Organic Pasture Ch3

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Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT

The Environment

The environment you are trying to create is a woven tapestry with its individual identity and the many factors intermingling to create a unique, sustainable, living piece of work. Some factors are external influences, such as the weather, the influence of the moon and the planets, regulations as laid out by the law makers, and previous inputs into the farm. Other factors that enable your farm to be unique, and may take some time to achieve, are planting of trees, diverse species in your pasture, crops, and a farm that enables ease of operation and minimum stress for the animals and the people who work there. This in turn, will create a diverse, balanced environment with bees, birds, healthy animals and happy humans. All materials on farm should be used and minimum external inputs should be the organic farmer’s goal. The final piece on the tapestry shows neighbours chatting and being helpful to one another simply because they all understand and respect one another’s preference of farming methods.

Some thoughts on layout
To create the right environment on your farm you need to spend some time thinking about layout. Setting up an organic farm is no different to a conventional farm for most operations on the farm, as most activities are similar. Further considerations would be: • • A large enough quarantine paddock, handy for transfer of animals for milking An area set up for stirring, mixing and loading up for applying liquid fertiliser, biodynamic preparations, and effluent (sometimes called the farm kitchen) A system for putting effluent on the land Good wide races to reduce lameness and ease cow flow Paddocks, races, yards and dairies that minimise handling and encourage natural herd behaviour Retiring marginal lands and planting pocket forests on it Establish shade where the animals loaf, or stand in the heat Buffering natural waterways and wetlands Ensuring animals have access to good clean water.

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There are many organisations and government bodies coming out with rules and regulations. They are different for each area. Whether you are organic or not, it is important to keep informed of these, and any changes that occur. The trick is to be ahead of the game by keeping yourself informed, and working positively and proactively on your farm.

Moon and planets
The moon and the planets have a big influence on the earth and touch all living beings (e.g. the tide going in and out, more rain near the new moon, days when the air feels damp despite full sun, vice versa). Planets move across and are present in our sky on a regular basis. They affect nature and influence our plants. The moon has the biggest influence, however. It is a fascinating topic and can become a lifelong passion when you start observing and finding patterns and effects.

Calendars: Sources of information
Fortunately, there are several calendars available:

Biodynamic Farming and Planting Calendar.
Based on modern research, it is printed annually for May–May, and is a very informative calendar. There are instructions and guidelines included. Available from NZ Biodynamic Farming

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and Gardening Assn (NZ), P O Box 39 045, Wellington Mail Centre. www.biodynamics.org.nz



The rate of change expected over the next 100 years is unprecedented due to the build–up of greenhouse gases.

The Maori Planting and Fishing Calendar
Easy 2 See Calendars

Climate and weather
Climate refers to the long–term average of rainfall, temperature, sunshine hours, wind and so on that we experience over time. Climate can refer to monthly, seasonal or annual averages. For longer–term record keeping the World Meteorological Organisation use a standard 30–year climate period, which New Zealand conforms to. Weather is what we experience on a day–to–day basis, or even within a day – we’ve all heard the expression ‘four seasons in one day’. The weather in New Zealand can be unpredictable, but its effects can be managed to some degree within the farm environment. There are pros and cons for the organic farmer in dealing with the vagaries of climate. On the positive side, with increased soil organic matter, and increased plant and animal diversity, the organic farm develops a greater ability to buffer against climatic extremes over time. Through increased diversification coupled with good management and planning, including applying the age–old wisdom of using times of abundance to set store for times of shortage, the organic farm has the potential to be developed as a very resilient farming system. However, on the negative side the organic farmer has fewer options for dealing with shortages than the conventional farmer, who is able to change grazing patterns, bring in feed or graze animals off the farm, or use strategic applications of fertilisers for short–term shortages.

There is often confusion between climate change and climate variability. Climate variability can refer to the weather patterns and events that we experience. There are also fluctuations such as El Ni˜no and La Ni˜na events and a 20–30 year cycle called the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation, which leads to patterns of higher or lower rainfall in New Zealand. How is this global issue of relevance to practical organic farmers, and farmers in general? It is important in two main ways: 1) Methane emissions from livestock from around the world are making a major contribution to global greenhouse gases, leading to climate change. Farmers in New Zealand are being asked to take some responsibility for methane emissions from their livestock. The Global Livestock Group (www.theglg.com ) say that proven reductions can be obtained through natural genetic improvements and improved nutrition. This is where organic farming could play a role, particularly through improved feed quality which many experienced organic farmers achieve. Stocking rates are also generally lower on organic farms, which would lead to lower total emissions from the farm. 2) Observed changes are already happening, which may be a result of a warming climate, such as the increased prevalence of the tropical webworm in Northland. Issues like biosecurity, availability of water, and the need for on–farm biodiversity are going to be increasingly prevalent. This points to an increasing need for sustainable and resilient farming systems, and organic farmers are at the forefront in developing farms and farming systems for the future.

Wellington and is strongly reliant on satellite and computer technology. The forecasts provided on the evening news or in the daily paper are sufficient for most farmers. However, as the observant farmer knows, the weather can often be predicted through accumulated experience and wisdom and keen observation.



Regional authorities monitor effluent disposal more so than the dairy companies, although there is a cross–over in terms of effluent management, particularly around the dairy surrounds. Fonterra has developed an Environmental and Animal Welfare policy statement. Each regional authority may have slightly different interpretations on permitted activities and consented activities (one size does not fit all), so please check with your own regional council. Some regional councils allow organic farms to be classed as ‘commercially sensitive areas’ and are registered with them as such. They also allow ‘spray free’ signs to be put up on road frontages. There are simple procedures you must go through to achieve that. Farm Dairy Code of Practice 3rd Edition by NZ Dairy Board 1998. ISBN 0–9–908946–00–7. Contact your milk Co–op for this. The Animal Welfare Regulations can be found on the website: www.maf.govt.nz/biosecurity/animal–welfare The Agricultural Compounds and Veterinary Medicines Act, administered by the Food Safety NZ Authority. www.nzfsa.govt.nz/acvm/legislation/acvm–act/index/htm A summary of organic certification regulations can be found in Appendix 4.

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Government and dairy regulations
These are increasing as we become more regulated. Be aware of your obligations under law. Keep up to date with them. Some important regulatory authorities are • MAF/NZFSA: Hygiene, animal health and welfare, disease, registration of food processing plants, collection of seaweed, national minimum standards for organic production Dairy Companies: (the largest being Fonterra but there is a number of other small ones) Milk standards, effluent, dairy regulations, Clean Streams Accord Regional Council: Noxious weeds, drains, pollution, erosion, spray drift, effluent disposal etc. Local Council: Roadside maintenance, rubbish, conservation Accident Compensation Corporation: Accidents, injury, lepto, disease The Health and Safety Act: Stress in the workplace, illness, milk contaminants Organic certifying agencies. Food Safety Authority: Setting rules for food production and export of organic produce.





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Pasture

Climate change
One thing that farmers are increasingly aware of is global warming or climate change, partly through the media but also through on–farm observation and record keeping. Our climate can change naturally over timescales ranging from decades to millennia. However, we’re interested here in climate change resulting from human activities (burning of fossil fuels and so on) over the last 100 years or so and continuing through the 21st century.

Sources of information
Climate data
The National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Science (NIWA Ltd) manage a national database of climate data. Data are available at nominal cost. For more information visit www.niwa.co.nz/services/clidb/ or email climate–[email protected] .



Climate summaries
NIWA also produce Climate Update, which is a monthly summary of New Zealand’s climate, including soil moisture and river flows. You can access free electronic copies of this at www.niwa.co.nz , look under Media & Publications.

Some information:
• • Cooling water standards: MAF D104 paper Milking Animal Health Standard: MAF D105 paper Farm Dairy Water standard: MAF 106 paper

We know that:
• Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have increased in the earth’s atmosphere and are continuing to increase due to human activities. Global temperatures have risen (up to 0.7°C in New Zealand over the last 100 years) and are continuing to rise.



Weather forecasts
Weather forecasting in New Zealand is now centred in



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What is pasture? Pasture is the collective term we use to mean the grass–based plant communities, which grow in the soil matrix. When we refer to pasture we are not only talking about the aerial parts of the grassland plant species which we see above ground, but also their extensive roots networks and associations in the soil, the whole thing is ‘the pasture system’ and the soil, plant and animal life within it are inextricably linked. Another term that we tend to use in pastoral farming is the ‘sward’, and this is when we are generally referring just to the stem, leaves and flowering parts above the ground. In organic farming we are aiming to enhance the whole pasture system. In many countries of the world pasture was a relatively rare type of plant community prior to the development of pastoral agriculture, because most of the land was cloaked in forests. At that time grasslands were restricted to areas where trees couldn’t grow for some reason, either because it was too dry, cold, wet or windy, or a combination of these climatic features, and/or the soil was not sufficiently developed to allow trees to grow. In New Zealand this includes our native tussock grasslands, which have become an essential element of our pastoral farming in the South Island. The majority of New Zealand farmers, however, are dealing with situations where the forest cover has been artificially removed and we are using our domesticated grazing animals to maintain these enlarged ‘clearings’ by applying constant grazing pressure. Many farmers still find themselves in a constant battle with manuka and gorse, heralding the return of the forest, if the grazing pressure is too light or the land is left ungrazed for any length of time, providing there is still a local seed source. Good organic management, which is consistent with a farm forestry approach, is about achieving the right balance between trees and pasture on the farm. Increasing numbers of farmers are now seeing the value of retiring marginal land to trees (natives or exotic timber species) and paying increased attention to improved management of the pasture system on their good land. It is the consideration of how to enable our grasslands to work best for us that we will be dealing with in this chapter, under our recurring theme of balance. Thus we shall be examining what constitutes a natural, balanced grassland which enables our grazing animals to thrive; how to manage our grazing regime to keep the livestock and grassland in balance; as well as, how to manage our views on what we have traditionally regarded as pastoral weed species and turn them to our advantage.

health in a positive way. Try over– sowing some chicory and plantain when conditions would suit seed establishment • Use a mixture of predominant pasture and deep rooting plants. Certain weeds could be beneficial – check before eliminating No genetically modified or treated seed is permitted to be sown Older varieties can be a better choice than newer hybrids. Quarantine paddocks need deep rooting and specific herbal plants added to pasture mix, enabling stock to recover from illness.

mobilisation of other minerals from deeper layers in the soil. Many so–called weeds are also herbs and provide benefits to the whole farm system (see Weeds and Their Management section). Even if you are still only deciding whether to convert to organic farming or not, there is certainly a lot to be gained from incorporating additional plant (herb/weed) species into your pasture renovation programme. Not all of the species listed below will establish on your farm. You will have to do a bit of experimentation to determine which ones work best in your area or consult with an agronomist who is familiar with these plant species in your area. Here are some things to consider: • • • Some of the species will not establish in very fertile soil and some actually require low fertility soil. Grazing pressure will also determine if these species persist in your pasture. Sourcing seed may be a problem if you want to obtain the seed before it is chemically treated. o Get in early when the seed crop is being harvested. o Work in with other organic farmers for bulk orders to appease the seed merchants and save costs. o You must ensure that the seed is not GM or GE (genetically modified or genetically engineered) and is not treated seed (hasn’t been coated with fungicide or insecticide etc.) o New varieties are being added to the list of pasture species that can be grown on a farm. Many of these newer varieties will have been grown and selected under conventional farming systems, so do not be surprised if the seed grows or behaves differently, or is not up to expectation under an organic system. You will have to do your own experimentation on your own farm. There are some seed companies now in the UK that are growing seed varieties especially for organic farms, some of which is even organically grown, but this is not yet available in New Zealand. Demand and pressure from organic pastoral farmers here would persuade our own seed companies to follow suit.

which tolerate different conditions from rotational grazing to set–stocking. They provide good feed quality without the risks of endophyte.
• Matua (Erect Brome, Bromus willdenowii) grows actively in winter and has two peaks of production, one late summer and early autumn and the other in late winter and early spring, so this plant can fill deficits when the rye and clover are producing very little. It is the only certified cultivar available. Matua is highly palatable – even the seed heads (no topping required!). There are some disadvantages. If this plant is grazed hard in summer it will die out. Matua is also very low in magnesium and iodine so if clover is not a high proportion of the sward then stock grazing can suffer infertility and grass tetany (staggers). Lucerne does not combine with Matua as Matua is too competitive. This grass is troubled by the Hessian fly which can be found in the areas north of Taupo.

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Within any naturally occurring grassland system there is normally a high diversity of plant species where there are grazing animals. This is because their grazing pressure prevents the domination of the sward by the larger, faster growing or more woody/fibrous species. That is, it prevents the natural succession of the community back towards forest, as we have already observed previously. This is to the advantage of the grazing animals since it provides them with a more varied diet. Organic pastoral farmers seek to mimic the balance and diversity of natural grassland systems. This is achieved through an emphasis on providing pasture that is a mixture of many different species of grasses, legumes and other herbs. This is often referred to as a herbal ley, but strictly speaking it may not be a ley as it is often likely to be permanent pasture whereas the term ley is normally used to refer to a temporary pasture which gets ploughed up and reseeded. Interestingly, the dictionary definition for the term pasture is ‘herbage’, indicating that it has always contained herbs, until very recently.

When to sow? Early autumn.

Sowing mixtures should be simple – short-term ryegrass cultivars can be included plus white and red clover, but not lucerne. 30kg/ha through a drill or 40kg/ha when broadcast. The seed can be de–awned which will make it go through the drill better.
Sowing rate: Depth: no more than 2 cm deep. Management: grazing should only be for 1–3 days with a

period of 4 to 6 weeks between grazing.

Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata)
This is a summer active perennial with a deep root system. It grows well in poor fertility soils where it is dry. Generally slow to establish and has a lower digestibility than most other grasses. Cocksfoot has limited winter growth but is very useful as a component of permanent pasture in summer dry areas for its persistence and drought tolerance. Historically a very important element in the famous ‘Clifton Park’ humus–building and drought–resistant mixture for organic farms. Seeding rates should be kept low as cocksfoot can dominate a pasture, reducing clover levels and digestibility. The strain Wana tends to grow in clumps. Kara, Ella Tekapo are other strains that tend not to do this. Cocksfoot needs to be kept well–grazed so that it stays short and leafy to maintain feed value and prevent clump development.
Sowing rate: 1–3kg/ha.

So what then is a herb?
A herb is a flowering plant that has a stem comprised of soft, non–woody tissue which dies down and grows again each year from the ground. This, as we have seen, enables it to withstand grazing and distinguishes it from trees and shrubs which grow continually from their stem tips each year, getting taller and taller. Herbs may be annual (grow from seed each year), biannual (take two years to grow and seed), or perennial (grow again each year from the same rootstock), and these characteristics often affect their persistence or otherwise in the sward. Clovers and the other leguminous pasture species with which we are familiar are also herbs, but we tend to separate them out into a category of their own since they are nitrogen–fixing herbs and so are add fertility to our soils. They do this by virtue of a nitrogen–fixing bacteria, called Rhizobium which they host in special nodules on their roots. Up to 70 to 90% of all the nitrogen required by the pasture can be taken directly from the air by this plant/bacterial association. Much of this, plus other nutrients, is returned to the soil under grazing systems in the dung and urine of the grazing animals. This is indeed why the grass/clover ley was always the fertility–building phase in the classical organic rotation between arable crops and pastoral farming, the deeper rooting pastoral herbs also enabling

What plant species should I consider?
Let’s consider the predominant pasture species: first the grasses, then the clovers and other legumes, and then the additional herb species.

Ryegrass (Lolium species)
Ryegrasses, especially the modern highly–bred cultivars, have become the grasses of choice for the modern pastoral farmer because they respond so readily to the application of artificial nitrogenous fertiliser. However, this response may be largely in bulk of fibrous and watery material rather than in quality nutritional material. In organic regimes, where there is an emphasis on organic, low–nitrogen fertilisers and the use of clover as the nitrogen source, ryegrasses may not be

Pasture species
• A mixture of species in pasture is important for grazing animals to access a wide range of minerals, vitamins and other nutrients. Make it a priority to add extra species to your pastures, as these changes will quickly start affecting your animal’s

Grasses
Brome (Bromus species)
Brome grasses are perennial species, which have excellent winter growth in fertile, free draining soil, but do not tolerate poorly drained soils. There are several cultivars available,



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so appropriate, and should certainly not be the only pastoral species used. Ryegrasses are especially suited for medium soil–types and good fertility, other grass species like Fescues, Bromes, and Timothy are more suited to extremes of soil type like free– draining or water–logged soils, and low–fertility. The older naturally occurring species like perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) may be more suitable for organic farms than the newly developed modern hybrids.

endophyte which produces peramine for Argentine stem weevil resistance but low levels of lolitrem B which means it has less risk of ryegrass staggers. The Endofree version has none of the endophyte and therefore no resistance to Argentine Stem Weevil and none of the toxins, which cause ryegrass staggers or heat stress and is suited for cool, summer wet areas where Argentine Stem Weevil is not a problem. This plant gives excellent winter and spring growth. suited to the South Island. Do not plant together with fescue.
Sowing rate: As a pure sward 28kg/ha.

Tall fescue is slow to establish so it cannot be sown with ryegrass. There are so many benefits to be had by including a fescue plant in some of your paddocks as the predominant grass with clovers and herbs added for conventional and organic farmer alike.
Variety options: Roa and Au Triumph are the older types, which

Clovers and other legumes
Red clover (Trifolium pretense)
These plants like the warmer temperatures and of course can fix nitrogen, which is so important for organic pasture–based systems. Red clover is a tap root perennial legume and is drought tolerant. Red clover performs best under low stocking rates if grazed, but is of particular use in silage production due to its high yields, with crude protein analysis around 20%. Red clover is a short lived, high feed value plant. It has good summer growth but little winter growth. It would also pay to consider growing red clover strains that have low phyto–oestrogen levels. Sheep are especially prone to oestrogenic effects of clovers (low fertility, prolapsed anus etc.). If you are having problems with oestrogen then consider G27 red clover marketed by Agricom which is a re–selection of Pawera, has a good yield and persistence and a low formononetin (phyto–oestrogen) level. This plant is a smaller plant than Pawera, with smaller leaves, shorter stem and a prostrate growth form. Colenso has improved cool season production and has greater tolerance to grazing and contains low–medium phyto–oestrogens.
Sowing rate: 2–3kg/ha (coated seed rates are 1–2kg/ha

Better

Endophytes (in ryegrasses)
Ryegrass endophyte is a fungus called Neotyphodium lolii found only in perennial, long rotation and some hybrid ryegrasses. The endophyte dies out in seed stored for longer than 15 months. There are three types of endophyte that affect ryegrasses. Each produces a different phytotoxin. You can now purchase ryegrasses infected with the right type of endophyte to provide itself with protection from insect attack but avoiding the knock– on grass staggers and super–heat effects in dairy cattle. There has been a huge advance by researchers, which is of benefit to all warm area farmers. Previously the only endophyte available in ryegrasses was the wild type endophyte. Unfortunately as well as the peramine and ergovaline which give resistance to Argentine Stem weevil and Black beetle respectively, this endophyte also produces Lolitrem B which can cause ryegrass staggers. Endophyte research has led to new or ‘novel’ endophytes becoming available which have lower levels of toxins affecting animals (that is no/very low ryegrass staggers). These are AR1 and NEA2. The AR1 endophyte produces peramine so gives resistance to Australian Stem weevil but can be susceptible to Black beetle. The NEA2 endophyte produces peramine and ergovaline so gives resistance to ASW and Black beetle. Ergovaline is the toxin, which can cause heat stress in very warm weather.

As a mixed sward

14kg/ha.

have now been superseded by Vulcan, Torpedo, Quantum, Advance and Dovey. Dovey originally came from French plant material bred in the UK. Reports from trials show that this fescue is fastest establishing, with a high yield, excellent rust resistance and for those summer dry areas there is good summer growth and good palatability.
When to sow? Fescue must be sown when the soil is warm

Tetraploid ryegrasses
These have 4 sets of chromosomes per cell (instead of 2 sets as in diploids). They are very palatable and are often less persistent. Endophyte has now been bred into some of them, which gives better persistence than when tetraploids were first tried in NZ. Tetraploids are sown at 30 to 40 % higher sowing rates as they have larger seeds. There are now perennial tetraploid ryegrasses such as Quartet and Nevis, and long rotation tetraploids such as Banquet, Horizon, Greenstone and Sterling, as well as short rotation or annual tetraploids such as Feast II, Andy, and Archie.

– above 12 degrees. You will have to order the seed early as this one gets treated with fungicide and insecticide as it is slow to establish.
Sowing rate: Bare seed 25–30kg/ha plus clovers (coated seed

20–25kg/ha plus clovers).

Timothy (Pleum pretense)
This plant is better suited to summer wet areas and particularly heavy soils. It also needs cooler temperatures to persist; which is a great shame for the Northern areas. It is usually a minor component in a seed mix. This plant has a higher feed value than compared to ryegrass. Slow to establish and performs better under low grazing pressure. Poor during winter and spring growth but peaks in summer. Kahu is a high forage quality grass especially on moist sites.
Sowing rate: 1–2kg/ha. The seed is very tiny.

higher). Depth 5–10mm.

Perennial ryegrasses
These include mainly diploids but also the 2 tetraploids mentioned above. The diploids are generally more persistent than the tetraploids but are less palatable. However they usually grow more DM and this can be of very good quality, especially if a later flowering type which is easier to manage such as Aries, and Tolosa.

White clover (Trifolium repens)
This plant is the mainstay of organic pastoral systems and must be present in your pasture as it is the most important nitrogen fixing plant, making a substantial contribution to the growth of companion grasses. Unlike red clover it is creeping and prostrate in growth habit, and it is also tolerant of and persists under a wide range of management systems and soil and climatic conditions. It is highly resistant to heavy grazing pressure, making it suitable for sheep as well as cattle grazing, and is highly drought resistant with a high feed value. The aim is for a sward of between 30–50% legume content in spring/ early summer and possibly autumn with an interval of about 35 days between defoliation (grazing) to allow adequate time for nitrogen fixation. Dry matter yields can be in the region of 10–13t/ha in such a high clover sward, thus without the application of any additional nitrogen these clover/grass systems can achieve the same production more cheaply than conventional chemical systems. It is slower to grow in spring than ryegrass and is susceptible to shading so spring management should be geared to keeping pastures short and leafy to maintain good clover content and to capitalise on the good growth in summer. There are many varieties available. Pitau is a variety that adapted to a wide range of environments and was first released in 1975. This clover has a creeping prostrate habit with a network of spreading stolons. However, newer strains have improved characteristics like greater stolon density, a variation in leaf size – like large, medium and small – some have resistance to clover diseases like nematode and rot. Smaller leaf clovers

Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea)
In the North Island there is a swing away from ryegrass to fescue type pasture. These new variety fescue type pastures do have significant health benefits for stock as spore counts (for facial eczema) tends to be significantly lower and there is no ryegrass staggers on this type of pasture. Clover tends to establish reasonably well with Fescue if grazing controls the growth of this plant. There are quite a number of fescue varieties and each has its own benefits so you will have to research which type is best for your area. Palatability can certainly be an issue if you let the sward go rank. This grass grows fast so you will have to have a quicker grazing round when using this plant. Heat stress was also a feature of the old type Fescue strains and now there are strains with no endotoxin (which caused heat stress in cows especially in the north of the North Island). Fescue plants are deeper rooting compared to ryegrass with good drought tolerance but in the cold of winter, growth rates for fescue are very low. Also very useful in waterlogged and saline soil conditions where again ryegrass does poorly.

Hybrid ryegrasses
Hybrid ryegrasses are bred from annual or short rotation ryegrasses with perennial ryegrasses and are in between in terms of growth and persistence. Some are closer in type to annuals (Italian type hybrids) and include the cultivars Maverick Gold, Geyser, Manawa, and Galaxy (a tetraploid). Some are closer in type to perennials (perennial–type hybrids or long rotation ryegrasses) and include Greenstone and Horizon (both tetraploids) and Marsden, Supreme and Impact. Some cultivars contain the endophyte which gives resistance to ASW but causes ryegrass staggers and some do not.

This grass is being promoted in a mixture with meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) and clovers as a non–ryegrass ley more suited to cold, wet soils. These two grasses are considered to be the most palatable of the permanent grasses, preferred by stock over ryegrass, and when in a mix with clover highly nutritious and digestible. Unlike ryegrass they persist in this type of heavy, clay soils.

Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus)
Prefers low fertility acidic soils. This is a perennial grass that can handle very wet soil. Yorkshire fog is an alternative grass species to plant for areas where perennial ryegrass production is poor and is often planted with Lotus. Massey basyn is a standard cultivar – Melita is a newer cultivar.
Sowing rate: 5–8kg/ha.

Sow seed at 5–10mm deep in a

‘Greenstone’
This hybrid rye is extremely palatable and is hybrid. It is an upright erect plant, which encourages a high legume content and makes an ideal companion in a pasture mix with a more densely tillered ryegrass plant. This plant will persist only under rotational grazing. Endosafe Grasslands Greenstone has

good seedbed. Grazing: must be well grazed in mid–spring otherwise it will become less palatable in late spring and summer. Has been shown to have important vermifuge properties in mixtures with chicory and other herbs, especially for newly weaned lambs.

