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Business is Busyness, or the Work Ethic Author(s): Alexander Welsh Source: Social Research, Vol. 72, No. 2, BUSYNESS (SUMMER 2005), pp. 471-500 Published by: The New School Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971774 . Accessed: 16/05/2013 09:46 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

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AlexanderWelsh Business is Busyness, or the Work Ethic "nowherso bisya manas he ther nas,"we read of one of chaucer's pilgrims;"Andyethe semedbisierthanhe was."Andyet?The logicof Nowherecouldthere theselinesseemsmorethana littlemischievous. be founda manas busyas this,andyetthismanseemedbusierthanhe are strictly was. Ifbothofthesestatements true,mostmenare notas busyas theyseem,and diligenceis largelya matterofshow. in Thisparticular pilgrimis theSerjeantofthelaw,as introduced Tales.Lawyershavebeen targets thegeneralprologueto TheCanterbury ofsatireforquitea fewcenturiesnow,and some ironyunmistakably "Discreethe was and ofgreetreverplaysaboutChaucer'sdescription: ence- /He semedswich,his wordswerenso wise";and,"Offeesand robes hadde he manyoon." Serjeants-at-law were seniorbarristers, as this descriptionwould suggest,and fromthe thirteenthto the nineteenthcenturyin Englandthe titlewas bestowedby the crown. Until1845 one had to be a Serjeantin orderto practicein the Court ofCommonPleas- thatis, forcivil,notcriminalcases- althoughthe Thus,in one ofthemost serjeantcouldbe assistedbylesserbarristers. famoustrialsofthatcentury, Bardellvs. PickwickforbreachofpromMrs. Bardell was ise, represented bySerjeantBuzfuzand Mr.Pickwick bySerjeantSnubbin;and again,it maybe thatthelawyersin thecase wereneitherso busynorso diligentas theyseemed.The bestaccount ofthistrialcan be foundin chapters31 and 34 ofThePosthumous Papers the Pickwick as set down Charles Dickens between 1836 and Club, of by 1837.

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As readersof Dickens'sfirstnovel can attest,Mr.Pickwickis innocentofmakingloveorproposingmarriagetohislandlady, entirely Mrs.Bardell.Throughan unfortunate conjunctionof circumstances she mistakeshis intention and thewidow'shyperactive imagination, fora proposalofmarriageto her; to hireSam Welleras a manservant Dodsonand Fogg,knownfortheir"sharppractice," thesolicitors bring withoutcostto theirclientunlesstheycan suitagainstthedefendant is an inspired however, persuadea jurytoawarddamages.Mr.Pickwick, whowilldefend insiststhatthebarrister quixoticherowho perversely stillanotherprechimin courtis assuredofhis innocence.Abridging Perker,to take himto Lincoln'sInn edent,he asks his own attorney, himto SerjeantSnubbin.Theserjeantis there,according and introduce tohisclerk,but"verybusy";to disturbhimwouldbe "tooabsurd."Only afterPerkerprodsthe clerkand jokes about feesand the like is the serjeant"prevailedupon,in violationofall his establishedrulesand customs,to admitthem"and be introducedto his client,"thedefendantin Bardelland Pickwick.""'I am retainedin that,am I?' said the Serjeant."Perkerexplainsthepurposeofthevisit,Pickwickspeaksof bored,and impahisinnocence,and Snubbinappearsat onceskeptical, tient.Itis timeto turnhisvisitorsoverto hisassistingbarrister. "Who'swithme in thiscase?" "Mr.Phunky, SerjeantSnubbin,"repliedtheattorney. said the Serjeant;"I neverheard the "Phunky-Phunky," namebefore.He mustbe a veryyoungman." "Hewas "Yes,he is a veryyoungman,"repliedtheattorney. onlycalledtheotherday.Letme see oh,he hasn'tbeenat theBareightyearsyet." Otherpeoplehavedifficulty catchingMr.Phunky'sname:in the writehim downas thejudge in the case will mistakenly courtroom, the flunkey "Mr.Monkey."But"althoughhe was an infantbarrister,"

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provesveryhandyto Dickens'sironyand, once again,his purposeof distinguishing busynessfromthebusinessofthelaw. "You are with me in this case, I understand?"said the Serjeant. IfMr.Phunkyhadbeena richman,he wouldhaveinstantly sentforhisClerkto remindhim;ifhe hadbeena wiseone, he wouldhaveappliedhis fore-finger to his forehead,and endeavoured to recollectwhetherin themultiplicity ofhis he had undertaken this or one, not:but as engagements he was neitherrichnorwise (inthissenseat all events)he turnedred,and bowed. "Have you read the papers,Mr.Phunky?"inquiredthe Serjeant. Here again Mr. Phunkyshould have professedto have all about the meritsof the case; but as he had forgotten readsuchpapersas had been laidbeforehimin thecourse ofthe action,and had thoughtofnothingelse,wakingor thetwomonthsduringwhichhe had sleeping,throughout beenretainedas Mr.SerjeantSnubbin'sjunior,he turneda deeperred,and bowedagain. s name,Dickens'ssatireofthe assistantfor ExceptforPhunky' thedefenseis rathergentle.TheSerjeanthimselfcomesoffwellenough in thetrial:at leasthe provesto havea senseofhumor.EvenSerjeant Buzfuzforthe plaintiff, whose outrageousargumentsand notionsof evidencemakehimbeyondquestionthehitofthetrialscene,is more hilariousthanwicked.Thetruerascalsare Dodsonand Fogg,who have persuadedMrs.Bardellto sue in the firstplace; and the ordinarily Mr.Pickwick, to his abidingfame("Allmenare victimsof law-abiding and I thegreatest"), defiesthemand goes to jail rather circumstance, thanpaythe costsand damagesunjustlyawardedby thejuryto the

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andherlawyers.Butevenrascalsareintothegameofseeming plaintiff busierthantheyare:earlierin chapter20,whentheherocallson them inresponsetothewrit,he istoldthat"Mr.Dodsonain'tathome,andMr. engaged."On thisfirstoccasionPickwicknevertheFogg'sparticularly lessgetstospeaktoboth;andthechaptertitle- "ShowingHowDodson theentireroutine. and FoggWereMenofBusiness.. ."- anticipates of satire.Among the favorites are not of only Lawyers, course, Chaucer'spilgrims,on average,the clericscome offworse;and from Dante'shellnotevenpopesare spared.Overtime,as thethirdlearned becomesorganized,medicineis knockeddownforlaughs. profession Bob Sawyerand Ben medicalstudents, Thereare a coupleofdelightful but more spitefulmischiefis made withthe redAllen,in Pickwick; nosed reverendMr.Stiggins,forwhomthe BrickLane Branchofthe UnitedGrandJunctionEbenezerTemperanceAssociationis nothing and as is mixedup withStiggins, buta front.SamWeller'sstepmother for Wellerseniorcomplains,"She'sgotholdo' someinwention grown- thenewbirth,I thinkstheycalls up peoplebeingbornagain,Sammy The it.I shouldwerymuchliketo see thatsystemin haction,Sammy." afterall, originallyreferredto religiousavowverywordprofession, als, the sacredtruthsthatone professedto believe.Accordingto the law,and 0. E. D., theprofessions, notablythe learnedones ofdivinity, havebeen calledsuchat leastsincethe medicine,butalso themilitary, to claimthemforsatireprecisely sixteenthcentury, yetit is tempting because of this originalmeaningof the word.Insteadof hardwork couldbe unreal,moreshowthan withtangibleresults,theprofessions and words where substance,pursuits appearancescountformorethan true,I justrealized,ofthemeditheyshould.The sameis undoubtedly evalcallingofprofessor. 1

theworker as thatwordis usedto distinguish It seemsthatprofessional, frommereamateurs,was indeeda creationofthenineteenth century; Revolution and thereare a hostofreasons notleast,theIndustrial fortracingmanyof our modernconvictionsaboutworkto thatera.

