IT Security and Control

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IT SECURITY AND CO NTROL AND COMPUTE R FRAUD: PREVENTION AND CO NTROL By: O. K. Ibedu
(CGEIT, CISA) Deputy Director, CBN

WAIFEM
Regional Course On Computer Applications In Accounting Auditing and Financial Management, Lagos, Nigeria. (July 13th 20th, 2009)

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IT SECURITY AND CONTROL AND COMPUTER FRAUD: PREVENT ION AND CONTROL OUTLINE · · · · · · · · a) Components of Security Policy Logical Access Issues and Exposure Computer Crime Exposures Access Control Software Auditing Logical Access Network Infrastructure Security Auditing Environmental Controls Auditing Physical Access Components of a Security Policy The framework and intent of security must be clearly established and communicated to all appropriate parties for security to be successfully implemented and maintained. The key to the framework is a written security policy that serves to heighten security awareness throughout the organization. Key components of security policy include the following: i) Management support and commitment: Management must demonstrate a commitment to security by clearly approving and supporting formal security awareness and training. This may require special management-level training since security is not necessarily a part of management expertise.

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ii)

Access Philosophy: Access to computerized information should be based on a documented need-to-know, need-to-do basis.

iii) Compliance with Relevant Legislation and Regulations:- The Policy should state that compliance is required with all relevant legislation, such as that requiring the confidentiality of personal information, or specific regulations relating to particular industries, e.g. banking and financial institutions. iv) Access Authorization: The data owner or manager who is responsible for the accurate use and reporting of the information should provide written authorization for users to gain access to computerized information. The manager should give this

documentation directly to the security administrator so mishandling or alteration of the authorization does not occur. v) Review of Access Authorisation: Access controls should be evaluated regularly to ensure they are still effective. Personnel and departmental changes, malicious efforts and just plain carelessness can impact the effectiveness of access controls. For this reason, the security administration, with the assistance of the managers who provide access authorization, should review access controls. Any access exceeding the need-to-know , need-to-do philosophy

should be changed accordingly. vi) Security Awareness:- All employees, including management, need to be made aware on a regular basis of the importance of security. A number of different mechanisms are available for raising security awareness including: · Distribution of a written security policy.

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· · · · · · ·

Training on a regular basis of new employees, users and support staff. Non-disclosure statements signed by the employee. Use of different media in promulgating security (e.g. company newsletter, web page, videos, etc) Visible enforcement of security rules. Simulate security incidents for improving security procedures Reward employees who report suspicious events. Periodic audits.

vii) Responsibilities of Employees:- The employees have the following responsibilities for security: · · · · Reading the security policy Keeping logon-IDs and passwords secret Reporting suspected violations of security to the security administrator Maintaining good physical security by keeping doors locked, safeguarding access keys, not disclosing access door lock combinations and questioning unfamiliar people. · · Conforming to local laws and regulations. Adhering to privacy regulations with regard to confidential information (e.g. health, legal, etc)

Non-employees with access to company systems also should be held accountable for security policies and responsibilities. This includes contract employees, vendors, programmers/analysts, maintenance personnel and clients. Security awareness should not disclose sensitive

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information. Security policies provided to employees should not identify such sensitive security features as password file names, technical security configuration, methods to bypass electronic security or system software file. viii) Role of Security Administrator:- The security administrator, typically a member for implementing systems Department, is responsible for implementing, monitoring and enforcing the security rules that management has established and authorized. For proper segregation of duties, the security administrator should not be responsible for updating application data nor be an end user, application programmer, computer operator or data entry clerk. In large organizations, the security administrator is usually a full-time function; in small organizations, someone may perform this function with other non-conflicting responsibilities. ix) Security Committee:- Security policies, procedures and guidelines affect the entire organizational and as such, should have the support and suggestions of end users, executive management, security administration, IS personnel and legal counsel. Therefore, individuals representing various management levels, should meet as a committee to discuss and establish security practices. The committee should be formally established with appropriate terms of reference and regular meetings with action items, which are followed up on at each meeting. Logical Access Issues and Exposures: Inadequate logical access controls increase an organizations potential for losses
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b)

resulting from exposures. These exposures can result in minor inconveniences or total shutdown of computer functions.