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like Tahora and Prop are best suited to sheep farms. Large leaf clover like Aran and Kopu and medium large leaf clover like Sustain, Challenge and Pitau suit dairy farm grazing. A mix of Aran and Sustain is an idea for then you have the benefit of persistence and disease resistance and also high winter yields and improved tolerance to intense grazing.
Sowing rate: 2kg/ha Aran and 2kg/ha Sustain

Greater birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus uliginosus/pedunculatus)
A more luxuriant and larger cousin of the species above which thrives on moist soils. Cultivar Maku contains condensed tannins making it non– bloating and giving protein protection in the rumen of stock. Maku can grow on lower levels of phosphate than white clover, however it still responds to fertiliser. Sunrise is another cultivar similar to Maku but tolerates grazing pressure though has better autumn growth and poorer summer growth.
Sowing rate: 1–2kg/ha.

lucerne) in all our pasture mixes and still have it persisting in ten year old mixes. This is probably because it gets a chance when everything else gives up in the extreme summers. We believe this legume is very underrated for our drought prone area. Watch boron levels in lucerne. When to sow? Lucerne can be sown in either autumn or spring:

as a permanent pasture. Sulla is a useful plant for stabilising soil on slips, gully banks and roadsides. The large root system is left in the soil when the plant dies and a thick mat of herbage on top of the soil provides ideal conditions for the next generation of seeds to establish and the nitrogen content left behind the Sulla plant grows the next set of germinating seeds. The stems of Sulla are totally unpalatable to stock and so management for quality forage, silage or hay means that yields are lower than if left to grow tall before harvesting. Crops should be harvested before growth turns reproductive (stemmy).
When to sow? Autumn or spring. Sowing rate: for seed in the hull 10–20kg/ha; de–hulled seed

Sow shallow at 5–10mm sowing depth.

in the warmer areas of NZ autumn establishment is preferred and in the cooler areas, spring establishment is best.
Depth: No deeper than 25mm in sandy soils, and clay and ash

Common birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus)
Birdsfoot trefoil is a non–bloating perennial legume similar to lucerne in its fertility requirements, but it thrives on dry–land soils too acidic for lucerne. This plant is an erect–growing, tap–rooted plant so can offer good yields of high quality forage during spring, summer and autumn in dry regions. This plant contains condensed tannins, which prevent bloat in ruminants and also protect forage proteins from degradation to ammonia gas in the rumen so there is better amino acid digestion and greater growth rates for ruminants. Photosensitisation (eczema) has been reported on odd occaisions in animals grazing Lotus corniculatus. This plant is very acceptable to all livestock types and deer especially so. It also makes excellent quality hay. Trefoil is more resistant to pests and diseases compared to lucerne in dry areas. There are some disadvantages with birdsfoot trefoil. It is slow to establish. This plant is not compatible with the common pasture species so ideally it should be sown alone and in a way so that weeds do not compete as this plant is not aggressive and does not spread vegetatively or readily re–seed itself. Trefoil can be planted with lucerne where there is paddock fertility variability. Another option is to plant it with brome grasses but these are not really an option in the upper North Island. Birdsfoot trefoil must not be over grazed. It is sown with fescue in South America, and this could be worth a try especially up North. When making hay from this plant care needs to be exercised to prevent the loss of dry leaves. Grasslands Goldie is the local cultivar bred in New Zealand.
When to sow? Best sown in spring as this plant is winter

no deeper than 12mm.
Sowing rate: 15kg/ha and the seed must be inoculated with

Sow in early autumn. Seed must be inoculated with the recommended strain of rhizobia. Can sow Maku and Sunrise together. Drill or over–sow

a Rhizobium.

Strawberry clover (Trifolium fragiferum)
Grasslands Onward (Agricom NZ) is a clover (legume), which can suffer poor fertility, wet roots (waterlogged soils) and even saline conditions. It can also handle hard grazing. This plant has low phyto–oestrogen levels, a small leaf size, is a tetraploid and can spread by stolons and by re–seeding. This plant is ideal for areas where white clover does not thrive due to waterlogged or saline soils, low phosphate or a soil with a wide pH range.
Sowing rate: 3 kg/ha.

Lucerne (Medicago sativa)
This plant requires high fertility soil with a high calcium base saturation percentage – a minimum of 68%. It does not fare well under the dairy grazing rotational system but can still be planted along tree lanes or in the quarantine paddock or can be planted as a crop, and is often grown for silage or hay. This is a legume so can fix nitrogen and can have a high protein content (18–22%), which makes a good plant to balance maize feeding (which is low in protein), but only if there is enough calcium present in the soil. This plant has a deep tap root so makes the plant drought tolerant. It is recommended that lucerne is not grazed if reasonable persistence is wanted. Best production occurs when it is harvested by machine for silage. Five to six harvests are expected over the growing season with dry matter yields of about 14t/ha if plenty of potassium and phosphorus are available and pH over 6.0. If grazing lucerne, allow 6 weeks between grazings. Growing lucerne successfully as a crop depends upon a rapidly growing, dense stand. Best production results in the North Island appear to be highest when lucerne is planted immediately after a crop rather than pasture. Lucerne is susceptible to a wide variety of diseases and pests especially when grown in poor soil conditions, but there are many lucerne varieties with varying disease and pest resistance. Consult with an agronomist who is familiar with the disease and pest problems in your area so that you can select a variety best suited to your area if you are considering growing a pure crop. An observation from a Marlborough farmer:
We find in our very dry summers, chicory and clovers will shrivel away to nothing but lucerne will get its chance in a pasture mix. We use lucerne (Wairua

should be sown at 5–10kg/ha. These rates should be increased if the seed is broadcast. Sulla will not grow unless the seed is inoculated with a special Rhizobium strain.
Grazing management. This plant is best not grazed lower than

15cm from the ground otherwise re–growth will be reduced and the plants may die. Grazing by cattle should be very light to prevent excessive damage to the plant crowns.

Herbs
Chicory (Cichorium intybus)
This is a broad leafed, tap–rooted drought tolerant herb and the most common herb recommended for organic and conventional systems alike. This plant has a high nutritive value (high metabolisable energy), highly digestible, is high in minerals such as calcium, sulphur, potassium, sodium, boron and zinc, and gives high stock performance and appears to be unpalatable to rabbits and hares. Chicory grows well in summer and on dairy farms supplies a continuous summer feed and due to the protein content will maintain milk production and milk protein content. As a pure crop chicory can produce up to 18 tonnes of dry matter per hectare between early spring and late autumn. Puna and Chico are strains that have established quite well in dairy pastures especially under organic and biodynamic farming where herbicide spraying has ceased. Best suited to free draining, highly fertile soils (not so good on clay soils due to fungal diseases of the crown and tap–root). Chico has been selected for improved winter activity and has upright standing leaves. As chicory can grow rapidly stock can be poisoned by nitrate/nitrite and there have been instances of bloat. Milk taint is another potential problem and if grazing pure crops then graze for only 2 hours after the morning milking (only if the crop is safe from nitrate). Lambs are also prone to
Disadvantages.

Subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum)
This is an annual which creeps along the ground, so is low growing. Grows well in areas of poor soil fertility. It is a vigourous re–seeder and survives dry summers and must be allowed to re–seed to persist. Will reseed in good autumn rains. Some of these clovers can cause oestrogenic effects in heifers (udder development). Sow shallow.
Sowing rate: 1.5 – 2kg/ha.

Sulla
This is a short-lived perennial legume that provides forage for livestock and can be used for erosion control and soil fertilisation. It is a Mediterranean plant. The foliage contains condensed tannins, which increase the efficiency with which the grazing animal uses the forage protein. These tannins can make up 4 to 8% of the dry matter of the plant and also enables stock to reduce the effects of intestinal parasites. Sulla produces non–bloating forage. The highest nutritional value peaks before flowering and is similar to lucerne and red clover at this time. It may grow to 1.5m tall, has a deep branched root system. Doesn’t grow well on sands and needs reasonably fertile a soil like lucerne does. Will not tolerate temperatures below 4 degrees Celsius. Needs rainfall of 500 to 2000mm per year. Sulla can be grown alone as hay, silage or forage crop; or it can be sown with tall–growing grasses like Phalaris or prairie grass

dormant but will establish from early autumn plantings if a good cover grows before winter onset.
Sowing rate: 5–10kg/ha and the seed must be inoculated with

a specific Rhizobium strain for effective nitrogen fixation (which is not present in most NZ soils).
Depth: drill at 2cm depth in a well prepared bed and when the

soil temperature is above 12 degrees Celsius.
Management: Avoid grazing below 8cm. Should be rotation-

ally grazed.

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pulpy kidney.
Sowing rate As a minor species 0.5–2kg/ha in a grass/clover

mix in spring or if sown in autumn then use a 1–1.5kg/ha. Will persist for 2 to 5 years. For a chicory dominant pasture sow at 5–6kg/ha with a 4kg/ha clover mix of a 50:50 mixture of large–leaved and medium leaved white clover. Red clover could also be added at 4–5kg/ha or more for large–seeded tetraploid cultivars.

Seeds sourcing and selection
(see Anderson, 2001, p 83)

Website: http://www.specseed.co.nz Taranaki Farmers, P O Box 544, New Plymouth Ph: 06 759 0971 Email: [email protected] Wrightson Seeds Ltd. For a commercially available herbal ley mixture containing 17 species of grasses, legumes and herbs suited to NZ conditions. P O Box 939, Christchurch. Ph: 03 344 2843

Herbal ley mixtures
Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge

Ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata)
This is a deep rooted, drought tolerant, mineral rich plant suited to rotational grazing, and an important element of organic systems, believed to have vermifuge properties and high nutritional value. There is rapid establishment and good winter growth. Strains available are Ceres Tonic and Lancelot. Tonic is the preferred strain for dairy pasture and Lancelot for sheep pasture. Most herbicides used on conventional farms remove these plants and yet they are so beneficial for stock. They offer a wide range of minerals to stock, notably iron, calcium, copper, zinc and sodium. They are quite palatable for stock.
Sowing rate: 3–4kg/ha in a mixture with grasses,

As farmers’ change to biological farming it is possible that conventional seed sources may become a problem (apart from the fact that it is treated with chemicals). Farmers who have well balanced soils on biological mineralisation programmes may find crop failures using the readily available hybrid seeds. These hybrid seeds have been grown and performance selected on NPK soluble salt–type fertilisers. Ideally farmers would want to source seed that is open pollinated and from plants or crops grown on similar biological fertilisation programmes to achieve maximum efficiency. Many farmers find that the older varieties perform better in organic systems.

Sources of herb seeds:
Biodynamic Seed Bank Hohepa Homes, c/– Chris Hull, R D 2, Poraiti, Napier Herb Federation of New Zealand Mrs Bunny Rathbone, 107 Glenelg St, Bradford, Dunedin. (Have a seed bank for members – membership of a local affiliated herb society accesses the seed bank.) Kings Herbs (NZ) Ltd. PO Box 283 Katikati 3063, Bay of Plenty Email: [email protected] Koanga Gardens RD 2 Maungaturoto Northland Phone: 09 431 2145 Fax: 09 431 2745 Website: www.koanga.org.nz Mt Tiger Gardens RD 1, Onerahi, Whangarei. Website: www.mounttiger.co.nz

When planning pasture species mixtures it is useful to consider what we are trying to achieve. On an organic farm we are trying to fairly closely mimic nature in providing a wide range of plant species for our livestock to graze on, as there would be in a natural grassy clearing. This is because we are aiming to provide our stock with the whole range of minerals and other micronutrients, as well as proteins, sugars and fibre, i.e. a complete healthy diet, from the plants that they graze, without having to provide any supplementary feed. This is the most cost–effective way to farm livestock, for milk production or live weight gains. The goal is to be able to provide natural forage all the year round, or for as much of the year as possible, to take into consideration climatic extremes and soil type. This will enable optimal growth and production rates of our stock, without causing stress or illness. You should strive to create a pasture mix that will allow your stock to self–medicate. At the same time we want to build soil fertility. Here are some mixtures that could help you achieve your goals:

Seed Sources
Agricom NZ Ltd, PO Box 539, Ashburton Ph: 03 308 8772 Agriseeds 2547 Old West Road, RD 1 Christchurch 8021 Freeph: 0800 352 6537 Email: [email protected] ; Website: www.agriseeds.co.nz Farmlands 1010 Southampton St, Hastings Ph: 06 873 1090 Fax: 06 873 8190 Website: www.farmslands.co.nz Genetic Technologies Ltd. 48 Entican Ave, Auckland 5 Freeph: 0800 73 7333 Mr J. McKenzie Belfield, R.D. Kurow Phone: 03 436 0685 Pacific Seeds PO Box 8715 Fax: 07 575 3056 Pioneer Seed, P O Box 105 303, Auckland. Freeph: 0800 PIONEER Fax: 09 307 3300 Pyne Gould Guinness Ltd. P O Box 3100, Christchurch Ph: 03 308 2181 Specialty Grains and Seeds 11 Halkett Street, Riccarton, Christchurch Freeph: 0800 727 8873 Freefax: 0800 365 6663 Email: [email protected]

legumes and other herbs.

Other plant species to consider
Reed grass (Phalaris arundinacea)
Commonly recommended as an autumn/winter growing species it is dormant in summer but is drought tolerant. Depending on the soil type it can spread though reseeding and rhizomes. Check with your seed merchant re management of this species. It can also be toxic, especially to sheep.

In–conversion ley mixtures
The first consideration is to rebuild the humus in our soils to supply carbon. The most important plant to get into your pasture mix is white clover. This is the powerhouse plant for biologically–based pastures. Fortunately most conventionally farmed pastures do have clover, often in conjunction with ryegrass, but usually not at a high enough density being around 20% of the sward. To optimise productivity the white clover content needs to be a minimum of 30% of the sward, aiming for up to 50%. Also you may like to consider using a mix of different cultivars of clover, as different ones suit different soil conditions and types of grazing stock, also some are more persistent and disease resistant than others. The other important consideration is the main grass species that your sward is based upon. As discussed in the individual plant section, ryegrasses have been bred for use in modern, chemical farming systems and they are designed to grow fast and aggressively and therefore can shade out clover and limit its usefulness in the pasture. There are several other types of grasses like bromes, fescues, timothy and cocksfoot that are worth considering as the main grass species in your final mix, instead of, or as well as, ryegrass. If you have the luxury of being able to set aside some of your pasture for a while to grow a fertility building ley which you then plough in and re–seed with your final mix, it is well worth

Sources of additional information
Crop and Food Research Private Bag 4704, Christchurch Ph: 03 325 6400 Fax: 03 325 2074 Website: www.crop.cri.nz SFF Project Evaluating organic seed and organic seed production systems in NZ and informing growers of outcomes. Contact person: Colin Walker Homestead Gardens Trust, RD1, Coromandel Email: [email protected]

Pink Serradella
Grasslands Koha a deep rooted winter annual tolerant of acid soils. A legume.

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)
This perennial plant is rich in minerals and was once sown as a pasture species because of its ability to survive the summer dry and due to its mineral content being higher than clover and ryegrass. This plant does have a rhizome system and if it dominates a pasture is difficult to get rid of. Tolerates grazing.

Sheeps/salad burnett (Sanguisorba minor)
A fast establishing perennial for summer feed. It withstands cold winters and performs in dry, low fertility areas.

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doing. In that case you might consider a mix like red and white clovers with ryegrass. Another mix to consider if humus building is your main issue would be red clover, perennial rye, cocksfoot and chicory, as these are all deep–rooting species.

Heavy land mixture
On cold, waterlogged, clay soils we need species which can tolerate and thrive in these conditions and again ryegrasses do not perform well here. Under these circumstances grasses like fescues and timothy should be the grasses of choice as they produce a highly palatable sward which is highly digestible when grown in association with red and white clovers. Other legumes and herbs tolerant of wet ground can also be added to the mix. This sward should not be over–grazed, allowing plenty of time for recovery between rotations, and it can be used for good quality hay if cut before flowering.

Other herbal plantings
These can be planted in areas where cows have selected access to it. This enables the plant to continue to grow. If the animals have free access to these herbs, they tend to graze it so much that it refuses to grow. A corner of your sacrifice paddock or in the hedgerows is a good area to plant these. Put a fence between them and the animal at a height that allows the animal to reach under and nibble at it. Deep rooting plants are beneficial and will give the plants all the nutrients needed to keep well. The animals will eat them when they have a need, and they will instinctively know this and what they need. As well as these suggestions you can speed up the changes by trying to oversow some species such as chicory and plantain when conditions are good into existing pastures. Experiment to see what suits your conditions and which doesn’t. Some varieties are: Chicory, red clover, plantain, yarrow, sheep’s burnet, trefoil, fennel, timothy, borage, comfrey, cleavers, chickweed, dock, shepherd’s purse, dandelion, chamomile, nasturtium, alfalfa, self–heal, melilot, sheep’s sorrel, sow thistle (puha), and watercress. There are lots more. Use a herb book to identify some you may need to plant.

All–purpose herbal ley mix
If you are farming on land of good fertility which is not drought–prone or seasonally waterlogged, then a good general purpose herbal ley mix can be a mixture of perennial ryegrass varieties suited to your soil type and situation, with a range of white clover types plus other legumes like red clover and greater birdsfoot trefoil, plantain (ribgrass) and perhaps chicory, plus other grass species suited to the site like cocksfoot on lighter land, or timothy on heavier land. This was the original mixture called ‘Pochon’ developed by a Breton farmer (Andre Pochon) for rotational grazing and forage production. It is especially suited for dairy farmers for use as high quality grazing or silage production. It can be adapted for use on good quality beef and sheep land by the use of some of the smaller–leaved white clover types which are more persistent and tolerant of closer grazing. Other herbs can be added to this basic mix but they may not persist long in the vigourous sward. Persistent perennial ‘weeds’ like dandelion and dock (sorrel) should not be eliminated from these established swards as they are relished by stock and contribute to stock health and nutrition – they are herbs for free!

planted too deep. The pasture should then be lightly grazed until the new seedlings germinate, but then the stock removed and left ungrazed for 3–4 weeks to allow the seedlings to develop good strong root systems. However, the grass shouldn’t be allowed to overtop the new seedlings, if there is a risk of this a high cut or quick mob grazing may be required. The sward should only be lightly grazed and not conserved for forage in its first year, to allow the new plants to establish and catch up to the already established plants. Preparing and planting into a seedbed by ploughing and cultivation is the most certain way to get a good result, but obviously cannot be done in every circumstance. The seedbed needs to be very firm, the age old test being that a bicycle should be able to be ridden across it prior to sowing! Again, a shallow surface sowing method is required for the small seed, especially the clover, and care needs to be taken during establishment of the sward for best results. Grazing should not be started until there is sufficient root establishment to prevent the plants being pulled out by grazing stock; a ‘tug–test’ will determine this. After the first grazing the sward should be topped to control weed species before they have a chance to set seed. This may need to be done more than once in the first year of establishment. Ideally, the new ley should be grazed lightly in autumn and the following spring, and then shut up for conserved forage, to help the plants get fully established. It can be beneficial the allow the sward to set seed in its first year to boost plant density if most of the plants you want have established and it’s not too weedy. Heavy grazing in the first autumn will delay spring growth, but this could be beneficial if the grass is getting away better than the clovers, as it will allow the clovers to catch up. If planting in the spring then the sward can be grazed and conserved for forage in its first year. If under-sowing pasture species into companion plantings like cereals it is often best to plant the under-storey plants like the legumes first in the spring and allow them to establish before planting in the main crop, especially if growing a winter cereal. Then the fertility–building mixture can be cut or grazed just prior to planting the main crop. The timing of companion plantings is crucial to get a good result and can vary widely depending upon season, care being needed so that the under-storey plants don’t end up swamping the over-storey. However, it can be a cost–effective way of getting the herbal ley sward established and ready to be grazed once the crop is harvested. In highly fertile pastures where it is difficult to get the herb species to persist in the sward due to competition by vigourous grasses, then it may be appropriate to plant shelter belts of mixed herb species, where the stock only have limited access and where competition from grasses is reduced. Examples of potentially suitable locations would be alongside/underneath a hedge line or tree–line, or on erosion spots in your paddocks, or on steeper slopes, beside dams or water courses, or in your quarantine paddock, or orchard.

Forage production
Many species of legumes and other herbs make excellent forage, either in conjunction with grasses, or when grown alone or in mixtures. Red clover is a particularly good choice for silage production with high yields and feed quality, with up to 20% crude protein, without the need for nitrogenous fertilisers. It is highly palatable to stock and results in higher milk yields and liveweight gains than ryegrass alone silage. When grown as a forage crop it can be grown with Italian and hybrid ryegrasses, providing them with all the nitrogen they need for maximum production. Vetches and other winter hardy legumes can also be used as a companion crop in a mix with cereals like maize, sorghum or oats to be cut for silage. Other species to consider either alone or in mixtures include, ribwort plantain, chicory, lucerne, sainfoin, phacelia and comfrey.

Drought–resistant, humus– building ley mixture
Many farmers in New Zealand don’t have the luxury of farming on such good soils, especially the sheep and beef farmers amongst us, and we are often trying to do our best on more marginal pastoral land. We need a mix of pasture species, which can tolerate the very dry summer conditions and still provide our stock with reasonable feed, as well as continue to build up the humus in the soil so that it gradually becomes more water retentive and fertility improves. The original ley mixture designed to do this was developed over 100 years ago by Robert Elliot, a Scot, and is known as the ‘Clifton Park’ mix, after his estate. It has been used with great effect by organic and conventional farmers alike ever since. These leys are not based on ryegrasses but on a mix of other grass species; cocksfoot, fescue and timothy in particular, with white and red clovers and a mix of herbs including plantain. Under dry conditions these pastures out–perform ryegrass swards and produce high quality feed which can be cut or grazed. Other grass species can be added to the mix and Yorkshire fog is well worth considering, as well as other legumes, which are tolerant of dry conditions like birdsfoot trefoil.

Techniques for sowing and establishment of herbal leys
There are basically two techniques for establishing a herbal ley, depending on what you want to achieve: either you have to plough up and reseed your existing pasture, or you can over–sow the seed mix into an already established pasture. If there are essential elements of your existing pasture that you want to keep and it is really only a matter of enhancing it by adding species or boosting the clover content, then the latter is the best option, but it needs careful management to get a good result. It is best to use this technique on very open or damaged pastures where there is plenty of space for new seedlings to establish. It doesn’t work very well on dense swards unless the sward is harrowed hard first, to expose the soil. The best time to do over-sowing is when the ground is warm and moist to give maximum chance for germination and growth for the seedlings to get away and compete successfully with the existing sward. This is usually late spring, but also autumn may be more favourable in the north. The existing sward must be closely cut or heavily grazed immediately prior to sowing, and the seed mixture broadcast and lightly harrowed into the soil, followed by rolling. The seed can be surface drilled but only just below the surface as most of the seeds are very small and do not germinate if

Green manures
Green manuring is a technique which has gone out of vogue in modern intensive farming, but is a technique for adding fertility and drought resistance to the soil in between crops without the need for fertilisers. It uses the dynamic interchange of nutrients like nitrogen between the clover legumes and the grasses, the ‘fixers’ and the ‘lifters’, to increase and capture the nutrients, which are then ploughed back into the soil for use by the next crop, which may be a grass ley. The advantage of green manure crops is that they maintain soil cover during the winter or summer when the soil may be prone to leaching or parching, and they build humus which is often severely depleted after an arable crop has been grown. Using this technique soil structure, fertility and water retention are significantly improved after just two green manure crops in your rotation. A variety of different pasture species can be used depending on whether winter or summer sown, and your soil type.

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Availability of Seed
There are few seed merchants in New Zealand who specialise in seed mixes designed specifically for organic pastoral farmers. At present there is only one commercially available source of herbal ley mix in New Zealand. It was developed by AgResearch Grasslands division for New Zealand conditions and is available through Wrightson’s Seeds (at a cost of $18.90/kg and a sowing rate of 20–30kg per hectare), although supplies are usually limited and it is best to order well in advance. It contains a mix of 17 grass, legume and herb species including cocksfoot, timothy, italian and hybrid ryegrass, browntop, tall fescue, brome and phalaris grasses; white clover, red clover, birdsfoot trefoil, lucerne, subterranean clover, sulla and pink serradella; as well as chicory and salad burnett. It is a very generic mixture, being designed mainly for a medium fertility, dry site, to provide summer feed with some cooler winter growth species too. However, not all of the species will establish or perform on every site where it is sown as some will be lost if the site is too fertile, some if the site is too dry etc. It is a difficult mix to establish into an already established sward and so ploughing and reseeding would be the best option. Not all of the species will persist over time. Apart from this commercially available herbal ley mix it is a matter of buying up the individual plant seeds and making your own mixtures, adjusting the sowing rates according to the percentage of each you want in the final sward. Your seed merchants will help you with this and those who stock some of the varieties and species mentioned here are included in the Sources section. Another technique for establishing an herbal ley is to use hay cut from an already established pasture, especially one from an organic farm. The hay would obviously need to be cut after the main sward species have flowered and set seed. The method to use then is to scatter the hay across your paddock, thinly enough to allow germination of the seed. This can be a very successful and cost effective technique and often the only way to get the species you want. It has the added advantage of providing extra humus to the soil at the same time. A much more time consuming and labour intensive technique is to collect your own seed from field margins and waste places around your farm and the local neighbourhood, especially road verges. This is only really a viable option if you are sowing small areas of your farm like shelter belts and quarantine paddocks, as the quantity of seed you need is quite daunting! It does have the benefit, however, of giving you locally adapted species and varieties which you know will flourish on your farm, and for nothing (well, in cash anyway). Perhaps one to get the kids onto? Another source of seed is from organically grown plants for use in small areas like orchard or quarantine paddock herbal leys, and there a few places specialising in this. Some also specialise in Heritage Seeds, that is older varieties of seed which are long–established in New Zealand and are therefore adapted to

our conditions over a long period of time and are possibly more suited to organic/biological systems. There is also a seed saving bank and network freely available in New Zealand to preserve these seeds. Ask one of the people named in Seed Sourcing.