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As a studentcaptivatedbythe proseofthe so-calledVictorianprophI beganto concludethattheir ets,Carlyle,Ruskin,and theirfollowers, mostfrequently quotedpassagefromthe Biblewas this:"Whatsoever to do, do itwiththymight;forthereis no work,nor thyhandfindeth norwisdom,in thegrave,whitherthougoest" device,norknowledge, (Ecclesiastes9:10). The most memorableinstance,albeit fromthe mouthofthatstrangecharacterProfessor Teufelsdrockh, suppliesthe climax to SartorResartus:

I too couldnow sayto myself. . . Produce!Produce!Were fractionof a Product, it but the pitifullestinfinitesimal produceit, in God's name! Tis the utmostthou hast in thee:outwithit,then.Up,Up!Whatsoeverthyhandfindeth to do, do it withthywhole might.Workwhile it is called Today;forthe Nightcometh,whereinno man can work(Carlyle, 1937[1833-34]: 197). The same convictionabout the importanceof workcould be heard in the nineteenthcentury, whetherin storiedmyth,like everywhere thisfirstworkofCarlyle,orthelastact ofGoethe'scompletedFaust,in forthe poemsand novelsforreadersofall ages,in wisdomliterature treatiseslike workingclassesby SamuelSmiles,or in manufacturing - and thoseofFrederick W. Taylor.In theory,the industrialeconomy - dependedon maximizing beliefin progress work.Unlessmostofus mostofthe timemaximizeour efforts, the invisiblehand will point nowhereand thefreemarketspinaimlessly. In truth,muchpreachment ofhardworktendsto affectation, if notdownright self-contradiction. Earnestnesswas the highVictorian virtue,and it was preachedall the time.Talentwas not supposedto countas muchas application.In one ofthosenovelsthatstillcan be enjoyedat anyage,DavidCopperfield goes out ofhiswayto assureus atgreatlengthofhisearnestness. He writesratherself-consciously, as if he knewthatwe knowthatin reallifeCharlesDickensis writingthis. A little,perhaps.Yet"I do notholdone naturalgift,I daresay, Talented?

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thatI havenotabused.Mymeaningsimplyis,thatwhateverI havetried to do in life,I havetriedwithall myheartto do well;thatwhateverI have devotedmyselfto,I have devotedmyselfto completely; that,in in earnest greataimsand in small,I havealwaysbeen thoroughly forthoroughgoing, thereis no substitute ardent,and sincereearnestnever gets round to telling ness." A PersonalHistoryofDavid Copperfield

novelistis actually thereaderwhattheexperienceofbeinga successful ofa lunaticnamedMr.Dick, like.Instead,it offersa brillianttake-off who has an obsessionaboutKingCharlestheFirstand sendsreamsof Memorialaloftas a kite. hisunfinished In studyingDickens I was initiallysurprisedto discoverhow littleworkwas actuallyfeaturedin the novels.The one convincing middle-classman in Dickensmaybe that portraitof a hard-working butnotthenovel's Dorrit ofDaniel Doyce,the skilledinventorin Little hero(Welsh,1986 [1971]:73-85).The puzzlingdisconnectbetweenthe actionsofthenovelsbaffled ofworkand therepresented preachment thatDickens"has no conclude to was tempted GeorgeOrwell,who ideal of work"afterall. It was the routineendingof livinghappily everafterthatapparentlypiqued Orwell."Thatis the spiritin which mostofDickens'sbooks end-asortofradiantidleness.. . . Home life and the strangeemptydreamoftheeighteenthis alwaysenough idlemiddlebourgeoisie.Itwas a dreamofcomplete nineteenth-century ness"(1954 [1939]:88-96).Andnotthebourgeoisdreamofthe twentiWe obviouslyhaveenoughdistancefrom centuries? ethortwenty-first ofearliertimesto recognizethemas fictions. conventions theliterary Probablyno one stilllivingremembersbeing introducedto the socalledAmericandreamthroughHoratioAlgerstories,whichsold in a similarmoral- hardworkforboysin greatnumbersbycelebrating withgreat each protagonist thehumblestwalksoflife- byrewarding 1963: efforts own his to related 14-17); (Tebbel, good fortunescarcely but thatdoes not mean thatthe dreamor the disconnectfromwork has goneaway. whetherin thesensethatitlackscontent Ifthedreamis empty, aboutthepersistent wonders oris onlya dream,thenone accompany-

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ofideas,TheVictorian ingmoral:Keepbusy.In hiscompendioushistory Frame ofMind,WalterE. Houghtonconcludeda chapteron earnestness, thatsome whichfeaturedCarlyleand Ruskinand others,byobserving modernwriterson this subjectseemed chieflydeterminedto fend offuncertainty, or even to be contendingagainstdespair(1957: 242or even 62). Whetherforreligiousdoubt,a sense ofpurposelessness, - work workwas the recommendedtherapy the loss of a girlfriend, in short,workforthevictimsofcircumstance. Near as a distraction, the close of Tennyson's"LocksleyHall,"forexample,we findthese couplets: Notinvainthedistancebeacons.Forward, forward letus range, Let the greatworld spin forever down the ringinggrooves ofchange. Throughthe shadowof the globe we sweep into the younger day: Betterfifty yearsofEuropethana cycleofCathay. (formineI knewnot)helpme as whenlifebegun: Mother-Age Riftthehills,and rollthewaters,flashthelightnings, weighthe Sun. Houghtonarguedthatthiswas notso mucha visionofprogress forthe machineage as Tennyson'spersonal"resolutionofa mood of butwhywoulditnotbe both?The associationofprogress depression," withEuroperatherthantheOrient,as wellas a goodmanyotherlines inthispoemof1842,stampsall thisfrenzied withtheimprimaactivity turofempire.Publishedin thesameyear,thepoem"Ulysses"we know to have been writtena decade earlierwhen Tennysonwas grieving forthe loss ofhis friendArthurHallam.Thatwell-known monologue concludes,"thatwhichwe are,we are; /One equal temperofheroic hearts,/Madeweak bytimeand fate,but strongin will/To strive,to seek,to find,and notto yield."The strenuousworkwouldagainseem to be therapeutic ratherthanforitsown sake- and also empty,as the

