%&$'in &$'in essays ar The The mo most st comm common only ly em empl ploy oyed ed me mean anss of %on% are: e: the sum summar maryy$ the pred the predict iction ion$$ the -uestion$$ the -uestion the recommendation recommendation >s<$ >s<$ the the -uotation -uotation.. Which Which of these me method thodss are made us usee of in the following e&cerpts;
a<
The child cthan hildren ren offpelt Dol Dolphu phubarter. and and Wan Wangri re learn learning ing th that at th theeta'e sabu ) sabu ) snow sno w leopar leopard d ) isconcerns$ wor worth th m more ore to to could th them em ali"e as ao for As gri theyaare come of age and their places in "illage they become bec ome the the most most ef effec fecti"e ti"e g guar uardian dianss of th their eir nati nationa onall tre treasu asure$ re$ 'eep 'eeping ing tthe he sc scow ow leopa leopards rds o off the 7angu 7angu a safe distance from the edge of e&tinction.
b<
Tru Trust$ st$ then$ open open trus trustt has nothin nothing g to do with with e&pecti e&pecting ng or doin doing g spec specifi ific$ c$ pre predete determi rmined ned things in marriage$ marria ge$ but rather with sharing the 'nowledge of your immed immediate iate desires and needs with your mate$ li"ing for now and not for yesterday or tomorrow$ li"ing not the life that somebody else has laid out for you in terms of role e&pectations$ li"ing instead for your own self through share communication and growth with your mates self. Trust then is freedom to assume responsibility for your own self first and then to share that human self in lo"e with your partner in a marriage that places no restrictions upon growth or limits on fulfilment.
c<
It is clea clearr fr from om the e& e&le less abo"e abo"e tha thatt the state state is spe spendi nding ng far mor moree on hig highw hway ayss than than it is on education. @ost residents will be glad to ha"e efficient road systems for getting to and from wor' as well as for easy access to recreation areas. =owe"er$ =owe"er$ if current current spending trends continue$ the question that "oters will ha"e to answer is$ *Do I want to be on the same highway with functionally illiterate dri"ers;+
d<
We ca cannot nnot pro produce duce responsibl responsiblee per persons sons until until we help them them un unco"er co"er tthe he I@ I@ ?%T %L H%#85 H%#85 %L position positio n whi which ch unde underli rlies es the comp complic licate ated d and destruc destructi"e ti"e games games they play. play. %nc %ncee we understa understand nd positio posi tion n and ga games mes$$ free freedom dom of respon response se beg begins ins to eemer merge ge as a re real al possibi possibilit lity. y. As llong ong as people people are are bound boun d by the p past$ ast$ they they ar aree not fre freee to respond respond to the the needs needs and and aaspir spiratio ations ns of others others in the the pr prese esent3 nt3 and *to say that we are free$+ says Will Durant$ *is merely to mean that we 'now what we are doing.
e<
Afte Afterw rwar ards ds one one can ccho hoose ose ) n not ot si simpl mply y accept ) ) the phrases that will best co"er the meaning$ and then switch round and decide what impressions impressions ones words are li'ely to ma'e on another person. This last effort of the mind cuts out all stale or mi&ed images$ all prefabricated phrases$ needless repetitions$ and humbug and "agueness generally. ut one can often be in doubt about the effect of a word or a phrase$ and one needs rules that one can rely on when instinct fails. I thin' the following rules will co"er most cases: a. ?e"er use use a metaphor$ metaphor$ simile or other figure of speech$ speech$ whic which h you are are used to to seein seeing g in print. print. b. ?e" ?e"er er use use a llong ong word word w wher heree a shor shortt o one ne will will do. do.
Writing Techniques: Issues Specific to Different Types of Writing
12
c. d. e.
If iitt is poss possibl iblee to ccut ut a wor word d out out$$ alway alwayss cut itit out out.. ?e" ?e"er er use use th thee passi" passi"ee wh where ere y you ou can use the aacti" cti"e. e. ?e"er use use a for foreign eign phrase$ phrase$ a sscientif cientific ic wor word d or a //argon argon w word ord if you can thin' of of an e"eryday e"eryday 5nglish equi"alent. f. rea' rea' an any y of these these rul rules es sooner sooner than than say anythin anything g bar barbar barous. ous. These rules sound elementary$ elementary$ and so they are$ but they demand a deep change of attitude in anyone who has grown used to writing in the style now fashionable.