Management of the herbal ley pasture
To get optimum results, the basic grass/clover sward of an organic farm does need a rather different management approach to that of the mainly grass–based swards of conventional farms. Currently, farmers rely heavily on the performance of clovers for soil fertility, and so our management needs to keep them in mind, over and above our grasses. The techniques that we use to manage them are exactly the same as for conventional pastures, although the timings may vary and we may need to be more in tune with what is happening. Our main management tool is obviously our grazing livestock, and these act as our mobile mowers and fertilisers. Judicious management of our grazing density, duration and rotation, can limit the need for any other pasture intervention, but of course our grazing is always a delicate balancing act and life is far from perfect, so there is always some tweaking required on our part. Rotational grazing is by far the most successful grazing technique on organic pastures as it allows the clovers the essential time they need to recover after defoliation, as well as which it allows time for intestinal parasite eggs dropped in dung to hatch and be exposed to the elements and die before re–infestation. The optimum time between grazing should be around 5 weeks for each of these processes, although this will vary depending on the growing season. Clovers can recover very quickly in spring and rotations sped up to keep on top of the growth. Set–stocking will tend to favour the grasses over the clover so that over time the proportion of clover and hence fertility of the sward will decline, also causing a worm problem in your young stock, especially lambs. A crucial aspect of grazing management is sward height. Over–grazing should be avoided and stock moved on before the sward gets below about 3–5cm, as below this there is little leaf area available for photosynthesis and so pasture recovery is significantly delayed. Equally swards should not be allowed to get too tall and rank as this will inhibit the activity of the clovers and reduce productivity. Optimum sward heights vary between 6cm for sheep up to about 10cm for dairy cattle, the aim being to keep the grazing period as short as possible, moving the stock on at the optimum stubble height for rapid sward regrowth. If under-grazing or above average growth occurs the sward can be topped, if conditions allow, maintaining the optimum sward height. If the pasture becomes over-grazed, try to give it a longer recovery time before the next grazing. Wait until the favoured plants have recovered, or allow these plants to reseed next year if it knocked too hard. In biological systems spring growth may be delayed over that

achieved by using artificial nitrogenous fertilisers as the soil needs to warm up sufficiently for biological activity to kick in. This is not such an issue in the north but in the south after a colder winter some allowance may need to be made for this in terms of amounts of conserved forage or fodder crops put aside for this time, and equally the same in the autumn. However, the benefit of biological farming will become apparent during the summer dry period when organic pastures will continue to perform long after conventional pastures have slowed down and dried up. This is due to clover being very active during the summer when grasses are often setting seed and resting, as well as the greater humus content of organic pastures giving them higher water retentive ability. Under New Zealand’s strongly bimodal seasonal pasture growth curve, this will make a significant difference to overall productivity. Additional management techniques to get the most from your herbal ley pastures will be the usual chain harrowing, in spring–time especially, to break up matted vegetation and aerate the soil, and spread any dung pats lying around after the winter. However, chain harrowing through the season is likely to be needed much less than on conventional pasture as there is a much quicker turnover and incorporation of dung back into the soil, and likewise dead vegetation decays and disappears very rapidly and does not tend to build up and cause problems like facial eczema. A mid–season topping of the pasture can sometimes be beneficial, though especially if grass growth is getting away and setting seed, or there are a lot of weeds which could usefully be de–headed before seeding. This type of management can be especially useful if there are perennial weed problems like creeping thistle, as they cannot tolerate frequent cutting. For weed control it is useful to rotate your pastures between ones which are grazed only and ones which are cut for winter forage. For pastures to be shut up for hay or silage an early rolling is beneficial while the ground is still moist but not wet, as this levels the soil surface after any winter pugging and encourages tillering of the grasses for a thicker sward. Biologically–managed pastures need plenty of aeration of the soil to maximize biological activity and so occasional subsoil conditioning like mole ploughing can significantly increase their performance, especially if they have been heavily pugged or damaged by heavy machinery. Some farmers swear by various ‘spiking’ techniques, like those used to condition lawns, sports fields and golf courses. The best time for these treatments is early in the season while the soil is still moist, but only once it is dry enough not to cause further damage to the soil structure. Equally, it is important that activities like fertilising/slurry spreading are only carried out when the ground is firm enough not to be damaged by the machinery, and so storage arrangements need to be adequate to tide over wet times. Pugging and damage to the sward and soil structure also need to be taken into account when considering strip grazing to ration forage or ensure an even graze. Best utilisation of the pasture can be achieved by adopting leader–follower grazing patterns, where stock that require the most nutrition are given access to the new–growth in advance of other stock. For example, high yielding dairy cows might be

grazed ahead of dairy heifers or beef followers, or weaned lambs ahead of ewes. The sheep and beef organic system takes advantage of this technique as part of pasture optimisation and parasite control, allowing beef cattle onto the pastures first to graze the longer sward, followed immediately by sheep and then rested. In this system parasite control is achieved by each mopping up of the worm eggs and larvae of the preceding stock type, so cross–contamination does not occur. This can be an important part of livestock health control for a successful organic sheep operation, especially if there are not enough paddocks where weaned lambs can be given ‘clean’ pasture, that is pasture that has not been grazed by sheep for sufficient duration for risk of contamination to be minimal (usually considered to be about a year), or land that has been cut for hay or forage, or land reseeded after a crop rotation. By adopting a biological approach to the management of your pastures, it won’t be long before you notice that those bare patches between the plants, that are such a common feature of conventionally managed pasture in New Zealand, start to close up, and the sward becomes denser and thicker at the base with increased biological activity in the soil. As well as being a healthier and more productive and more nutritious pasture, this closing of the soil canopy will protect that essential soil life as well as holding more nutrients in the sward to prevent leaching and loss to water courses or to the air. Also the soil will start to grow in depth and its structure will improve. Thus, there are positive feedback loops, which mean that the pastures become even more productive, which is why after the first few years of converting from conventional chemically farmed pasture, organic farmers find that their pastures regain productivity.

Kikuyu information
Kikuyu pastures, which are such a feature of livestock farms in the north, have particular management needs to enable them to be used to best advantage, many of which differ from the general pasture management described previously. Biological management is in fact a much more suitable way to optimise the feed value of this grass, since under chemical management it becomes long and rank very quickly, shading out other desirable pasture species like clover, and it also becomes particularly deficient in vital minerals, causing problems like staggers in stock grazed on kikuyu dominant pastures. Under a biological system kikuyu can be managed as a balanced and beneficial constituent of your pasture, providing nutritious grazing even during the driest summers when other pasture species have shrivelled up. Kikuyu is a subtropical grass, originating from South Africa. It was introduced to New Zealand in the 1920s for erosion control. It is still available for sale but is now quite expensive. It is dominant in 40% of Northland farms, and has also spread down the coast as far south as the Bay of Plenty and Taranaki. Due to our climate changes it is creeping into other areas. It is considered by many to be an undesirable pasture constituent due to its ability to thrive and smother out other pasture species.

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Features:
• It has roots that spread from stolon growth, both over and underground. It can send new roots down from the nodes on its overground stolons • Grows best when ground temperatures are above 15 degrees. The warmer and more humid, the more prolific the growth. It will also grow in lower temperatures • There is little or no growth in winter and spring. – you also need other grasses • Frosts do not kill the roots of the plant but do put it into in a dormant mode. The green growth deteriorates in quality and burns off. It then has very low feed value. It is important to have other grass species underneath the plant • The army caterpillar prefers kikuyu and will eat it in autumn. There is a toxin that can affect the kikuyu at the same time. Web worm will also eat it • Shades out other species • Forms a dry fibrous mat as it gets older • Good fibre source but very low in energy and carbohydrates when fibrous • Only needs a sprinkle of rain to grow • Is very efficient at taking up nitrogen when in a growing state. • The plant is a natrophobe, which means it has low sodium levels. Sodium containing fertilisers will not increase the sodium content of natrophobic plants.

Kikuyu management
Because organic farmers cannot use chemical sprays to eliminate kikuyu, it is best to make the best of its usefulness by managing it. This is done by: • • Keeping it in a growing and leafy state. This also increases its food value Control through topping or mulching to get rid of the matted kikuyu. Usually this is done in autumn. This also allows the other grasses to come though for adequate feed in winter and spring Graze your non–productive older animals (dry cows) on it hard. You may need a lick as a mineral supplement. Molasses sprayed on makes it more palatable and adds energy through the molasses Keep your stocking rates high and paddock sizes appropriate to ensure the kikuyu is eaten out properly on each rotation The maximum grazing rotation should be 4 weeks. During growth spurts of kikuyu it should be reduced to 2–3 weeks and then topped to 2.5cm to allow regrowth Old fibrous kikuyu can take 3 weeks to digest. For maximum production, feed your springers young leafy kikuyu in the 3 weeks prior to calving In summer/autumn be mindful of the risk of facial eczema by not allowing a litter mass to accumulate Ensure there is minimum mat left before any chance of frosts – you can be left with no grass Broadcast or over–sowing before mulching in Autumn is recommended to improve sward diversity Free–range pigs can help control kikuyu by rooting up and eating the juicy stolons, creating bare patches which allow the germination and spread of the other pasture species.

Cropping
The fertility and biological activity of the soil should be maintained or increased where appropriate by cultivation of legumes and deep rooting plants and incorporation of soil organic material. (AgriQuality Organic Standard (2002) 4.2.1.) • • Crops are viable on organic farms Because organic farmers cannot spray out, the aim is to keep the soil structure as intact as possible while using sustainable methods to work the soil. Plan your strategy for cropping. Look at what you need, why you are cropping, and the benefits as well as the disadvantages Research how you are going to prepare your land, what crop you are going to use, how you are going to maintain fertility for the crop and the paddock, and how you are going to return it back to pasture One example is to shallow cut no greater than 2cm to break up the top sward if it is too thick, then use disks, power harrows, spring tine cultivators to work the soil Using the Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Calendar, work the soil on fire/seed days during a descending phase over a period of time to reduce your weeds. Plant your seed on the appropriate day (e.g. root crops on a root day, leaf on a water/leaf day) Ploughing, in the absence of spraying, is a good way to remove cover and control weed numbers while the crop is establishing. The key is the depth of any ploughing or working up of the soil Some farmers start cultivating 2 to 3 weeks earlier than with using sprays, where possible, to allow grasses time to die off and weeds a chance to germinate before getting disturbed again at planting time Cultivating at night will result in less weeds germinating, because some seeds are germinated by the spark of light A good density of crop will reduce your weeds Use liquid fertilisers and effluent, at appropriate times, to strengthen your plants and the soil Biodynamic preparation 500 helps the soil and preparation. 501 will strengthen the plants Choose crops that do well on low inputs rather than new cultivars that are dependent on high NPK and inputs Plough or hoe in the stubble and remains of the crop for mulch Watch your crop rotations. Plan what you are going to grow in succession to avoid depletion of minerals and the health of the soil Allow fallow periods when cropping an area intensively Any crop can be grown, however they may need different management to conventional crops, with an emphasis on maintaining fertility.

Crops currently being grown organically throughout NZ
(This list is not complete and there is further information. We recommend you contact your seed supplier or do some research.)

Sorghum A native grass of the tropics, can be green fed
or made into silage. Plant when ground temperatures are 18 degrees and rising. Seeds are imported and therefore coated and will need washing. Enquire about volumes needed for importing uncoated seed. Needs supplemental fertiliser (liquid and solid) for best yields.



Maize Silage You will need a certificate indicating GM
and coating status. It is part of some organic farms, annual management plan. Needs nitrogen.





Sunflower Provides energy and protein, tolerant to lower
temperatures, can be greenfed, makes silage, can be grown and harvested with maize or sorghum. Use a corn planter or precision drill at ground temperatures of 10 degrees and rising.





Millet Can be grown if ground temperatures are too low
for maize or sorghum. Grows on less fertile soil. Can be green fed or made into silage.





Oats Good winter/spring feed. Can be greenfed or made
into silage.

Lucerne A three year crop. More sensitive to molybdenum
deficiencies than clovers. See Pasture section.





Turnips Greenfeed crop. Needs good cobalt levels. Sensitive
to molybdenum deficiencies. Plan a crop rotation with turnips and be very careful about adding molybdenum as an excess can induce a copper deficiency. Also some RPRs have significant amounts of molybdenum – it always pays to check with the fertiliser company, especially if you are in a marginal copper area.

• • • •

Plant species according to their sodium content;
Sodium Accumulation in Leaf Stubble
Sodium rich plants – natrophiles Ryegrass Cocksfoot Lotus Phalaris Sodium poor plants – natrophobes Browntop Poa trivialis Tall Fescue Timothy Red Clover
Table sourced from ‘Fertiliser Recommendations for Pastures and Crops in NZ’ MAF 1982



Others Brassicas, red clover, chicory

• • • • • • •

White clover

Sub clover

Chou moellier/Kale Barley Yorkshire fog Oats

There is a new organically certified weed killer available called Interceptor, which is made from pine tree needles, that will knock back kikuyu, but permission must be sought for its use which must be around areas that cannot be grazed, depending on the certifying agency.
Lucerne Maize Sudax Lupin

Sources of information
Most seed firms have information on different crops or can access the information needed. The following, among others, have specialists for crops and research data at their fingertips.
Pacific Seeds, Fax: 07 575 3056 Pioneer Seed, Ph: 07 839 6626 Crop and Food Research, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch Ph: 03 325 6400 Fax: 03 325 2074 Website: www.crop.cri.nz

Alsike clover Millet Rape

Kikuyu Paspalum Desmodium Soya bean

There has been recent research done on trial farms in Northland by the Kikuyu Action Group. An article on kikuyu was written in Dexcel Link – Winter 2002, pp 13. www.dexcel.co.nz The group have gathered a lot of valuable information.
Contact: Helen Moodie NZ LANDCARE TRUST Waikaraka, R D 4, Whangarei Ph: 09 436 3170 • Email: [email protected]

There is much research and literature on organic cropping in New Zealand, and trials are currently underway.

Websites:
www.guidetoorganics.com www.crop.cri.nz
This website is being developed by Crop and Food Research to provide information on pest, disease and weed management for ‘organic’ arable and vegetable crops in New Zealand. Use the search engine at this site to find relevant information on organic cropping

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www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz This website contains a
free library and directory where you can access information on organics

www.organicpathways.co.nz www.soil–health.org.nz/organicnz/proceedings www.ecan.govt.nz www.organics.org.nz www.biodynamic.org.nz there is a research report on
cropping with possible websites and papers.

www.landcareresearch.co.nz www.ruralni.govt.uk/bussys/organic/organic_cropping www.attra.ncat.org has a 75 page document on cropping. www.bhu.co.nz a SFF project evaluating organic technologies and disseminating protocols to growers. Co–ordinator Tim Jenkins.

Weeds and their Management
Weeds! The word instantly conjures up an enemy to be conquered. Weeds, along with animal health issues, are the most often given reason by farmers for why they believe they can’t go organic. They believe they will be swamped by the enemy. But let’s consider for a second exactly what a weed is, as the problem may be more in our heads than real. A weed only exists in relation to human activities. It is our term for a plant growing where we don’t want it, and where we believe it is interfering with what we do want there. So the whole perception we have is of lack of value to us. In nature there is no such thing as a weed. All plants have a function in the communities of which they are a part. Many of the plants which we call weeds are nature’s colonisers. They are adapted to taking advantage of bare ground and germinating, getting established and setting seed quickly so that they are ready with dispersed seed for the next patch of bare ground to move into. So they are highly mobile, but they do not persist for long as they quickly make conditions unsuitable for themselves by providing ground cover where other more persistent species like grasses establish. This is the process of succession that we talked about earlier in the introduction to this chapter. It is only if we continue to provide suitable conditions for them by pushing the succession stage back to bare ground, that they can persist.

The important point here is that we are the agents of change on the farm, and it is our management practices which, to a great extent, determine what conditions are available and suitable for what plants. So–called weed species are often providing us with an indicator of something that we are doing wrong, or could do differently, to make conditions less suitable for the undesired plants. Just blasting them with herbicides is not actually going to solve the problem, and as we haven’t changed the conditions they are still tipped in favour of the ‘weeds’. A good example of this is a high incidence of dock around gateways and water troughs, and other areas of high traffic. This is where the ground is highly compacted and drainage impeded, and dock is one of the few plants able to tolerate these conditions, and it does so by means of a very deep and vigourous taproot, which penetrates the soil increasing aeration and pulling up nutrients from the subsoil. So the plant is actually working in your favour, improving the soil. Large areas of dock infestation through your paddocks are likely to be an indication of a wider compaction problem and the solution may be to do some sub–soil aeration, not shoot the messenger. On the biological farm it pays to get to know and understand your weeds, and to learn to live with them in an attitude of mutual respect and tolerance. Many of them are our friends, and the others can usually be managed at tolerable levels by understanding the problem that they are indicating and dealing with that. As we have already discussed above, many of them like plantain, dandelion, chickweed, and a whole host of other herbs are relished by the stock, and are important elements in the pasture for providing the minerals they need for full health. So it pays to think of them as natural substitutes for vet bills, then their financial contribution is valued and they are not seen as just taking up valuable space for other plants like grasses. In our crops or on areas of bare ground weeds are acting as a green manure, protecting the soil from erosion or leaching, and contributing to soil fertility in areas where other plants cannot grow. Weeds also act as refuges for beneficial predator species of insects and other wildlife that keep a natural balance and protect us against pests and diseases in our target crops and pastures. So weeds do make a very important financial contribution to the successful functioning of our farms.

Many persistent plants which are taking up too much space and adversely affecting our target crop or pasture can be managed by topping at the appropriate time before they set seed. This is particularly relevant in newly sown pasture leys or crops, or for persistent pasture species like creeping thistle. Most cannot tolerate cutting and will not persist, especially if cut more than once. The other main method of control is rotations of crop and pasture, and rotations between different crop types, so that weed species do not get a hold and become dominant. For pastures where mechanical cutting cultivation techniques are not practicable, which would be the case for many sheep and beef farmers in New Zealand, the presence of dominant and persistent weeds may be telling us something important about our grazing management which could be changed. Set stocking for example often leads to widespread problems of over–grazing, compaction and selective grazing, which favours certain weed species. Changing to a rotational grazing system and by rotational cross–grazing between different stocktypes can significantly improve the quality and vigour of the pasture, and get a more balanced sward, eventually eliminating some of the weed species altogether. There are many books, which look at weeds and their ecological niches, which are well worth reading to get to know your allies and enemies, and to help you develop more long–term, lateral strategies in your farm management to make use of what they are telling you. Below are just some examples.

• How long will the seed stay viable in the soil? If so, should the plants be destroyed at pre–flowering? • What can I do about it?

Some plants and their properties and indications of soil deficiencies:
Dock – trying to open up soil with deep tap root, poorly drained soil, lime indicator. Plantain, Hawke’s beard – phosphorous (plantain is now regarded as a beneficial pasture plant) Chamomile, willow weed, willow, speedwell, chamomile – lime, calcium Sorrel – calcium, phosphorous Buttercup – cobalt, low pH, poor drainage Nettle – iron and shallow pan (has 27 other minerals as well) All thistles – nitrogen, copper, silica Ragwort – copper Couch, dandelion – silica Chickweed, cleaver, fumitory – copper, boron, zinc, phosphorous, iron Bracken Fern and Inkweed – potassium Blackberry – iron Fennel – copper, potassium, sulphur Gorse – nitrogen Willow weed – poor drainage There are many more. The formation of and degree of colour the plants have can also give you an indication of missing key elements. For example plants lying flat instead of reaching indicates a lack of silica. This is done through skilful observations. A good soil science book would also give you information you need.

Tips for dealing with weeds
Weed control can be the greatest stumbling block to changing to organics.

An excellent document on a website is:
www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz – publications: Organic Management of Weeds • One option is to deal with any major weed problems you may have before converting to organics. • Another is to go for partial certification and continue to deal with it • Another is to look at the land use for that area and change your farming practices on it (e.g. retire to trees, develop a wetland).

Ways of reducing/eliminating weeds
After assessing why the weed is growing there, choose the appropriate way or ways of dealing with it. It may need a two or three–pronged approach. Keep a good thick sward of grass at all times to prevent weed seeds from germinating

Be observant:
Look at it and ask yourself questions: • Where is the weed growing? • What are the conditions? The soil condition? • Why is it growing there? • Is it a problem? • What elements is that weed bringing to the soil? What is its purpose?

Through fertilisers
Through identifying your weeds and their indications, getting a soil and herbage test done, you will know what element is needed to be addressed. Address your fertiliser applications appropriately. Also continue to apply your liquid fertilisers regularly to encourage a balance in the soil. If it is an issue (e.g. boron) talk with your certifying agency rather than do nothing about it.

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Biological control
The list of available products is constantly growing. Contact your local regional council. NZ Landcare Trust has a range of free fact sheets on the biological control of weeds such as alligator weed, broom, Californian thistle, gorse, hawkweeds, mist flower, nodding thistle, old man’s beard, blackberry, scotch thistle and ragwort. For more information, contact [email protected]

Specific weed problems
Gorse
As mentioned before, gorse will grow where fertility is low and there is a shortage of nitrogen. It establishes well on disturbed areas. It hinders stock grazing, competes with trees seedlings and is a fire hazard. It fixes nitrogen through rhizobium and is a nurse species for regenerating native trees. The seed spreads up to 6 metres when it explodes from its pod on a hot day and stays viable for over thirty years.

Plants that can be grown in hedgerows/herbal leys and their properties
Common name Botanical name Uses Mineral sources

Acmena Anise Asparagus

Pigeon food Digestion and colic Kidney, bladder problems Increases milk supply, good for respiratory system Increases milk supply Good for stomach Copper, Phosphorous Calcium, Copper, Iron Rich in minerals Calcium, Copper, Iodine, Silicon, Sodium Sodium Symphytum officinale Taraxacum officinale Fodder, good for bones Especially for goats Increases milk Rumex sp. Foeniculum vulgare Phormium tenax Increases milk supply, Good for worms, colic. (don’t let cattle gorge) Shelter, worms Goat tonic, wormer Melissa officinalis Increases milk supply, calming effect Rich in nitrates and vitamins, cleanses kidneys Tagetes sp. Tropaeolum majus Plantago sp. Rumex acetosella Sonchus arvensis Artemisia absinthum Achilea millefolium Worms Good for the heart Worms Calcium, potassium, sulphur Calcium, phosphorus, copper Calcium Iron, potassium Copper Phosphorus, sulphur Potassium Chlorine, Iron, Potassium, Sodium Calcium, Copper, Iron, Magnesium, Silicon, Potassium Phosphorous, Sodium Calcium, Magnesium Copper, Potassium, Sodium, Sulphur Phosphorus Iodine, Iron, Phosphorous, Silicon

Cultivation
Opening up ground can help poorly drained, pugged soils. It can also eliminate bad weeds in a paddock that has been cropped. You will need to cultivate more than once for this, however. These types of areas will need nurturing and liming. It will take time. Biodynamic methods and liquid fertilisers will also help this.

Borage

Borago officinalis Carum carvi Stellaria medic Cichorium intybus Galium aparine

Potassium

Control methods
• Control can be considered for eradication, temporary suppression, or control on property boundaries. There should also be a long term plan for management. Prevention is best, ensuring a thick sward of grass to not allow the seed to germinate. Digging out isolated plants will also help reduce the area affected. Many insects are controlling gorse biologically, and your Plant Pest Officer at the regional council can help with this. Rotary Slasher (with chains possibly), mulcher, bulldozer and blade or rake, or roller crusher are some mechanical ways to reduce the gorse. This needs to be followed with regrassing and fertilising. Caraway Chickweed Chicory Cleavers Clover Comfrey Dandelion Dill Dock Fennel Flax Honeysuckle Lemon Balm Lucerne Marigold Nasturtium Plantain Sorrel Sow thistle Wormwood Yarrow

Slashing
Slashing and topping at the appropriate time can stop weeds from germinating, usually pre flowering. Be aware that it can turn certain plants into perennial from annuals (e.g. ragwort). Grubbing and pulling plants out is another alternative.

• • •

Teas
Because these plants are high in particular minerals that are missing from the soil, it is prudent to return it to the land through spraying teas. Method: Gather the whole plant and put it in a drum. Top it up with water and allow it to steep. Biodynamic compost preparations (2 sets per 200 litres) added will be beneficial. Let the plants steep for at least six weeks. Spray on to the affected area. •

Ragwort
Ragwort is a problem for cattle, but can be managed with sheep. It is toxic to cattle. Ragwort can be biennial or perennial. It produces plants from the roots, seeds and the crown. It can multiply rapidly. It grows to 60 cm in height and produces yellow clusters of flowers. One plant can produce up to 250,000 seeds that are easily transported by wind, water, vehicles and animals. A single root can also produce a new plant. Interference by humans through cutting, digging and grazing seems to encourage it to grow from what roots are left in the ground.

Potentisation
Potentisation is a process where a small piece of every stage of the plant growth is taken – root, new growth, old growth, flower, berry. It is then potentised (usually 6x) and sprayed on to the area once a month. It is said it stops any further spreading of the weed and suppresses growth.

Peppering
This is used to eliminate the weed completely. Collect ripe seed off your own property. Dry, then burn on as hot a fire as possible – there is some debate as to whether to burn on the full moon or the new moon. This then becomes ash. This ash is then sprinkled over the weed infestation area. It can be bulked out with lime or rock dust,or sand, and then spread. If there are insufficient seeds, they can be bulked out with roots and whole plants. The key, however is the seed or the ripe reproductive organ. The ash can also be potentised to 6c by a homoeopath.

Control methods
• • Grazing to ensure a vigourous, dense pasture. Grazing 3 stock units of sheep per hectare can control ragwort. Mob stock (stock pasture with a whole mob of sheep) 4 times between spring and autumn for maximum control. Grubbing. Best done at the full to late flowering stage. Be aware root fragments left in the soil will regrow. Burn any flower heads. Mowing is not a good option – it produces multi-crowned plants which are harder to get rid of. Biological control. There is the ragwort flea.



• •

Contributed by Ian Buckingham from various sources

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Pest control
Pest control is a major problem in New Zealand – confirmed by the attention placed on biosecurity by regional councils and MAF. Pests are generally indicators of an imbalance in the environment, and they are there to try and balance it up. The difficulty in New Zealand is that many of our major pests were introduced and do not have natural enemies to control them. The challenge for the organic farmer is to seek as much balance as possible in the farm environment, as well as using appropriate control measures. If you consider the possible effects of climate change, covered briefly at the beginning of this chapter, this challenge is likely to increase as time goes by.

Control methods for organic farmers are:

• • • •

Night shooting Trapping Fumigation (check this with your certifying agency) Repellents on trees • Egg based • Mutton fat and kerosene • Fish fertiliser
The recipes for these are available through your local regional council or the Northland regional council brochure no 6 Animal Pests.

Trees
Before humans arrived on Aoteoroa most of the land was cloaked in forest, although large areas in the dry east were regularly burned by natural fire (Grant, 1996). In the south, the forests were mainly dominated by species of southern beech (Nothofagus sp.) which are adapted to high rainfall and low temperature conditions. In the north there was a predominance of podocarp (totara, rimu, matai, miro, and kahikatea) and broadleaf species, and further north, on the poorer soils of higher rainfall areas, the kauri was king.

Our forests also have role to play in building and conserving our soils, in retaining minerals and other nutrients in the soil, as well as in storing them in their own tissues. Trees are major carbon stores, which is a vital function with current concern about global warming (see the earlier section on Climate Change). Another vital function of forests is to provide homes and food for a myriad of other forms of life, and thus they contribute significantly to biodiversity. Trees are structurally very diverse, and so provide lots of nooks and crannies, and feeding opportunities for other creatures and plants to take advantage of. Thus we find that each individual tree in a forest tends to be a little mini–ecosystem all of its own, rather like a high–rise building in a city. Thus when trees are present we also tend to get beneficial insects and birds, which help maintain a balance by providing



Try:
• • • • Observing and assessing the situation Introducing predators – contact an expert/your regional council is a good start. Create a diverse environment to encourage the predators: lots of bird life, beneficial plants and insects Potentise the problem and spray back (a homoeopathic technique, ask others if you’re not sure about how to go about this). This is a long term strategy, and you may not see instant results Use natural insecticides Use animal hooves to crush ground born pests Peppering can also be used. This a method used in biodynamics, but often only as a last resort. It is recommended that you contact the Bio Dynamic Association if you are interested to know more about this technique • • •

Fencing Should be 1m high and netting no more than 4–5cm mesh. Peg it or stretch it tightly to the ground. Do not allow gaps at gateways. Electric fences 8–10 cm above the ground and 8–10 cm apart. Protective devices around trees and seedlings. Long wet and green grass, will increase the mortality rate of the rabbits.

Possums
Possums are a problem where there are trees. They feed at night and sleep during the day. They find dark, dry, sheltered places to sleep. They feed on new growth and can do a lot of damage. Possums, being creatures of habit, follow the same path each night. It can be seen as a narrow path.
Control methods

• • •

A useful website for information on organic pest management is www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz – look in their publications directory for: Organic Pest and Disease Management You will need to contact your regional council if you do not want to be part of any poisoning programme, and they will tell you what your obligations are.