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transitive verbswithoutan objectsuggest.Tostrive, toseek,tofind,and nottoyield- what?IfI was rightabouttheVictorians' fondnessforthe

linesfromEcclesiastes9, itmaybe becausethepreacherspokeofwhat- no everthe handfindsto do and witha starkconvictionofmortality workwherewe are all going.ThatbookoftheBiblebegins,remember, ofvanities,saiththe Preacher, vanityofvanities;all is vanity." "Vanity Businessmightjustbe busynessafterall. Itis notonlysatirethattreats ofthe theironyofworkand thedeviousnessoftoomuchcommending same. Real-life was SamuelSmiles'principaldidacticmodebiography success storiesforboth the haves and the have-nots.His livesofthe workby1874;in themid-twenaccumulatedas a five-volume Engineers theMITPressstillsaw fitto bringouta samplingofthese tiethcentury mosttranslatedbook,Self-Help lives(1966).Smiles'best-selling, (1958 Withchapterslike [1859]),also retaileddozensofcapsulebiographies. and Courage,""MenofBusiness,""Money:ItsUse and Abuse," "Energy itcomprisesbothwisdomliteraTheTrueGentleman," and "Character: turefortheworkingclass and courtesybook forthe aspiringmiddle forall concerned. class,witha modestimperialconsciousness is the rootofall genuinegrowthin The spiritofself-help theindividual; and,exhibitedinthelivesofmany,itconstitutesthetruesourceofnationalvigourand strength. Help but help fromwithoutis oftenenfeeblingin its effects, Whateveris donefor fromwithininvariablyinvigorates. menor classes,to a certainextenttakesawaythestimulus and wheremenare and necessityofdoingforthemselves; theinevand over-government, subjectedto over-guidance is to renderthemcomparatively itabletendency helpless. has a familiar Ifthisargument ring,itis becausewe stillhearitso often. to "overis tantamount forsocial improvement Sharedresponsibility Notevenwell-meaning publicorprivate guidanceandover-government." whois the can individual, Smilescontinues, effectively institutions, help

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bestleft"freetodevelophimself"(1958[1859]:35).Forthisvision,please - is associatedwithhardwork. - notslavery note,freedom The gospelofworkas preachedbySmiles,drivenbysales ofhis becamemoreand booksand no doubtgenuineecumenicalintentions, 1880 [1875]one ofthe sequels to eclectic.In Thrift, moreconfusingly we finda paragraphlikethis: Self-Help, an honour, Labouris at once a burden,a chastisement, and a pleasure.[Whichwill you choose?]It maybe idenbut thereis also gloryin it. It bears tifiedwithpoverty, witness,at thesametime,to ournaturalwantsand to our manifoldneeds. What were man, what were life,what werecivilization, withoutlabour?Allthatis greatin man in science. comesoflabour; greatnessin art,in literature, Knowledge "thewingwherewithwe flyto heaven"- is onlyacquiredthroughlabour.Geniusis buta capabilityof labouringintensely:it is the powerof makinggreatand sustainedefforts. positionexactly.]Labour [Copperfield's but it is indeeda gloriousone. It maybe a chastisement, - forthosewho is worship,duty,praise,and immortality, labourwiththehighestaims,and forthepurestpurposes. Smiles'stwo passingreferences to laboras chastisement, alongwith his admissionaboutpovertyand inclusionof "naturalwantsand . . . - mighttrigger needs"- suchas hunger,shelter, in thereadwarmth? er'smindsomething likeslavelabor,or moregenerally, thetaskwork requiredofmostpeople forsubsistence;but anothercompetingidea here is thatof honorand even "glory," whichseems in thiscontext ("heaven,""purestpurposes")to place a halo abouta Romanand aristocraticideal.Andjust as Smilesincongruously concludedhis earlier bookwitha chapteron mannersbefitting a gentleman, he also appeals to a morearistocratic traditionofvaluesin Thrift: "Labourofall kinds is dignifying and honourable;it is the idler,above all others,who is and undignified dishonourable" (1880 [1875]:6, 55-56).Smilessimply

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reachesback in timeand co-optsthesefinesentiments withoutever to think what or stopping eighteenth-century gentlemen the ancient wouldmakeoftheseprecepts. authorities As the idea ofthe gentlemanwas stretchedto includelaborers and his followers must laborers,at least),poorAristotle (well-behaved have rotatedin theirgravesthroughout the longnineteenthcentury In 1962: his Aristotle associatedleisurewith Ethics, (de Grazia, 11-25). virtue,anda greatdeal ofleisureifthehighesthappinessofcontemplationwas to be pursued.In thePolitics, he excludedthosewho worked forwages or in vulgarcraftsfromcitizenshipbecause theycould be thanslaves.Thuswhenhe writesofeducascarcelymoreindependent hetakesa positioncompletely tioninthePolitics, different fromSmiles's. - the childrenofthe companyAristotleaddresses- maybe Children taughtsomeusefulthingsbutnotall,fortheyshouldnotbe subjected to mechanicalwork."We call those artsmechanicalwhichtend to deformthebody,and likewiseall paid employments, fortheyabsorb and degradethemind.Therearealso someliberalartsquiteproperfor a freemanto acquire,butonlyin a certaindegree,and ifhe attendsto in them,thesameharmthemtoo closely,in orderto attainperfection ofthissortwerewhat fuleffects will follow"(1337b4-17).Sentiments and their families fromworkingfolkin once distinguished gentlemen the West.Dignitas provideda constantrefrainin the ethicalwritings not was theretoo associatedwithleisure,otium, ofCicero,butdignity work(O'Loughlin, 1978:xiv,passim).In theclassicallanguages,leisure becauseworkis denotedsimplyby wouldseemto be thedesideratum, andwork, thenegationofthesameword.Thusin Greekleisureis schole itsopposite- busiIn Latinthewordsare otiumand negotium, ascholia. a the nexttimeyou are negotiating ness,in short.Thinkofnegotium better. deal butmightbe occupying yourtimemuch One has the feelingthat the ancientsmay have got it right, thatworkis somethingpeople do not do iftheydo not have to, and Smiles's maybeshouldn'tdo iftheydon'thaveto. One can understand more tasks more and dilemma,sincethe IndustrialRevolutionmade mechanical.Mass productiontendedto renderall craftsvulgar.His

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foughta contemporaries JohnRuskinand WilliamMorrisbrilliantly but morethana rearguardactionagainstthesesame developments, makeitevidentthattheywontoo fewpeople hundredyearsofhistory totheirside.Atthesametime,forSmilesandtruebelieverstomixwith theirgospelan ancientmoralcodeso diametrically opposedtowork,or workers weregentleand farm that to pretend miners, laborers, factory men, involvedthe workethic in more contradictions. Clearlythey wantedto have it bothways,and Victoriansfrommanywalksoflife the qualityofa wentsofton thistheme(Gilmour, 1981).Increasingly, was definedbymannersratherthanbysocialclass,andthat gentleman is evenmorethecase today.Yetto be a gentlemanwas also associated - an income,no matterhowsmall,that withhaving"an independence" ofan wasnotderivedfromworkofone'sown.Comparetheambiguities muchbruitedaboutthesedays. society," "ownership 2 readstheveryfirst sentence "Heavenhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves," of Self-Help. Smileswas not presumingto make a theologicalpoint; like Dickens,he was basicallya secularthinkerand beginshis bestsellingbook witha gestureto some vague equivalentofancientfate - usually or Christianprovidence.Thatvenerableproverb,however - goes back at least spoken"God helps thosewho help themselves"

to the sixteenthcentury.Even ifwe positthatpeople helpingthemselvesdoesnotincludethosewhohelpthemselves at thetillorto more dessertat thedinnertable,thereis a problemhereas old as theproverb itself,and older.We do not knowverymuchaboutthe waysof God, and forthereligiousamongus itis all themorepresumptuous to think we do. Allwe knowis thatwe are not fullyin control or victimsof as Mr.Pickwickprotests. circumstances, "Workwhileit is calledToday,"CarlyleglossesEcclesiastes9:10. Takeas muchcontrolas youcan now,sincethisis the onlylifeyou'll get.Thatmotiveto act,however, mayreadilybe extendedto Playwhile youstillhavetimeto play.Forthesamepreacherin theBible,a mortal mayhave"nobetterthingunderthesun,thanto eat,and to drink,and

