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doi: 10.5028/jatm.2012.04033912

A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications Anahi Pereira da Costa1, Edson Cocchieri Botelho1,*, Michelle Leali Costa2, Nilson Eiji Narita3, José Ricardo Tarpani4 Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho– Guaratinguetá/SP – Brazil Instituto de Aeronáutica e Espaço – São José dos Campos/SP, Brazil 3 EMBRAER– São José dos Campos/SP, Brazil 4 Universidade de São Paulo – São Carlos/SP, Brazil 1 2

Abstract: Reinforced thermoplastic structural detail parts and assemblies are being developed to be included in current aeronautic programs. Thermoplastic composite technology intends to achieve improved properties and low cost processes. Welding of detail parts permits to obtain assemblies with weight reduction and cost saving. Currently, joining composite materials is a matter of intense research because traditional joining technologies are not directly transferable to composite structures. Fusion bonding and the use of thermoplastic as hot melt adhesives offer an alternative to mechanical fastening and thermosetting adhesive bonding. Fusion bonding technology, which originated from the thermoplastic polymer industry, has gained a new interest with the introduction of thermoplastic matrix composites, which are currently regarded as candidate for primary aircraft structures. This paper reviewed the state of the art of the welding technologies devised to aerospace industry, including the ¿elds that Universidade Estadual Paulista -~lio de Mesquita Filho and Universidade de São Paulo are deeply involved. Keywords: Aircraft structural joint, Thermoplastic composite, Welding technology.

List of Symbols Q I R t IR ITA LBW P PEEK PES PPS PEI T

Heat generation Electrical current Ohmic resistance Time Infrared Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica Laser Beam Welding Pressure Poly-etheretherketone Poly-ethersulphone Poly-phenylenesulphide Poly-etherimide Temperature

Received: 05/07/12

Accepted: 03/08/12

DXWKRUIRUFRUUHVSRQGHQFHHERWHOKR#IHJXQHVSEU 'HSDUWDPHQWR GH 0DWHULDLV H 7HFQRORJLD ) (* $Y $ULEHUWR Pereira da Cunha, 333 Bairro Pedregulho / CEP:12.516-410 – Guaratinguetá/SP – Brazil

Tg Tm UNESP USP

Glass transition temperature Melting temperature Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho Universidade de São Paulo

INTRODUCTION  &RQWLQXRXV¿EHUUHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWUL[FRPSRVLWH laminates have shown great promise as materials for current and IXWXUHDLUFUDIWFRPSRQHQWV:KHQFRPSDUHGWRWKHUPRVHW¿EHU reinforced composite laminates, thermoplastic laminates are HDVLHUWRSURFHVVDVWKH\GRQRWUHTXLUHFRPSOH[FKHPLFDOUHDFtion nor lengthy curing process, they are easily recycled and do QRWQHHGUHIULJHUDWLRQIRUVWRUDJHGLVSOD\LQJSUDFWLFDOO\LQ¿QLWH VKHOIOLIH7KHUPRSODVWLFFRPSRVLWHVDOVRH[KLELWYHU\ORZOHYHORI moisture uptake, which means their mechanical properties are less degraded under hot/wet conditions, not to mention their higher GDPDJHWROHUDQFHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGJUHDWHUUHSDUDELOLW\SRWHQWLDO DVFRPSDUHGWRWKHUPRVHWWLQJPDWUL[ODPLQDWHV 1LQJet al., 2007; Sinmazçelik, 2006; Jayamol et al., 1998; Mallick, 1993).

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012

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Costa, A.P. et al.

 8QOLNH WKHUPRVHWWLQJ UHVLQV WKHUPRSODVWLFV PD\ EH UHPHOWHG DIWHU WKH\ DUH IRUPHG 7KH\ PD\ DOVR EH MRLQHG XVLQJVHYHUDOGLIIHUHQWDVVHPEOLQJSURFHVVHV-RLQLQJSOD\V an important role in manufacturing of composite structures in marine, automotive and aerospace industry. Mechanical IDVWHQLQJDQGDGKHVLYHERQGLQJDUHZLGHO\XVHGWRDVVHPEOH metals or composite components. However, there are disadvantages associated with these methods such as stress FRQFHQWUDWLRQLQGXFHGE\GULOOLQJKROHVLQPHFKDQLFDOIDVWHQLQJRUH[WHQVLYHVXUIDFHSUHSDUDWLRQGXULQJDGKHVLYHERQGLQJ 1RZDGD\V MRLQLQJ FDQ EH DFKLHYHG XVLQJ YDULRXV ZHOGLQJ PHWKRGVVXFKDVHOHFWULFUHVLVWDQFHXOWUDVRQLFYLEUDWLRQKRW plate, electromagnetic induction, dielectric/microwave and IR ZHOGLQJ 0RX]DNLVet al., 2008; Botelho and Rezende, 2007; Wang and Hahn, 2007; Jones, 1994; Loos et al., 1981). Researches involving welding in composites in Brazil were LQLWLDWHGLQE\)DFXOGDGHGH(QJHQKDULDGH*XDUDWLQJXHWi RI81(63,7$DQG(VFRODGH(QJHQKDULDGH6mR&DUORVRI USP. The work started in these universities with cooperation RI(PSUHVD%UDVLOHLUDGH$HURQiXWLFD (0%5$(5DFURP\Q in Portuguese) focused on the mechanical and thermal FKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQRIZHOGHGODPLQDWHVRI336 VHPLFU\VWDOOLQH PPS thermoplastic polymer) reinforced with continuous KLJKSHUIRUPDQFH ¿EHUV 1RZDGD\V 81(63 LV GHYHORSLQJ resistance welding technology whereas USP is advancing in IR lamp welding methodology.  7KLV SDSHU DLPHG WR H[DPLQH GLIIHUHQW ZHOGLQJ WHFKniques for thermoplastic composite laminates devised to structural aerospace applications, focusing on recent developments in this area.