• • • •

Trapping using the Timms Trap, live trap Shooting Repellents (as for rabbits) Some sprays are available from Bettacrop/Earthwise Box 9128 Hamilton Web: home.xtra.co.nz/hosts/earthwise Tel: (07) 824 4881

Specific pest problems
Two common animal pests in New Zealand are rabbits and possum. Some brief information on these is given below. Of course there are many pests throughout New Zealand. Your regional council is a good source of information on those that are most relevant to you.

Fallowing
Fallowing is a term used to describe the process of leaving land untilled or unsowed after ploughing; usually for a season, a year or more. A summer fallow was a method used to destroy weeds. It was not uncommon to leave one seventh of a farm in a fallow state but is seldom done now. Farmers of today are experimenting with leaving paddocks or certain areas of the farm to self seed. (This may end up being a method of attempting to keep a farm free of GM content though will probably not be entirely successful). They are not tilling the land, just leaving it ungrazed, letting it seed, letting it lie down and then waiting for it to grow again. This is not fallowing in the true definition but is a method that is being trialled by organic farmers.

Rabbits
Rabbits can eat a lot of the best grass available. They dig holes which expose the soil and cause erosion. They also damage your seedling trees and herbal leys. They live in colonies known as warrens in areas where the countryside is open, and generally are more of a problem in areas with lighter soils and a rainfall of 1000mm or less. They are nocturnal. Rabbits are territorial. Their territories are defined by their faeces heaps and scratching of the dirt.

Our forests, like forests all over the world had, and still have, vital ecosystem functions to perform. Two very important functions of relevance to the farmer are the regulation of air and water flows. When you walk into a forested environment from exposed farmland one of the first things that you notice is shelter from wind. An important influence of forests is the moderation of wind speed within the forest canopy and on the lee side of the forest. Forests also moderate the amount of water reaching the ground from rain, dissipating its force, and by water uptake hold much of it in their trunks, branches and leaves as well as in the soil around their roots, which is why water run–off from forests is far less than from land cleared of trees. This water is released slowly, and the shade from the branches keeps the air under the canopy cool, reducing evaporation, and so more water is retained in the soil around trees during dry periods.

the predators for potential pest species. On the negative side, in New Zealand, trees also provide a home for major pests such as possums, which have to be constantly managed.

Trees on farms
On the farm you’ll be looking at the multiple benefits that trees provide as part of your whole farm environment picture. Here are some things to consider when looking at planting trees (use this as a starting point to make your own list of the pros and cons of where you might want to plant trees and for what purpose): 1. Look at your farm landscape to identify areas suitable for trees:

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Erosion prone areas Bush remnants Areas where scrub persists (e.g. gorse, manuka) Exposed sites where shelter and shade would be beneficial Areas of low productivity How much land are you willing to convert to trees (some NZ farm foresters have up to 20% of their farms in trees with no loss in production and the added benefit of potential income from harvestable trees) Consider the costs involved, which include fencing costs, cost of trees, the cost of your time to plant and manage the trees What are the likely returns on your investment? To identify the likely returns you need to consider the tree species you intend planting and the benefits they will provide. Note: Many of the benefits of trees may not be immediately apparent. The best thing to do is to spend some time talking with experienced farm foresters, and visiting their farms.

Checklist to assist in identifying the trees that you want on your farm

so the lines are outside the falling distance of the trees. This includes a mature tree. Remember, trees do grow and wind does blow! Because of this, quick growing trees are not recommended as they become brittle. Slower growing trees such as natives are better. Anyone needing to work within 4 metres of a power line (trimmers, forestry workers etc) need a permit from the local power line company. Another future consideration will be anyone felling trees near power lines will need a unit standard in Forestry Advanced Felling Trees or the like. If a tree or branch lands on the line, you are liable for costs incurred.

• •

Alternative is weed mat Put tyres down – one or two if there are problems with rabbits and hares (will hold the paper down). This will provide up to 6 months protection from pasture invasion. Apply rabbit deterrent paste (see later section) Put up tree guard – electric fence or posts and rails, or wire frame, plastic shield etc. If you have Kikuyu, be sure to trim or, if you are allowed, spray the grass on a regular basis until the tree is high enough to outgrow the Kikuyu, even with newspapers and tyres around the trees If necessary, protect it from the wind using wind breaks and stakes If using stakes, attach them low so the stem can still flex, otherwise there is a risk of atrophy of the stem, leading to later problems The root to stem ratio of 1:2 is the ideal nursery presentation for high chances of survival and rapid establishment.



What do I want to plant trees for? Shade – important with increased skin cancers on farm animals Agro–forestry or forestry Tree cropping – orchard or nut trees Fodder trees – for browsing by livestock or pollarding during a drought Firewood – coppicing Aesthetics and well–being Protection of waterways and riparian zones – protection of water quality from excess sediment and animal waste Improving soil structure and fertility Shelter to reducing wind velocity and therefore heat and moisture loss Erosion and run–off control Providing a habitat for native birds and other pest predators and food for birds, bees and other pollinators Provide corridors to encourage wildlife diversity Protection from spray drift

• • •

2. Think about what you can afford:

• •





Site preparation
If your site has impeded drainage or compaction problems and machines can access the site, it pays to have it ripped first, then plant at the intersection of the two cuts. If planting into a grass sward this will need to be removed or checked in some way, either over the entire site or around each tree. Around the tree will also need to be mulched or treated to reduce competition from weed growth once planted. Keep stock out. It is usually wise to fence before planting rather than leaving it until afterwards and leaving the trees exposed to possible attack. Put up any wind–cloth or other shelter that you intend to use for the site.



What are the choices?
The following information might help you in your decisions as to what trees to plant, for what purpose and where.

Use the information from your checklist to make up a long–term programme. Here are some things to think about in setting your goals and developing a long–term programme:
• Maintaining your existing bush and planting trees are important considerations when thinking about sustainability and organics. • Identify what you want to plant trees for (see the checklist below) – keep in mind that trees can support all parts of your farming system (e.g. fodder, compost, firewood) they stop erosion and pollution, provide shelter and shade, and biodiversity • Plan your tree cover for maximum animal and human comfort. • One of your considerations should be for protection from spray drift if spray drift is a problem. • Protect your trees as they are growing. They are expensive, and will become a valuable asset long– term.

Protecting and enhancing existing bush
The first thing to consider is whether there are any areas of native bush or manuka/kanuka scrub existing on the property, in gullies, or on steep slopes, that could be retired without any significant loss of grazing. Very often, the amount of grazing achieved from these areas is negligible, especially if it is compared to the overall and long–term economic benefits to the health of the farm, as already described above. A small reduction in stocking density may be required in the short term, but it is likely to be more than compensated for by the overall improvement in stock health and performance, as well as a reduction in other costs on the farm. One of the most significant losses when considering retiring land to forest regeneration can be loss of sheltered winter holding areas, especially on exposed beef and sheep farms. This can be taken into consideration by retaining part of the bush area for this use and retiring the rest, until such time as alternative shelter can be provided. Excluding stock from existing areas of bush or scrub is the cheapest, easiest, and fastest way to re–establish and maintain tree–cover. Although it may seem that the presence of the stock isn’t affecting the existing tree–cover, what it is doing is preventing any tree seedlings from getting established, so that once those trees die, the forest dies. It also reduces the forest biodiversity significantly by the action of grazing the under-storey tree, shrub and herb species. In areas of teatree, the manuka and kanuka have already done all the hard work

Planting tips
• • Tree roots should never be permitted to dry out Plant at the appropriate time of the year when the ground is moist. The ideal time to plant evergreens is in the autumn and bare rooted deciduous trees should be planted in the winter Frost tender trees need to be planted after the danger of frost is over. They should be protected from frost for at least the first two to three years Ensure they are protected against stock Remove the pasture Plant the tree carefully – can dip or spray the roots with the Bach remedy called Rescue Remedy and/or seaweed Water/fertilise if necessary Put down open wads of newspaper for mulch/weed control – four sections – overlapping slightly with the tree in the centre where the corners of the four sections meet. Plain uncoloured cardboard boxes may be opened out and used as an alternative. Moisten the paper/cardboard – always use a wet mulch. Do not use magazines (toxins)

How to plant?
When planting in a farm situation, techniques need to be relatively simple and cost effective, but they do also need to be able to withstand considerable rigours, (e.g. browsing). Envisage the conditions in which they can thrive, and recreate those as best you can. Trees need shelter, they generally need a reasonable depth of soil, they need adequate water, and they need to be protected from being eaten. The other thing to bear in mind longer term is adequate space for the roots to grow (the roots spread as far underground as the canopy does above), and the height and width the branches are going to spread to. • • • • • •

Keep things simple to start with so that you get a good sense of what you can cope with. Begin planting and persist with your goals. Once you starting seeing the trees grow and the benefits they provide your enthusiasm is likely to grow. You will find that tree growers learn along the way, and adopt and adapt to new technology to their own advantage. It is probably a good idea to join the local Farm Forestry Association branch. There is a wealth of information amongst their membership, which can help you greatly in avoiding the mistakes of others.

Warning when planting near power lines:
The Horticultural Regulations of 1986 are quite specific: Trees should be planted far enough away from the lines •

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for you of colonising the bare ground, and they are the natural precursor trees for our native bush. To minimise the cost of fencing look for areas that can be cut off easily by just a short connecting fence: triangular shapes are often the most cost–effective, cutting off corners of scrubby or marginal land or existing bush. Just do a little bit each year.

Totara Erislima littoralis Akeake Oleria

Cypress lusitanica/torulosa Callistemon Feijoa Acacia

Trees for timber and erosion control
This is a vast topic. The aims generally are to retire areas with poor grazing ability, e.g. steep slopes or unstable land. The Farm Forestry Association has a variety of skills and knowledge in this area, as well as all the topics covered in the tree section. They have branches and keen members all over the country. Their details are:
NZ Farm Forestry Association Box 1122, Wellington Ph: 04 472 0432 Fax: 04 473 6904 Email: [email protected] Website with details of branches: www.nzffa.org.nz

• •

Plant trees and shrubs only between the bottom of the bank and the fence Do not plant species that like water and may invade the actual pond (e.g. reeds, flaxes). These belong in wetland areas instead Leave access for future cleaning of ponds and dams If animals are going to graze the banks for grass control, make sure there is a fence at the edge of the pond and before the tree plantings Choose plants for what you wish to achieve. Plants with berries and flowers will attract the birds, shrubs and low bushes will also attract insects, birds and ducks. High trees will provide shade and shelter. Some could be fodder for the animals Plant in clumps of either mixed species or group of similar species to create special environments Plant the hardy, vigorous ones first and then the more delicate, special ones when the former can provide protection Keep the area free of weeds and pests. Possums and rabbits are territorial. A coloured trip wire 15cm above the ground and 15cm out from the fenceline on outriggers will deter them Blackberry, gorse and ragwort will be a problem. Get on top of it before the problem becomes bigger. Keep the plantings weed free, especially when they are trying to establish Do not plant deciduous trees in a position where the leaves will fall into the pond, as this will pollute the water.

Note: All confers can cause abortions.

• •

Trees for shelter
• • • • Essential if paddocks are exposed Allow for wind velocity and lift. Aim to lift or reduce the wind rather than block it Look at your prevailing wind and layout of the land (hills, valleys) and imagine being a bird gliding on the airwaves. Where would they take you? If you planted a hedge at this spot, how would that affect your wind patterns? Will it lift the wind straight up and down or on a long curve? The preference is the latter That will also give you ventilation to avoid fungus build up Look at the direction of the sun and don’t shade the races or tracks during afternoon sun. They need to be dry Choose tree varieties that grow well in your area. Seed from that area will be acclimatised to your area and have better survival Plant with fast growing shelter, interplanting with slower growing species Consider planting in a T shape to allow shelter for 2 paddocks and from different wind quarters. This way you do not have to plant a shelterbelt the whole length of the paddock Interplant with flax to give the animals a medicinal plant and reduce chill factors Consider an evergreen shelter running north to south and deciduous shelter running east to west.

Trees for shade
• • • • Many trees that grow high with a large canopy can be planted individually for shade. Deciduous trees are ideal, as they give the shade when you need it and allow the sun when it is needed in winter They can be planted in the form of shelter belts or as individual trees. Check your sites out before planting, by standing in the area and seeing what direction your shadow leans, to work out where they are best planted, so the animal gets the shade at the right time of the day Planting deciduous trees on the western sides of races with spaces for the wind to get through, provides some comfort for the milker and cows on the way to the shed Putting trees next to a fence between paddocks enables shade in two paddocks. It also does not interfere with topping and cropping If near a fence use 2 waratahs to make a square out from the fence. Then attach wires so the animals can only lean under to graze the grass around the tree, but cannot reach the tree itself. This keeps the weeds down as well Tree protectors are another option Trees must be spaced far enough apart to give them to room to spread out their leaves, branches and roots Clearing the trunk of branches allows shade to move in an arc during the day, away from the base.





Most regional councils in New Zealand have erosion control programmes and are a useful source of information and support. Many have schemes to help with the cost of establishing trees for erosion control and for protection of waterways (see below).

• • •

Trees for protection of waterways
Trees, along with shrubs, grasses and herbs, should be planted along waterways and the riparian strip, in conjunction with fencing off to keep stock and effluent and runoff out of waterways. Environment Waikato have excellent information packs as well as funding; currently up to 35% of cost of fencing plants, weed and pest control and advice available to farmers to assist with their Clean Streams project. This is all part of farmers’ responsibilities to protect and improve the environment and provide access for maintenance. Other regional councils will have similar schemes and help available. We will discuss this topic more fully under the Wetlands section.

• • •











Effluent pond planting plan
This section is on planting around effluent ponds. There are some principles here that can also be applied to dams and water ponds.

• •

• • •

The aims of the plantings
Wind For the aerobic pond: To keep the surface clean and for oxidisation. For the anaerobic pond: To protect it from strong winds. Sunlight For the aerobic pond: To provide heat and promote oxygen–producing algae.

• •

Tree planting around ponds, dams, and effluent ponds
Trees and shrubs around ponds, dams, and effluent ponds improve appearance, pond performance, reduce the smell for neighbours, reduce water pollution, and attract wildlife. Ideally any pond not used for animals to drink directly from should be fenced off and this will maintain clean water with minimum pollutants. Allowing animals to drink from dams is often the only way to provide water for them. However, it can create problems of its own with their dung in the water and cross contamination of worms and other parasites. It is best to have an alternative, if at all possible. By planting around these ponds it will enhance things greatly. There are some things to be aware of, however:
• • • • Do not plant tall species on the northern side to assist sunlight penetration Allow spacing to enable some wind flow over the pond for oxygenation Avoid trees that have roots that grow sideways to reach for water (e.g. willow) Grass the banks with grasses such as phalaris, rye, clover, timothy to hold the banks.

Protection from spray drift
• • • • • • • • Contact your regional council for any suggestions. Incorporate this into your initial plans for planting. A thick canopy of trees will stop, or at least slow down, any accidental spray drift Plant trees around the perimeter of your boundary. Then look at planting so the wind continues to move upwards If spray drift is going to be a problem choose quick growing trees with thick foliage, growing successfully in your area When necessary, keep them pruned/trimmed to be effective You may need to consider lower growing plants such as flax etc. to keep it blocked Be aware of power lines. Trees must be planted at least 6 metres away Regardless, always keep good communications with your neighbours.

More information is available in Appendix 1 ‘Trees for Shelter and Profit’ by Alan Thatcher.

How is this achieved using trees and shrubs?
• • • • Provide wind protection for the anaerobic pond Do not plant tall species on the northern side to assist sunlight penetration Do not plant deciduous trees where the leaves will fall into the aerobic pond Plant trees and shrubs between the bank base and the fence. Grass the banks Stabilise them with a vigorous sward of phlaris, rye, timothy, and clover Sheep can be used to control this, but be sure to fence the pond and the tree plantings off Do not plant water tolerant plants, such as reeds, flaxes, willows. They will spread to the dam and wreck the banks Leave room for maintenance, probably the north facing side where there should be no tall plantings Other suggestions can be found in the previous list for ponds and dams Duck weed could be introduced to take up excess N and P.

Some Species to Use:
Natives Non–natives Banksia integrofolia

Cabbage tree Flax Kanuka Karaka Karamu (Coprosma) Koromiko (Hebe) Manuka Pittosporum sp Pohutukawa Puka

Casuarina (warm climates) Leyland cypress Norfolk Island hibiscus Norfolk Island pine Poplar Radiata pine Southern mahogany Tagasaste Cedrus deodara



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Fodder trees
Fodder trees are defined as those that provide part of the tree, which is palatable to stock – and this can be foliage, seed pods or fruit.

Alders (Alnus):
A nitrogen fixer, has been used quite extensively for hedging as it grows quickly. The roots are not invasive. The timber can be useful but many trees show bad ‘fluting’. The Andian alder is showing promise as a variety for timber and is also a quick growing tree.

prefer. These are available in autumn and winter. Can be slow to establish and is not a great timber tree. It breaks in strong winds. Get good healthy seedlings. Select species now don’t have the needles! This tree grows well in some parts of the North Island but it did not adapt to the climate further south. Needs 700mm plus rainfall area and warmth. Has potential as bee fodder (honey).

Paulownia (Paulownia):
Avoid planting in soils with a high water table. Likes free draining soil. Deep rooting. Extremely wind tender. Leaves palatable to sheep but cattle seem indifferent to them.Leaves contain a lot of nitrogen so will aid the soil if not eaten by livestock.These trees can grow extremely fast – 5m in the first year. A good bee tree and the white eye love the seed in winter.

Ash (Fraxinus):
A deep rooting shade tree with palatable foliage.Great timber – strong tree. Many different types, so choose carefully.

Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia)
This tree fixes nitrogen and has a light canopy and so can have quite a bit of grass under it!

Poplars (Populus)
A very common tree to plant – especially in the lower North Island. These trees can be coppiced or pollarded (i.e. chopped down to feed stock during droughts and they will grow again from the stump). The foliage is very palatable for stock. Some species of poplar are high in minerals such as zinc (e.g. Populus yunnanensis) and so can be useful in the facial eczema period in the North Island. One disadvantage of these trees is that they tend to be shallow rooted so can rob the surrounding pasture .

Suggested species:
These are only a suggestion. There will be many more. Area A (on drawing)
Aim: Northern side, no plant higher than the tops of the banks; could provide

nectar and berries
Suggestions: Coastal flax (Phormium cookianum), Coprosma sp. – low shrubs up

to 2m, Crimson bottle brush (Caliesteon citrinus splendens var), Grey’s groundsel (Senecio greyii), Hebes (Hebe sp), Native broom Area B (on drawing)
Aim: Partial sunscreen up to 5m Suggestions: Crab apple (Malus gorgeous), Chatham akeake (Oleria traversii),

There are many more plant options and there are many organisations that are willing to give you help and advice on plantings, especially if it is going to be of benefit to the environment. Some of these are:
• Your local regional council can help with all plantings and the do’s and don’ts of effluent. They are most helpful. • NZ Landcare Trust www.landcare.org.nz email [email protected] • The Ministry for the Environment recently published ‘The Lake Manager’s Handbook.’ For a copy, e–mail MfE at publications@ mfe.govt.nz or PO Box 10362, Wellington, New Zealand or 04 917 7400. Copies can also be downloaded from the web at www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/water

Tough hard timber which is very durable. Excellent tree for nectar and pollen for bees but flowers (white or pink) for only a short period in early summer. Has two problems: thorns and sometimes can sucker and make a nuisance of itself but stock find these as palatable as clover. The young tree is susceptible to hare and rabbit damage. Use rabbit repellent and/or rubber tires placed one upon the other.

Sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa):
This is a wide spreading tree that is tough and takes the wind well. The timber is ground durable but care is needed if used in the furniture or building trades. The nuts are highly nutritious. It is an excellent shade tree. This tree can be coppiced and be used for poles and posts. Grows fast compared to oak. Very susceptible to bark damage by animals.

Plane (Platanus):
This is a well known and popular tree in New Zealand. It grows quickly and with age develops into an imposing and impressive, wide spreading tree. Its timber is heavy and solid but not used as much as it should be as these trees are too attractive to cut down. The leaves are large and are slow to break down. Do not plant these trees close to houses with gutters and drains. The bark in mature plane trees is not palatable to stock – even goats. Horses are an exception. The leaves are high in zinc.

Tagasate (Chamaecytisus palmerisis), Karamu (Coprosma robusta), Tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica), Golden totara (Podocarpus tatara aureus)
Ground Cover suggestions: Toetoe and pampas grass (Cortaderia sp.) (Check

pampas is not a noxious weed in your area), NZ lowland flax (Phormium tenax) Area C (on drawing)
Aim: Semi–permeable windscreen of narrow trees for the SW to slow the wind for

Fruit trees – plum, pear and apple.
These are fruit trees rather than fodder but these trees can still be used as shade trees and food for livestock. It is not uncommon to see cattle under a pear tree laden with ripe pears waiting for the next one to drop. It is best to get these fruit trees grown on more vigorous root stock rather than the traditional semi–dwarfing root stock. Timber from these trees makes excellent firewood but has a traditional use for furniture and ornamental objects.

Tree lucerne or Tagasaste (Cytisus palmensis) – a nitrogen fixer.
This tree suits the drier east coast areas. Is suitable for dry windy areas. Doesn’t like shade. It tolerates a wide pH range in soil. It is not suitable for wet areas. It doesn’t like persistent wet feet – better planted on ridges and faces. It doesn’t like the freezer either – especially when young so don’t select frost prone gullies. Mature trees are a little hardier when it comes to frosts but the flowers will be frosted at –10 Celsius. It is a good windbreak tree and has bee forage. It produces white flowers over a long period with a peak in spring. This tree supplies an invaluable source of nectar for apiaries in winter and early spring when other sources are scarce. It also produces abundant pollen for both honey and bumblebees alike. As one of the few rural sources of winter nectar and pollen, bee populations can be kept higher than normal through

the aerobic pond.
Shelter suggestions: Cabbage Trees (Cordyline australis), Swamp sheoak (Casurina

glauca), Deodar cedar (Cedrus deodara)
Nectar suggestions: Kanuka (Leptospermum ericodes), Kowhai (Sophora tetraptera

& S.microphylla) Area D (on drawing)
Aim: Taller species on the SE and SW area of the anaerobic pond. No planting

Other sources of information for this article:
An old Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Farm Production and Practice Info Sheet called ‘Effluent Ponds – Tree Surrounds – Benefits and Establishment.’ Northland regional council, Whangarei and Dargaville. Ph: 09 438 4639

Honey locust (Gleditsia tricanthos – American,
or Gleditsia japonia – Japanese):

limitations, taller trees, dense lower area with shrubs, you can use your imagination here.
Shade, Shelter and Nesting suggestions: Liquidambar, Miro

Gives good shade. Fixes nitrogen. A smallish rounded tree that is quite attractive. Large pods are very nutritious to stock and keenly sought after by them but there are reports (from Gisborne) that by the time these fall on the ground they are not as digestible as stock

(Podocarpus ferrugineus), Lacebarks (Hoheria sp.), Norfolk Island honeysuckle (Banksia Intergrofolia), Pin oak (Quercus palustris), Pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa), Puriri (Vitex lucens), Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus).

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winter and spring with a supply of a natural food source instead of a very poor (refined white sugar) substitute supplied by bee–keepers, and could be of considerable benefit for boosting cross–pollination of spring–flowering crops such as apples, pears or blueberries. Tagasaste leaves have a similar nutritive value to silage but lower than of intensively managed pasture, and these leaves are extremely palatable to cattle. It is excellent for providing emergency feed supply for stock in periods of drought. The native wood pigeon is attracted to this tree especially when this tree is flowering, as are the bellbirds, tuis and silvereyes. They also love the foliage all year round. This tree makes good firewood although it is difficult to split or cut up. The firewood burns with great intensity and leftover branches from stock feeding make great kindling when dry too. However, it its green growing state this tree is difficult to burn so should be considered as a suitable tree for firebreaks or to be used as inter–plantings amongst other more valuable timber trees. Planting tagasaste amongst timber seedlings can mean increased soil fertility (nitrogen effect), an alternative source of firewood as it will grow faster than other trees, and can also cause the timber trees to grow straight and tall. This tree is also palatable to possums and hares, which may draw these animals away from the more valuable timber crops. If you need to protect these trees from rabbits and hares you can achieve this by putting 2 old tyres, one on top of the other, around the seedling. This tree grows rapidly up to 2 metres per year, and yet it’s maximum height is 4– 8 metres. Using this tree offers a quick solution for stock shelter and shade. Tagasaste is high in dry matter content and digestibility if you compare it to hay, willow or poplar foliage. The protein content is comparable to grass. Periodically ‘hedging’ rows of trees and cutting re–growth for fodder can provide a planned forage supplement. Tagasaste can outgrow or suppress gorse, broom and manuka. It is an ideal tree for those drier, difficult to get to places, which are not very fertile and is a real magnet for the native wood pigeon. From the crops of these birds come other native seeds, which get deposited in dung around the tree so that a seedling nursery is established! An understorey of natives! This tree is very sensitive to herbicides so spray drift from neighbours may be an issue. Tagasaste leaves are excellent in the dry or green form for birds – hens, emus and ostrich.

Other trees for fodder
Elms (very palatable to stock), lime, hornbeam, liriodendron and cherry are other options, but not a lot is known about these in New Zealand. The non-invasive willows are beneficial for their medicinal value and browsing. This is due to the aspirin contained in the bark and green leaves (relief from facial excema symptoms) and feed value of green leaves when pollarded during dry periods and drought for stock to browse. The matsudana willow is excellent for shade, shelter and stock food. It is highly palatable and produces large quantities of food. The pollarded trees also rapidly regrow for the next harvest.

St John’s wort (Hypericum japonicum & H. gramineum)
These species have been suspected of causing photosensitivity mainly to sheep on South Island High Country sheep farms, and also to a small number of cattle and horses throughout the country. Signs of the disease include mummification of the skin, loss of wool down the midline of the pelt, with scabbing and rawness from animals rubbing the affected areas.

Kowhai (Sophora species)
Possibly poisonous but not known for sure.

Rock Fern (Cheilanthus sieberi)
Coastal to montane fern found throughout New Zealand. Has been reported to have caused livestock deaths in Australia; however, no reports of this have been made in New Zealand.

of the gorse and ragwort has diminished which used to nourish the bees. A huge amount of bee fodder has been removed nation–wide. Large scale planting of bee forage trees to compensate for this loss of food did not occur during this period of ‘weed’ removal so there is a huge amount of sugar fed to bees to keep the hives alive over the period of nectar shortfall. This substitute is a poor quality food (just a simple sugar – not even raw sugar – it is usually a processed white sugar) compared to that provided by nature and so the bees are not getting the required minerals needed for their health nor for their immune systems. It would appear now that bees are very susceptible to infections, such as the newly arrived Varroa mite. It is a fact that bees will work in flowers whose nectar has a Brix reading of 7 or higher (see section on Brix). If the reading is below 7 the bee expends more energy than it can possibly recover from the nectar. So it is so important to grow good quality trees, legumes and pasture with flowers available for bee fodder for most of the year so the best quality nectar is available to keep the bees well fed. What are the choices of trees for bees?