C. Writin t-e rese!r%- ess!y
1. !ompar !omparee the the follo followin wing g paradi paradigm gmss most most li'ely li'ely to go"ern go"ern the structu structure re of differ different ent types of research essays and consider what writing techniques are most suited to each of them: !.
Gene Gener! r!&& A& A&&/ &/P$ P$rp rpos osee 0 0o' o'e& e& Identify the sub/ect 5&plain the problem 0ro"ide bac'ground information ,rame a thesis statement Analyse the sub/ect 5&amine the first ma/or issue 5&amine the second ma/or issue
5&amine the third ma/or issue Discuss your findings 8estate your thesis and point beyond it Interpret the findings 0ro"ide answers$ solutions$ a final opinion Mremem Mremember ber tha thatt to the introduct introduction ion you can add quo quotati tation$ on$ an anecdote anecdote$$ a definit definition$ ion$ comment com mentss fro from m your your sour source ce materi materials als33 within within the body you can compare$ compare$ analys analyse$ e$ gi" gi"ee e"idence$ trace historical e"ents$ etc.3 in the conclusion you can ma'e a prediction$ summari9e your findings$ etc. +.
0o'e 0o'e&& for for A' A'"!n% "!n%in in yo$r I'e! I'e!ss !n !n' ' TT-eori eories es Introduction 5&amine the problem or question Discuss its significance 0ro"ide any necessary bac'ground information
Introduce who ha"e addressed problem 0ro"ide a e&perts thesis sentence addresses thethe problem from a perspecti"e not yet ad"anced by other otherss ody Trace issues in"ol"ed in the problem De"elop a past to present e&amination !ompare and analyse the details and minor issues !ite e&perts who ha"e addressed the same problem !onclusion Ad"ance and defend your theory as it grows out of e"idence in the body %ffer directi"es or a plan of action Suggest additional wor' and research that is needed %.
0o 0o'e& 'e& for t-e An! An!&ys &ysis is o off Cr Cre! e!ti" ti"ee Wo Wor)s r)s Introduction Identify the wor' i"e a brief summary in one sentence
Writing Techniques: Issues Specific to Different Types of Writing
1
0ro"ide bac'ground information that related to the thesis %ffer biographical facts about the author that relate to the specific issues #se quotations and paraphrases of authorities that establish the scholarly traditions Write a thesis sentence that establishes your particular "iews of the literary wor' or any other art form ody 0ro"ide an analy 0ro"ide analysis sis di"ided di"ided according according to such elements elements as imagery$ imagery$ theme$ character de"elopment$ structure$ symbolism$ narration$ language$ etc. !onclusion Leep a fundamental focus on the author of the wor'$ not /ust the elements of analysis as e&plained in the body %ffer a conclusion that e&plores the contributions of the writer in concord with your thesis sentence '.
0o 0o'e& 'e& fo forr Ar Ar$#e $#ent nt !n !n' ' Per Pers$! s$!sio sion n P!per P!perss Introduction In one sentence establish the problem or contro"ersial issue that your paper will e&amine Summari9e the issues Define 'ey terminology @a'e concessions on some points of the argument #se quotations and paraphrases of sources to build the contro"ersial nature of the sub/ect 0ro"ide bac'ground to establish a past6present relationship
ody
Write a thesis to establish your position
Argue in defence on one side Analyse the issues$ both pro and con i"e e"idence from the sources$ including quotations as appropriate !onclusion 5&pand your thesis into a conclusion that ma'es ma'es clear your poison which should be one that grows logically from your analysis and discussion of the issues e.
0o'e 0o'e&& fo forr ! C Co# o#p! p!r! r!ti ti"e "e S St$ t$'y 'y Introduction 5stablish A 5stablish riefly compare the two Introduce the central issue !ite source materials on the sub/ects 0resent your thesis ody >choose one< 5&amine A 6 !ompare A and 6 Issue 1: Discuss A and 5&amine 6 !ontrast A and 6 Issue : Discuss A and !ompare and contrast A and 6 Discuss the central issues 6 Issue C: Discuss A and !onclusion Discuss the significant issues Write a conclusion that ran's one o"er the other$ or Write a conclusion that rates the respecti"e wisdom of each side
D. Ro$n'/Up
1. Select a $EEEword essay you ha"e already written and re"ise it in accordance to the guidelines of essay writing. 0resent both "ersions and a short list of personal comments on any changes you ha"e made to the original.