HIGH PERFORMANCE THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS The automotive industry has traditionally produced a wide range of thermoplastic parts with the advantage of shorter SURFHVVLQJWLPHVDQGIXOO\DXWRPDWHGHTXLSPHQWV 5D\ Botelho et al., 2005; Botelho et al., 2002; Botelho et al., 2001; Todo et al., 2000).  ,QWKHODWHVJODVVDQGFDUERQUHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLF 3(,ODPLQDWHVZHUH¿UVWXVHGLQ)RNNHUMHWSODQH*XOIVWUHDP * DQG * EXVLQHVV MHWV DQG$LUEXV %HOXJD WUDQVSRUW DLUFUDIWDVWKHUPRIRUPHGÀRRULQJSDQHOV &RVWDet al., 2010; Vieille et al., 2009; Young and Ye, 2005; Botelho et al., 2003). More recently, thermoplastic composites have found utilizaWLRQLQODQGLQJJHDUGRRUVZLQJOHWVHOHYDWRUVDLOHURQVÀDSV 256

VSRLOHUVVSHHGEUDNHVVODWVWRFLWHDIHZDSSOLFDWLRQV 'H)DULD et al., 2011; Rezende et al., 2011; Chevali et al., 2010; Bates et al., 2009; Arici, 2007; Espert et al., 2004; Lee et al., 1993). A wide range of high performance thermoplastic matrices LVDYDLODEOHQRZDGD\VZLWK3((.DQG336WKHPRVWZLGHO\ studied and reported. Both of them are semi-crystalline polymers, and crystallinity in high-performance polymers is quite LPSRUWDQWDVLWKDVDVWURQJLQÀXHQFHRQWKHLUFKHPLFDODQG mechanical properties. Crystallinity tends to increase stiffness and tensile strength while amorphous areas are more effective LQDEVRUELQJLPSDFWHQHUJ\7KHGHJUHHRIFU\VWDOOLQLW\LVGHWHUPLQHGE\PDQ\IDFWRUVLQFOXGLQJWKHW\SHRISRO\PHUDQGWKH SURFHVVLQJFRQGLWLRQV 1LQRet al., 2009; Mazur et al. 2008). Today, joining thermoplastic composite structures LV EHFRPLQJ LQFUHDVLQJO\ LPSRUWDQW VLQFH WKHUPRSODVWLF composite usage is rapidly replacing metallic and thermoset FRPSRVLWHFRXQWHUSDUWVWREHWWHUZLWKVWDQGW\SLFDOVWDWLFDQG fatigue loads applied to aerospace vehicles. Many welding WHFKQLTXHV KDYH EHHQ GHYHORSHG WR MRLQW XQUHLQIRUFHG DQG UHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLFSRO\PHUVEXWHDFKWHFKQLTXHKDVLWV own advantages and pitfalls.

WELDING PROCESSES In choosing a structural engineered material for aerospace application, an important consideration is how easy is to manufacture, join, inspect, repair and replace it in service. One of the many advantages of thermoplastic over thermoset composites LQWKHVHFDVHVLVWKDWWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWULFHVFDQEHPHOWHGDQG reformed. In theory, using adequate temperature and P levels, a FRPSRVLWHODPLQDWHFDQEHUHVKDSHGLQGH¿QLWHO\  0DQ\ QRYHO MRLQLQJ WHFKQLTXHV KDYH EHHQ SURSRVHG developed and evaluated for thermoplastic applications in the ODVW\HDUV,QUHJDUGWRIXVLRQERQGLQJPHWKRGRORJLHVWKH\ FDQEHVXPPDUL]HGDVIROORZVLQ)LJ Fusion bonding

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,oƚ ƉůĂƚĞ ǁĞůding ,oƚ gĂs ǁĞůding ZĂdiĂnƚ ǁĞůding /nĨƌĂƌĞd ǁĞůding >ĂsĞƌ ǁĞůding

)LJXUH&ODVVL¿FDWLRQRISRWHQWLDOIXVLRQZHOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVIRU WKHUPRSODVWLFFRPSRVLWHV $JHRUJHVet al., 2001).

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012

A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications

 6HYHQPDLQZHOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVDUHGHVFULEHGEHORZDFFRUGing the order they appear in the schematic provided in Fig. 1. Ultrasonic welding Ultrasonic welding is a process in which high frequenFLHVDUHXVHG W\SLFDOIUHTXHQFLHVUDQJHIURPWRN+]  in order to induce molecular motion, thus creating friction, ZKLFKLVFRQYHUWHGWRKHDW7KHDELOLW\WRZHOGWZRRUPRUH components using ultrasonic welding depends on material physical properties, frequency and amplitude of ultrasonic ZDYHDQGMRLQWGHVLJQ7KLVMRLQLQJSURFHVVFDQEHDSSOLHG LQGLVWLQFWO\WRDPRUSKRXV ZHOGLQJWHPSHUDWXUHEHWZHHQWKH Tg and Tm DQGVHPLFU\VWDOOLQHSRO\PHUV ZHOGLQJRFFXUVDW WKHPHOWLQJSRLQW  /HY\et al., 2008; Siddiq and Ghassemieh, .UJHUet al. 2004; Ageorges and Ye, 2002). Figure 2 presents a schematic of an ultrasonic welding PDFKLQHXVLQJDSLH]RHOHFWULFWUDQVGXFHUE\ZKLFKWKHRVFLOODWLRQVDUHJHQHUDWHGE\DSSO\LQJHOHFWULFDOSRZHUDWKLJK frequency. All ultrasonic welding systems are composed of WKHVDPHEDVLFHOHPHQWV L DSUHVVWRSXWWKHWZRRUPRUH SDUWVWREHDVVHPEOHGXQGHUP LL DQHVWRUDQYLOLQZKLFK WKHSDUWVDUHSODFHGDQGDOORZLQJWKHKLJKIUHTXHQF\YLEUDWLRQWREHDSSOLHG LLL DQXOWUDVRQLFVWDFNFRPSRVHGRID WUDQVGXFHU LY DFRQYHUWHUWRFRQYHUWWKHHOHFWULFDOVLJQDO LQWRDPHFKDQLFDOYLEUDWLRQ Y ERRVWHUWRPRGLI\WKHDPSOLWXGHRIWKHXOWUDVRQLFYLEUDWLRQ YL DVRQRWURGHWRDSSO\ WKHPHFKDQLFDOYLEUDWLRQWRWKHSDUWVWREHZHOGHG YLL DQ ultrasonic generator to provide and control the ultrasonic HQHUJ\ $JHRUJHVet al..UJHUet al., 2004; Yousefpour et al., 2004; Siddiq and Ghassemieh, 2008; Levy et al., 2008; Ageorges and Ye, 2002).  7KHDSSOLFDWLRQRIXOWUDVRQLFZHOGLQJLVTXLWHH[WHQVLYH LQPDQ\LQGXVWULDOEUDQFKHVLQFOXGLQJHOHFWULFDOFRPSXWHU

)LJXUH6FKHPDWLFRIDQXOWUDVRQLFZHOGLQJPDFKLQH <RXVHISRXU et al., 2004; Ageorges et al., 2001; Ageorges et al., 2000).