Stock, and Native Plants (that could be poisonous)
Some farmers may hesitate to plant natives in areas that stock might access because they are unsure if any are poisonous to stock – fortunately, very few New Zealand native species are. Of the approximately 2,000 native plant species in New Zealand, only around five could be considered dangerous to stock.
From Poisonous Native Plants may cause death. Prepared by James Dommisse for the Landcare Trust (sourced from Connor, 1977).

Pigeonwood (Hedycarya arborea)
Abundant in bush and around bush edges from North Cape to Banks Peninsula and to Milford Sound in the West. Though not thought to be poisonous, loss in health of both sheep and cows can result if large enough quantities are consumed.

Tutu

(Coriaria species which include C. angustissma, C. arborea, C. kingiana, C. plumosa, C. pteridoides, C.sarmentosa, C. pottsiana, C. lurida)

Evergreens
Kowhai (Sophora microphylla)

Pukatea (Laurelia novae–zelandiae)
Tree up to 35m, abundant in swamp forest in the North Island and found in localised patches in the South. Can be lethal to frogs and rats but has never been reported to affect livestock.

Poisonous to cattle sheep and a prominent killer in the early days of settlement where some farmers reported losses of 25– 75%. Horses and pigs not affected. Modern estimate of cattle losses to tutu in the South Island high country are 5–10%.

Moderately cold hardy, good spring bee forage, yellow flowers are out for 3 weeks, is an ornamental. Bees have been reported to get ‘drunk’ on kowhai nectar.
Tagasaste – Tree lucerne (Cytisus palmensis)

Centella (Centella uniflora)
One report of killing a sheep but otherwise not known to be a problem.

Ngaio (Myoporum laetum)
Small tree up to 10m found throughout New Zealand in coastal and lowland forest. Ngaio deaths are most common in cattle (in 1945, 73 cattle died on Banks Peninsula), though pig deaths have also been reported, and on one occasion a horse was thought to have been poisoned by this plant. Ngaio leaves are the most poisonous part of this plant with livestock being most at risk after storms when branches and leaves are blown to the ground.

Firewood, bees, Kereru (wood pigeon) and other birds, nitrogen fixation, fodder (see Animal Fodder section).
Tree medick (Medicago arboea)

Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus)
Probably not poisonous, but may possibly affect livestock.

Cold hardy, survives the dry, animal forage, bee forage, long period of flowers.
Wattles

Poroporo (Solanum laciniatum & S. aviculare)
Probably not poisonous, at worst may make livestock unwell.

Ornamental, bee forage for spring. Choices: Silver wattle (Acacia dealbata) Green wattle (Acacia decurrens) Australian blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) These are all bee forage plus windbreak trees with blackwood a timber tree. They are not so good in cold dry areas.
Deciduous:

Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum)
Poisoning of cattle is frequent in New Zealand and occasionally sheep deaths have also been reported. However bracken must be taken in large amounts over a few weeks to cause death.

Trees and shrubs for honey
For those who want to encourage bees to your farm, or to harvest honey from hives, then some consideration to the quantities and quality of bee forage in relation to site conditions is needed. Also, the time of the year the nectar is secreted is important, as you will need to have major sources of nectar available in sequence and you must avoid undue competition with pollination of pasture, legumes and fruit trees as you will still want these parts of your farm pollinated! Fruit trees, vegetables and many useful plants rely on honeybees or bumblebees to pollinate flowers. Pasture, legumes and weeds provide the bulk of nectar and pollen for bees from early summer (November) to early autumn (March). It is a sad fact that the widespread use of herbicides has removed most of the herbs from dairy pastures and also a lot

Planting:
If sowing seed then get fresh seed and plant immediately in a free-draining seed mix in a warm sunny location, but not too hot initially. Do not over-water at any stage. Plant out in autumn or winter.

Strathmore weed (Pimelea prostrata)
Found in grassland and shrubland throughout New Zealand. In the past many horses have died from this plant, but today poisoning of cattle is most common, and ten have reportedly died from this plant (sheep are unaffected).

• • •

Black locust (See above) Honey locust (See above) Siberian pea tree (Caragana arborescens) Windbreak, high honey yields, yellow flowers mid spring.

Spacing:
Space at 2–metre intervals in small groups, as in most cases the area to be planted is too big for the number of trees available. Clumps provide ample shade and shelter and suppress light–demanding weeds.

Traditional non–legumes
Australian Honeysuckle (Banksia integrofolia)

Tree nettle (Urtica ferox)
Can kill horses, dogs (and humans) that blunder into a patch. May cause ill health, probably not death.

Flowers out of season, likes hot dry climates, all are windbreaks, used for soil conservation, are ornamentals.

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Gums (Eucalyptus spp)

African (Abelia floribunda) Flowering barberry (Berberis sp.) Flowering currant (Ribes sanguineum) Hawthorns (Craetagus sp.) Heaths (Erica sp.) Irish strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) Ornamental fuchsias (Fuchsia sp.) Ulmo and Tasmanian leatherwood (Eucryphia sp.) Tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) Rosemary grevellia (Grevellia rosmarini–folia) Russian olive (Elaeagnus augustifolia)

650+ different species, for all types of sites. Flowering at all times of the year.
Mexican hawthorn (Crataegus pubescens)

Needs deep, moist well–drained soils. Needs rainfall of at least 760mm. Needs cool winters – tree is frost hardy. Can fruit to one quarter of a tonne per tree at 15 years of age. Fruit is rich in vitamin A and C. Can grow to 12 metres. A potential source of food for animals
Oaks (Quercus sp.)

some nitrogen–fixing species in the coppice mix, like Robinia and Alder, so that fertility never needs to be added in this self–sustaining system. A few larger trees can also be grown in the mix for retention as timber species, and at certain stages in the coppice cycle livestock like sheep or pigs can be allowed to forage through, again adding fertility, so the system is incredibly versatile and functional. For those interested and who live near, there is a coppice woodland at Lincoln University which was planted in 1985 by Bill Brandenburg in which he trialled various species for NZ conditions. See his article ‘Brandenburg’s Concerto’ in Growing Today September 1996 for a fuller account.

Sycamore (Acer platanoides) Wattles (Acacia sp.) Willow (Salix sp.) Plane (Platinus) Some species of Eucalypt will coppice, as will some conifers in the right conditions, but these trees do not have fertility enhancing leaf litter, rather they tend to deplete the soil, and so cannot be used in self–sustaining systems except in very small numbers in a mix with the broad–leaved species given above.

No nectar for bees but a little honey dew. There are 450 species, 19 produce sweet acorns edible to man and animals. Beware, acorns and in the spring, oak buds, can cause stock poisoning (a tannic acid causes damage to kidneys). Prevent cattle gaining access to spring buds – allow leaves to mature first. Too many acorns can be toxic too. Oak trees are a real asset, as they are beautiful and give great shelter, but please put a decent fence around them to prevent stock poisoning at certain times of the year. Acorns are reported to be half the nutritive value of maize.
Poplars (Populus) Willows (Salix)

Sources of trees:
There are many throughout the country. Check your newspaper, Growing Today, Regional Council, local Farm Forestry and Tree Crops Associations and ask who grows trees in your region.

Trees to use for firewood coppice:–
Natives:

Trees for firewood
Now that all the pine, gum and macrocarpa trees that were planted by the first settlers are starting to die and disappear from the landscape, we need to be thinking about the next generation of firewood trees. Also, we shouldn’t be continuing to raid our teatree scrub for firewood as these areas are the nurseries for our native trees and forests of the future. On our farms, we need to start planting out special areas for our firewood crops and these can be our hedgerows and shelterbelts as well as larger woodlots. The shift in our thinking here needs to be away from a one–off crop which is planted, matures, gets cut down and another one planted, like an arable crop, towards a more sustainable way of managing our firewood trees by continual cropping, like our pastures. To do this we need to adopt a technique that humans have been using for millennia to sustainably crop trees without killing them, but which we have forgotten only in the last 50 years or so. It is a technique called coppicing.

Lacebark (Hoheria populnea) Red beech (Nothofagus fusca)
Non–Natives:

Water
• Good water is the key to happy, healthy, productive animals • Access to clean, cool water is essential • Cows can drink up to 100 litres a day each • Water is necessary for body function, milk production and avoiding heat stress • If necessary, treat water to remove surplus elements (e.g. iron) • Chlorinated water eliminates iodine from their bodies. Water is often one of the least considered in relation to cow

Alder species (Alnus sp.) Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) Red beech (Nothofagus fusca) Beech (Fagus sylvatica) Black locust (Robinia psuedo–acacia) Elm (Ulmus sp.) Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) Horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) Oak (Quercus sp.) Silver birch (Betula pendula)

Egyptian willow – S. medemei (good for bee pollen July and August)

Native non–legumes for bees
Cabbage trees (Cordyline australis) Flax (nectar – bellbirds/tuis, fodder) Hebes (Hebe sp.)–butterflies Lacebarks (Hoherea) Manuka (Leptospermum ericoides) Pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa) Rata (Metrosideros robusta) Rewarewa (Knightia excelsa) Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium)

What is coppicing?
Coppicing is the term for the rotationally felling of trees and shrubs, allowing the root bole or stool to regrow from the base. Depending on the tree species, rainfall, fertility of the site, and what the cut wood is being used for, the tree can be recut on a rotation of 1 to 20 years or more. Annual cutting is for species like willow for basket making or poplar for fuel biomass;cutting of species like hazel every 5 years or so produces pliable branches for weaving into whicker fences; and cutting bigger species like ash, oak and chestnut every 5–10 years produces ideal sized round–wood for firewood. Not all species of tree coppice. Most of our native trees don’t, but some of the broad-leaved species do. The best coppicing species, and those which yield the best dense wood for burning, are the northern temperate deciduous species, which grow fast and well in most situations in New Zealand, except for very exposed locations. It is surprising how much firewood can be grown on a relatively small area using this system, especially if shelterbelts are also regularly regenerated by this method, prolonging their function indefinitely. The leaf litter and brush from the felling continually restores the fertility of the soil, and this can be aided by planting

Non–traditional exotic trees for bees
Black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) Limes (Tilia sp.): Honey producer Northern catalpa (Catalpa speciosa): All are ornamental bee forage, none of these will survive in dry areas Ornamental maples: Spring source of nectar Sugar maple: Timber and maple sugar Sycamores (Acer pseudoplanatus): Spring source of nectar

All of the below are attractive to bees.
Apple blossum (Weigelia florida, Escallonia sp) Bee bee trees (Evodia sp.) Buddleias Himalayan (Duddleia salviifolia and B. colvelei), South

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requirements on a dairy farm. It is all too common on the traditional dairy farm to have an inadequate supply of this vital solution available to every cow every day. With the lack of shade on most dairy farms, the cow during a hot summer’s day is a huge heat sink (especially more so when she is of black skin colouring). These cows have to rely on dissipating this heat energy at night and if the night temperatures are high and/or there is high humidity then the cow is not able to return to her normal temperature of 38.5 degrees Celsius by morning. She will then start the next day at an elevated temperature and ultimately suffers heat stress or hyperthermia. These cows are extremely stressed, will mouth breathe, with tongue protruding. Cows have died of this. Milking cows need free access to clean, cool water. It is a requirement by law to provide stock with water and in the case of our bovine species she should never have a day (even when dried off) that she doesn’t have access to water. An indicator of good water is when the cows drink heartily rather than sip at the water. In the ideal world this water should just be water. Not water plus a whole lot of mineral elements or salts added to it. A cow likes to quench a thirst with plain water – not to try and get the water from all the additives (salts, chlorine, fluoride, bloat products) that are commonly put in. To contaminate it with ‘minerals’ makes no sense. Water is closely linked with all of the body’s internal reactions. It is necessary for the solution of all food materials and the waste products, plus their passage in and out of the tissues of the body. Its physical properties make it an important factor in the transfer of heat in the body and thus in the regulation of body temperature. An indication of the importance of water in these functions is the fact that the volume of water passing in and out of the body stream every minute is larger than the volume of water normally maintained in the fluid portion of the body. When water is ‘contaminated’ with additives, it loses much of its ability to perform these functions. Trough size, herd size, diameter of the alkathene pipes and water pressure dictate the ease with which a cow can partake A note about chlorine and fluoride in water The affect of chlorinated water and the well–known law of halogen displacement has to be mentioned here as well. The halogen displacement law influences the way in which a cow can get access to the mineral elements in group 7 of the periodic table.
The halogen group of elements includes the following: Halogen Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine
(weight of the atom)

in her quench for thirst. If trough size is small, water flow low, herd size large and a hot day you will have many thirsty stressed cows in the herd with the larger dominant cows controlling the trough from as far as 30 metres away. ‘The ideal for a dairy cattle using a circular trough is that each animal has a minimum of 600mm space, and enough troughs to allow them to drink a minimum of three times daily for five minutes each time. Lactating cows should not have to walk more than 100 metres to a trough each time to drink’ (Bentley, 2003). It is also important that there is no electric wires anywhere near a trough. Heifers will be last in the pecking order. It is thought that half the herd should be able to drink at any one time. If there are problems with adequate water supply on your farm this must be corrected, as apart from being an animal welfare issue the lack of water will be costing you dearly in lost production (milk volume less, higher somatic cells counts from stressed cows, poor condition score). Having access to a water trough near the milking parlour or even in the milking parlour is another option as is having a trough halfway along the farm race if there is more than 1.5km walk from the back of the farm. Take care to avoid crowding or congestion in raceways or yards where a steady flow of animals is important. An extra note about heat stress: make sure cows have access to a salt block on the race or in the paddock. Do not put salt in the drinking water. ‘Studies at Massey University confirm Keeping your troughs clean overseas research is also important. This can showing an increase be done several ways. There in milk volume up to are covers available. You can half a litre per cow per pump them out regularly, day, improved food conversion efficiency of or you could put goldfish around 8 per cent, and in them, but make sure you up to 23 per cent extra don’t use a species that weight gain on beef and could establish in a nearby sheep, when animals are stream, and don’t let the given ready access to good water’. trough run dry.
(from Bentley, 2003.)

Water requirements for sheep, beef and replacements
Water requirements for beef, sheep and dairy replacements are no different to those required for dairy cows. The ultimate is to provide good running water in troughs, and have it available at all times. Sometimes, however, this is not possible. This may be due to physical barriers or the costs involved providing a system involving troughs. It still is important to have water available at all times. Several options of water sources are underground water, communal water schemes, town water supplies, natural springs, artesian bores, drains, and streams and rivers. All present their own individual advantages and challenges and need to be dealt with appropriately.

Wetlands and Waterways
Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge

Relative atomic weight 19 35.5 80 127

The clinical activity of any of these four halogens is in inverse proportion to the weight of its atom. The significance of this is that any one of the four halogens can displace the element with a higher atomic weight but cannot displace an element with a lesser atomic weight. Looking at this list fluorine can displace chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Chlorine can displace bromine and iodine; and bromine can displace iodine but the reverse order is not possible. If you are putting iodine in your water to boost your cows’ intake, this may be unsuccessful if you have the presence of fluorine, chlorine or bromine. Drinking chlorinated water does provide us with water with the harmful

bacteria killed, but it does cause the body to lose much needed iodine. If your cows are drinking town water, monitor it and the animal’s health. If there is a choice, then supply water free of chemicals to your animals. Our grazing animals also obtain fluoride through phosphate type fertilisers and probably do not need the extra added via a town water supply. If this is a problem, explore your options. There are many people around with experience and sell water dispensers . Alternatively explore other water sources.

Natural streams and rivers are abundant in New Zealand and can be a good source of water. It is best if these are fenced off It is only relatively recently that we have realised that we have and water piped from them to troughs or been doing our wetlands a receptacles that animals can drink from. grave injustice, and begun You need to check the flow in summer to appreciate them for what From the Code of Recommendations and to ensure there is a constant source of they do, and even to see their Minimum Standards: water for your stock. There are small, cheap subtle beauty. For wetlands are For the Welfare of Sheep: water rams available for pumping if gravity the half–way house between 4.2 Water feed is impractical. Quality needs also to dry land and our waterways. be checked, especially if there is activity They act as natural sponges ‘Sheep shall be given sufficient good quality upstream. and filters in the water cycle, water to maintain body weight within the cleaning our water of any normal physiological range for their type, Dams and ponds can be made, using impurities and delivering it age and sex.’ natural water courses and catchments. into the waterways as fresh Making them summer safe, when the ‘Sheep shall not be deprived of water for and clean for wildlife and animals need the water most, has to be more than 48 hours, and in hot weather for human consumption alike. factored in. These are a relatively cheap no more than 24 hours.’ Wetlands soak up the surface option and once again, the ultimate is to ‘Water sources should be reliable and the water run–off from the land fence these off and try to pipe the water water clean...’ and hold it in their highly from them by gravity feeding, or pumping For the Welfare of Cattle: absorbent peaty soils. Wetland the water to troughs. plants are specially adapted 3.1 General Requirements Animals moving in and around, have the to be able to grow in these ‘At all times dairy cattle should receive food potential to contaminate the water you are cold, waterlogged soils, and and water which is adequate to maintain expecting them to drink. Worms, bacteria, so they are able to utilise the health, vigour and satisfactory growth and and other diseases spread by animals and nutrients brought in by the production.’ vermin can be further spread through water, so that wetlands can this medium. Regular water tests will be 3.5 Adult and Growing Cattle be highly productive ecosysneeded to monitor your water quality. This tems. This holding of surface ‘Fresh water should be provided at all times. will also monitor the minerals in your water. water run–off at the top of Water consumption may rise markedly during Some are good for health, others, such as the water catchment, followed heat–waves or become unavailable due to iron and manganese in only small doses by its slow release, prevents being frozen in the winter. Troughs should be and may need treatment. flash flooding lower down the cleaned and maintained regularly.’ catchment, and also retains If you do find yourself with a problem of Source: www.maf.govt.nz/biosecurity/animal–welfare more water in the system quality, then you will need to explore your It is available in booklet form free from: so that there is a reduced options as to how to overcome this. There Animal Welfare Advisory Committee tendency for water courses are many options. This may include finding C/– Ministry of Agriculture to dry out during periods of another source of water, reorganising your P O Box 2526, Wellington Ph: 04 474 4129 Fax: 04 498 9888 little rain. system, putting a filter system in. There are professionals around who will also be able This Animal Welfare Codes have many recomWhile the water is slowly to help you if it is a major problem. mendations and is the one to be referred to at percolating through the all times for animal requirements. wetland system, any pollut-

Wetlands tend to be very much the poor cousin in terms of habitats and areas that we appreciate and cherish. They are not imposing in stature like forests, nor constantly moving and changing like the sea; everything is on a micro–scale, too small for the human eye. To us wetlands tend to look dull and lifeless, nothing moving, nothing happening, all very uninteresting. And so we have tended to use them over the ages as places to dump our rubbish, or infill, or drain to ‘improve’ the land, or plant up with trees to make them more visually attractive.

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ants and excess nutrients are taken up by the wetland plants and metabolised, thus removing them from the system and preventing them from running off into the water courses where they can cause the death of wildlife and pollution of the water. Excess nutrients in the water is a state called ‘eutrophication’, and is often noticeable by blooms of algae which are reproducing rapidly, and a consequent death of fish and other wildlife caused by a depletion of oxygen and imbalance in the system. Wetlands also act as a filter for soil and other particles, holding them in the tightly bound roots of the wetland plants and preventing them from entering the water where they would cause sedimentation and turbidity, which also has a negative impact on water quality and wildlife. One of the other vital function of wetlands is actually the same as we have already been discussing with our forests and trees, for like wood the waterlogged, peaty soils of wetlands represent a store of carbon in the terrestrial ecosystem which does not get released into the atmosphere as CO2. When we drain our wetlands and the soils dry out, this stored carbon becomes available and is metabolised by soil microflora and fauna to form carbohydrates, but much is also lost to the atmosphere as gaseous carbon dioxide in this breakdown process, thus adding to our problem of global warming. So, even in this brief introduction to the role of wetlands, we can see how invaluable they are to us in the functioning of our water supplies. They provide us with a natural and free processing service which is very costly to rectify if it is removed, and they can also be very attractive and interesting places if we look a little closer and learn to appreciate their subtle colours and placid pace.

ability of wetlands. Some of our centralised reticulated human waste processing systems even use this natural technology and are known to produce the cleanest processed effluent, (e.g.Whangarei). Also farmers are increasingly recognising the advantages of fencing stock out of wetlands, as well as fencing off buffer strips along water courses, and providing stock with reticulated drinking water instead of using natural water courses to water stock. These buffer strips need to be a minimum of 3m wide from the edge of the water course, and should be allowed to regenerate with natural vegetation which can be enhanced by planting wetland species including shrubs and trees. Suggestions of what to plant are given in our Wetland Planting Guide below. This taller, ungrazed vegetation along the banks of water courses and in wetlands maintains a micro–climate of shade and high humidity, preventing any excessive rise in temperature or drying out, which keeps the water cool and saturated with oxygen, as required by the wetland wildlife like invertebrates and fish. The vegetation also provides food for the system in the form of leaves, seeds and insects, which fall into the water and are consumed. They also provide essential food and nesting sites for other wetland wildlife like birds, which are again part of the foodchain and the essential balance of the system. Non–wetland plant species, like many of our agricultural grasses, cannot grow nearly so well as wetland species can in cold waterlogged soils, and so they are unable to process the nutrient run–off from adjacent farmland which therefore flows on into our waterways. Your local regional council is an excellent source of advice and information about the wetland species which are local to your area, and for suggestions of nurseries which specialize in these plants. Many regional councils also have grants and other help available for fencing, some even offer free trees, so it is definitely worth giving them a call. Wetlands and waterways have become a major concern to regional councils in recent years in their efforts to keep our drinking water clean, so they will be delighted to hear from farmers who are interested in working with them.

Toetoe (Cortaderia sp.) Shrubs: Coprosmas (Coprosma sp.) Griselinias (Broadleaf, Puka) Korokio (Corokia sp.) Koromiko (Hebe stricta) Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus) Mapou/ Red matipou (Myrsine australis) Tree Daisies (Olearias) Pittosporums (Pittosporum sp.) Poroporo (Solanum sp.) Shore Fuchsia (Fuchsia procumbens) Trees: Akeake (Dodonaea sp.) Cabbage Tree (Cordyline australis) Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) Lacebarks (Hoheria sp.) Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) Ngaio (Myoporum laetum) Pohutakawa (Metrosideros excelsa) Ribbonwoods (Plagianthus sp.) Totara (Podocarpus totara)

Trees: Akeake (Dodonaea sp.) Cabbage Tree (Cordyline australis) Houpara (Pseudopanax lessonii) Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus) Kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabile) Mahoe/Whiteywood (Melicytus ramiflorus) Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) Mapou/Red matipou (Myrsine australis) Ngaio (Myoporum laetum) Pohutakawa (Metrosideros excelsa) Puriri (Vitex lucens) Wharangi (Melicope ternata) Whau (Entelea arborescens)

Additional plants for sheltered wetland margins
Shrubs: Brooms – native (Carmichaelia sp.) Five finger (Pseudopanax arboreus) Rangiora (Brachyglottis repanda) Tutu (Coriaria arboria) Wineberry (Aristotelia serrata) Trees: Kowhai (Sophora sp.) Lancewood (Pseudopanax crassifolius) Matai (Prumnopitys taxifolia) Miro (Prumnopitys ferruginea) Putaputaweta (Carpodetus serratus) Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) Tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa) Taraire (Beilschmiedia tarairi) Tree ferns (Cyathea and Dicksonia sp.) Tree fuchsia (Fuchsia excorticata)

Plants for waterlogged sites
Tall herbaceous species: Baumea reeds Carex sedges Spikerush (Eleocharis sphacelata) Flax (Phormium tenax) Juncus rushes Lake clubrush (Schoenoplectus validus) Raupo (Typha orientalis) Scirpus clubrushes Toetoe (Cortaderia fulvida) Shrubs: Karamu (Coprosma robusta) Mingimingi (Coprosma propinqua) Pate (Schefflera digitata) Trees: Cabbage Tree (Cordyline australis) Kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides) Maire (Syzygium maire) Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) Pukatea (Laurelia novae–zelandiae) Ribbonwood (Plagianthus regius)

Other plants:
Eleocharis sphacelata: Native, excellent filter Reed sweet grass Glayceria maxima previously Poa Aquatica: Restrict for grazing, can cause cyanide poisoning. Reed canary grass Phlaris arundacea: Summer fodder. Can cause poisoning. Duckweed Lemma Sp: Can be harvested without disturbing remaining wetland system.

Wetlands on the farm
Wetlands on the farm have tended to be partially drained and used as dry weather extra grazing, or sacrifice areas where we put the bulls or other stock not in the normal paddock circulation. Or else we have planted them up with wet–loving trees like willows, or dumped all our clapped out cars and washing machines into them. Thus our wetlands are badly degraded and have become invaded by non–native dry land species, and do not function as they should. The concentration of dung from grazing stock actually contributes substantially to the eutrophication of our waterways, and the trampling and pugging of the soil causes sedimentation of the water as well as severe erosion of the banks. Our waterways are much more prone to flash flooding, known only too well by people living further downstream in the flood plains, with consequent costs to livestock and property. But increasingly we are seeing the benefits of restoring our wetlands and they are now even being recreated in order to process our dairy effluent before it is returned to the land, and also in human septic processing systems in semi–rural locations where there is space to use the natural processing

Avoid:
Toetoe or pampas grass, Alligator Weed Alternanthera philoxeroides, Manchurian Wild Rice Zinzania Iantifolia, Water Hyacinth Eichornia crassipes, Water Fern Salvania spp

Plants for estuarine margins

Wetland planting guide – what are the choices?
Plants for exposed sites
Tall herbaceous species: Reeds (Baumea) Sedges (Carex) Spike–rushes (Eleocharis) Flaxes (Phormium sp.) Juncus rushes Lake clubrush (Schoenoplectus validus) Raupo (Typha orientalis) Clubrushes (Scirpus)

Tall herbaceous species: Carex testacea sedge Carex trifida sedge Juncus rushes Flax (Phormium sp.) Toetoe (Cortaderia toetoe) Shrubs: Coprosmas (Coprosma sp.) Griselinias (Broadleaf, Puka) Karo (Pittosporum crassifolium) Kawakawa (Macropiper excelsum) Korokia (Corokia cotoneaster) Koromiko (Hebe stricta) Olearias (some of the tree daisies) Shore fuchsia (Fuchsia procumbens) Shore ribbonwood (Plagianthus divaricatus)

See also the Effluent section for more information. A Word of Warning! Pukekos can wreck havoc in your newly planted wetland sites! They love to pull up the plants and chew the stalks. Contact your local DOC office or Fish and Game Dept. for ways of discouraging them.