Exposures that exist from accidental or intentional exploitation of logical access control weaknesses include technical exposures and computer crime. i) Technical Exposures:Unauthorised intentional or

unintentional implementation or modification of data and software may result in any of the following: · Data Diddling:- Involves changing data before or as they are entered into the computer. This is one of the most common abuses because it requires limited technical knowledge and occurs before computer security can protect data. · Trojan Horses:- Involves hiding malicious, fraudulent code in an authorized computer program. This hidden code will be executed whenever the authorized program is executed. A classic example is the Trojan horse in the pay-roll calculating program that shares a barely

noticeable amount off each paycheque and credits it to the perpetrator s payroll account. · Rounding Down:- Involves drawing off small amounts of money from an computerized transaction or account and re-rounding it to the perpetrators account. The term rounding down refers to rounding small fractions of a denomination down and transferring these small fractions into the unauthorized account. Since the amounts are so small, they are rarely noticed.
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·

Salani Techniques:- Involve the slicing of small amounts of money from a computerized transaction or account and is similar to the rounding down technique.

The different between the rounding down technique and the Salami techniques is that in rounding down the program rounds off by fraction such as Penny or Kobo or cents. For example, if a transaction amount in U.S. Dollar were $1,500,500.39 the rounding down techniques may round the transaction to

$1,500,500.35. The Salami technique truncates the last few digits from the transaction amount so $1,500,500.39 becomes

$1,500,000.30 or $1,500,500.00 depending on the calculation built into the program. · Viruses:- Viruses are malicious program code inserted into other executable code that can self-replicate and spread from computer to computer, via sharing of computer diskettes, transfer of logic over telecommunication lines or direct contact with an infected machine/code. A virus can harmlessly display cute messages on computer terminals, dangerously erase or alter computer files or simply fill computer memory with junk to a point where the computer can no longer function. An added danger is that a virus may be dormant for some time until triggered by a certain event or occurrence, such as a date (26 December Happy boxing day) or being copied a pre-specified

number of times. During this time, the virus has silently been spreading.
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·

Worms:- Worms are destructives programs that may destroy data or utilize tremendous computer and communication resources but do not replicate like viruses. Such programs do not change over programs, but can run independently and travel from machine to machine across network connections. Worms may also have portions of themselves running on many different machines.

·

Logic Bombs:- Logic bombs are similar computer viruses except that they do not self-replicate. The creation of logic bombs requires some specialized knowledge, as it involves programming the destruction or modification of data at a specific time in the future. However, unlike viruses or worms, logic bombs are very difficult to detect before they blow-up; thus, they have the greatest potential for damage. Detonation can be timed to cause maximum damage long after the departure of the perpetrator. It may also be used as a tool of extortion, with a ransom being demanded in exchange for disclosure of the location of the bomb.

·

Trap Doors:- Traps doors are exits out of an authorized program that allow insertion of specific logic, such as program interrupts, to permit a review of data during processing. These holes also permit insertion of unauthorized logic.

·

Asynchronous Attacks:- This occurs in multi processing environments where data move asynchronously (one character at a time with a start As and a stop result, signal) numerous across data

telecommunications

lines.

transmissions must wait for the line to be free (and flowing in
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the proper direction) before being transmitted. Data that are waiting are susceptible to unauthorized accesses called asynchronies attacks. These attacks which are usually very small pin like insertions into cable, may be committed via hardware and are extremely hard to detect. There are many form of asynchronous attacks and the IS Auditor will require the assistance of a network manager and/or a system software analyst to evaluate the very complex and technical exposure. · Data Leakage:- Involves siphoning or leaking information out of the computer. This can involve dumping files to paper or can be as simple as stealing computer reports and tapes. · · Wire-Tapping:- Involves eavesdropping on information being transmitted over telecommunications lines. Piggybacking:- This is the act of following an authorised person through a secured door or electronically attacking to an authorized telecommunications link to intercept and possibly alter transmissions. · Shut-Down of the Computer:- This can be initiated through terminals or microcomputers connected directly (on-line) or indirectly (dial-up-lines) to the computer. Only individuals knowing a high-level systems logon-ID can usually initiate the shutdown process. This security measure is effective only if proper security access controls are in place for the high-level logon-ID and the telecommunications connections into the computer. Some systems have proven to be vulnerable to shutting themselves down under certain conditions of overload.