automotive, aerospace, energy, medical and packaging. In particular, aerospace industry employs this methodology to MRLQWOLJKWZHLJKWWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHPDWHULDOV DQGDQXPEHURIVWXGLHVKDYHEHHQFRQGXFWHGWR¿QGRSWLPXP parameters and process windows to produce high quality ZHOGV 6LGGLTDQG*KDVVHPLHK.UJHUet al., 2004).  /DS MRLQW VKHDU VWUHQJWKV RI RUGHU RI  03D KDYH EHHQ LQIRUPHG IRU 336FDUERQ ¿EHU ODPLQDWHV ERQGHG XOWUDVRQLFDOO\ .DJDQDQG1LFKROV 7KLVPHWKRGZDVDOVRXVHGE\ Lockheed-Georgia to weld together thermoplastic/graphite tape PDWHULDOIRUWKH&+HUFXOHVDLUFUDIW /HY\et al., 2008). Induction welding Induction welding utilizes inductive heating for melting GRZQSRO\PHUPDWUL[LQWKHMRLQLQJ]RQH7KHFRPSRQHQWV WR EH ZHOGHG DUH VXEPLWWHG WR DQ DOWHUQDWLQJ HOHFWURPDJQHWLF¿HOG:KHQWKHUHDUHHOHFWULFDOO\FRQGXFWLYHORRSVLQ WKHFRPSRQHQWHJGXHWRFDUERQ¿EHUUHLQIRUFHPHQWHGG\ FXUUHQWVDUHLQGXFHGUHVXOWLQJLQHI¿FLHQWORFDOL]HGKHDWLQJ RI WKH ODPLQDWH *ODVV ¿EHU UHLQIRUFHPHQWV DUH HOHFWULFDOO\ QRQFRQGXFWLYHVRWKDWH[WULQVLFHOHFWURPRJQHWLFVXVFHSWRUV HJPHWDOJULGVKDYHWREHLQFRUSRUDWHGWRWKHFRPSRVLWHDUUD\ to convert the magnetic energy into thermal energy. In the FDVHRIIHUURPDJQHWLFPDWHULDOVK\VWHUHVLVHIIHFWVFRQWULEXWH IXUWKHUWRKHDWLQJ7KHKHDWLQJLVEDVHGRQWZRPHFKDQLVPV namely, the energy dissipation due to Joule heating and energy dissipation due to magnetic hysteresis. The heat generation is GHVFULEHGE\(T .DJDQDQG1LFKROV, 2005): 2

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 7KHDERYHHTXDWLRQHVWDEOLVKHVWKDWKHDWLQJGHSHQGVRQ WLPH t RKPLFUHVLVWDQFH R), and the square of the induced HOHFWULFDOFXUUHQW I 7KHFXUUHQWLVLQGXFHGE\DQDOWHUQDWLQJ PDJQHWLF ¿HOG VR LW WKHUHIRUH GHSHQGV RQ WKH LQGXFWRU JHRPHWU\WKHFRLOFXUUHQWDQGWKHGLVWDQFHWRWKHPDWHULDO LQ WKHFDVHRIWKHPDWHULDOWREHZHOGHGLVQRWLQVLGHWKHFRLO  DVGHSLFWHGLQ)LJ 0RVHUet al..DJDQDQG1LFKROV 2005; Yousefpour et al., 2004; Stokes, 2003; Velthuis and Mitschang, 2003; Hou et al., 1999).  .DJDQ DQG 1LFKROV   UHIHU WR WKUHH FDWHJRULHV RI KHDWLQJVRXUFHVGXULQJLQGXFWLRQZHOGLQJRI¿EHUUHLQIRUFHG thermoplastic composites: ‡ ¿EHUKHDWLQJKHDWLQJLVWKHUHVXOWRI-RXOHORVVHVGXHWRWKH LQKHUHQWUHVLVWDQFHKHDWLQJRI¿EHUV 0RVHUet al., 2008);

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012

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‡ GLHOHFWULFK\VWHUHVLVKHDWLQJWKLQOD\HURIPDWUL[PDWHULDO DWWKHERQGLQJOLQHVHSDUDWHV¿EHUVIURPWKHFRQVROLGDWHG laminates. A capacitor is then created and dielectric heating occurs due to the movement of charge and rotation of WKHPROHFXOHVEHWZHHQWKH¿EHUV 6WRNHV  ‡ FRQWDFW UHVLVWDQFH KHDWLQJ KHDWLQJ RFFXUV RQ ORFDWLRQV ZKHUH WKH ¿EHU¿EHU FRQWDFW LV KLJK FURVVRYHU SRLQWV LQWKHFDVHRIZRYHQIDEULFV 7KLVWKHRU\H[SODLQVZK\ VHYHUDO IDEULF W\SHV KDYH D GLIIHUHQW KHDWLQJ JHQHUDWLRQ 9HOWKXLVDQG0LWVFKDQJ 

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A special type of induction welding is the so-called (PDZHOGERQGLQJ +HUH WKHUPRSODVWLF SDVWHV ZLWK PHWDO SDUWLFOHV DUH H[WUXGHG LQ YDULRXV VKDSHV GHSHQGLQJ RQ WKH ZHOGLQJ]RQHJHRPHWU\DVWKH\IRUPWKHERQGLQJEHWZHHQ the joining parts. The Emaweld-process is fast compared to conventional induction welding. However, due to the metal SDUWLFOHVLQWKHZHOGLQJ¿OOHUHYHQVPDOOFUDFNVOHDGWRQRWFKHV in the welding zone thus reducing the mechanical properties RIWKHMRLQW +RXet al. 1999).  $VIRUYLEUDWLRQZHOGLQJVLQJOHODSMRLQWVKHDUVWUHQJWKVRI RUGHURI03DKDYHDOVREHHQUHSRUWHGIRULQGXFWLRQZHOGHG 336FDUERQ¿EHUODPLQDWHV$GGUHVVHGLQYHVWLJDWLRQVFRPSDUing resistance and induction welding showed that, under equivalent heating conditions, induction welded specimens GLVSOD\HGKLJKHUVKHDUVWUHQJWKV .DJDQDQG1LFKROV   *UXPPDQ$LUFUDIW/DERUDWRULHV .DJDQDQG1LFKROV  UHSRUWLQGXFWLRQKHDWLQJDVKLJKO\VXLWDEOHIRUERWKWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQDQGUHSDLURIFDUERQ¿EHUUHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLFSDUWVRIWKH )$DLUFUDIWKRUL]RQWDOVWDELOL]HUOHDGLQJHGJHGHPRQVWUDWLRQ 258