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Reusing dairy effluent
– some methods and tips
Three main goals should be:
• To return it to the land in some form at a rate that delivers no more than 150kg nitrogen per hectare per year. • To prevent runoff of waste and effluent, including detergents etc into the waterways until treated adequately. • To allow effluent to stay in any treatment pond 60–90 days to allow solids to settle and microbes to breakdown organic material. • To monitor bacterial levels through soil and water tests, to ensure there is no risk to animal, human and water health.

Avoid feeding molasses or meal in the shed. Watch your dog and workers. Remedy slippery surfaces Work the cows positively and gently. Let them drop their cowpats in the paddock. Wait at the gate for them to get up, empty themselves, and move towards the gate in their own time. This will spread the fertility all over the paddock, without you having to respread it. • • •

push the air through it. • Wind movement • Circulating the pond contents through flowforms • Using a stirrer from time to time. The use of clay products, such as bentonite and zeolite will help bind free nitrogen and make it available. 85% of weeds and seeds are killed through temperatures of 8 degrees C Covering the pond with straw, hay, old compost, sawdust (ensure it is not treated) will increase the carbon to nitrogen ratio, reducing the loss of nutrients through evaporation, and it keeps the rain out.

Other Tips:
• • • • • • Check the area has healthy plants throughout Avoid bare areas. Avoid invasive plants, and those unpalatable to stock Monitor for pests – pukekos and rodents – they destroy the plants. Consider vegetation harvesting to ensure 75% is maintained in healthy plant growth. Fence it off

There are many ways we can treat dairy effluent and there will be factors which will influence the one you choose.

Systems for treating effluent
Holding Ponds
This is the system the majority of farmers have been operating, although most new dairies are now installing a pumping system directly onto the pasture. The traditional system (this process should take 60–90 days before the end product is moved to another system or returned to the land) consists of: (a) Anaerobic pond: It settles solids and breaks them down. This pond is usually 4 metres deep and it should bubble and be active. (b) Aerobic pond (oxidisation pond): The oxidisation breaks down the organic material and changes mineral to a more readily available form for the plants. It needs sunlight and wind flow to help this process. It should be 2 metres deep. This is the pond from which we irrigate to the land. It can then be transferred to a wetland, or sprayed onto pastures, put in a third holding tank for further treatment depending on its composition. (There is a diagram of this system in the Tree section under Pond/Dam/Effluent pond plantings, page 136.)

Compost and vermicast
This is not common practice in New Zealand, but is currently being explored by some farmers here. Scrapings from the yard or stand off pad are collected and gathered into heaps and composted. • • • • • • Worms can be added to inoculate the heap. Biodynamic compost preparations can also be added to keep it aerobic. Your site should be carefully chosen to avoid runoff to waterways and sensitive areas. Covering it will enable it to be heated and would minimise the risk of runoff. Allow it to work for at least 6 weeks. When spreading, spread in thin layers to allow sunlight through to the plants and to kill any bacteria.

Advanced Pond Systems (APS)
These are being trialed in New Zealand, where environmental restrictions do not allow land application. It is a four stage system: 1. Anaerobic pond. 2. High rate pond 3. Algae settling pond 4. Maturation pond
For more details contact Dr Chris Tanner, NIWA, P O Box 11–115 Hamilton. There is information on the website www.niwa.co.nz/rc/ pollution/pubs/no8/dairywaste2/dairywaste2–treatment

Failure to do these will result in a breakdown of soil health, water quality and it will affect any plant, fish and insect life in the water. Whatever system you choose, minimise the amount of effluent and runoff you have to deal with. This avoids overflows and extra pumping, enables enough capacity to hold it longer and get more benefit from it. It also reduces the amount you need to spread.

Barrier ditches/blind drains
This is the same principle as the two pond system, except they are elongated, or drains with no outlet. It is important there is enough space to hold 60–90 days of effluent. There must be at least 2, with a baffle between. The first is the anaerobic system and the second the aerobic. You can have as many ditches as you like. A 150 cow herd needs 6 x 930 cubic metre ditches at 1.5m deep and 300m long. The first sections will need cleaning frequently to avoid runoff.

Some Suppliers:
Tigercast Worms Specialise in Waste Management Solutions. Suppliers of tigerworms, commercial and residential worm farms Nicole Masters Ph: 07 552 0034 Email: [email protected] Integrated Systems Processing Plant This is new on the market, patented, designed and distributed by Integrated Systems Engineers Ltd, PO Box 5565, Hamilton. Ph: 07 847 6222 Email: ise–[email protected]. It is a complex, environmentally friendly, self-contained unit that converts effluent and waste into fertiliser and energy.

How do I achieve this?
• Ensure there is no runoff of water from tanks, spouting, yards or surrounding hills going into your holding ponds. Have a diversion drain around the ponds and shut off the access to your pond at the fill pipe, enabling that water to go to the diversion drain instead. Repair hose leaks Pre wet the yard before milking – this speeds hosing down and reduces water used Scrape the yard before hosing down Use a chain on the backing gate to break down the cow pats Reuse cooling water and store it for washing down Keep cows as calm as possible and they will be less likely to mess the yard Stick to a routine Avoid stray electricity • •

Other information on this system:
Check the pH of the ponds. It should be above 6.5. If not, correct using lime – 1.6 kg/1000 cubic metre of volume daily until the pH is 6.5–9.0. Poorer quality pasture eaten by the herd (kikuyu, paspalum etc) can create excessive crusting. This will need removing. Pumping oxygen can help reduce the nitrogen losses and increase available N to crops. Aeration can be enhanced by: • Using effluent pond conditioners commercially available • Adding biodynamic compost preparations and/or cowpat pits • Pumping air through the pond. This can be expensive. • One cheap way is to coil pvc pipe with 0.05mm holes at the base of the pond. Use a compressor to

Wetlands
Wetlands use plants, air, sunlight, insects and birds to filter out and remove the nasties before going into the waterways. This can be used after a pond system to further treat effluent. It should take 7–10 days to go through the wetland under this system. It is a good place to treat chemicals used (e.g. detergents, zinc and copper sulphates from foot baths etc). Constructed wetlands must not be part of a natural wetland, as the latter is classified as natural water and part of a natural aqua system. There has been a lot of work done on this by Dr Chris Tanner and his colleagues at NIWA in Hamilton. This can be accessed through their website: www.niwa.co.nz/rc/ pollution/pubs/no8/dairywaste2/dairywaste2–treatment Check also the Wetlands section for more tips.



• • • • • •

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Applying fertiliser to the land
Northland regional council rules 16.1
(These are similar throughout NZ)

Advantages:



Can be spread every day, and very little other fertiliser is needed on that area. It requires minimum labour input.
Disadvantages:

Soil test regularly to check these are not too high or building up. Recommendation, apply three times a year. Do not apply when soils are waterlogged. Rule of thumb: When rainfall does not exceed evaporation. It needs sunlight to kill faecal bacteria. Take care with personal hygiene. Apply to recently grazed grass and do not graze until 10 days have passed, or rain has washed it off the grass. This allows contaminants such as ecoli, salmonella to be killed off or removed. Mix sludge with water to avoid plant damage. Never empty out the pond. Leave one third full to keep the process going. Use a stirrer prior to emptying. This will mix the layers. Late summer, early autumn is best for the sunlight and temperature breakdown of any disease–causing microorganisms. Spray at least six weeks prior to cutting hay or silage and use older manure to avoid contamination. Frequent spreading with thin layers is more beneficial than heavy dressings. Avoid damage to the soil if spreading effluent with a cart. Avoid loss to the air and evaporation. Keep a record of where you applied the effluent, how much and when. Treat effluent areas separate when doing soil and herbage tests. Avoid spraying at night. Think of your neighbours when spraying and spreading.

Too much too often will destroy soil structure. • • Applying at the wrong time of the year.

Permitted activities (disposal to land):
Disposal of farm dairy effluent to land is permitted provided that there is: • • • • • • No discharge directly to ‘water’ No application within 20 metres of ‘water’ No overland flow of sludge No application within the streamside management area No runoff to ‘water’ No discharge within 20 metres of the property boundary Contingency measures in place to ensure that there is no discharge to water due to equipment failure, overflow or prolonged wet weather.

It is restricted to one part of the farm only. It is tempting to use effluent that is fresh, which has not had time to remove all the bacteria. There is possible ponding and leaching through constant spraying. On areas where the maximum 150kg N/ha is applied, 1 Tonne lime per ha every 4 years may be required. This is why specific soil tests are so important.

Breeding: dairy, beef and sheep
Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge



Travelling irrigators
This can be mixed with water irrigation. The same principles as sprinklers apply with this system. Another disadvantage with this system is possible air pollution.



Other Tips: •

And that there are: •

Direct land application
This is where a suitable area is irrigated with effluent direct from the dairy on a daily basis. Advantages: There is good use of nutrients and no need for ponds. Disadvantages: It is a high maintenance system. It needs management to avoid contamination of pastures and waterways. It produces odour. Constant testing for soil and water is important here too. • • • • •

Breed selection
Many farmers feel that they do not have the option of buying in the most suitable livestock to start their organic farming enterprise, but have to work with what they have already. Over the generations the breeds and individual animals adapted to particular environments and systems of management. There are breeds that have been developed for the New Zealand environment. There are still conventional stud breeders around on harder country who have continued to breed a more moderate frame type of animal. You want to work with these breeds (unless you are keen to try something different), but towards the traits that are more suitable to an organic system. Talk to stock agents to help find out who has a reputation for hardy animals. You also need to like the type of animal you are handling. This is a motivator to make things work. Current breeding tends to focus on producing animals for quick return traits like high milk yields at first lactation, high weight gains at early maturing, and good early fleece growth. These characteristics have often been emphasised at the cost of other factors like longevity, fertility, and robustness. Some of our animals are culled from the system due to illness, poor performance or injury before they have reached peak performance. What we are looking for under an organic system is a way to build on positive animal traits. We are aiming for profitable system of farming with healthy, well–fed and contented animals. All animals need to have robust constitutions, high natural immunity and vigour to manage pests and disease, be thrifty to grow and reproduce with high fertility and few health problems.

How?
Effluent Cart:
This can be your own, or contractors can come in to spread it. Ensure the contractor’s gear is washed out before starting on your property.
Advantages:

Reduces the animal and plant health risk because you can spray wherever you want, whenever, on your farm.
Disadvantages:

Risks with applying effluent to the land
With long term application, increased potassium levels in soil and pasture in winter and spring can increase potential for metabolic problems. • • • Avoid grazing effluent paddocks with springing cows and those recently calved Have pasture analysed regularly Increase your area or choose where you spread your effluent using muck spreaders

• • • • • • • •

It can become a ‘round–to–it’ job and not applied at the best times. It also means the effluent could be sitting around for a long time, losing nutrients.

Sprinkler system:
This is a system using sprinklers either direct from a holding tank at your dairy, or from a pond. It using only a certain specific area of the farm and the sprinklers are either fixed in position, or can be shifted. The effluent is generally very fresh, and modern dairies have storage for as little as two days. The rule of thumb for this system is that you need 12–15% of your farm under this system to meet the 150kg/ha/yr restriction (i.e. 370 square metres per cow or 4Ha/100cows). It is also important to do regular soil and water tests for bacteria levels for sprayed areas specifically, to ensure there is no build up of toxins and to check fertility, especially potassium levels.

Contaminating waterways through surface runoff, leaching or spraying where there are tile drains • High BOD’s (Biological Oxygen demands) and spread of diseases, such as salmonella, and release of faecal coliforms destroy waterways and life in it

Contamination of soil through worms, coliforms etc. affect animal and human health.

Sources of information
All regional councils in NZ are helpful – contact your local one.

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Livestock selection
It is unlikely that the animals you source will have been reared and managed under an organic regime. It pays to think long– term when making livestock selection choices, not just for the conversion period. Stock that are already managed organically, and especially if they have been bred from organically–reared stock, will be able to cope with your conversion to organics very much better than conventional stock (it seems to be the second generation that makes the difference). The other important factors to bear in mind when selecting stock is the environment they have been born and reared in, and also the environment that their parents came from. Animals adapt very rapidly to their local environmental conditions. They learn to adapt directly from their parents, particularly the dam. They learn how to forage and develop preferences for plants based on the environment in which they live. They also learn how to adapt to the physical environment in which they are living (e.g. weather patterns, ground conditions and wind). Young stock also acquires immunity during lactation. This is particularly true for ruminants, which need to get the appropriate rumen biota (bacteria and so forth) from their mothers to be able to do well on the particular local vegetation, as well as acquiring immunity.

Breeding and livestock management
Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge

more organic animals are available, it may be possible to begin buying in. As a result, you want animals that have good stamina, fertility and can live longer. Each farmer has their own theories on the traits you should look for when choosing bulls. Animals do adapt to certain areas and situations as time and generations go by, and many breeds that have been farmed in New Zealand and bred here for some time have adapted well to local conditions. Talk with your artificial insemination representative or local stud breeders and they should be able to help.

While there is a shortage of organic stock available for rearing on, we may need to consider developing a system with a closed herd or flock. This means a herd or flock which is self–sustaining in terms of numbers and into which we do not normally introduce other animals except under occasional circumstances. Animals bred and reared on the property tend to be more adapted. By selecting the best animals for breeding, you will improve your stock and their genetic fitness in relation to your particular circumstances. Occasionally we may want or need to bring in new herd/flock sires to introduce or improve particular traits or to prevent continued close in–breeding. Although the sire’s contribution to the adaptedness of the offspring is certainly less than that of the dam’s, it still plays a significant part. Organic pastoral farmers have found that it is also beneficial to allow young stock to wean themselves rather than imposing a weaning regime at a certain age (obviously this doesn’t apply to dairy farmers). This again greatly increases the natural immunity of the young stock, as it does not expose them to that dangerous post–weaning period when they can become susceptible to parasite loading and loss of condition. It is important to provide plenty of feed to the weaned calves to avoid worm burdens. Dams wean their offspring when needed.

the mother’s body has tried to respond to the threat. Natural immunity in our stock is one of our main allies. However, sometimes the opposite will occur and an ailing dam will produce ailing offspring. This tells us that there is something missing in the genetics of that line and we don’t want it in our organic flock/herd. It is very much a matter of close observation, keeping an open mind, and acting accordingly.

Cross–breeding and grading–up
If you are farming at a commercial scale you may need a cross–breeding programme, utilizing the traits of more than one breed and the hybrid vigour of your terminal sires for increased size and vigour in your calves and lambs. This approach can still work well in an organic system since different breeds provide access to other traits. Remember that hybrid vigour dilutes very rapidly after the first cross and then you are left with a highly variable gene pool. You will need to be regularly bringing in new purebred sires, and often replacement dams too, to maintain the genetic consistency and traits you want. In doing this you can lose some benefit of the stock adapting to their specific environment. An alternative is to run a commercial crossbred herd/flock and a small purebred group, specifically for replacements. Due to the lack of availability of organic stock you will probably need to compromise and buy in some replacement stock for your organic conversion, but being left with the task of grading–up with your existing animals to achieve the livestock genetics you are looking for a little way down the track. Your carefully selected bought–in animals will make this task much easier, as they will bring in much of the genetics that you are aiming for, and then it is a matter of planning your breeding programme to make best use of this and spread it through the flock/herd. At the same time you will also be able to select the genetic traits in your existing stock that enables stock to thrive under the new organic system. This is obviously not a simple or quick task, it takes time and you will have set–backs and failures. However, that is to be expected and so don’t let it put you off your overall goals. Some of your existing animals won’t be able to cope under the new regime. If they are ailing under an organic regime they may need to be culled depending on their ailments. However, if a dam is failing due to a lack of adaptation rather than to any predominantly congenital defects, then it pays to keep their offspring. The young animal will have full exposure to the new environment from birth and so will have a much better chance of doing well. A good example of this is intestinal parasites in sheep. While a dam may not be able to cope with exposure to a higher worm burden and start to ail, her offspring will have been getting antibodies passed to them through her milk as

Comments from farmers and practioners
A comment on dairy cattle
Forty years of artificial breeding with the emphasis on milk production has resulted in a very different dairy animal. The modern cow will lose an awful lot of body weight to continue milking if she is inadequately fed. Her udder is like a huge parasite in this respect. This was largely not the case up until the 1970s where if starved beyond a certain point, cows would tend to dry off rather than lose too much condition. They were possibly more ‘robust’ (they certainly got in calf easier than today’s cows probably because of this self–preserving characteristic). However, these cows were not particularly efficient due to the relatively high proportion of feed they needed for maintenance. Today’s dairy cows are very efficient at converting grass to milk. It is possible to fully feed cows on a conventional farm but not sustainably. Organic farming has the opportunity to provide cows with a balanced diet in a sustainable fashion - it’s a matter of adjusting stocking rates to ensure they can be fully–fed all year round. Having big, high producing cows and less of them is one way of maximising productive, economic and ecological efficiency, although there are aspects of management which need consideration with this approach (e.g. possible difficulties in controlling pasture quality in a good season and controlling pasture damage in a bad one). • Contributed by: Alan Thatcher

A hypothesis
It is preferable to keep the herd/flock sire with the breeding group if at all possible and to maintain mixed age groups rather than separating them out according to age cohorts. This reduces the psychological stress on the animals as they are much more content in this more natural grouping, and it also reduces the rate of re–infestation of the young stock from the environment of pathogens like intestinal parasites, since the older immune animals act as pasture cleaners.

So when selecting stock we also need to choose animals which have come from conditions as close as possible to those on our own farm, that means farming and environmental conditions. Animals which have come from very harsh environmental conditions will usually adapt fairly well to conditions that are easier. Animals raised in a fertile environment will not perhaps adapt very well to a harsher environment, certainly not for a few generations. If possible choose animals which have been managed least intensively as possible (i.e. farms with a minimal drenching policy and who use RPR rather than superphosphate), so that their natural immunity and constitution will be least compromised.

Animal longevity
This is a feature of long term organic farms and is encouraged. Longevity is important in that, to a certain degree, the farm does become a closed system. Only 10% of animals can be brought in each year and they have a time lag of 12 months (depending on certification) before being granted organic status. Consequently, it is best at this point in time to look after what you already have and raise all your own replacements. Feed and treat your entire herd well, especially your young stock. Some farms struggle during transition because of the elimination, through death and culling, of those who haven’t coped with the change to organics. Have a strategy plan in case this happens. When more farms become organic, and

You may need to make significant compromises when selecting and breeding the stock for your organic farming enterprise, as there are limited organic livestock resources to source from. However, if we bear in mind the fundamental principles of what we need and why, we can at least make an informed and hopefully, wise decision.

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A comment on sheep
The selection of the right breed of sheep for the conditions is very important. Sheep have evolved over many thousands of years, and many different breeds have become established to suit different environments and conditions. There is also a large variation of types or strains within the breeds. Some have the ability to withstand varied seasonal conditions, with good resistance to parasites and diseases, but some don’t. Unfortunately a lot of the hardiness has been bred out of some sheep now, and these cannot be kept under an organic situation, but can survive quite well under a chemical farming situation, with drenches, dips, vaccines, antibiotics etc. Question whether you should keep these lines. Some hardy strains are still available so these are the ones to keep. Parasite-andfacial-eczema-resistant rams are now available in some common breeds. The best way to prevent worms and fly strike in sheep is to have a good varied mixture of grasses and herbs in your pastures, and to not overstock. Remember, all livestock need plenty of clean fresh water too. • Contributed by: David Johnstone

Comments on beef cattle
As with sheep, cattle have evolved over many thousands of years, and since having been domesticated they have been bred especially for beef, dairy or draught. When keeping beef cattle, a true beef breed to suit the conditions must be selected. These will be efficient converters of pasture to good tender beef. They must also be very quiet to handle. Dairy breeds produce more milk and draught breed, develop coarse heavy muscling to pull implements etc, but these are not suitable for top quality beef production. Cattle thrive best on fertile, wetter soils, with reasonable drainage. They like quite tall pastures, with a lot of roughage, so they can wrap their tongue around it when grazing. Sheep, on the other hand, like shorter, more succulent pastures with less roughage, as they tend to nibble when grazing. Beef cattle are quite hardy, and if given a bit of shelter and plenty of good organic grazing will have very few health problems at all. • Contributed by David Johnstone

Conversion issues for livestock management
Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge

Beef:
Suckler beef systems are probably the easiest of all livestock systems to convert to an organic regime as we are making use of the unrivalled abilities of the dam to look after her offspring. Mature cattle have a much higher resistance to parasites and disease than sheep on organic farms, as it is much closer to their natural environment of wet, lowland grasslands and woodland edge. Beef systems also tend to be some of the least intensive systems in farming. The main requirements of the organic beef enterprise are that they are based mainly on natural pasture grazing. Calves should be left on their dam for a minimum of 3 months, and preferably much longer, with natural weaning being the ideal. The time of weaning is the main danger time for organic beef as this is when the young calf is exposed for the first time to its environment without any support from its mother. Weaned calves should be given an organic drench to boost their immunity and put on to abundant, clean pasture. This treatment may need to be repeated if they show signs of lack of thrift, and their grazing rotation needs to ensure they are always moving onto clean, fresh pasture. The first winter is usually a critical time for weaned calves. They need to be going into it in the best possible condition, so early calving and/or late weaning are ideal, and their quality of feed intake needs to be kept high through the bad weather. This is the time when any worm burden will take its toll as feed quality drops and temperatures and wind chill increase body maintenance needs. Good preparation and planning are essential. For this reason some farmers switch to late spring or late summer calving so that calves are still on their dams over–winter. Natural weaning may assist in this process. However, autumn weaned calves can be successfully brought through the winter with some care. Good shelter from the elements is essential, and a balanced mineral lick can also be very beneficial in the conversion years when the pasture may not yet be fully mineralised. Lack of adequate food and minerals is very often the cause of illness or ill thrift in the conversion period.

for parasites all year round, as at lambing they become increasingly susceptible to internal parasites and act as infective agents on the pasture, causing a double–dose effect when the lambs are starting to graze. Preferably they need to be cross–grazed with cattle, particularly at this time and when the lambs are weaned, so that the cattle can help to clean the pasture. Sheep can be kept organically successfully without cross–grazing with cattle but there needs to be a plentiful range of clean grazing available to keep moving the sheep on to, and a good range of natural herbs in the pasture to allow the sheep to self–medicate. Preferably the lambs should be kept on the ewes as long as possible to get the best start as the larger more thrifty lambs are much less prone to problems from worms. If possible allow the lambs to self–wean, especially during the conversion period when your pastures won’t yet be fully mineralised and balanced, and your stock’s immunity will be being tested to the full in trying to adapt to the new regime. Plants with a high tannin content have been shown to reduce worm burdens. Research has shown that pasture species can also have a significant affect on the infective larvae burden, with animals being fed species like chicory, white clover and Yorkshire fog having a much lower incidence of parasites (Niezen 1999). Niezen’s work found that biologically–managed farms carried a lower infective worm larvae burden on their pastures than conventionally managed farms. This was due to the faster turnover of livestock dung back into the soil. So there are a number of ways of keeping your lambs healthy and growing well. If you do decide to wean it pays to use an organic drench at weaning, and at 3–4 weekly intervals thereafter if there is scouring or noticeable lack of thrift. After each drench they should be moved to clean grazing. It often pays to give the ewes an organic drench just prior to lambing to boost their immunity, especially during the conversion period. Having a good balanced mineral lick available for the flock at all times during conversion can reap dividends. This is where it pays to have had your soil and pasture tested so you know what is lacking and can supply it in a lick as compensation. During conversion your flock will also be exposed to the other common ailments of sheep like fly strike, lice, facial eczema and pulpy kidney. Treatments for these as well as other sheep ailments are given in the Animal Health Chapter. Pulpy kidney is triggered by excessively lush pastures and a sudden change in diet. Not vaccinating for pulpy kidney needs permission from certifying agencies. Ewes can become immune to the local strains of Clostridium pathogen over time. Facial eczema also seems to be virtually absent from organic farms. You may have a problem in the first few years which you can deal with by supplementing with zinc. Fly strike also seems to be more a phenomenon of modern intensive farming. Once the pastures are fully active and balanced with the use of slow–release organic fertilisers and

Beef cattle in some parts of the country have had little or no serious breeding for generations. If you want a robust, adaptable animal, it would be difficult to go past the Angus cattle of the steep North Island papa country, encompassing eastern Taranaki, Wanganui and southern King Country. These cows only get to see real grass for about 3 months of the year if they’re lucky, the rest of the time their diet seems to consist largely of thistles, fern, rushes and pasture the sheep have left behind. Despite this, they maintain good condition and, as long as they get a bit of copper (papa is severely copper deficient), they get in calf easily. If yearlings are well fed after weaning, they can be calved as 2 year olds. These cows are run in a virtually chemical–free system, many of the farms having had little or no fertiliser on the hills for 20 years. Economic circumstances mean that little in the way of animal remedies are used. Adult stock are only ever likely to receive a copper injection and the odd liver fluke drench. This means they have become well adapted to a harsh environment. • Contributed by: Alan Thatcher

Sheep:
Sheep are native to dry habitats in Asia and so they are the most difficult to keep healthy and thriving under organic systems in our wet pastures here in New Zealand. Unlike mature cows, ewes do not act as pasture hoovers

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the animal’s health is in tune, then fly strike seems to become a rarer problem with only sickly animals being susceptible. This seems to be strongly determined by the fact that a naturally healthy animal does not give off an odour that blowflies are attracted to. One exception is that lice tend to accentuate the fly problem as the fleece smells, particularly when it is damp. Another important factor is faecal staining of wool around the crutch caused by parasites and excessively lush pasture. Keeping lambs wool short and clean around the crutch is the main thing for them. Sheep are certainly a challenge in organic farming, but once converted it is a joy to see such healthy and self–supporting animals.

adding cider vinegar to your drinking troughs. Cider vinegar is also an effective pick–me–up drench for ailing stock, especially in combination with other ingredients like garlic and kelp.