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·

Denial of Service:- This is an attack that disrupts or completely denies service to legitimate users, networks, systems or other resources. The intent of any such attack is usually malicious in nature and often takes little skill because the requisite tools are readily available. Computer Crime Exposures:- Computer systems can be used to steal money, goods, software or corporate information. Crimes also can be committed when the computer application process or data are manipulated to accept false or unauthorised transactions. There also is the simple, non-technical method of stealing computer equipment.

c)

Computer crime can be performed with absolutely nothing physically being taken or stolen. Simply viewing computerized data can provide an offender with enough intelligence to steal ideas or confidential information (intellectual property). Committing crimes that exploit the computer and the information it contains can be damaging to the reputation, morale and very existence of an organization. Loss of customers, embarrassment to management and legal actions against the organization can result. Threats to business include the following: · · Financial Loss:- Can be direct, through loss of electronic funds or indirect, through the costs of correcting the exposure. Legal Repercussions: There are numerous privacy can human rights laws an organization should consider when developing security policies and procedures. These laws can protect the organization but can also protect the perpetrator from prosecution.
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In addition, not having proper security measures could expose the organization to law suits from investors and insurers if a significant loss occurs from a security violation. Banks must comply with industry-specific regulatory agencies. The IS Auditor should obtain legal assistance when reviewing the legal issues associated with computer security. · Loss of Credibility or Competitive Edge: Banks, savings and loans and investment firms, need credibility and public trust to maintain a competitive edge. A security violation can severally damage this credibility, resulting in a loss of business and prestige. · Blackmail/Industrial Espionage: By gaining access to

confidential information or the means to adversely impact computer operations, a perpetrator can extort payments or services from an organization by threatening to exploit the security breach. · Disclosure of Confidential, Sensitive or Embarrassing Information: Events of this nature can damage an organization s credibility and its means of conducting business. Legal or regulatory actions against the bank may also be the result of disclosure. · Sabotage: Some perpetrators are not looking for financial gain. They merely want to cause damage due to dislike of the organization or for self-gratification.

Logical access violators are often the same people who exploit physical exposures, although the skills needed to exploit logical exposures are more technical and complex.
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·

Hackers: Hackers are typically attempting to test the limits of access restrictions to prove their ability to overcome the obstacles. They usually do not access a computer with the intent of destruction; however, this is quite often the result.

· ·

Employees: Maybe authorized or unauthorized but cam exploit logical exposures. IS Personnel: These individuals have the easiest access to computerized information since they are the custodians of this information. In addition, to logical access controls, good

segregation of duties and supervision help reduce logical violations by these individuals. · · · End Users Former Employees: Former employees who have left on unfavourable terms could exploit logical exposures. Interested or Educated Outsiders - Competitors - Foreigners - Organized criminals - Crackers (Paid hackers working for a third party) - Phreakers · (hackers attempting access into the

telephone/communication system) Part-time and Temporary Personnel: Office cleaners often have a great deal of physical access and may well be competent in computing. · Vendor and Consultants

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·

Accidental Ignorant: Someone could perpetrate a violation unknowingly.

d)

Access Control Software Access Control software is designed to prevent unauthorized access to data, use of system functions and programs,

unauthorised updates/changes to data and detect or prevent an authorized attempt to access computer resources. Access control software interfaces with the operating system and acts as a central control for all security decisions. The access control software functions under the operating system software and provides the capability of restricting access to data processing resources either on-line or in batch processing.

To be effective, access control software should be used at the system software level in protecting all computer resources, applications, and data. At this level, access control is either an inherent feature of the operating system or is an add-on product that interfaces with the operating system. For example, Microsoft windows NT operating systems include access control software as an inherent feature of its operating system. Also, Novelle Wetware operating systems include access control software as inherent feature. Access control software generally performs the following tasks: · · · Verification of the user Authorisation of access to defined resources Restriction of users to specific terminals
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·

Reports

on

unauthorised

attempts

to

access

computer

resources, data or programs. Access control software may provide the following functions: · · · · · Verify user authorization to sign-on at the network and sub-system levels. Verify user authorization at the application and transaction level. Verify user authorization within the application Verify user authorization at the field level for changes within a database. Verify sub system authorization for the user at the file level.