FRPSRQHQWXVLQJWKHJUDSKLWH¿EHUVDVWKHFRQGXFWLQJHOHPHQW 6WUXFWXUDOHOHPHQWVSURGXFHGE\WKLVPHWKRGFRPSDUHGIDYRUDEO\WRWKRVHPDQXIDFWXUHVE\DXWRFODYHFRFRQVROLGDWLRQ  7KHH[DPSOHVDERYHVKRZWKDWLQGXFWLRQKHDWLQJFDQEH XVHGIRUZHOGLQJRIWKHUPRSODVWLF¿EHUUHLQIRUFHGFRPSRVLWHV DQGDFFHSWDEOHERQGLQJSURSHUWLHVDUHREWDLQHG Microwave welding  7KH SRVVLELOLW\ RI XVLQJ PLFURZDYH WR ZHOG SDUWV KDV H[LVWHGVLQFHWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHPDJQHWURQLQWKHV ,WVXVDJHLQWKHIUHTXHQF\UDQJHIURPWR*+]KDVEHHQ reported in the literature to weld thermoplastic composites .Xet al., 2003; Wise and Froment, 2001; Chung-Yuan et al., 1999; Vodicka, 1996).  0RVWWKHUPRSODVWLFGRQRWH[SHULHQFHDWHPSHUDWXUHULVH ZKHQLUUDGLDWHGE\PLFURZDYHV+RZHYHUWKHLQVHUWLRQRID PLFURZDYHVXVFHSWLEOHLPSODQWDWWKHMRLQWOLQHDOORZVORFDO KHDWLQJWRWDNHSODFH,IWKHMRLQWLVVXEMHFWHGVLPXOWDQHRXVO\ to microwaves and an applied P melting of the surrounding SODVWLFUHVXOWVDQGDZHOGLVIRUPHG6XLWDEOHLPSODQWVLQFOXGH PHWDOVFDUERQRURQHRIDUDQJHRIFRQGXFWLQJSRO\PHUVEXW ZKLFKHYHULVVHOHFWHGEHFRPHVDFRQVXPDEOHLQWKHZHOGLQJ SURFHVV <RXVHISRXUet al..Xet al., 2003; Wise and Froment, 2001; Chung-Yuan et al., 1999; Vodicka, 1996). The particular advantage of microwave welding over other IRUPVRIZHOGLQJLVLWVFDSDELOLW\WRLUUDGLDWHWKHHQWLUHFRPSRQHQW DQG FRQVHTXHQWO\ SURGXFH FRPSOH[ WKUHHGLPHQVLRQDO MRLQWV:HOGVDUHW\SLFDOO\FUHDWHGLQOHVVWKDQPLQXWH :LVH and Froment, 2001).  2QHGUDZEDFNRIPLFURZDYHHQHUJ\LVWKDWKRPRJHQHRXV PDWHULDOKHDWLQJLVRQO\SRVVLEOHZLWKVLPSOHJHRPHWULHVRU WKURXJKWKHHODERUDWHDGDSWDWLRQRIWKHUDGLDWLRQHTXLSPHQWWR WDVNDWKDQG7KLVWHFKQLTXHKRZHYHULVSHUIHFWO\VXLWDEOHIRU what are normally straight-line heating tasks in the welding of ¿OPVDQGVKHHWLQJ .Xet al., 2003; Wise and Froment, 2001; Chung-Yuan et al., 1999; Vodicka, 1996).  +HDWLQJLQDPLFURZDYH¿HOGHVVHQWLDOO\WDNHVSODFHE\WKH following physical processes, depending on the target material: SRODUL]DWLRQKHDWLQJ SRODUPDWHULDO HOHFWULFDOUHVLVWDQFHKHDWLQJ HOHFWULFDOO\FRQGXFWLYHPDWHULDOV KHDWLQJWKURXJKWKH0D[ZHOO :DJQHUHIIHFW PXOWLSKDVHPDWHULDOVEOHQGV¿OOHGPDWHULDOV  LRQSRODUL]DWLRQ HOHFWURO\WHVVDOLQHVROXWLRQVDQGFHUDPLFVDW KLJKWHPSHUDWXUHV HOHFWURQSRODUL]DWLRQ .Xet al., 2003; Wise and Froment, 2001; Chung-Yuan et al., 1999; Vodicka, 1996).  &RQWLQXRXV PLFURZDYH ZHOGLQJ FDQ EH XVHG IRU EXWW welding of joint elements with low, medium and high

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012

A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications

dielectric loss factors using focused microwave energy :LVHDQG)URPHQW $W\SLFDOVFKHPDWLFRIWKHVHW up is shown in Fig. 4. Joint elements with low-to-medium GLHOHFWULFORVVIDFWRUVUHTXLUHQRHOHFWURPDJQHWLFDEVRUEHQW PDWHULDOLQWKHERQGOLQH7KHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHERQGOLQH increases and reaches the polymer TmDVWKHERQGOLQHSDVVHV underneath the focused microwave energy. Meanwhile, localized fusion occurs in the presence of P, resulting in a weld. Joint elements with high dielectric loss factor UHTXLUHHOHFWURPDJQHWLFDEVRUEHQWPDWHULDOVDWWKHLQWHUIDFH 8QGHUPLFURZDYHUDGLDWLRQWKHHOHFWURPDJQHWLFDEVRUEHQW PDWHULDOVDEVRUEPLFURZDYHHQHUJ\PRUHUDSLGO\WKDQMRLQW elements, and then evaporate, leaving a localized melting ]RQH DW WKH ERQGOLQH 7KH IXVLRQ ERQGLQJ RFFXUV LQ WKH ERQGOLQHLQWKHSUHVHQFHRIP, producing a weld. Materials DQGVROYHQWVZLWK2+&212DQG1+ERQGVDUHW\SLFDO HOHFWURPDJQHWLF DEVRUEHQW PDWHULDOV 'XULQJ WKH ZHOGLQJ process, some of these materials evaporate and some remain LQWKHZHOGDUHD .Xet al., 2003; Wise and Froment, 2001; Chung-Yuan et al., 1999; Vodicka, 1996).

OLWWOHDPRXQWRIPDWHULDODQGFDQEHDSSOLHGWRODUJHVWUXFtures. Good thermal insulation and a correct amount of input energy can reduce the welding time and enhance weld qualLW\ $JHRUJHVDQG<H&RVWD<RXVHISRXUet al., 2004; Yang and Pitchumani, 2002a, Yang and Pitchumani, E$JHRUJHVDQG<H;LDRet al., 1992). In this SURFHVVDFRQGXFWLYHHOHPHQW JHQHUDOO\DVWHHOPHVKRUD FDUERQVWULS LVSODFHGDWWKHLQWHUIDFHEHWZHHQWKHODPLQDWHV WR EH MRLQHG 7KLV FRQGXFWLYH HOHPHQW LV FRQQHFWHG WR D SRZHUVXSSO\DQGWKHQDVXI¿FLHQWI is applied so that Joule ORVVJHQHUDWHVKHDWHQRXJKWRFUHDWHDERQGOLQH 6WDYURY  Bersee, 2005; Stavrov et al., 2003; Yang and Pitchumani, 2002A, Yang and Pitchumani, 2002B; Don et al.;LDR et al., 1992). Figure 5 shows a schematic of the resistance welding process.

)LJXUH6FKHPDWLFVHWXSIRUUHVLVWDQFHZHOGLQJSURFHVV $JHRUJHV and Ye, 2002).