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to be merry" (Ecclesiastes8:15).Indeed,Jesusseemsto be rebukingthe latterbitofwisdomin his crispparableofthe foolishrichman (Luke 12:19).Andyet- andyet- forthosewhodo believein a lifeafterdeath, the dutyto keep workingto the end can seem to be evenmoreprobembracethe workethichave lematic.Christianswho mostfervently been committedto salvationbyfaith,notworks,and to traditionally forthefewatthat.Strictly salvationpredestined speaking,forCalvinists hardworkmightbe a signof salvationbut not the proof,since it is to believeone can be savedbyone's ownmerits."Good presumptuous socialconductwas the resultofsalvationratherthanthe cause ofit"; to procuresalvation, nevertheless, "goodworks. . . howeverineffectual itw the faith that did of couldbe evidence procure (Morgan,1966:3-4). Again,it almostseemsthatkeepingup appearancesbecomesthebest reasontowork. The redoubtableexpositorof thisconundrumwas Max Weber EthicandtheSpirit in TheProtestant years (1958)."Betterfifty ofCapitalism in avowed the of than a ofEurope speaker Tennyson's cycle Cathay" Weber in value-ridden less terms, soughtto uncovertherootsof poem: oftheOccident." ofthesocialstructure capitalismin "thepeculiarities forgranted,however,and His book mostlytookthe social structure thatseemedto supportit:a modern delvedintothereligiousmind-set and Westernbranchof Christianity emanatingchieflyfromBritain. TheVictorianSmiles,whoselonglifecameto an endaboutthetimeof does notmakehis wayintothebook anymore Weber'sfirstwriting, thanTennysondoes,butthe same proverbwithwhichSelf-Help began ethic Protestant the how for might provesusefultoWeber summarizing of a means as be works "useless how of thrive,regardless might good attainingsalvation": InpracticethismeansthatGodhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves.Thusthe Calvinist,as it is sometimesput,himself the createshisownsalvation,or,as wouldbe morecorrect, ofit.Butthiscreationcannot,as in Catholicism, conviction ofindividualgoodworks consistin a gradualaccumulation

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toone'scredit,butratherina systematic self-control which at everymomentstandsbeforetheinexorablealternative, chosenordamned(1958[1920]:25, 115). I stressthe Britishcharacterof the mind-setWeberexplores becausehis longfifth ofRichardBaxter, chapterfeaturesthewritings whose seventeenth-century Christian he Directory calls "the most completecompendiumofPuritanethics"(1958 [1920]:156). Baxter's book dates from1673; the second editionin 1678 consistsof four volumesofcloselyprinted, double-columned pagesdevotedrespectively toEthicks, CEconomicks of and Ecclesiasticks, (management thefamily), Politicks. TheDirectory is literally a seriesofnumbereddirections, thousandsofthemassortedin different forthe delectationand categories, reader;withnearlyas manyquestionssuchas guidanceoftheChristian thereadermightpose,alongwithanswerstothesame,also numbered. Baxteralso citeschapterand verseofthe Bibleeverychancehe gets, and so assiduously thata readercomesawayfeelingthatall oftheBible has been sweptup intothosefourvolumes.1Actuallyhe repeatssome a greatdeal; his favorite on workwouldseemto passagesofscripture be this,fromPaulto theThessalonians:"evenwhenwe werewithyou, thiswe commandedyou,thatifanywould notwork,neithershould he eat. Forwe hearthatthereare somewhichwalkamongyoudisorderly,workingnotat all, butare busybodies.Nowthemthatare such we commandand exhortbyourLordJesusChrist,thatwithquietness theywork,and eattheirownbread"(2 Thessalonians3:10-12).Itis hard to saywhattheologicalgroundsBaxterextractsfromPaul'scommand, but amongotherthingsit supplieshimwitha tidydefinition ofidleness "Idleness is a disorderly walking"and he glossesbusybodiesin the modernsense as "medlerswithmattersthatconcernthemnot,and twatlersand tale-carriers." In truththisChristian is so compenDirectory diousthatit can easilyaccommodatemorethanone motiveto work. Baxteroftenappeals to the argumentfromsheermortality, as "Live in constantexpectationofdeath.. . . Thereis greatpowerin Deathto rouseup a drousiesoul,whenitis takento be near"(1678:1:381,387).

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has hisor hercalling.ForBaxterthisidea ofone's callEveryone and the societyfoundedupon it is essentially ing is veryimportant, static.It'swrongto tryto takethecallingofanother,so a callingin life is moreor less whatyou startedwith.The mostgeneralcallingofall is the serviceofGod. Butthereis also the matterofthe publicgood, ofcallings.Atthetop are magistrates and in thatrespect,a hierarchy and churchleaders,teachers,physicians,lawyers,and husbandmen, with merchantssomewhatbelow these. Merchantsin turncan be dividedbetweenthosewho providethe necessitiesof lifeand those Attheverybottom,somecallings-beinga jester whoprovidethefrills. - are forbidden. On thewhole,humblecallor stageactor,forinstance ingsare thesafest:morethanonce Baxterarguesthathardexerciseis theprincipalpages goodforhealthofmindas wellas body.Pointedly, sin of idledevotedto callingsand the corresponding oftheDirectory forthe nesscomein chapter10 ofthefirst volume,entitled"Directions back hands or oftheBody."Thosewho laborwiththeir Government and legs- cannotonlymeditatebutperhapsevendiscourseon heaven as theywork,whereas"manywho plungethemselvesintomoreand greaterbusiness. . . manymenofricherCallingshavescarceroomfora thoughtorwordofGodorHeavenall day"(1678:1:378).In neithercase is Baxterexactlyurgingworkforitsownsake.I do notfindhimundemocratic:he assignsthedutytoworkin a callingto all classes,evenifhis conceptionofwomen'scallingis mainlydomestic.He quotesat length fromthe descriptionof the virtuoushousewifethat concludesthe bookofProverbs (31: 13-21)and chidesany"Ladiesand Gentlewomen, take this that patternto be belowthem,to rememberthatit was not a Plowmanbuta King"-Solomon himself-"thatgavethiscounselas receivedfromhis Mother."ButI do findthesecontentionsunargued as faras salvationis concerned.In one or twoplaces,Baxter'srhetoric "DothGod makesoutGodto be somesortofmagnanimous employer. dailyfeed,and clothe,and keepyou,and protectand supportyou,and thatforwhichhe Is Idleness teach and warnyou,and all fornothing? hiredyou?"(1678:1:381,380)A nice metaphorforserviceto God,but one thatdoes not explainhow the employerprofits:the contractis

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not spelledout,and exceptfor"warnyou,"possibly,the employer's thisworld. in kindall pertainto thislifetime, payments ThatBaxterbelievedin the nextworldis certain,but his more persuasivecase fortherelationbetweenhumanbehaviorin thisworld ofgoodworks.This and salvationin thenextrestson theperformance survived the restoration the man and his is not surprising: ministry was in 1660,afterwhichhis Christian ofthe Stuartmonarchy Directory composedand published.Baxterwas a farmoreecumenicalspiritthan Webershows.His directionson good worksmaybe consultedin the fourthvolume,on Politicks,chapter30, whichbeginswiththe question, "Whatare thegroundsand reasonsand motivesto charitableworks?"