Authorization is the most important component of access control software. Some authorization functions include as follows: · · · · · · · · · · · Logon-IDs and user authentication Limitation of specific terminals for specific logon-IDs. Limiting access based on predetermined times. Limiting specific tasks to be initiated from a predefined authorized library. Establishment of rules of access. Creation of individual accountability and audit ability. Installation defined options. User profiles. Data file and database profiles Logging events Logging user activities

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· ·

Logging

database/data

communications

access

activities

for

monitoring access violations. Reporting capabilities.

Access control software generally access request in the following way: Identification Users Must identify themselves to the access

control software such as name and account number. Authentication Users must prove that they are who they claim to

be. Authentication is a two way process where the software must first verify the validity of the user and then proceed to verify prior knowledge information. For example, user may provide the following information: · · · Remember information such as name, account number and password. Processor objects such as badge, plastic cards and key. Personal characteristics such as fingerprint, voice and signature.

e)

Auditing Logical Access: When evaluating logical access controls the IS Auditor should: i) Obtain a general understanding of the security risks facing information processing through a review of relevant

documentation, inquiry, observation, risk assessment and evaluation techniques. ii) Document and evaluate controls over potential access paths into the system to assess their adequacy, efficiency and

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effectiveness by reviewing appropriate hardware and software security features and identifying and deficiencies or

redundancies. Note that paths of Logical Access include: · · · · · Operator console On-line Terminals Batch job processing Dial-up ports Telecommunication Network

iii) Test controls over access paths to determine that they are functioning techniques. iv) Evaluate the access control environment to determine if the control objectives are achieved by analyzing test results and other audit evidence. v) Evaluate the security environment to assess its adequacy by reviewing written policies, observing practices and procedures and comparing them with appropriate security standards or practices and procedures used by other organizations. and effective by applying appropriate audit

f)

Network Infrastructure Security: Communication networks (wide area or local area networks) generally include devices connected to the network, and programs and files supporting the network operations control is accomplished through a

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network control terminal and specialized communications software. The following are controls over the communication network: Network control functions should be performed by technically qualified operators. Network control functions should be separated and duties rotated on a regular basis where possible. Network control software must restrict operator access from performing certain functions (such as the ability to amend/delete operator activity logs). Network control software should maintain an audit trail of all operator activities. Audit trails should be reviewed periodically by operations management to detect any unauthorized network operations activities. Network operations standards and protocols should be

documented and made available to the operators and should be reviewed periodically to ensure compliance. Network access by the system engineers should be closely monitored and reviewed to detect unauthorized access to network. Analysis should be performed to ensure workload balance, fast response time and system efficiency. A terminal identification file should be maintained by the communications software to check the authentication of a terminal when it tries to send or receive messages. Data encryption should be used when appropriate to protect messages from disclosure during transmission.
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Some common network management/control software packages are: * * * * * 3 com AT & T STARLAN Novell Netware NCP/VTAM Net View * * * * * Netpass EREP Windows NT UNIX Unicenter TNG

LAN RISKS AND ISSUES Local Area Networks (LANs) facilitate the storage and retrieval of programs and data used by a group of people. LAN software and practices also need to provide for the security of these programmes and data. Unfortunately, most LAN software provides low level of security as emphasis has been on providing capability and functionality rather than security.

Software vendors and network users have recognized the need to provide diagnostic capabilities to identify the cause of problems when the network goes down or functions in an unusual manner. The use of logon-IDs and passwords with associated administration facilities is now standard. LANs can represent a form of decentralized computing. Decentralised local processing provides the potential for a more responsive computing environment; however, organizations do not always give the opportunity to efficiently develop staff to address the technical, operational and control issues that the complex LAN technology represents. As a result, local LAN administrators frequently lack the experience, expertise and time to effectively manage the computing environment. The various alternatives of media, protocol
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hardware, transmission techniques, topology and network software ensure that each LAN is unique. This mix of vendors and unique environments make it difficult to implement standard management, operating and auditing practices. As a result, the costs of resolving problems, when they occur, can be substantial. Normal LAN users recognize only one attribute of the LAN- it works. In a well structural LAN the unsophisticated user is not able to judge whether the technology is appropriate, the software installed and documented properly or that necessary control and security measures are taken. Audit trails are considered only after a problem occurs. Client/Server Security Client/server technology enables business units to develop and deliver products and services to market much more quickly than traditional legacy methods. Clients/server systems utilize distributed techniques, creating increased risk of access to data and processing. To effectively secure the client/server environment, all access points should be identified. In mainframe-based applications, centralized processing techniques require the user to go through one pre-defined route to access all resources. In a client/server environment, several access routes exist, as application data may exit on the server or on the client. Each of these routes must therefore be examined individually and in relation to each other to determine that no exposures are left unchecked. In order to increase the security in a client/server environment, an IS Auditor may want to see that the following control techniques are in place:
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·