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et al., 2004). The technique is still in the development stages and, as such, there are currently no reported industrial applications. However, it is anticipated that microwave welding may prove WREHVXLWDEOHIRUMRLQLQJDXWRPRWLYHXQGHUERG\FRPSRQHQWV and aerospace parts. Resistance welding  5HVLVWDQFHZHOGLQJKDVEHHQFRQVLGHUHGDYHU\SURPLVLQJ joining technique for aerospace application. This process is UHODWLYHO\IDVW ZHOGLQJWLPHVIURPWRPLQXWHV UHTXLUHV

 7KHHOHFWULFDOFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHKHDWLQJHOHPHQW and the power circuit is critical to the resistance welding process. In order to introduce adequate current into the KHDWLQJ HOHPHQW VHYHUDO ZD\V KDYH EHHQ XVHG LQFOXGLQJ GLUHFWFODPSLQJRQWKHSUHSUHJFODPSLQJRQWKHEDUH¿EHUV SUHSUHJ GLSSHG LQWR OLTXLG PHWDO EDWK FODPSLQJ RQ WKH EDUH ¿EHUV SDLQWHG ZLWK D VLOYHU ¿OOHG HSR[\ FRPSRXQG among others. Instead of using continuous power during the SURFHVV WKH SRZHU FDQ EH DSSOLHG LQ WKH IRUP RI LQWHQVH pulses. This process is called impulsive resistance welding DQGUHTXLUHVOHVVHQHUJ\WRPHOWWKHPDWUL[GXHWRORZHUKHDW ORVVHV %DOOHet al., 2009).  7KLVZHOGLQJSURFHVVFDQDOVREHFDUULHGRXWXQGHUHLWKHU constant load or displacement control. The method can produce lap shear strength values greater than 33 MPa, and KDVEHHQXVHGLQRUGHUWRZHOG3((.DQG3(,ODPLQDWHVE\WKH 86$LU)RUFH :DQJet al., 2006).

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Hot plate welding  7KHUPDOZHOGLQJLVDIXVLRQERQGLQJPHWKRGRORJ\WKDWEDVLFDOO\FRQVLVWVLQKHDWLQJSRO\PHUPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHVSLHFHVDWWKHLU interface causing a decrease of viscosity thus allowing polymer chains to interdifuse as the surfaces are held tightly together, with IXUWKHUVORZFRROLQJIRUMRLQWFRQVROLGDWLRQ <RXVHISRXUet al., 2004; Ageorges et al., 2001; Ageorges et al., 2000). Inside of this concept, hot plate or hot-tool welding is one of WKHPRVWSRSXODUPHWKRGVIRUMRLQLQJWKHUPRSODVWLFVEHFDXVHLW LVDVLPSOHUHOLDEOHDQGHFRQRPLFDOZD\RISURGXFLQJVWURQJ ZHOGV7KLVZHOGLQJSURFHVVFDQEHGLYLGHGLQWRKHDWLQJMRLQLQJ DQGFRROLQJVWHSV7KHODPLQDWHVXUIDFHVWREHZHOGHGPXVW¿UVW EHEURXJKWLQWRLQWLPDWHFRQWDFWRUVRPHWLPHVLQTXDVLFRQWDFW ZLWK DQ H[WHUQDO KHDWLQJ HOHPHQW JHQHUDOO\ LV XVHG D SRO\ WHWUDÀXRURHWK\OHQHFRDWHGKRWPHWDOSODWH LQRUGHUWKHLQWHUIDFH WR EH ZHOGHG WR PHOW :KHQ QHFHVVDU\ DGHTXDWH P PXVW EH DSSOLHGWRHQIRUFHWKHKRWWRRODJDLQVWWKHODPLQDWHV )LJ ,Q FDVHRIH[FHVVLYHPWKHPHOWZLOOEHSUHVVHGLQWRWKHÀDVKDQG LQVXI¿FLHQWDPRXQWRIPHOWHGPDWHULDOZLOOUHPDLQRQVXUIDFHV Often mechanical stops are employed to prevent squeezing the HQWLUHPHOWRXWRIWKHERQGOLQHZKLFKFRXOGUHVXOWLQDµFROG weld’. In case of too little pressure, full contact and thus good KHDWFRQGXFWLRQEHWZHHQKRWSODWHDQGMRLQLQJSDUWVPLJKWQRW EHHQVXUHG7KHDSSOLHGSUHVVXUHVKRXOGEHPDLQWDLQHGXQWLOWKH WKHUPRSODVWLFPDWUL[EHJLQVWRVRIWHQDQGÀRZ$IWHUWKLVWKH hot element is removed and melted surfaces are pressed against each other until consolidation occurs. Small parts demand EHWZHHQWRVHFRQGVWREHZHOGHGZKHUHDVODUJHSDUWVWDNH at least 30 minutes to guarantee a good connection. Risks of VXUIDFHFRQWDPLQDWLRQDUHDPRQJVWWKHPDLQGUDZEDFNVRIWKLV WHFKQLTXH $JHRUJHVet al., 2001; Ageorges et al., 2000).

WKHUPRSODVWLFSRO\PHUPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHV <RXVHISRXUet al., 2004; Ageorges et al., 2001).  0DLQDGYDQWDJHVRI,5VRXUFHVDUHWKHLUDELOLW\WRIDVWKHDWLQJ W\SLFDOO\VHFRQGV FDSDFLW\WRDWWHQXDWHFRQWDPLQDWLRQ ULVNVWKXVDOORZLQJKLJKSURGXFWLYLW\UDWHVRIUHSURGXFLEOH strong joints in automated systems. For instance, retention RIRISRO\PHUEXONVWUHQJWKKDVEHHQUHSRUWHGIRU LQYROXPHRIVKRUWJODVV¿EHULQ3(6PDWUL[ &KHQ  Besides high consistent, low scattered mechanical properties of IR welded joints, which is translated in high structural UHOLDELOLW\ DV FUXFLDOO\ UHTXLUHG LQ KLJKGHPDQGLQJ FRPSRnent devised to aeronautical industry, huge potential of this PDQXIDFWXULQJWHFKQLTXHFDQEHIRUHFDVWLQWKHDHURQDXWLFDO HQYLURQPHQWE\YLUWXHRILWVJUHDWÀH[LELOLW\DQGFDSDELOLW\ WRMRLQODUJHÀDWDQGFXUYHGDUHDV 3RWHQWHet al., 1993; Chen, 2000; Miller, 2006). In the other hand, a main shortcoming of IR welding is the detrimental effect of colorants and pigments LQ FKDQJLQJ SRO\PHU DEVRUSWLRQ SURSHUWLHV WKXV UHGXFLQJ the quality of the end product. Darker polymers are especially prone to display overheating surface degradation due to low IR energy transfer rates down through melting zone, QHYHUWKHOHVVGHHSKHDWSHQHWUDWLRQPD\EHDFRQFHUQGXHWR SRVVLEOHODPLQDWHGHFRQVROLGDWLRQDQGZDUSLQJGXULQJKHDWLQJ stage, as well as thermal residual stresses development along FRROLQJVWDJH 6ZDUW] 6ZDUW]3RWHQWHet al., 1993; Chen, 2000; Ageorges et al., 2001;.DJDQ Bray, 2003; Grewell et al.*UHZHOO %HQDWDU   %DVLFDOO\ WKH WHFKQLTXH FRPSULVHV WKUHH VXEVHTXHQW SKDVHV 6LOYHUPDQDQG*ULHVH6FKZDUW]&KHQ and Benatar, 1995). Figures 7 to 9 feature some important aspects related to IR radiation welding, particularly in regard to the welding system operation, applied thermomechanical F\FOHDQGFRQWDFWLQWHUIDFHEHKDYLRURIWKHUPRSODVWLFMRLQW

IR welding Laser welding  ,5 ZHOGLQJ LV DQRWKHU VRPHZKDW QHZFRPHU WR WKH ¿HOG RI QRQFRQWDFW WHFKQLTXHV IRU MRLQLQJ ILEHU UHLQIRUFHG

)LJXUH 6FKHPDWLFRIWKHKRWSODWHZHOGLQJ <RXVHISRXUet al., 2004).