Andtheresultsarerightthere,as ifthereaderhadtypedinthesewords in a Googlesearch:12 numberedanswersfollow,roughlyin orderof formarethefirstseven:1) "That theirimportance. Herein abbreviated employment.. doinggooddothmakeuslikesttoGod."2) "It is an honourable

is therefore becauseitis an ability todogood"3) . . Greatness honourable, "Doinggoodmakethus pleasingand amiableto God."4) "Goodworks are profitableto men. . . . Our brethrenare the betterforthem."5) "In doinggood to otherswe do good to ourselves:because we ... by Loveand Communionfeeltheirjoys,as well as pains."6) "Thereis in in doinggood... to see ourhonest everygoodnaturea singulardelight laboursprosperand manyto be thebetterforthem,is thepleasantest lifethatmancan hopefor."7) "Goodworksare a comfortable evidence thatfaithis sincere,and thattheheartdissembleth notwithGod."It is onlywiththisseventhanswer,then,thatBaxterarticulates something likethe Protestant workethicas Weberand othershave taughtus to understand it: salvationis bygrace;workis the evidenceoffaithand, it maybe, ofbelongingto the elect.Baxter'sfirsttwo reasonssweepinglyencompassthe modernWest'straditionalChristianand classical valueswithan assurancethatmakesSmiles'sgesturestowardthe honorcode seemtimid.His lasttworeasons,numbers11 and 12, put it squarelyup to his readersto consulttheirBibles.Elevencounselsto "considerhowabundantly [goodworks]arecommendedin thewordof God,"and forexamplesofthis,thelongestofhis answers,he presents

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sevenexcerptsfromtheepistlesofPaul.Twelvesays"considerthatGod willin a specialmannerjudgeus at thelastdayaccordingto ourworks, and especiallyourworksofCharity" (1678:4:258-59).Thislastreason- is nothingless unlessthewriteris hedgingwith"ina specialmanner"

ofbeliefin salvationbyworks.Baxterwrapsup thana nakedstatement witha blanketappeal to Matthew25. He need noteven his argument his readerswill findJesus'sparableofthewise and that there specify hisparableofthetalents,and ofthedayofjudgment. foolishvirgins, Still,good worksare not quite the same thingas work.Evenif I am persuadedby Baxter'soutpouringsthatcharityis a duty,does it followthat I mustworkin mycallinguntil I wear myselfaway? Strictly speaking,to derivea workethicfroma dutyto be charitable an additionalargumentis calledfor:namely,thatall ofmyprofits-or wages overand abovewhatit coststo keep me alive- be givenaway. Baxterneverfullyarticulatessuch a conclusionas that,althoughon manyoccasions he calls on Christiansof means to share withthe needy.All the same,workwould seem to be a dutyin itselfin these giventhatidlenessis an anathema.Whatis itthatthework writings, ethicis so afraidof,ifnottheworkitself?Whyis idlenesstempting, unlessworkcan be so muchless pleasing?Whyam I nottemptedto workhardereven in orderto be good?Ifthereis a certaindisparity betweenthewaypeopleboastand thewaytheyfeelabouttheirwork, thatmayexplainwhyso manyofus are contentto seem busierthan we reallyare. those who writeabout work sometimesexpress Notoriously, themselvesmore franklywhen it comes to the question of public welfare.Abouta hundredyearsafterBaxterpublishedhis ambitious - "Bya anotherclergyman Christian publishedanonymously Directory, - a modestpamphletentitled on ADissertation to Mankind" Well-Wisher thePoorLaws(Townsend,1971 [1786]).It was one ofthosetimeswhen was in theair,and thenas nowsome whatwe nowcallwelfarereform believedthatreliefto thepoormadethingsworsebecauseittookaway themotivetowork.No obliqueor subtleworkethichere:peoplework and inJosephTownsend'swords,"wherebread to keepfromstarving,

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can be obtainedwithoutcare or labour,it leads throughidlenessand viceto poverty." Hereis thenotoriouspassage: In generalit is onlyhungerwhichcan spurand goad [the poor]on to labour;yetourlawshavesaid,theyshallnever hunger.The laws, it must be confessed,have likewise said thattheyshallbe compelledto work.Butthenlegal constraint is attendedwithtoomuchtrouble, violence,and ill creates and can never be ofgood noise; will, productive and acceptableservice:whereashungeris notonlya peaceable, silent,unremittedpressure,but,as the mostnatural motiveto industry and labour,it calls forththe most powerfulexertions;and whensatisfied bythefreebounty ofanother,laysa lastingand surefoundation forgoodwill and gratitude.The slave mustbe compelledto work;but thefreemanshouldbe leftto hisownjudgmentand discrein thefullenjoyment ofhisown, tion;shouldbe protected be it much or little;and punishedwhen he invadeshis neighbour's (1971[1786]:23-24).2 property In thislastsentenceit is as ifTownsendcatcheshimselfwritingabout slaves,when it is onlythe poor who are in question:no matter,the freecan choosewhetherto workor to starve.Thisis grimstuff, and thereis quite a bit moreof it fora 99-pagepamphlet.Butit is arguablymorefrankabout the experienceofworkformostpeople than theworkethicpermitsBaxterto be. Thepoorestpaidworkis oftenthe mostunpleasantofall. Morethanonce the apostlePaul remindsthe congregations he addressesthatthosewho do notworkshall not eat. WhatTownsend is doing, however,is clearly separatingoffthe lowest class- or subclass- of societyand focusinghis attentionthere.Parishrelief is a class matter,and hungerdrivesthe poor.It goes withoutsaying thatquite a fewmembersof societydo not strictlyhave to worka fullday in orderto eat. How different it is forBaxter,and also in a

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sensemoredemocratic. to somegenuine Pageafterpageofhistestifies linkbetweenthe spiritofProtestantism and the demoticleaningsof

the New Testament.Question: Is everyoneboundto labourin a Calling?"