Security access to the data or application on the client/server may be performed by disabling the disk drive, much like keyless workstation that has access to a mainframe. Diskless workstations prevent access control software from being by-passed and rendering the workstation vulnerable to unauthorized access. By securing the automatic boot or start-up batch files, unauthorized users may be prevented from overriding login scripts and access.

·

Network monitoring devices may be used to inspect activity from known or unknown users. These devices may identify client addresses; allowing proactive session termination as well as finding evidence of unauthorized access for alternative investigation. However, the method of securing the client/server environment may only be as good as the administrator who monitors it. Since this is a detective control, if the network administrator does not monitor or maintain these devices, the tool becomes useless against unauthorized intruders.

·

Data encryption techniques (symmetric or asymmetric encryption) can help protect sensitive or proprietary data from unauthorized access.

·

Authentication systems may provide environment wide, logical facilities that can differentiate among users. Another method, system smart cards, uses intelligent hand-held devices and encryption techniques to decipher random codes provided by client/server systems. A smart card displays a temporary password that is provided by an algorithm on the system and must be reentered by the user during the login session for access into the client/server system.
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·

The use of application level access control programs and the organization of end-users into functional groups is a management control that restricts access by limiting users to only those functions needed to perform their duties.

Encryption Encryption is the process of converting a plain text message into a secure coded form of text called Cipher text that cannot be understood without converting back via decryption (the reverse process) to plain text again. This is done via a mathematical function and a special encryption/decryption password called the key. In many countries encryption is subject to governmental law and regulations.

Encryption is generally used to: · · · · Protect data in transit over networks from unauthorized interception and manipulation. Protect information stored on computers from unauthorized viewing and manipulation. Deter and detect accidental or intentional alterations of data. Verify authenticity of a transaction or document.

Key Elements of Encryption Systems · · Encryption Algorithm A mathematically based function or

calculation which encrypts/decrypts data. Encryption keys A piece of information that is used within an

encryption algorithm (calculation) to make the encryption or

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decryption process unique. Similar to passwords, a user needs to use the correct key to access or decipher a message. The wrong key will decipher the message into an unreadable form. · Key Length A predetermined length for the key. The longer the

key, the more difficult it is to compromise in a brute-force attack where all possible key combinations are tried. Most encrypted transactions over the internet use a combination of private keys, public keys, secret keys, hash functions (fixed values derived mathematically from a text message) and digital

certificates to achieve confidentially message integrity and nonrepudiation by either sender or recipient (i.e. also known as a public-key infrastructure). This hybrid public/private key encryption process allows data to be stored and transported with reduced exposure when a company s corporate data are secure as they move across the Internet or other networks. There are two common encryptions or cryptographic systems: · Symmetric Cryptosystem Symmetric encryption algorithms use a secret key to encrypt the plain text to the cipher text. They also use the same key to decrypt the cipher text to the corresponding plain text. In this case, the key is symmetric because the encryption key is the same as the decryption key. The most common private key cryptography system is data encryption standard (DES). · Asymmetric Cryptosystem Asymmetric encryption systems use two keys which work together as a pair. One key is used to encrypt data, the other is used to
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decrypt data. Either key can used to encrypt or decrypt, but once one key has been used to encrypt data, only its partner can be used to decrypt the data (even the key that was used to encrypt the data cannot be used to decrypt it). Generally, with asymmetric encryption, one key is known only to one person private key key. the secret or the public