Animal handling and intervention
We must ensure that our animals are stress–free and live as contented lives as we can possibly give them. It also means they are likely to be healthier, do better, and live longer, and that their meat, milk or fibre will taste better or be of better quality. Most mutilations of stock are prohibited under organic certification, except for de–horning of cattle, docking of sheep, and castration at a young age of bulls or rams. Docking of dairy cows is prohibited. Even permitted mutilations should be reviewed in the context of your own operation to evaluate whether or not they are actually necessary. Tail docking of sheep is a good example. It tends to be carried out as a routine practice without regard to its implications for the animals. Anyone watching tailed sheep will soon realize that their tails have some important functions to perform, which is presumably why they were given them. During dunging sheep use their tails to disperse the droppings away from their back ends, to keep themselves clean. If the tail becomes soiled, it is attractive to flies, and is a nuisance to the shearer trying to cut away the soiled wool. The tail can be left on to perform its essential functions for the sheep, which also include acting as a fly swat and keeping the vulva warm and clean. Another part of the solution may be to use the Wiltshire Horn as a terminal sire to eliminate unwanted wool in the crutch area and on the tail. All handling of livestock should be done with the minimum of stress for animals and humans. Animals should be moved quietly and calmly and in an unhurried manner, using an understanding of their natural behaviour to anticipate their reactions and working with them to achieve the desired result. They should be handled firmly but gently to avoid injury to either them or to the handler. All handling should be of minimal duration, and at all times there should be adequate shade and shelter, especially over yards or where animals are held for any length of time, and fresh water should always be available. It can get to the point on an organic stock rearing farm where the only handling that becomes necessary is annual tagging, with possibly also drenching and weighing at weaning time. Apart from that it’s just a matter of standing and admiring them! It must be remembered though, the less you handle them, the wilder and more stressed they will be when you do. Moving amongst them every day, talking to them, helps them to get used to you, and they learn to trust you. All stock transportation needs to be done again with minimum stress. Each certifier will have their own specific restrictions, but basically they are there to ensure consideration and high welfare for the livestock. For organic meat production it is

certainly worthwhile developing a good relationship with your nearest abattoir and persuading them to become certified to handle your slaughtering, as distance to slaughter is one of the important considerations in organic meat quality. Years of good handling and management on the farm can be undone by animals highly stressed by a long travel distance to slaughter and bad treatment prior to killing. This is a whole area that needs more attention for the organic meat industry to expand in New Zealand, and can perhaps be addressed by organic meat producers banding together to ensure adequate throughput for abattoirs to justify the cost of certification. Collaborative marketing ventures would also help to ensure continuity of supply vital for the development of imaginative sales strategies.

Dairy cow condition scoring
There are a number of cow condition scoring systems and the one mentioned here is presently used by consultants, veterinarians and farmers alike. The Waikato Polytechnic has a excellent printed card complete with a diagram that is ideal to refer to if you are not familiar with the method. You really do have to know some basic anatomy of the cow to do condition scoring. The backbone is rather obvious and doesn’t need explanation. The hips are the bones protruding out from the backbone and are the ones that can get knocked if cows rush through a narrow gap. The ‘pins’ refer to the points either side of the tail arch. The ‘side of the pin’ refers to the area to the side of this area (to the lateral side of the cow or outside) and the ‘rear of the pin’ refers to the area below the pin on the back end or rear side of the cow as opposed to the side of the cow. To score a cow one follows the following order. There are seven possible positions to feel depending upon how thin the cow is. The best way to learn is to find a friendly cow and practice by placing your hands on each of these ‘positions’ and get familiar with this order and then look at the chart to determine what the condition score is. First position – feel the hips and pins – are they flat? (Put your hands on these two points and actually feel them). Second position – feel along the backbone in the middle of the back – is it bumpy or smooth? Third position – feel the side of the pins – is it concave? (Deviates inwards?) Fourth position – feel the rear of the pins – is it concave? (Below the pin bone and on the rear surface of the cow). Fifth position – feel behind the shoulder – is there a prominent ridge? Sixth position – feel this ridge again – can you feel the sides of the bony vertebrae? Seventh position – feel the valley between the hip and the backbone – do you bump into a sharp ridge? You have to memorise this order. Once you have done this then you look at the following number system and decide whether you stop at that condition score described or go up or down from it. It is common to start at the condition score of 5 (C.S. 5) and work downwards as it is rare to find dairy cows over this condition.

Feeding
Under an organic system animals must be fed on their natural foods, which for cattle and sheep is basically pasture. Supplementary feed can be given as a minor proportion of the diet, which should be checked with your certifier as the permissible amount can vary. There is a permitted daily percentage as well as permitted annual amount. All ruminants need a diet that is high in fibre. This is because of the particular workings of the rumen. The rumen contains a rich and diverse cocktail of bacteria and other micro flora and fauna, which permit the animal to digest the cellulose of the plants it ingests. It is similarly a finely balanced system and needs to be looked after in the same way as we look after our soils. Only certain friendly microbes contain the enzyme cellulase, which is required, and they work best at a pH around 6.5. They produce simple organic acids, called volatile fatty acids (VFAs), which provide energy for the animal. Inadequate fibre in the diet can lead to difficulties in achieving a stable pH in the rumen during late winter and early spring when there is insufficient fibre in the pasture. This can be corrected by feeding small amounts of hay or straw (up to 1kg dry matter per cow per day). Feeding high levels of concentrates like cereals or maize without adequate fibre gives rise to problems in the rumen caused by low pH (acidosis), which in turn can affect the liver and leads to gut torsion and lameness in dairy cows. Barley beef systems can have similar animal health problems. The other major dietary consideration for pastoral organic farming is adequate minerals; none of the biological systems can work without the correct mineral balance as they play vital roles in producing vitamins, enzymes and physiological precursors. Minerals should be balanced in the long term through the pasture, but in the meantime they must be supplied in a supplementary lick form, either as a bought in, approved lick, or as a home–made mix formulated to your own particular pastoral needs. Spraying your pastures with liquid seaweed will certainly help the process, as will supplying kelp in the mineral lick. Supplementary molasses can help make the lick more palatable and add other important trace elements, as can

Suppliers of Certified Organic Older Breeds in NZ:
Tim Gow Mangapiri Downs Stud, Blackmount, R D 2, Otautau Southland. Ph (03) 225 5283 Website: www.organicstud.com Bio–Gro certified, Highland Cattle, White–headed Marsh sheep, Wiltipoll (modern breed from old Wiltshire Horn) Beverly Trowbridge Murivall Stud & Heritage Breeds, Muriwai Valley Farm, 194 Muriwai Valle Rd, R D 1, Waimauku, Auckland. Ph 09 411 8557 Website: lifestylelivestock.co.nz Bio–Gro certified, Red Devon Cattle, Wiltshire Horn Sheep

References on older breeds
Have a browse through the following websites for information on different breeds to see what could be most suitable for your needs:–
NZ Rare Breeds Society: www.rarebreeds.co.nz Australian Rare Breeds Trust: www.rbta.org British Rare Breeds Survival Trust: www.rbst.org.uk / www.rare–breeds.com Canadian Rare Breeds: www.trentu.cararebreedscanada American Livestock Breeds Conservancy: www.albc–usa.org

Further information can be obtained from the
Rare Breeds Survival Trust, National Agricultural Centre Stoneleigh Park, Warwickshire, CV8 2LG, England Tel: 024 7669 6551, Fax: 024 7669 6706 E–mail: [email protected]

Some Examples of Older Breeds that are Available in NZ:–
Dairy: Beef: Guernsey, Ayrshire, Brown Swiss Welsh Black, Galloway, Red Devon, Red Poll, Sussex

Wool sheep: Leicester and Lincoln Longwools, White–headed Marsh Meat sheep: WiltshireHorn (no wool), Ryeland, Dorset Horn

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C.S. 5
If rounded on hips and pins – go above C.S. 5 (see below) If not rounded on hips and pins – go below C.S. 5
C.S. 4.5 If the backbone is flat and smooth (not bumpy) – go above 4.5 If the backbone is bumpy – go below 4.5 C.S. 4 If the area is flat around the pins – not scooped inwards or concave – go above 4 If the area is concave around the outside of the pins – go below 4 C.S. 3.5 If the area below the pin is flat – go above 3.5 If the area below the pin is concave or scooped inwards – go below 3.5 C.S. 3 If the backbone has no prominent ridge behind the shoulder blades – go above 3 If there is a prominent ridge behind the shoulder blade (you can feel the vertebrae – go below 3 C.S. 2.5 If you can feel the side and base of the vertebrae behind the shoulder – this is 2.5 C.S. 2 If the connective tissue (band of tissue) between the hipbone and the spine (backbone) has a slight cover – go above 2 If this band of tissue is extremely prominent – go below 2. If you have an obese cow start at the position 5 condition score and work up. C.S. 6 If the back is rounded across the loin, or if you cannot feel the ends of the short ribs – go above 6 If the two positions are negative (i.e. you can feel or see them) – go to below 6 C.S. 7 If the back is flat across the loin. The backbone can only be felt by pressing down very firmly. C.S. 8 The tail–head has large folds of fat on either side or the tail–head is covered by a thick layer of fat and cannot be felt. Note: If a cow is between the half scores then you will have to decide which end she is nearest too. For example, if she is below 4 but better than a 3.5 then you may score her at 3.7 or 3.8. You can become very accurate and be highly repeatable too.

Behaviour: cattle, deer and goats
• Cattle have a social hierarchy and prefer to stay with groups with minimal swapping. • Calm and quiet handling is best • Always be wary – animals can become unpredictable • Their most efficient sense is smell, followed by vision and hearing • Behaviour during mating is described. Cattle are social animals and as a stockperson you become the ‘dominant animal’ the ‘boss animal’ in the herd. Cattle actually respond best to the farmer who is confident, and consistent when handling them. They appreciate the stockperson talking to them, petting them, and stroking them (particularly around the neck and head). Keep calm (when working with stock and deer): Evidence suggests that unstressed cattle grow faster. Never move cattle or deer when you are in a hurry. With deer you can use ‘a rattle’: a continual gentle noise that lets them know where you are. With cattle you can move them by placing your hand firmly on the pelvic area of the last animal, the animal responds by moving forward, his/her movement and direction, gets the rest of the group moving forward. Be very, very calm when dealing with deer. Be calm when handling cattle. Avoid stress by preparing gates prior to moving cattle, and particularly deer. If bringing cattle and deer to areas that are unfamiliar to them (e.g. perhaps the yards) let them, at ease, wander around and calmly check out the new environment well before beginning ‘work’. Separation from group causes stress: Cattle, deer and sheep are herd/flock animals. Isolation from group causes stress. If an animal has become separated from the group, send in a herd mate or two. Then together move them back to the original group. Deer management: Avoid handling deer on a windy, or very hot day. Deer have a keen sense of smell. Stress rapidly dehydrates deer (have water available). When handling bulls: Always take a stick with you and never turn your back on a bull (hand reared bulls lose their fear of man). An overprotective cow with calf may threaten you. Be cautious, she can mean business (observe her for signs of hypomagnesaemia) If you’re threatened by an animal: Give the offending animal a hefty ‘THWACK’ across the nose with your stick. They’ll draw back and reconsider. It is suggested that by stretching out your arms you will appear wider to a charging bull.

limited because the eyes are situated in the side of the head. They have a much greater field of vision than we have. Cattle have adequate hearing (cattle ears are anatomically similar to man’s). There is a difference however in the frequencies cattle can hear. Smell: Cattle’s social, nutritional and reproductive behaviour revolves around their very efficient ability to recognise odours. Deer: Their survival in the wild depends of their very good sense of smell. Cattle Blood: Cattle go ‘quite silly’ when they smell blood. They’ll sniff away at the source, ‘moo’ frequently, and behave in an agitated or excited manner (beware if there are any blood smells following a vet’s visit). It is said that in the days prior to ‘internal protection’ cows could sniff out the menstruating milker.

plus, a lot of on heat activity occurs in the early evening. ’Nymphomaniac’ behaviour, if she’s on heat for several days (see your vet), can be caused by an ovarian cyst. Another sign is more than one cycle every 21 days. Caution, an ‘over friendly’ heifer/cow may try to ride you!

The bull:
He can tell, by smell, 2 days prior to a cow coming on heat (he may even guard her to keep her to himself). He may sample her urine for pheromones by licking her vulva. He may put his chin on her back to test if she will arch her back slightly (getting ready to take his weight). You can place your hand in this position and press down as a heat detection method). Two working bulls will compete with each other. If buying a bull, make sure he’s fertile and a good worker (a ‘proven’ bull). Caution: If he observes that the cows on the neighbour’s farm need him, your boundary fence may not be a great obstacle (i.e. keep him well out of sight from the on heat ‘girls’). It’s a lot easier if your neighbours are farming deer, goat or sheep!

Reproduction and smell
Some definitions:
Flehman:
The characteristic flehman expression is where the head is held upwards, with the mouth partly open. The tongue is flat and the lips curled back (the animal has an attitude of ‘studying’). This is ‘odour sampling in ruminants’ and it allows air to flow over the roof of the mouth (it also has uses as a deliberate non–threatening display). Pheromones: Are a group of chemical attractants, produced by animals to attract other animals. They are present in all body fluids (milk, urine, sweat). The specific oestrus pheromones (smells) are particularly released from the genital region and the hindquarters of the cow, plus her body.

Young bulls:
Bulls raised without females may not know ‘what to do’ when put in with a group of on heat cows (personally I haven’t had any problems. I separate them from the heifers at 8 months of age. During winter (our non–milking period) they go in with the precalvers). Young, keen, yearling bulls will stand on the tips of their hooves to mate with a cow (and can injure the tips of their hooves).
Contributed by [email protected], who has an interesting website www.2farm.co.nz

Be nice to your cows
Do you talk quietly to your cows, pat them in the paddock and use the alkathene to guide them rather than hit them? If not, the results of a major 6 year study into human/animal interactions carried out in Australia suggest you should. Endearing yourself to your cows can improve production by up to 10% and the report also concluded that fear of humans accounted for up to 20% of the variation in milk yield between farms. During the first stage of the study, farmers were asked to answer a questionnaire on their attitudes towards cows and how they handled their animals. This was combined with direct observation of stock handling and standard tests of avoidance used to assess fear. The researchers were able to establish that: • • • Negative attitudes to patting or talking to cows correlated with more pushes, slaps and hits The more often slaps and hits were used, the more fearful the cows Fear of humans was associated with lower productivity.

Oestrus behaviour in cattle:
True oestrus is characterised by the cow allowing other cattle (male or female) to mount her. Her back will arch (to take the extra weight) and she won’t move if ‘on heat’ (a lot of ‘trialling’ goes on!) You’ll notice a trail of mucus from the vaginal area plus her vulva may be reddened and swollen. Her appearance, if she’s had a ‘busy’ night, her flanks may be ‘dirty’ from being ridden by herd mates. The skin may be worn from the bony prominences either side of the top of the tail (hair may have gone from the top of her tail and ‘tail–painting’ the head of the tail is painted a bright colour. If the paint has been rubbed off you know she has been ‘ridden’ overnight, and is ready for mating). Herd mates will sniff her perennial area, frequently using flehmen. She’ll urinate frequently to spread the pheromones around. If isolated, she’ll ‘Moooo’ a lot. She may even go searching for the bull, to get his attention. Older, heavier cows have a more dramatic ‘heat’ than younger cows.

If you read all this and still need help, get someone to show you the system, as it can be learnt in 15 minutes.

The senses
Hearing and Vision: Cattle have adequate vision
including colour vision. Not as ‘fine tuned’ as sheep, who are supposed to be able to distinguish between lighter and darker shades of grass when grazing. Binocular vision is

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The second part of the study involved 94 Victoria dairy farms and set out to see if a change in farmer behaviour would result in a change in production. Half the farmers were put through a training course which emphasized that while slaps and hits may sometimes be necessary, they should be greatly outnumbered by positive behaviours – patting not hitting, talking not shouting. The course was followed up with booklets, newsletters and regular visits. By the end of the trial period most farmers reported a marked improvement in cow behaviour and a change in their own beliefs about how much force is needed. There was a significant production increase at zero cost to farmers which, it was pointed out, also fits neatly with the new industry emphasis on animal welfare and quality assurance. A similar scheme is now being tried out on pig farms.
Contributed by: Alan Thatcher, Massey University Source: Australian Publication The Veterinarian 2001.

Bio–Gro rules state:
An area must be clearly designated on the farm map that can be used as a quarantine area if required. This is a designated area of the property where any treated stock and any incoming conventional stock can be run for the duration of the required quarantine period. If the designated area has been used for quarantining in the last 12 months men it is classed as ‘the quarantine area’. After 12 months has elapsed since the last use of the quarantine area for quarantining, the quarantine area regains the certification status of the lowest certification status land on the farm. The quarantine area cannot be used for the production of certified crops. It can only be grazed by animals, which will not be sold for meat for at least 12 months, or will not be producing any certified progeny or products for at least 6 months (e.g. breeding sires, heifers, replacement ewe lambs). The quarantine area can be used to make supplementary feed such as hay and silage, provided the feeding of this complies with the maximum allowances specified in the 10% rule.

They may declare you a sensitive area They will advise you on procedures Write and send letters to neighbours, contractors. Make a pact with your neighbour: Ask them to refrain from spraying 10 to 15m from the boundary (buffer zone) and you will grub/pull out the weeds and thistles in that area. The buffer zone is then worked organically but no product comes off it. Grow trees around the perimeter to slow the spray drift (see Tree section)



Drain and refill, circulate a 1% solution of household ammonia and then leave to stand for 24 hours before flushing out with clean water. Drain and refill, circulate a 1% solution of chlorine bleach containing 3% sodium hypochlorite then flush out with clean water.

Quarantine paddocks
The quarantine paddock (sometime known as sacrifice paddock) is an area for animals to expel prohibited medications they have been given. It is essential it is big enough to hold any animal or animals you may have treated with a prohibited substance. They must stay there for double the withholding period for meat (check the details with your own certifying agency – they change). It must be a paddock where it is easy enough to transfer the animal to the milking parlour to be milked each day. No other organic animal can graze this at any time. You can apply to have it converted back after 12 months of having no animals on it.



Minimise contamination
With organic certification it is very important to minimise contamination to your property and crop. This is the key issue that consumers are looking for. It is best to identify the risks and deal with them before contamination happens. Possible sources of contamination, and a potential threat to your organic certification, are: your neighbours, old spray tanks, seed, contractors.

Flushings must not be disposed of in accordance with the local District Plan.
Flushings should not be disposed of:

• • •

Anywhere on any certified property Anywhere where it is likely to contaminate surface or groundwater On any natural and/or un–farmed areas. .

Most important:
Keep positive communications with neighbours.

Cleaning old spray tanks
If you are using spray tanks that have had chemical sprays in them the following is the proceedure for cleaning it out according to Bio–Gro rules: Annex 3 s3.3.2 Spray equipment (no matter who owns it) that has had prohibited materials used in it at any time, must be approved and cleaned out using the cleaning directions given prior to use on a certified property.

Seed contamination
Ensure you are not purchasing genetically modified or coated seed Try to get organic or uncoated seed. Do your homework before buying and look at your options Don’t pick up the seed without a letter from the supplier stating it is clean! If the only alternative is coated seed you must wash it and take the washings to your local toxic dump (usually the regional council) Avoid this scenario if at all possible!

What does this mean?
• • • It will probably be an area that will never be classed as organic. You have to have one At times the grass will get away on you and you will need to top it, or sell it as hay or silage and introduce it to the farm as part of 10% brought-in feed. Alternatively, it can be sold on to a conventional farmer. You may need plan B for emergencies only – an area large enough to hold the whole mob if you have to blanket drench for worms or lice. Remember it will be 12 months plus before you can apply to use that land again for organics. It is prudent to make quarantine paddocks smaller as it is easier to expand them rather than decrease them. You need yards to hold animals off for 48 hours before entering an organic property. This is to enable them to empty out.

Neighbours
Identify areas of risk:
Run off
Contact the council and neighbours and work out how to manage this. Have ‘No Spraying’ signs Offer to maintain the areas where contamination comes from e.g. roadside.

Clean down directions:
Spray equipment that has had prohibited materials in it, and which is to be used on certified property, must go through the following steps: • Fill tank with cold tap water and with the hose continuing to run, activate the sprayer and leave running for 10 minutes Drain, refill with tap water and add alkaline detergent at 500g/100 litres (or with the addition of washing soda that has been dissolved in hot water, at lOOg/100 litres final concentration), circulate for 10 minutes, then flush with clean tap water

Drains that contaminants travel down
Fence off Allow for room to put drain cleanings in fenced off area. •

Contractors
The only contamination is from equipment and tractors. Point out to the contractor their equipment must be cleaned before entering your property. You may need a letter stating this for certification. It is your responsibility to identify possible contamination to your property or crop.

• •

Spray drift
Contact your regional council

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Once you have identified all possible types and sources of contamination, you must then decide if it can be eliminated, or reduced to an acceptable or manageable level and the steps you are going to take for this to happen. Often the biggest obstacle is your neighbours or people who are unaware of your status and this can be overcome with good public relations and signs to informing people you are organic.

References
Breeding
Coleby, P. 2000. Healthy Sheep Naturally. Landlinks Press, Collingwood, Vic. 2nd Ed. de Bairacli Levy, J. 1984. The Complete Herbal Handbook for Farm and Stable. Faber and Faber, London. 3rd. Ed. Lampkin, N., 1990. Organic Farming. Farming Press, Ipswich, UK. Lampkin, N. and Padel, S. 1994. The Economics of Organic Farming: An International Perspective. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

Pests
Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association of New Zealand. Biodynamic Perspectives. by NZ Biodynamic Association. ISBN 1 86941 460 8. Environment Bay of Plenty. Sustainable Options Plant Pest Control Fact Sheets.* Northland Regional Council. Pest Fact Sheets and Animal Fact Sheets*. OPENZ. www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz Look in their publications directory for weed and pest management information. Pfeiffer, E.E. Weeds and what they tell you. Pub Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Assn USA Inc ISBN 0 938250–04–3. * Note: Your regional council will have similar information specific to your region.

Certification Issues:
www.biodynamics.org.nz www.bio–gro.co.nz www.agriquality.co.nz

Suppliers of organic products and services:
www.bio–gro.co.nz www.organicpathways.co.nz www.organic–register.com home.xtra.co.nz/hosts/earthwise Earthwise and Bettacrop, Box 9128 Hamilton Ph: 07 824 4881

Radionics
Since the introduction of the Ag–Enviro Radionic device to NZ in the mid 1990s, there has been a significant number of practitioners and farmers treating farms and animals with this frequency modality. It has been in use in many countries since the 1940s, particularly the USA, UK, Europe, and Australia. It was even used by the Mayans 2000 years ago to increase soil fertility and control pests and weeds. To explain how radionics works is beyond the scope of this Resource Guide. The reference work at the end of this section will give you an understanding and the history of its development. Suffice to say that radionics identifies the frequency at which any life form (or part thereof) vibrate at, and if it is out of balance, generate the required frequency to correct that vibration and bring it into balance. Treating a farm and herd with a radionic device requires constant vigilance and much time. The treatments (frequencies) available are only those given to the practioner/farmer when he/she buys their machine. Using radionics as a tool on your farm is no excuse to forgo physical inputs. It is there to assist these inputs.

Climate and weather
Kenny, G., Robertson, F. and Fisher, M, 2003. The view from the ground: a farmer perspective on climate change and adaptation. Published by Earthwise Consulting Limited and the Hawke’s Bay Climate Change Adaptation Group. NIWA, 2003. The Greenhouse Effect: a New Zealand perspective on climate change. NIWA Information Series No. 29. The Global Livestock Group, 2001. Frequently Asked Questions. Web: www.theglg.com

Trees
Biodynamics New Directions for Farming and Gardening in New Zealand by NZ Biodynamic Association. Pub Random House 1989 reprinted 1993 – currently out of print but available through libraries. ISBN 1 86954001 8 It has a good list of trees on pp 103 – 105. Connor, H.E. 1977. The poisonous plants in New Zealand. 2nd rev. ed. Bulletin 99. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Christchurch, New Zealand. Printed by E.C. Keating, Gov’t Printer, Wellington, New Zealand. p. 247. Crowe, A. Native Edible Plants of New Zealand. 1990 ISBN 0–340– 50830–2F. Hamblett, A. ‘Protecting Bush Remnants’ NZ Growing Today. July 2003. Mortimer,J & B. Trees for the New Zealand Countryside: a Planter’s Guide. Butterworth of New Zealand, Wellington. Mortimer, K. Trees for the Land – Growing Trees in Northland for Protection, Production, and Pleasure. ISBN 0–909006–03–2 available from Northland regional council, Private Bag 9021, Whangarei. Ph: 09 438 4639. Fax: 09 438 0012. New Zealand Tree Crops Association Directory. 2001. Homepage http: //www.purangi.co.nz/tree/index.htmlNew Zealand Growing Today. Sept. 1996, pages 50– 61. New Zealand Growing Today. Jan 2002, pages 24 – 35.Soil and Health. Feb/Mar 1980 Pages 37 – 39. Peeles Plant Propagation – Tree planting on farmlands. Jim and Coralie Peele. Te Aroha. Ph: 07 884 9963 Fax: 07 884 9972 Email: [email protected] Siegmund, O.H. et al The Merck Veterinary Manual. Fifth Edition 1979. ISBN 0076–6542. The Tree Cropper Issue 25 Spring 2000 – Natives, pages 13 – 15. Your local regional council or Landcare Trust will have lots of information to draw from.

Cropping
Gita Henderson Biodynamic Perspectives Farming and Gardening. by NZ Biodynamic Assn pub Random House. IBSN 1 86941 460 8 Pearce, N. A Biodynamic Farmer’s Handbook. by IBSN 0 473 01894 2 Shepherd, T.G., Ross, C.W., Bashar, L.R. and Saggar, S., 2000. Soil Management Guidelines for Sustainable Cropping. Available from Touchwood Books. Web: touchwoodbooks.co.nz

Effluent
Dexcel. 2003 A Guide to managing Farm Dairy Effluent. Farm 4 Tomorrow – environment and animal welfare. Version 1 pub 2003, constantly being updated. A very valuable resource. Farm Dairy Effluent. Published by the Dairying and Environment Committee. Available through Fonterra Farm Dairy Management. Published by the Dairying and Environment Committee. Available through Fonterra Farm Production and Practice – Effluent Ponds , Tree Surrounds. - MAF Information sheet Lampkin, N. 1990. Organic Farming. Farming Press, Ipswich UK Ravensdown Fertiliser Newsletter. Aug 2002. Where there’s Muck there’s…grass. Tanner, C. Research done on APS and wetland systems for effluent. NIWA. P O Box 11–115, Hamilton. Web: www.niwa.co.nz

Resources and Suggested Reading:
Russell, E. Report on Radionics ISBN 85435–002–0 Byrd & Tompkins Secrets of the Soil Byrd & Tompkins. Secret Life of Plants Lyle, H. Enlivened Rock Powders Moore, A. Stone Age Farming Callahan, P. Paramagnetism

The Findhorn Community Gardens published by the Findhorn
Press.

Livestock
Niezen, J.H. Effect of Pasture Species on Parasitism in Lambs. Report to MRDC on Project 91 MT 25/1.1, reported in the Bio-Gro Newsletter 25 February 1999.

Water
Bentley, R. ‘A Thirst for Knowledge’ Growing Today. July 2003 pp 66 and 67.