Answer:"Everyone thatis able, richor poor,mustlive in some profitablecourseof pains or labour."Thus Baxterdependablyillustrates workethic.The verynextqueswhatWebermeantbythe Protestant concernstherich."Isita dutyto tionin theChristian Directory explicitly andgrowrichbyourLabours, when desire andendeavour toget,andprosper, nottoberich?Prov.23.4"(1678,4:225).Needlessto Solomon saith,Labour say,Baxtercan explicateSolomonwhenhe has to;therichshouldhelp provideforthepoor,and so on.Yetthissecondquestion,whetherit is nota dutyforsometo prosperand growrich,is alwaysthecruxofthe and supportfor matterwhenit comesto theworkethic'sinspiration capitalism. 3 Baxter'sChristian consistingofmorethana thousandclosely Directory, printedfoliopagesthatcouldreadilybe searchedforanswersto one's questions,belongsto the seventeenthcentury.Whetheror not the that be thoughtofas a Puritan, authorshouldstrictly book'ssuccessful same era saw thebeginningsofthe colonizationofNorthAmericaby whoprayedandworkedhard theEnglish-notablybya savingremnant becausetheywerehardpressed.So the Britishcharacterofthework Yetby ethic,manywillagree,was transported earlyon to thiscountry. were heard ofthe laments intheseUnitedStates, thetwentieth century passingoftheworkethic:lamentsnotmerelyfromthepulpitaboutthe butfromtheacademyaboutthe supposed ofparishioners backsliding whichwas boundto in theworkforcegenerally, declineofmotivation Wasthereevera here? at issue was What slowdownproductivity. really workethic,or conditionsmorelikenecessity businesslike broad-based formostpeopleand a showofbusynessfortherest?Whenitcomesto the crunch-and the crunchis still,feltall overtheworldand in too of manystreetsand fieldsofthiscountry-Townsend'sendorsement hungeras theundeniablemotiveto workringstruer,eventhoughhe

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himselfwiththeownershipsociety, as we say,rather hastilyidentified thanwithslaves. As forthe diffusion of surpluswealthin the modernindustrial economy,ThorsteinVeblenin 1899 ridiculedits motivesas archaic and a showofconspicuouswaste."Thearchaictheoreticaldistinction betweenthe base and the honourablein the mannerof a man's life retainsverymuchof its ancientforceeven to-day.So much so that therearefewofthebetterclasswhoare notpossessedofan instinctive forthevulgarformsoflabour."Veblensingledout"governrepugnance as thefavoredprofessions, ment,war,sports,and devoutobservances" towhichsatirists likeChaucerand Dickenswouldundoubtedly add the law. "Atthisas at anyotherculturalstage,government and war are, at leastin part,carriedon forthepecuniarygainofthosewho engage in them,"Veblenconceded;"but it is gain obtainedby the honourable methodof seizureand conversion"(1934 [1899]:37, 40). Armed gentlemanmaytakethings,and thedevoutmayconvertthedoubters, butgentlemenas suchdo notwork.I couldquotetheentirebook;The Class, whetherintendedas suchor not,is one ofthe Theory oftheLeisure greatsatiresofall time. the flattenedlapels on businessBythe mid-twentieth century, men'ssuitsand moreflamboyantly conspicuouswastein femaledress thatVeblencataloguedhad become the tail finson GeneralMotors' cars,which increasedin lengthand heightwitheverymodel year. Sociologistsworriedthat the Americanwork ethic mightnow be dysfunctional, havingbeenenvelopedbysuchfoolishdisplaysofstatus. The book fromthisperiodthatI wouldsingleout had nothingto say about tail fins,but was obviouslyconsciousthroughoutof (directly) theweaknessand dubiousness,especiallyin otherpartsoftheworld, ofappealingto Weber'sProtestant workethicto explainthe driving forceand potentialofcapitalism-capitalism,thatis, underthe guise of"economicgrowth."In W. W. Rostow'sTheStagesofEconomic Growth (1960),Calvinis mentionedperhapsonce, Weberand Baxternot at itselfsomewhatmuted.The idea behind all, and the wordcapitalism this shortbook- not so shortas to excludea fewgraphsand statis-

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of"traditional" tics- was thathistory is on ourside.Thetransformation societiesintomodernindustrialeconomiesthatpossessa "dynamic" thatof the United to transcendeven the presentsystem(implicitly "the fortake-off," States)proceedsby stages:certain"preconditions "theage ofhighmass-consumption," takeoff,""thedriveto maturity," Rostowtendered and beyond.Forwhatmightcomenext,in a footnote thethirdgenerationofthe thisthoughtfromThomasMann'strilogy: Buddenbrooks familyturnto music. butare by ofindustrialization thehistory Rostow'sstagesreflect thatwouldbe theMarxist no meanssaid to be determined byhistory: take on history,and the provocativesubtitleof this book is A NonThe authoris at particular Communist painsto stressthatthe Manifesto. stagescome about,when theycome about,throughhumanchoices. choices." thesemayindeedbe "strategic Givena knowledgeofhistory, down "the or at least to Rostowseeks deny Butjustas persistently, play profitmotive."Thatmotiveis sometimesallowedto existin "conjuncandespecially tion"withothermotivessuchas family, pride,adventure, was meantnotonlyto positionAmerican The manifesto nationalism. practiceand policybut to applyto the thirdworldat the time.With to maketherightstrategic choices,thirdworldnations encouragement at variousstagesofdevelopmentcouldadvanceto the next presently itwill stageand thenextafterthatuntil,in termsofeconomicgrowth, this be one worldverymuchlikeus. Mygroundsforcomprehending M.I.T. the plotas anotherBritishexportis thatbeforeWaltRostowleft as a WhiteHouse adviser facultyto join the Kennedyadministration he was well knownas an (theyearthathe publishedhis manifesto), on modernBritisheconomichistory. authority Rostowdid not look to the massesof the thirdworldto make therightchoicesbutto "a new£lite-a new leadership," byno means necessarilydrivenby a Protestantworkethic (an unlikelypossibil"servingsome end theyjudge to be ity)yetbenton a modernization like Withcircumlocutions ethicallygood or otherwiseadvantageous." he leavesopenthequestionofwhatmotives "otherwise advantageous" drivethe decisionmakers.To anywho would insistBusinessis busi-

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thisnew elitemust- to a ness,he givesonlya shrug."Sociologically the old land-based degree supersedein socialand politicalauthority elite,whosegraspon incomeabove minimumlevelsofconsumption mustbe brokenwhereitprovesimpossiblesimplytodivertthatincome - tobreakthegraspofthe intothemodernsector."Ifthefirst smoothly - is no child'splay,as Rostow'slanguageseemsto imply,what rentiers to whereit will tricksmustit taketo diverttheirincome"smoothly" ofeconomicgrowth?One cannot generateconditionsforthe take-off thata widerangeofmotivesmay quarrelwithhisrepeatedobservation influence thenecessaryleadership, yetat thesametimeitseemsthata - greed? - mustbe eschewed.Ideally,thereis a business certainmotive ethicthatis nota businessethic. Undersome human motivationor other,a group must cometo perceiveitto be bothpossibleand goodto undertake acts of capitalinvestment. . . We cannotquite say thatit is necessaryforthemto act as iftheyweretrying to maximizeprofit; forthecriteriaforprivate-profit maximizationdo notnecessarily convergewiththe criteriafor an optimumrateand patternofgrowthin varioussectors. . . . Leavingaside here the questionof ultimatehuman and assumingthatthe majoroverheaditems motivation, are generated,ifnecessary,by some formof Stateinitiative(including we can sayas a first subsidy), approximation thatsomegroupmustsuccessfully emergewhichbehaves as ifitweremovedbytheprofit motive,in a dynamiceconomywithchangingproductionfunctions" (myemphasis) (1960:26, 50-51). Afterthisworkingthroughofwhatis necessaryor not necessaryfor we suddenlymustmakedo withan "as if"to keep thewhole growth, on process track.ForRostowit is onlyMarxistswho take the profit motiveas just that.But"nothingin Marx'sanalysiscan explainhow and whythe landedinterestsin the end acceptedthe ReformBill of