the other key is known by many people

Asymmetric encryption algorithms are generally less efficient (take more computer resources) to compute than private key systems. A common form of asymmetric encryption is RSA (named after its inventors Rivest, Shamir and Adelman). Auditing Environmental Controls: Environmental exposures are primarily due to naturally occurring events; however, with proper controls exposures to these elements can be reduced. Common exposures and their controls are as follows: · Water and smoke Detectors: Verify the presence of water and smoke detectors in the computer room. Determine if the power supply to these detectors is sufficient, especially in instances of battery-operated devices. Also, visually verify that the locations of the devices are clearly marked and visible. · Hand-Held Fire Extinguisher: Verify that hand-held fire extinguishers are in strategic locations throughout the facility, are highly visible and all have been inspected within the last year.

g)

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·

Fire suppression systems: Fire suppression systems are expensive to test and therefore limit the IS Auditor s ability to determine operability. IS Auditors may need to limit their tests to reviewing documentation to ensure the system has been inspected and tested within the last year. The exact testing interval should comply with industry and insurance standards and guidelines.

·

Regular Inspection by Fire Department: Confirm if a local fire department inspector or insurance evaluator has been invited to tour and inspect the facilities recently. If so, obtain a copy of the report and determine how deficiencies noted are being addressed.

·

Fireproof walls, floors and ceilings surrounding the computer Room: Locate the documentation that identifies the fire rating of the walls surrounding the information processing facility with the assistance of building management. The walls should have at least a two-hour fire resistance rating.

·

Electrical Surge Protectors: Observe the presence of electrical surge protectors for sensitive and expensive computer equipment.

·

Power Leads from Two Substations: Locate documentations concerning the use and placement of redundant power lines into the information processing facility with the assistance of building management.

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·

Fully Documented and Tested Business Continuity Plan: Ensure that the Business continuity plan is tested at least once in a year and review the report of the test.

·

Wiring placed in Electrical panels and Conduit: Verify that wiring in the information processing facility is placed in fireresistance panels and conduit.

· ·

UPS/Generator: Determine when last tested and review test reports. Documented and Tested Emergency Evacuation Plans: Obtain a copy of the emergency evaluation plan. Determine if it prescribes how to leave the information processing facilities in an organized manner that does not leave the facilities physically unsecured. Interview a sample of IS employees and determine if they are familiar with the documented plan. Verify whether the emergency evacuation plans are posted

throughout the facilities. · Humidity/Temperature Control: Determine if temperature and humidity are adequate.

The testing procedures noted above should also be applied to any offsite storage and processing facilities. h) Auditing Physical Access: Touring the information processing facility (IPF) is useful to gain an overall understanding and perception of the installation being reviewed. This tour provides the opportunity to begin reviewing physical access restrictions (control over employees, visitors, intruders and vendors).

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The tour should include the information processing facility (computer room, programmers area, tape library, printer status and management offices) and any off-site storage facilities. Physical safeguards can be achieved by observing the safeguards noted previously. Documents to assist with this effort include emergency evacuation procedures, inspection tags (recent inspection?), fire suppression system test results (successful? Recently tested?) and key lock logs (all keys accounted for and not outstanding to former employees or consultants?) Testing should extend beyond IPF to include the following related facilities: · · · · · · · Location of all operator consoles Printer rooms Computer storage rooms (this includes equipment, paper and supply rooms) Ups/Generator Location of all communications equipment identified on the network diagram. Tape Library Off-site back-up storage facility.

The IS Auditor should look above the ceiling panels and below the raised floor in the computer operations centre observing smoke and

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water detectors, general cleanliness and walls that extend all the way to the real ceiling (not just the suspended ceiling). The following paths of physical entry should be evaluated for proper security: · · · · · · All entry doors Glass windows and walls Movable walls and modular cubicles Above suspended ceiling and beneath raised floors. Verification systems Over a curtain, fake wall.

Examples of some of the more common access controls are: · · · · · · · · · · · · · Bolting Door locks Combustion Door locks (cipherlock) Electronic Door locks Biometric Door locks Manual Logging Electronic logging Identification Badges (Photo IDs) Video cameras Security Guards Controlled Visitor Access Bonded Personnel Dead man Doors Not advertising the location of sensitive facilities.

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· · · ·

Computer Terminal locks Controlled single entry point Alarm system Secured Report/Document Distribution cart.

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