260

In order to produce integral composite structures and thus PDNHWKH¿QDOFRPSRVLWHFRPSRQHQWPRUHFRVWHIIHFWLYHWKH H[SORUDWLRQRIWKH/%:DOUHDG\DSSOLHGWRPHWDOOLFSDUWVFDQ EHXVHIXOLQWKHFDVHRIMRLQLQJHLWKHUWKHUPRSODVWLFSRO\PHUV or thermoplastic composite components. Thermoplastic polyPHUVKDYHORQJPROHFXODUFKDLQVKHOGWRJHWKHUE\VHFRQGDU\ FKHPLFDOERQGVZKLFKDOORZVWKHPWREHKHDWHGDQGUHPHOWHG Through the activation of this physicochemical mechanism, WKHUPRSODVWLFVFDQEHMRLQHGXVLQJDZLGHYDULHW\RIIXVLRQ DQGLQWHUOD\HUERQGLQJSURFHVVHV /DEHDVet al., 2010; 3UDEhakaran et al., 2006; Grewell et al., 2004).

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A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications

 /%: KDV EHHQ HQYLVLRQHG DV D VXLWDEOH WHFKQLTXH IRU joining thin, as well as medium to thick thermoplastic components used in the aeronautic sector. Moreover, size, JHRPHWULFDO UHTXLUHPHQWV DQG VSHFL¿FDWLRQV RI DHURQDXWLFDOSDUWVDUHFODLPHGWREHPRUHHDVLO\IXO¿OOHGE\DSSO\LQJ

Figure 7. Schematic of infrared lamp welding system conceived to join thermoplastic laminates highlighting the infrared radiation source, polymer parts deployment and pressing SODWHV <RXVHISRXU et al., 2004; Ageorges et al., 2001; Potente et al., 1993).

/%:WHFKQLTXHUDWKHUWKDQDOWHUQDWLYHWHFKQRORJLHV /DEHDV et al., 2010). LBW allows joining thermoplastics, provided WKDWRQHRIWKHPDWHULDOV WRSPDWHULDO LVWUDQVSDUHQWWRODVHU UDGLDWLRQDQGWKHRWKHU ERWWRPPDWHULDO LVDEVRUEHQWHQRXJK IRUWKHZHOGLQJWRWDNHSODFHRWKHUZLVHRQO\EXWWMRLQWVZLOOEH DOORZHGZKLFKLVQRWDQDWWUDFWLYHSRVVLELOLW\IRUFRQWLQXRXV ¿EHUUHLQIRUFHGVWUXFWXUHV  ,QWKH¿UVWDSSURDFKSDUWVWREHMRLQHGDUHEURXJKWLQWR GLUHFWFRQWDFWSULRUWRZHOGLQJ7KHODVHUEHDPLVWUDQVPLWWHG WKURXJKWKH¿UVWPDWHULDODQGLVWRWDOO\DEVRUEHGZLWKLQWKH VXUIDFH RI WKH DEVRUELQJ PDWHULDO 'LUHFW FRQWDFW EHWZHHQ ERWK SDUWV HQVXUHV KHDWLQJ RI WKH WUDQVSDUHQW SDUW E\ KHDW FRQGXFWLRQIURPWKHDEVRUELQJSDUW )LJ :HOGLQJRFFXUV XSRQPHOWLQJDQGIXVLRQRIERWKWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWHULDOVDW WKHLQWHUIDFH7KH/%:WHFKQRORJ\RIIHUVWKHSRVVLELOLW\RI joining separate parts ensuring full continuity of the resin system without the addition of an adhesive system and avoidLQJDOVRULYHWLQVWDOODWLRQOHDGLQJWRDQXPEHURIVXEVWDQWLDO advantages, such as cost savings, weight reduction, and PDQXIDFWXULQJF\FOHWLPHUHGXFWLRQDVZHOODVDFFHSWDEOH ERQGVWUHQJWK /DEHDVet al., 2010). Only few studies of the application of LBW process for the joining of structural thermoplastic composites such as FDUERQ3((.RUFDUERQ336DUHDYDLODEOHLQWKHOLWHUDWXUH VRWKDWUHOLDEOHDSSOLFDWLRQRI/%:WHFKQRORJ\IRUMRLQLQJ primary aeronautic parts made of thermoplastic composites VWLOO UHTXLUHV VLJQL¿FDQW GHYHORSPHQW DQG LQYHVWLJDWLRQ /DEHDVet al., 2010).

REMARKABLE CONCLUSIONS Figure 8. Typical thermomechanical cycle of the infrared welding V\VWHP GHSLFWHG LQ )LJ  <RXVHISRXU et al., 2004; Ageorges et al., 2001; Potente et al., 1993).

 )URPWKLVPDQXVFULSWLWFDQEHFRQFOXGHGWKDWQRWRQO\RQH MRLQLQJWHFKQRORJ\FDQEHDSSOLFDEOHWRDOOVLWXDWLRQV$OOMRLQing methodologies showed in this work present advantages and GUDZEDFNVDQGWKH\PD\EHPRUHRUOHVVVXLWDEOHWRDSDUWLFXODU

Figure 9. Macromolecular interdiffusion mechanism occurring in EHWZHHQWZRFRQWDFWLQJSDUWVGXULQJWKHLQIUDUHGZHOGLQJ SURFHVVSRUWUD\HGLQ)LJVDQG <RXVHISRXUet al., 2004; Ageorges et al., 2001; Potente et al., 1993).

)LJXUH /DVHUWUDQVPLVVLRQZHOGLQJWHFKQLTXH /DEHDVet al., 2010).