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1832"- we are back in Britainagain- "orwhythecapitalistsaccepted the progressiveincometax, or the welfarestate;forit is absolutely thatmen fightand die" essentialto Marxismthatit is overproperty handsclean,itis as if- as if- a (1960:150-51).To keepnon-Communist workethic,iftherewereno suchthing,willhaveto be inventedbefore take-off. Oncea matureindustrial economyhas been achieved,countries choice.The firstis expansion,byrecourseto "military facea three-way intolandsnottheirown.Thesecondis toplowback andforeign policy," "wecancallthewelfarestate."And, theeconomicsuccessintosomething ofmaturity "thethirdpossibledirection openedup bytheachievement and basic levels of food,shelter, beyond [is]theexpansion consumption butintotherange andclothing notonlytobetterfood,shelter, clothing, which ofdurableconsumers'goodsand services, ofmassconsumption the matureeconomiesofthe twentiethcenturycan provide."Which wouldyousupposeis therightchoice?Tobe fairto Rostow,he doesnot it seemsthat dictatethe answersto us; but inevitably (depressingly?) thesharingofsomeofthatsurplusaccumulation thethirdalternative, ofrichesso necessaryto fundgrowthwithmoreand moreconsumers, winsout.Everyhouseholdwillacquiresomesurplusgoodsto defineit, theextra mouthsto perform therewillbe moreand moremiddle-class and moreand moreoftheworld'seconomieswillbe selfconsumption, ormodernnationhoodareat last Still,"whenindependence sustaining. attained,thereis no simple,automaticswitchto a dominanceofthe thereis Onthecontrary motiveandeconomicandsocialprogress. profit that a searchingchoice. . ." (1960:73-74,152).One needsto remember was aboutto warmup the ColdWar thenew Kennedyadministration of at thistime.Rostowwas one ofthecrewwho hiton theexperiment so-calledlimitedwarinVietnam,andgiventhegovernment's appalling Non-Communist his the of ofthatpart world, provided Manifesto ignorance dominotheory. rationaleforthewarthantheplayful a morerespectable Byall meansclearspacesinthethirdworldforconsumersocieties,since is likelyto witherin theage ofhighmass"in itsessenceCommunism (1960:133). consumption"

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And so it has withered,thoughmainlyperhapsbecause ofthe unprecedentedavailabilityand high consumptionof information and language aroundthe globe.Moreover,the breadth,intelligence, of Rostow'smanifesto,even afterdiscountingforthe roundabout contrastmarkedlywith anythingthus treatmentof profit-taking, farpublishedby the innercircleofthe secondBushadministration. The rhetoricarisingfromthe precinctsoftheWhiteHouse todayhas becomeso generalizedas to defyattemptsto understandits denotations.Freedomis ourmostprizedpossessionin theUnitedStates,and reasonforwaragainstIraq. freedomthevaguestand longest-surviving "America's vitalinterests and ourdeepestbeliefsare nowone,"accordin W. Bush his secondinauguraladdress.An inaugural to ing George butthisone assumesthesame addressis notan occasionforspecifics, war putativeconnectionbetweeneconomicgrowthand undertaking emittedfromarmchairsofthe oppositepoliticalpartya half-century ago. "Thebesthopeforpeace in ourworldis theexpansionoffreedom inall theworld,"Bushaffirmed. Butnote:"Thegreatobjectiveofending is the concentrated workofgenerations. The difficulty ofthe tyranny taskis no excuseforavoidingit."The presidentspeaksthe language ofthe workethic,not of militarydutyor preparednessforsacrifice. "Americahas need ofidealismand couragebecausewe Furthermore, have essentialworkat home,the unfinished workofAmericanfree21Jan.2005). dom"(NewYork Times, An opinionpiece byOrlandoPattersonpublishedthe following Tobe sure,Patterson dayintheTimes helpedsortoutthesegeneralities. firstenumeratedsomefallaciesin theBushadministration's equation of terrorism withtyranny, remindedreadersthatU.S. governments havequietlybackedtyrannies forourownpurposes,and observedthat canandwillfindshelterincountries wherefreedom is "sadly"terrorists under law. Most in terrorist acts this none protected country though as devastating as the9/11attack- havebeen carriedoutbyAmericans. Abroadwe are "imposingdemocracyat the pointofa gun."Therefore someresponsesto 9/11,especiallytheIraqWar,are opento thecharge ofbottomlesshypocrisy; and thatis one waytheycontinueto be seen

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by citizensof othercountries.PattersongivesBush and his advisers benefitof the doubt:theyare no morehypocritical, say,than other politicians.The problemis that"freedom"meansdifferent things.To America'sforeign stillfollowedin ourcourts critics,and fora tradition andtaughtin schools,he believes,this"liberalversionemphasizescivil and socialjustice." liberties, politicalparticipation, Butmostordinary Americans viewfreedomin quitedifferent terms.In theirminds,freedomhas been radically Itsmoststriking featureis whatis leftout:poliprivatized. civic and tics, participation the celebrationoftraditional rights,forinstance.Freedomis largelya personalmatter havingto do withrelationswithothersand successin the meansdoingwhatone world.Freedom,in thisconception, wantsand gettingone's way.It is measuredin termsof on the one hand,and one's independenceand autonomy, one's influenceand poweron the other.It is experienced - both socioeconomicand most powerfullyin mobility 2005). geographic(Patterson, Pattersonjudges that Bush "easily empathizeswith the ordinary whenthe presiAmerican'sprivatizedviewoffreedom." Accordingly, abouttheworkoffreedomat home so expansively dentpropagandizes forworldly and abroad,he embracesthisvulgarworkethic:striving and one's success,upwardmobility, getting way. "Freedom"as a sloganputsa cheerfulfaceon the sweatthatit in thisworld,to saynothingofthebloodthatit takesto laborgainfully costsshouldothersopposethetask.Freedomthusunderstoodis basiwhich,as Samuel Smileswroteyearsago, is "thetrue callyself-help, Andwhy?Because"whatever sourceofnationalvigourand strength." is doneformen or classes,to a certainextenttakesawaythe stimuThe VictorianSmilesis no lus and necessityofdoingforthemselves." thanthe governingBushoftoday,hence doubtmoreclass-conscious that "necessity,"ratherthan the former'ssilentacknowledgement

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freechoice or any ethic,compelsa largeportionof the population to work- or indeedto submitto the disciplineof an armyor navy. of freedomin thiscontext, To comprehendmoreofthe significance one shouldreviewthe argumentofOrlandoPatterson'sfirstvolume Culture(1991). on the subject, subtitledFreedomin theMakingofWestern

Therehe arguesfromancienthistoryand numeroussources,Biblical whatwe mean as wellas classical,thatwe reallycouldnotunderstand - whetherdirectlyexperiby freedomif it were not forthe history - ofslavery. To acceptthatworkis thecentralissue encedorperceived or the can serveas a codewordforself-help here,and how "freedom" workethic,one onlyhas to reflectthatslavesare notfed,clothed,and - keptalive,thatis- exceptforthe worktheyperformfor sheltered theirmasters.Thinkaboutthat,andwhetheritis notthecase thatany to theonejob he or she cando is unfree.It follows workerconstrained thata workethicappliedacrossthe boardto anyknownpopulation willneverappealto all. The electorelitestillcannotbe suretheyhave been chosen.The divisionof labor,in thisor anyothersociety,will and pretenders to satire.Somepeoplewillresortto seemopenmisfits ingbusierthantheyare. so readilywithordinary WhywouldGeorgeWalkerBushidentify Americans? His privileged birthbestowsupon himnotonlyinherited wealthbutnotabledynasticpowers.His record,nevertheless, suggests menandwomen.His cabinetchoicesforthe thathe admiresself-made secondterm,especially, supportthisconclusion.ElizabethBumillerof theTimes putthecountat sixoutofninenewappointees:thesecretary ofstate,theattorney ofagriculture, commerce, general,thesecretaries and veteransaffairs, and perhapsmostastonishingly his firstchoice forhomelandsecurity.(The institutionof homeland securityin the UnitedStatesindirectly confessesto the imperialreachof freedom.) Therewere othersuch appointmentsin the firstterm."ElaineChao believesdeeplyin theAmericandreambecauseshe has livedit,"Bush said ofone first-term nominee(Bumiller, 20 Dec. 2004).A cynicmight - that reply a youngcolleagueofmineventuredthisopinion,actually theseself-made individualswerefavoredbecause theywereattached

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andwouldowe theirloyaltysolelyto themanwho to no establishment workethic,forthe thatthe Protestant promotedthem.Yetremember veryreasonthatit speaksto richas wellas poor,wantsto be believed. AlthoughPrescottBush, senatorfromConnecticutand firstof the fromhisfather, familyto makea careerofpolitics,inheriteda fortune to seem moreordinarythanhe was. The fatherand he too preferred PrescottBushwas alreadyshyofhis family ofpresidents, grandfather man (Parmet,1997: backgroundand wishedto be seen as a self-made theyneed,it is well to 21-22).To thosewho alreadyhave everything seembusierthantheyare. The workethicwarrantsand positivelyencouragesthe accumulationof wealth,but the shynessabout the possession of that forall that.Thereis thesuspicionthatifyou wealthis understandable alreadyhave all you need,youare likelynotto be workingveryhard when othersare not looking.Andthereare the disquietingremarks Jesusmade about richmen and the kingdomof heaven.In a largely Christiancultureeven those who are not churchgoersknowbetter thanto boast about moneytheyhave inherited;it is morecommon to hear boasts,like thatof Mr.Bounderbyin Dickens'sHardTimes, of being a self-mademan even when not whollytrue.Max Weber concludedthatforthewell-to-do Puritan,"therealmoralobjectionis to relaxationin the securityof possession,the enjoymentofwealth oftheflesh,above withtheconsequenceofidlenessand temptations Notleisure fromthe pursuitof a righteouslife all ofdistraction butonlyactivityservesto increasethegloryofGod." and enjoyment, is to havea calling."WhatGoddemands consideration The overriding is not labourin itself,but rationallabourin a calling"(1958 [1920]: in order 157,161-62).It is notso clearthata callingneed be full-time to be rational.Moreimportantis to hear the callingand to dedicate one's efforts accordingly. As I write,the presidenthas turnedhis rhetoricalskillsfrom thehomeland.In theStateoftheUnionAddress freeing Iraqto freeing thatfollowedthe InauguralAddress,Bush implicitlyacknowledged ofa workethic,thereare that,unlikethoserequiringthe inspiration

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a class of workerswho will do the job just to keep themselvesand needs"an immigration theirfamiliesalive;forthecountry policythat fill will nottake." workers to Americans permitstemporary guest jobs It is as if Bush had come acrossJosephTownsend'sthinkingabout the poor.Or possiblyfreeAmericansrequireforeignslavesagain- a different race of people to keep the economyfunctioning. Far more attentionin the speech,however,was devotedto the main problem freeAmericansthemselves:"Rightnow,a set portionof confronting themoneyyouearnis takenoutofyourpaycheckto payfortheSocial benefitsoftoday'sretirees."Surelyin our ownershipsociety Security we can do better: Hereiswhypersonalaccountsarea betterdeal.Yourmoney will grow,overtime,at a greaterratethananythingthe currentsystemcan deliver,and youraccountwillprovide overand above the checkyou will moneyforretirement In addition,you'llbe able to receivefromSocial Security. in yourpersonal the that accumulates pass along money account,ifyou wish,to yourchildrenor grandchildren. Andbestofall,themoneyin theaccountis yours,and the can nevertakeit away(NewYorkTimes, 3 Feb. government 2005). The idea is an old one. Self-help as Smilesput "invariably invigorates," and over-government, it,"andwheremenare subjectto over-guidance theinevitabletendencyis to renderthemcomparatively helpless."But the tone adoptedby the presidentand the use ofthe secondperson seemmeantforsecondgraders;and can secondgraderstrustBushnot to be simplydrivinga firstwedgeintoSocial Security? So farhe has notsaida word,nordoes anyoneseemto be asking,aboutwhetherhe would"fix"thecorporateshareofthepresentwage tax.The one idea thatstandsoutis thatofa modestpersonalestateforeveryone. Tobuild thatestatecan becomeone's calling,withthe aim ofoutlivingdeath itself-livinghappilyforever as in a novelorfairytale. after,

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For now the presidentis touringthe country,appearing before selectedaudiences as he did in his last campaign,in orderto talk up his "idea." "I like doingthis,bytheway"he toldthe latestgroup,aI like going aroundthecountry, Times, saying,'Folks,we have gota problem'"(NewYork 5 Mar.2005). Nowhere,as Chaucer said of his man of law,was anyone as busyas thispresident,and yetperhapshe seemed busierthan he was. NOTES

1. Ratherthan contuse Baxters chapter,part, section numbers,etc., 1 shall citeA Christian Directory byvolume and page ofthe second edition. Like most other Puritansof the time, he quotes the so-called King JamesVersionof the Bible,thoughnot with the modernizedspelling ofthe editionI have been quoting. 2. I cannot be the only one to have firstencounteredthe passage from Townsendin Karl Polanyi'sTheGreatTransformation (1957 [1944]: 11314). But, in fact,Polanyi misquoted and tacked on to the beginning of the passage a sentence fromthe followingsection ofA Dissertation onthePoorLaws:"Hungerwill tame the fiercestanimals, it will teach decencyand civility,obedience and subjection,to the most brutish, the mostobstinate,and the mostperverse." REFERENCES

RevisedOxfordtranslation.2 vols. Works Aristotle.TheComplete ofAristotle. Ed.JonathanBarnes.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1984. andCases or,A SumofPractical Baxter,Richard.A Christian Theologiet Directory; 2nd ed. 4 vols. London: Simmons,1678. ofConscience. Bumiller,Elizabeth."Bush's Cabinet PicksCome AlreadyVettedby Life's Tests."NewYorkTimes,20 Dec. 2004. Carlyle, Thomas. Sartor Resartus.Ed. Charles Frederick Harrold.

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