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DSSOLFDWLRQ GHSHQGLQJ RQ LWV VSHFL¿F UHTXLUHPHQWV )XVLRQ ERQGLQJPHWKRGVSUHVHQWDKXJHSRWHQWLDOIRUYROXPHLQWHQVLYH applications in which short processing cycles are necessary. 7KHVHERQGLQJSURFHVVHVRIIHUDGGLWLRQDODGYDQWDJHVLQFOXGLQJ reduced surface preparation requirements, reprocessing, recyFODELOLW\DQGLPSURYHGLQWHJULW\GXUDELOLW\$PRQJWKHYDULRXV WHFKQLTXHVRIWKLVFDWHJRU\WKHPRVWPDWXUHRQHVDUHXQGRXEWedly the ultrasonic, induction and the resistance welding. Process integration is a critical aspect of joining technology. Particular requirements of each joining techniques should EHFROODWHGLQGHVLJQVFRGHVLQRUGHUWRLQWHJUDWHWKHVHUHTXLUHments at the very early stage of the design process.  ,QVLGHRIWKLVFRQWH[WVLQFH81(63DQG863KDYHJHW involved in development and/or application of welding technoloJLHVLQDHURVSDFH¿HOG(PSKDVLVRIWKHZRUNLQ81(63LVLQ the development of the resistance welding technology associated ZLWKWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOLQÀXHQFHRQWKHWKHUPDODQGPHFKDQLcal properties of thermoplastic laminates, whereas USP is in the forefront of IR lamp welding methodology and advanced destructive and nondestructive characterization of the joints.  0RVW RI WKH GDWD LQ WKLV SDSHU ZHUH REWDLQHG IURP WKH literature, since this manuscript is a state-of-the-art review. Therefore, such data do not provide information for deals of UHSHDWDELOLW\RUUHSURGXFLELOLW\DQGWKH\DUHXVHIXORQO\IRU an initial mapping of potential techniques over a wide range RIZHOGSURFHVVLQJFRQGLWLRQVDQGSDUDPHWHUVWREHXVHGLQ DHURVSDFH¿HOG

Ageorges, C. et al.   ³$GYDQFHV LQ IXVLRQ ERQGLQJ WHFKQLTXHV IRU MRLQLQJ WKHUPRSODVWLF PDWUL[ FRPSRVLWHV D UHYLHZ´&RPSRVLWHV3DUW$9RO1RSS Ageorges, C. et al.³([SHULPHQWDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIWKH UHVLVWDQFHZHOGLQJIRUWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHV3DUW ,KHDWLQJHOHPHQWDQGKHDWWUDQVIHU´&RPSRVLWHV6FLHQFHDQG 7HFKQRORJ\9RO1RSS± Arici, A.A., 2007, “Effect of hygrothermal aging on polyHWKHULPLGHFRPSRVLWHV´-RXUQDORI5HLQIRUFHG3ODVWLFVDQG &RPSRVLWHV9RO1RSS Balle, F. et al., 2009, “Ultrasonic metal welding of aluminium VKHHWVWRFDUERQ¿EUHUHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLFFRPSRVLWHV´ $GYDQFHG(QJLQHHULQJ0DWHULDO9RO1RSS Bates, P.J. et al.³6KHDUVWUHQJWKDQGPHOWGRZQEHKDYLRU RI UHLQIRUFHG SRO\SURS\OHQH DVVHPEOLHV´ &RPSRVLWHV 3DUW$9RO1RSS Botelho, E.C. et al., 2005 “Processing and hygrothermal effects RQ YLVFRHODVWLF EHKDYLRU RI JODVV ¿EHUHSR[\ FRPSRVLWHV´ -RXUQDORI0DWHULDO6FLHQFH9RO1RSS Botelho, E.C. et al.³0HFKDQLFDOEHKDYLRURIFDUERQ ¿EHUUHLQIRUFHGSRO\DPLGHFRPSRVLWHV´&RPSRVLWHV6FLHQFH DQG7HFKQRORJ\9RO1RSS

Acknowledgements  7KHDXWKRUVWKDQNIXOO\DFNQRZOHGJHWKH¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUW from Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo )$3(63 &RQVHOKR1DFLRQDOGH'HVHQYROYLPHQWR&LHQWt¿FR H7HFQROyJLFR &13T DQG&RRUGHQDomRGH$SHUIHLoRDPHQWR GH3HVVRDOGH1tYHO6XSHULRU &$3(6 

%RWHOKR (& DQG 5H]HQGH 0&  ³'DPSLQJ EHKDYLRU RI K\JURWKHUPDOO\ FRQGLWLRQHG FDUERQ ILEHUHSR[\ ODPLQDWHV´ -RXUQDO RI$SSOLHG 3RO\PHU 6FLHQFH 9RO  1RSS± Botelho, E.C. et al., 2002, “Study of polyamide 6/6 synthesis FDUULHG RXW E\ LQWHUIDFLDO SRO\PHUL]DWLRQ RQ FDUERQ ¿EHU´ 3RO\PHU,QWHUQDWLRQDO9RO1RSS

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Botelho, E.C. et al.  ³6\QWKHVLV RI SRO\DPLGH  E\ interfacial polycondensation with the simultaneous impregnaWLRQRIFDUERQ¿EHUV´0DFURPROHFXOHV9RO1RSS 3367-3375.

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&KHQ<6³,5ZHOGLQJRIJODVV¿OOHGSRO\HWKHUVXOIRQH FRPSRVLWH´7DPNDQJ -RXUQDO RI 6FLHQFH DQG (QJLQHHULQJ 9RO1RSS

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Grewell, D. et al.  ³5HODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ RSWLcal properties and optimized processing parameters for WKURXJKWUDQVPLVVLRQ ODVHU ZHOGLQJ RI WKHUPRSODVWLFV´ Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, Vol. 23, 1RSS Hou, M. et al.³$QH[SHULPHQWDOVWXG\RIUHVLVWDQFH ZHOGLQJRIFDUERQ¿EUHIDEULFUHLQIRUFHGSRO\HWKHULPLGH &) IDEULF3(, FRPSRVLWHPDWHULDO´$SSOLHG&RPSRVLWH0DWHULDOV9RO1RSS Jayamol, G. et al., 1998, “Effects of environment on the properties of Low-density polyethylene composites reinforced ZLWKSLQHDSSOHOHDI¿EUH´&RPSRVLWHV6FLHQFHDQG7HFKQRORJ\9RO1RSS -RQHV)5³0RLVWXUHDEVRUSWLRQDQRPDORXVHIIHFWV´ ,Q+DQGERRNRISRO\PHU¿EUHFRPSRVLWHV/RQJPDQ6FLHQWL¿FDQG7HFKQLFDO8.SS .DJDQ9DQG%UD\5³)RUZDUGWREHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGing of optical characterization and development of colored SRO\DPLGHVIRUWKHLQIUDUHGODVHUZHOGLQJSDUW,HI¿FLHQF\ RISRO\DPLGHVIRULQIUDUHGZHOGLQJ´-RXUQDORI5HLQIRUFHG 3ODVWLFVDQG&RPSRVLWHV9RO1RSS .DJDQ 9 DQG 1LFKROV 5-  ³%HQH¿WV RI LQGXFWLRQ welding of reinforced thermoplastics in high performance DSSOLFDWLRQV´-RXUQDORI5HLQIRUFHG3ODVWLFVDQG&RPSRVLWHV 9RO1RSS .UJHU6et al., 2004, “Ultrasonic welding of metal/composLWHMRLQWV´$GYDQFHG(QJLQHHULQJ0DWHULDOV9RO1RSS 157-159. .X+6et al.³9DULDEOHIUHTXHQF\PLFURZDYH 9)0  processing facilities and application in processing thermoSODVWLFPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHV´-RXUQDORI0DWHULDOV3URFHVVLQJ 7HFKQRORJ\9RO1RSS /DEHDV*1et al., 2010, “Optimization of laser transmission welding process for thermoplastic composite parts using WKHUPRPHFKDQLFDOVLPXODWLRQ´-RXUQDORI&RPSRVLWH0DWHULDOV9RO1RSS

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Levy, A. et al., 2008, “Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic FRPSRVLWHVPRGHOLQJRIWKHSURFHVV´,QWHUQDWLRQDO-RXUQDORI 0DWHULDO)RUPLQJ9RO1RSS

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Loos, A.C. et al.³0RLVWXUHDEVRUSWLRQRISRO\HVWHU( JODVVFRPSRVLWHV´LQ6SULQJHU*6HGLWRU(QYLURQPHQWDO HIIHFWV RQ FRPSRVLWH PDWHULDOV 7HFKQRPLF 3XEOLVKLQJ &RPSDQ\1HZ<RUN 0DOOLFN3.³)LEHUUHLQIRUFHGFRPSRVLWHVPDWHULDOV PDQXIDFWXULQJDQGGHVLJQ´0DUFHO'HNNHU1HZ<RUNS Mazur, R.L. et al., 2008, “Avaliações térmica e reológica da PDWUL]WHUPRSOiVWLFD3(..XWLOL]DGDHPFRPSyVLWRVDHURQiXWLFRV´ 3ROtPHURV &LrQFLD H 7HFQRORJLD 9RO  1R  pp. 237-243. Miller, R., 2006, “Method and apparatus for infrared ZHOGLQJ RI WKHUPRSODVWLF SDUWV´ 8QLWHG 6WDWHV 3DWHQW 1XPEHU  IURP KWWSZZZIUHHSDWHQWVRQOLQH com/7006763.html Moser, L. et al., 2008, “Induction welding of thermoplastic SRO\PHUFRPSRVLWHVXVLQJURERWLFWHFKQLTXHV´6$03(-RXUQDO9RO1RSS Mouzakis, D.E. et al., 2008, “Accelerated environmental DJHLQJVWXG\RISRO\HVWHUJODVV¿EHUUHLQIRUFHGFRPSRVLWHV *)53&V ´&RPSRVLWHV3DUW%9RO1RSS

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1LQJ+et al.,, 2007, “Design, manufacture and analysis of DWKHUPRSODVWLFFRPSRVLWHIUDPHVWUXFWXUHIRUPDVVWUDQVLW´ &RPSRVLWH6WUXFWXUHV9RO1RSS

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Potente, H. et al., 1993, “Comparative investigation into the ZHOGLQJRIJODVV¿EUHUHLQIRUFHG3(6´-RXUQDORI7KHUPRSODVWLF&RPSRVLWH0DWHULDOV9RO1RSS

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J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012

A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications

Todo, M. et al., 2000, “Strain-rate dependence of the tensile IUDFWXUH EHKDYLRXU RI ZRYHQFORWK UHLQIRUFHG SRO\DPLGH FRPSRVLWHV´&RPSRVLWHV6FLHQFHDQG7HFKQRORJ\9RO 1RSS Velthuis, R. and Mitschang, P., 2003, “Induction welding WHFKQRORJ\MRLQLQJ¿EUHUHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLFSRO\PHUV FRPSRVLWHV IRUDHURVSDFHDSSOLFDWLRQV´0HFKDQLFDO(QJLQHHULQJ3DSHUV9RO1RSS Vieille, B. et al.  ³,QÀXHQFH RI WHPSHUDWXUH RQ WKH EHKDYLRURIFDUERQ¿EHUIDEULFVUHLQIRUFHG336ODPLQDWHV´ 0DWHULDOV 6FLHQFH DQG (QJLQHHULQJ $ 9RO  1R  pp. 51-60. Vodicka, R., 1996, “Thermoplastics for airframe Applications, a review of the properties and repair methods for thermoplasWLFFRPSRVLWHV´$XVWUDOLDQ'HSDUWPHQWRI'HIHQFH'672 $HURQDXWLFDODQG0DULWLPH5HVHDUFK/DERUDWRU\$XVWUDOLD Wang, Y. and Hahn, T.H., 2007, “AFM characterization of WKHLQWHUIDFLDOSURSHUWLHVRIFDUERQ¿EHUUHLQIRUFHGSRO\PHU FRPSRVLWHVVXEMHFWHGWRK\JURWKHUPDOWUHDWPHQWV´&RPSRVLWHV6FLHQFHDQG7HFKQRORJ\9RO1RSS

Wise, R.J. and Froment, I.D., 2001, “Microwave welding of WKHUPRSODVWLFV´-RXUQDORI0DWHULDOV6FLHQFH9RO1R pp. 5935-5954. ;LDR;5et al.,1992, “Processing and modelling of resisWDQFHZHOGLQJRI$3&FRPSRVLWH´-RXUQDORI&RPSRVLWH 0DWHULDOV9RO1RSS Yang, F.and Pitchumani, R., 2002a, “Healing of thermoplastic SRO\PHUV DW DQ LQWHUIDFH XQGHU QRQLVRWKHUPDO FRQGLWLRQV´ 0DFURPROHFXOHV9RO1RSS <DQJ ) DQG 3LWFKXPDQL 5 E ³,QWHUODPLQDU FRQWDFW GHYHORSPHQWGXULQJWKHUPRSODVWLFIXVLRQERQGLQJ´3RO\PHU (QJLQHHULQJ 6FLHQFH9RO1RSS <RXQJ.DQG<H/³,QÀXHQFHRIPDWUL[DQGLQWHUIDFH on transverse mechanical properties of CF-PEI thermoplastic FRPSRVLWHVDWHOHYDWHGWHPSHUDWXUHV´-RXUQDORI5HLQIRUFHG 3ODVWLFV&RPSRVLWHV9RO1RSS Yousefpour, A. et al.³)XVLRQERQGLQJZHOGLQJRIWKHUPRSODVWLFFRPSRVLWHV´-RXUQDORI7KHUPRSODVWLF&RPSRVLWH 0DWHULDOV9RO1RSS

:DQJ;et al., 2006, “FEM investigation of the temperature ¿HOGRIHQHUJ\GLUHFWRUGXULQJXOWUDVRQLFZHOGLQJRI3((. FRPSRVLWHV´-RXUQDORI7KHUPRSODVWLF&RPSRVLWH0DWHULDOV 9RO1RSS

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012

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