Suppliers:
(there are others – check the internet – type in radionics) Aquarius Technologies Ltd Box 11–525, Ellerslie, Auckland Ph/fax: 09 579 4551 Email: [email protected]

Pasture
Anderson, A.B. 2000 Science in Agriculture. Available from www.touchwoodbooks.co.nz Agriseeds, 2002. The New Zealand Pasture Guide – Dairy Anchormart, 2002. Seed Guide. Farmlands, 2002. Farmlands Pasture Guide. Specialty Grains and Seeds NZ Ltd. Seed Data – Spring Autumn – Seed sowing catalogue. Wrightson Seeds, 2002. Dairy Pasture Guide.

Wetlands
Regional Councils. Dairying and the Environment Committee 1996 Available from regional councils.

General
www.organicsnewzealand.co.nz www.2farm.co.nz

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APPENDICES

Appendixprofit 1 Trees for shelter &
Contributed by Alan Thatcher

Benefits for animals
On higher altitude farms wind chill factors of –10º to –15º are not uncommon in exposed areas. The effect on animal health and production is well known by those who regularly experience it. What may not be appreciated by those at lower altitudes is the less dramatic but still very significant stress placed on animals by adverse conditions, especially the combination of cold and wet

Taranaki, Manawatu and Canterbury are traditionally the windiest areas of the country, although anywhere near the coast can also be tough. This article is written with cold wet winds in mind, although the principles can also be applied to hot dry conditions as experienced in the South Island. The value of a good shelterbelt for the protection of animals from wintery winds has long been recognised. What has not been generally realised are the likely positive effects on pasture growth. Unfortunately, many dairy farmers have been slow to appreciate the benefits and most existing shelter is inadequate. Hedges typically cut wind speed for only 2–3 metres into the paddock. Cows bunching together and walking along hedgerows create a mudbath. Over–mature trees that have not been looked after are wet underneath, shade races and cause fertility transfer due to animals camping under them. In high winds they represent an injury risk to animals, a damage risk to fences and, in the case of macrocarpa, an abortion risk to in–calf cows.

like it dry. Neither withstand salt particularly well. In a natural forest young native trees grow with all light excluded from the sides, a difficult situation to replicate in a shelterbelt. If they are planted in the open, they straggle and develop multiple leaders which may cause the tree to eventually split down the middle. Tall natives are much more suited to a woodlot – that scrubby hillside or gorse–filled gully is perfect – just plant them in light wells and watch them go. Smaller natives, however, are the best for under-storey planting. Check out what grows easily in your area but mahoe (whiteywood), karamu, five finger, makomako (wineberry), tarata (lemonwood) and other pittosporums do well just about anywhere. They grow fast, self–seed, attract birds and act as wildlife corridors. Mahoe in particular makes a good emergency cattle feed and purportedly accumulates selenium. You can fill gaps with flaxes and toe toe (not pampas). The cows will keep it trimmed but if it all starts to straggle over the fences out of reach of the cows, it can be controlled using standard hedge cutting equipment. Stay away from karaka, ngaio, rangiora and possibly kowhai unless you can be sure that they or their fruits cannot be reached by the cows. The classic tall shelter tree is radiata and it does a very good job in a wide range of environments. It’s relatively easy to maintain, has a short rotation (around 28 years) and there’s a large established market for a timber crop. However, if you really can’t stand the thought of planting them on your property, consider some alternatives: •
Norfolk Pines will flourish despite the most salt–laden of



Poplar. Fast growing. Excellent for soil stabilisation and

for bringing deep minerals to the surface. You need to plant one of the possum–resistant varieties. Deciduous, so it casts less of a shadow in winter but also a less effective wind–break. Once mature, poplars can be prone to wind throw. There is a small but not particularly consistent market for the timber. Difficult to mill. •
Eucalypts. There are so many varieties adapted to different

Benefits for pasture
Less pugging due to: • • Less cows walking and gathering in one spot Better stabilisation of soil moisture (trees suck moisture out of the soil when it’s wet and slow winds down when it’s dry) • Warmer soil temperatures in spring A preliminary study carried out in South Taranaki a few years ago suggested improved pasture growth rates in the middle of sheltered paddocks more than compensated for reduced growth on the south (shaded) side of well designed shelter belts.

environments, there is one for your farm. 30–35 year rotation. Require careful pruning. Prone to wind throw in areas with a high water table. May be prone to new diseases suddenly introduced from Australia. Excellent timber varieties are available but milling requires expertise. There is an established and growing market in high value grades. Timber is generally insect resistant, some varieties are ground–hardy. Eucalyptus are great, but not for the faint hearted, as great disasters must be expected from time to time. •
Cedrus deodara. The ultimate shelter tree for windy and

dry conditions. It does not like salt wind, however.

Seedling selection
When planting timber trees in a belt, you don’t have the luxury of thinning to the extent you do in a woodlot so good seedling selection is critical. If aged cuttings are available in the species you want to plant then that’s the way to go. Cuttings have a better survival rate and grow much more evenly.

Characteristics of a good shelter belt
The idea is not to form a solid barrier to the wind as this creates turbulence and down–draughts on the lee side – the belts must be permeable. Properly planted and maintained shelter growing to a height of say, 15 metres, should cut wind speeds to tolerable levels (where cows will not actively seek shelter in all but gale force winds) for at least 4 times the height of the shelter – in this case 60 metres into the paddock.

Design
A well-designed belt consists of tall trees pruned to 6–8 metres, growing to 15–20 metres in height at 4 to 6 metre spacings. Around the base is an understorey of smaller trees and shrubs. The tall trees may eventually be felled for a timber crop so a variation may be to plant a second lot of seedlings half way through the rotation between the more mature ones and set back 11⁄2 metres. The diagram (above) illustrates an example using radiata. This allows periodic harvesting without all the shelter suddenly disappearing. •

winds and may be the tree of choice in coastal areas. The timber is very good (although subject to insect attack) and there is a small market for it. Pohutukawa makes a good under-storey where there’s a lot of salt.
Cyprusses (lusitanica, lawsoniana, torulosa) all produce

Airflow over an impermeable object (a hedge):

a top quality, easy milling insect–resistant timber with an established market. Rotation length is around 35 years. Pruning can be hard work. Canker–prone varieties, such as C. macrocarpa or avosomana, should be avoided. Canker disease kills or deforms most trees in most of New Zealand today.
All American conifers produce a toxin in their leaves

Maintenance
Protection of seedlings from pests (hares, possums) may be necessary. There is an organic repellant available, originally developed by the Forest Research Institute. Releasing and pruning the timber crop trees are tasks that must absolutely be done on time if you want to gain maximum value from the trees both in terms of timber and shelter. If you’ve got extensive plantings and minimal time, consider employing a contractor, especially for the higher pruning lifts. Not only birds will love your shelterbelts – possums and stoats will move in too. Control is particularly important if you are in a TB endemic area. It will occasionally be necessary to trim overgrowth away from electric fences, although the cows will mostly do it for you if the bottom wire is high enough. This is a brief summary of things to consider when planting shelter. For more detailed information and to find out what works best in your area, contact your local branch of the NZ Farm Forestry Association.

Airflow through a permeable shelter belt. Wind is slowed, turbulence occurs well above ground level.

Natives vs exotics
Unfortunately, most tall native trees do not handle wind very well until mature. The exceptions in some places may be kahikatea or totara, but totara needs an awful lot of work and kahikatea does not

called isocupressic acid which can cause abortion in cattle during the last 3 months of pregnancy. On average, macrocarpa leaves tend to contain higher levels than other species, but there is a lot of variation between different varieties and even individual trees. It should be relatively easy to breed an ‘abortion–free’ cypress sp but as yet, no one has done it. The risk should be put in perspective. Considering the number of grossly over–mature macrocarpa still growing on dairy farms around the country, the number of attributable abortions is quite small. You can reduce the risk further by pruning on time and taking care the cows cannot reach the prunings.

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Appendix 2 Certification & sources
of information
There are currently three recognised certifying agencies:
Bio–Gro, administered by the NZ Biological Producers Assn Inc NZ
Further information: Bio–Gro P O Box 9693 Marion Square Wellington. Ph: 04 801 9241 Fax: 04 801 9242 Email: info@bio–gro.co.nz Web: www.bio–gro.co.nz

Things to be aware of with certification
This information has been taken from three certifying agencies, Demeter, Bio–Gro and AgriQuality and so is generalised information. It is a general guide so you know what you have to think about and be aware of. Please read the rules of the certifying agency you are planning to work with and get details of their particular requirements. All agencies allow for a transition/conversion period known as ‘In Transition to…’ or ‘In Conversion’, and after you have proved you are able to farm organically full certification will be granted. Each certifying agency has different time spans for Transition/Conversion. Important: When seriously considering certification, please check the details with your own particular certifier.

Fertilisers:
Typically agencies have on their permitted lists materials such as: Low Cadmium natural rock, salt or minerals that are Bio– Gro approved. All fertilisers must have minimal heavy metal content. A certificate is required confirming this. RPR, lime is the most commonly used. On dairy farms RPR, lime etc. can be brought in and spread in the normal procedure. Before the first application, check with your certifier. Fertilisers should be bought from certified/approved suppliers where available. Restricted fertilisers: Other approved forms of trace elements, elemental sulphur, potassium sulphate, Epsom salts, wood ash (free from contaminants). Get permission first. The above is an illustration only. No reliance should be placed on this list matching the requirements of any particular certification agency. Consult the relevant standards and/or the certification agency in every case before making any decisions.

Support groups:
Organic Dairy Producers Group
Russell Simmons Private Box 69 Te Aroha. Ph: 07 884 9797 Fax: 07 884 9797 Mobile: 025 206 6196 Email: [email protected] Ray & Jenny Ridings, 15 Ridings Rd, RD 1 Paeroa, Ph: 07 867 6809 Fax: 07 867 6899 Mobile: 025 290 8109 Email: [email protected]

Record keeping:
1. Keep good records. Buy yourself a diary and fill it out every day. Trivial details will become important, so keep a record of everything, how you used it, what for, how much, at what rate, where it came from. 2. Read and keep all labels. Ask questions before making purchases or using a product. Once you are registered with the certifier, you must have proof from them of their approval for all products you use. Don’t accept salespeoples’ words, ask for written approval (certificates etc). 3. Gather up letters and certificates, especially for brought–in materials, animals and feed as you go, giving details of the source, any treatments and if so, when, and ensuring that it is free from GE.

AgriQuality, administered by AgriQuality New Zealand
Further information: David Brown, Organic Service Manager P O Box 307 Pukekohe Auckland Ph: 09 237 1807 Fax: 09 238 3757 Email: [email protected] Web: www.AgriQuality.com

General:
1. Weeds and pests must be dealt with through preventative methods, through habitation, cultivation and rotation, grazing, mechanical or biological methods. 2. Brought in conventional materials for compost are to be hot composted before applying. Composts can be made and must be heated, aerated, mixed and matured. Demeter (biodynamic) certification also requires the use of the compost preparations to aid the fermentation of all liquid manures and composts. 3. Milking plant and parlours must be kept up to the standards required by NZ Dairy Regulations and MAF approved sanitisers and cleaners can be used. 4. A soil test for contaminants will be required. A minimum of 10% of the level permitted under the food and safety regulations. The main concerns seem to be DDT (max 0.2mg/kg).

Massey University Organic Unit
Organic /Convention Dairy Systems Trial Agricultural Services Massey University Private Bag 11222 Palmerston North Ph: 06 350 4499 Fax: 06 350 5646 Email:[email protected]

Demeter, administered by the Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association in New Zealand Inc.
Further information: Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association in NZ P O Box 39 045 Wellington Mail Centre Ph: 04 589 5366 Fax: 04 589 5365 Email: [email protected] Web: www.biodynamic.org.nz

Dexcel
Private Bag 3221, Hamilton Ph: 07 858 3750 Fax: 07 858 3751 Email: [email protected] Web: www.dexcel.co.nz

Care of the soil:
1. You must aim to sustain and enhance the fertility and life supporting ability of the soil. 2. Demeter certification (biodynamic) requires you to enhance this by a minimum of one application of preparation 500, one of preparation 501 over the whole farm per year. 3. This all means you must endeavour to be as self–contained as is practically possible. 4. Aim to minimise damage to the soil structure through sensible grazing regimes or crop rotations. 5. Each standard has lists of permitted and restricted fertilisers and animal remedies. A permitted material, generally speaking, is one that may be used as of right. 6. A restricted material, generally speaking, is one that the certifying agency wants eventually not to be used at all. However, different agencies have different procedures associated with such lists and such materials, and may have additional specific requirements.

NZ Biodynamic Consultancy Society (Inc)
Secretary: B Gillatt Redhill Rd, R D 1 Dargaville Ph: 09 439 5904 Fax: 09 439 5906 Email: [email protected] Web: www.organicconsultants.co.nz

Animal requirements:
1. Have appropriate breeds of animals that can adapt to your local conditions and breed the ones that are resistant to disease and illness. 2. Stocking rate must be considered. Each certifier is different, and may specify maximum allowed such as 16 SU/HA or 2 fresian cows per HA. This enables animals to produce no more than 170kg nitrogen/HA. 3. Have a good uncontaminated water source for animals and dairy shed. A test may be required for this. 4. Animals must have free access to grazing with a wide range of species, so they can perform their natural feeding behaviour.

There is also a new small grower certification scheme for national certification of produce:
Organic Farm NZ
Soil and Health Association of NZ Inc. P O Box 36–170 Northcote Auckland Ph: 09 419 4536 Fax: 09 419 4556 Email: [email protected] Web: www.organicnz.org

Other contacts can be found in: A Review of New Zealand and International Organic Land Management Research Relevant to Soil Dairy Pasture and Orchard Management in New Zealand by The Research and Development Group of the Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Assn in NZ, 2002. It has articles, summaries, and a wealth of resources and contacts. Available from the Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association in NZ (On website: www.biodynamics.org.nz) or Dexcel

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5. No intensive livestock farming 6. Feeding pads and barns can be used for short periods of time.

transplants, oestrus synchronisation or routine inductions. 2. Surgical practices are discouraged. However the following are permitted for animal health and safety reasons: • Dock lambs under 6 weeks (check your methods) • Castration under 6 weeks • Nose rings • Dehorning up to 6 weeks (debudding) and any older dehorning standards under animal welfare rules. Anaesthetics are involved and a withholding period also. No animal is to be tethered. 3. The minimum standards of the Animal Welfare Advisory Committee (AWAC) must be adhered to.

period it is more likely to be on the agency’s permitted list.
Important: Ensure you check the rules of the certifying agencies to ensure they are allowed before administering them. If in doubt phone or fax someone to make sure.

Anaesthetics with nil withholding Injections and drenches for trace element and vitamin deficiencies (covered earlier)
The above is an illustration only. No reliance should be placed on this list matching the requirements of any particular certification agency. Consult the relevant standards and/or the certification agency in every case before making any decisions.

Brought–in materials/animal movement/grazing off:
1. Supplementary feed: Brought–in feed is to be used in times of feed shortages only and is not generally permitted as routine practice. Where possible plan ahead to avoid these. No GMO’s allowed and always check on this – don’t assume! If you chose to buy in certified meal or get it made up especially, ensure there are no disallowed additives which may mean no materials such as: meat meal or blood and bone, preservatives, pure amino acids, antibiotics, synthetic appetisers, growth promotants, stimulants, urea etc. Check with your certifying agency before committing yourself. Keep the labels with the ingredients and get a letter from your supplier. Hay and silage can also be brought and treated the same as above. A certificate of all treatments to the land and crop will be required. Total maximum allowed: 10% total dry matter requirements for year for stock carried. In cases such as natural disasters or short–term shortages the 10% can be reviewed; however permission must be granted first. Total allowed to be fed each day: 10% to 25% of total daily allowance of dry matter (different certifications have different rates – please check) 2. Animals brought in from conventional farms are not immediately certified for milk and fibre or meat. The length of time depends on your certifying agency’s ruling. Exception: calves up to 7 days old can be brought from conventional farms and reared, gaining organic status after 12 months, provided they have not been treated with antibiotics or other drugs before coming onto your property. Letters declaring treatments at the previous property, any bolus treatments, and identification of the animals must be provided. All animals must be quarantined or held in yards for 48 hours to empty them out, and any animal that has been treated or has bolus treatment must continue to stay in your quarantine paddock for double the withholding period for meat. Make sure your quarantine paddock is an adequate size, as the animals are in there for many weeks if they need to be treated. 10% of uncertified animals can be brought in each year. In special circumstances, like droughts or infertility, this can be increased. However application must be made to the certifying agency before actioning. 3. Grazing off is allowed on certified land. There are limits as to grazing off on non organic–certified pasture (called conventional) depending on the certifier. Grazing beyond the specified limits means the animals concerned lose their organic status.

Each standard has lists of permitted and restricted fertilisers and animal remedies. A permitted material, generally speaking, is one that may be used as of right. A restricted material, generally speaking, is one that the certifying agency wants eventually not to be used at all. However, different agencies have different procedures associated with such lists and such materials, and may have additional specific requirements.

Demeter certification rules allow, on farms In Conversion to Demeter only: For internal parasites, one annual drench that had a withholding period less than 14 days. For flystrike, one annual treatment using a cyromazine preparation. Animals must be identified, quarantined and lose certification for life for meat and 1 year from the end of quarantine for milk. The land will not lose certification under these conditions, as it would if it were full Demeter and the whole herd were similarly drenched.

Seeds:
Seed should be from a certified organic source. If not, ensure the seed is not treated (with fungicide or insecticide) and has no GE. All certifying agencies are different in the procedures you must go through, so check with your certifying agency before proceeding. Treated seed must have prior written approval, it must be proven to be the only available seed and is necessary for your operation. This seed must be then cleaned, the washings sent to a toxic waste agent. Suggestion is to explore your options carefully. Always get a letter or certificate from the supplier giving the status of the seed regardless (even clean seed). Also keep the labels from the bags.

Typically agencies have on their permitted lists materials such as:
Permitted Materials:

Zinc sulphate* Vegetable and paraffin oils Electrolytes* Zinc oxide Iodine Stockholm tar Natural prostoglandins Dextrose* Magnesium chloride Natural vitamin D Teat spray: glycerine, iodine, plant oils Elemental sulphur Neem oil Pyrethrum Herbal remedies Homoeopathy Cider vinegar Calcined magnesite, chalk, dolomite Diatomaceous earth Petroleum jelly Disinfectant for wounds Copper sulphate (foot bath)*
*Depending on certification these can be restricted. Please check. Restricted Materials:

Forbidden practices:
Any drug not listed in the rules are generally forbidden. Any drug that has a withholding period for meat including antibiotics, long acting penicillin, chemically–synthesised allopathic medicines, hormones, anaesthetics etc. Bolus treatments. Hormones or growth promotants. Blanket or routine vaccinations unless required by law.

Calves:
Calves must receive natural organic milk for a minimum of 3 months. It is preferable you use milk from your own cows. Lambs 45 days.

Animal health remedies:
Animal health and restricted remedies:
Use prevention methods through feed supply, herbal remedies and homoeopathy. It is important to remember an animal is not allowed to suffer. If this means administering an allopathic remedy, then it must be done. The animal will no longer be organic and must be put into the quarantine paddock, as described below. If it is an on–going problem, a documented health plan must be submitted to address it. There is to be no routine or scheduled use of interim animal health remedies or drugs. All animals treated must be held in the quarantine paddock for double the withholding period for meat and lose their organic status for a certain period. Check the standards for your certifying agency for details. Each certifying agency has slight variations on what is permitted, restricted and not allowed. This is a general list to give you some idea of the type of remedies you can use. It is not complete. The basic rule of thumb is if it has no withholding

Vaccinations for known diseases on farm Vaccinations required by law Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) Electrolytes (all forms) Propylene glycol, choline and dextrose preparations

Animal welfare:
1. Natural mating is encouraged. Artificial Insemination is permitted for herd improvement. Definitely no embryo

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Appendix 3 Research & Case Studies
Visit the Sustainable Farming Fund website www.maf.govt.nz.sff for information on other organic projects. Organic projects currently listed on the SFF website (September 2003) are: 02/103 Evaluating organic seed and organic seed production systems in NZ and informing growers of the outcomes L02/017 Organic control of downy mildew (Peronospora sparsa Berk) in boysenberries 01/225 Organic management of internal parasites 01/179 Development of technical information resources and an advisory capability for organic and biodynamic producers 01/172 Development of a commercially viable system for organic strawberry–runner production 01/021 Evaluating organic technologies and disseminating protocols to growers 00/355 Canterbury Organic Growers Technology Transfer Project 00/220 Enhanced skill and knowledge for organic pipfruit growers 00/211 Enhancing NZ organic exports by providing information . A review of New Zealand and International Organic Land Management Research – relevant to soil dairy pasture and orchard management in New Zealand by the Research and Development Group of the Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association in New Zealand 2002. Funded by the Sustainable Management Fund.
This is available in hard copy for the cost of postage and handling. The full report is also available online at www.biodynamic.org.nz

Appendix 4 Milli–eqivalents
Case Study of New Zealand Dairy Farms in Transition by Dr A Neil Macgregor, Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University, Palmerston North. This can be found at the above websites and in the review report mentioned above. A financial study of organic dairy farms in New Zealand by Hella Bauer–Eden. This can be found on the Soil and Health Association website: www.organicnz.org/organic2020.htm There is much research and information gathering currently happening in New Zealand, mainly through Massey and Lincoln Universities. Lincoln University has done much, especially on cropping. See Appendix 2 for Massey contact details. The work being done at Massey, as of March 2003, includes: 1. Organic/Conventional Dairy Systems Trial. In addition there is a number of other Massey Organic Dairy Projects. 2. AGMARDT Animal Health project to collate best practice from existing organic dairy farmers. 3. Organic Dairy Extension Service – Fonterra funded and established to run specialist field–days and one day workshops followed by monthly specialist discussion groups supporting farmers interested in conversion. Milli–equivalents is designed to represent the amount of colloidal energy required to absorb and hold to the soil’s negatively charged holding sites certain specific amounts of the various positively charged cations as governed by their each element’s individual specific atomic weight. So 1 ME of total (base) exchange capacity equals the energy to hold the soil’s colloidal system in the top 15 to 17.5 cm of 1 ha of soil of will have approximately: 400kg of the element calcium 240kg of the element magnesium 780kg of the element potassium 440kg of the element sodium 20kg of the element hydrogen Lets take two soils – one is a sandy soil with a CEC of 5 me/ 100g the other is a peat soil and has a CEC of 40 me/100g. Let’s look at the colloidal energy difference between these two soil assuming that they were only going to hold the element calcium. The 5 ME soil would be able to hold 5 X 400kg of calcium = 2000 kg The 40 ME soil would be able to hold 40 X 400kg of calcium = 16,000kg The ME can be likened to the capacity of the soil. It is very important to understand this concept of total exchange capacity.

Appendix 5 Parts Per Million
1 PPM = 2lb/acre 1 PPM = 2.24kg/hectare to convert PPM to lb/acre X2 • •

(PPM or Pounds Per Acre or Kilograms per Hectare)
One acre of topsoil weighs about 2,000,000lbs therefore one PPM = 2 pounds per acre

to convert lb/acre to kg/hectare X 1.12

Reason is that you have to divide by 2.2 and to convert lb to kg and divide by 2.47 to convert the lb to hectares (2.47/2.2 = 1.12) • to convert PPM to kg/hectare X 2.24

Reason is that you have to multiply PPM by 2 to get lb/acre then multiply this answer by 1.12 to convert lb/acre to kg/hectare (2 X 1.12 = 2.24)
Note: for rough calculations it is close enough to consider that

1 PPM = 2 lb/acre is the same as 1PPM = 2 kg/hectare.

Volume weight
(was called Bulk Density)
This is the weight of a known volume of air–dried and ground soil. This figure gives and idea of the soil’s physical characteristics. It also allows for the conversion of test results to other units if necessary.
Guidelines

Here is another table that can be used to convert some of the units in soil test reports
to convert me/100g to ug/ml for potassium calcium magnesium sodium potassium calcium magnesium sodium
Note:

me/100g X 391 X VW = ug/ml me/100g X 200 X VW = ug/ml me/100g X 122 X VW = ug/ml me/100g X 230 X VW = ug/ml me/100g X 20.8 X VW = MAF K me/100g X 1.29 X VW = MAF Ca me/100g X 23.3 X VW = MAF Mg me/100g X 53 X VW = MAF Na

Soil type Sandy Clay Peat

V W (g/ml) 1.0 0.8 0.5

Soil quality and financial performance of biodynamic and conventional farms in New Zealand. Science 260: 344–349. Also known as ‘The Reganold Report’ can be found on the OPENZ website: www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz

to convert me/100g to MAF units

• • • •

for results on a weight basis ug/g = mg/kg = PPM for results on a volume basis ug/ml = mg/L = PPM for results on a per hectare basis (7.5cm sample) ug/mL X 0.75 =kg/ha VW = volume weight (used to be referred to as bulk density)

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Appendix 6 Observing your clovers
and legumes:
Deficiency indicators
Nitrogen Yellowing especially in the older leaves which die and drop off. Blue–green colour, stiff stunted and erect growth. Small dark green to purplish curled leaves. White spots in an even pattern around leaf margins. Yellowing and death of leaves. Stalks collapse on youngest fully developed leaves. Impaired root growth or rotting. Yellowing of lower leaves, margins initially remain green. Dwarfed plants with red–purple discolouration of lower leaves and yellow top foliage. Yellowing of youngest leaves, bleached appearance. Yellowing of leaves and growth reduction. Reduced leaf size and upward curling of youngest leaves. Youngest leaves are bent back with pale grey to white spots. Pale green stunted as with nitrogen deficiency. Phosphorus

Appendix 7 General Resources
Most resources are found in their specific topics throughout the document.
Acres USA Acres USA (magazine). There is also a bookstore. Touchwood Books in Hastings has access to the Bookstore catalogue. www.acresusa.com Dairying and Environment Committee, Farm Dairy Management published by the Available through Fonterra or Dairy Insight Davies Peter MJ 1988 Organic Farming in New Zealand, The Farmer and His Environment. Pub by Tokoroa Printers, NZ Available from Touchwood Books. de Bairacli Levy Juliette. 1991 The Complete Herbal Handbook for Farm and Stable Faber. ISBN 0–571–13205–7 du Faur Ralph 1981 Dairy Herd Husbandry. Dairy Exporter ISBN 0–908596–11–1 Fisk T, 2003, Practical Organics for New Zealand farmers. Pub NZ Lampkin N, 1990 Organic Farming. Pub Farming Press, Ipswich UK Organic Broadcaster (newsletter) www.mosesorganic.org Pearce. Norrie 1993 A Biodynamic Farmer’s Handbook. Pub by Norrie Pearce, NZ. ISBN 0–473–01894–2 Proctor Peter and Cole Gillian 1997 Grasp the Nettle. Random House, NZ ISBN 1–86941–318–0 Vet Science Faculty Massey University 1992 The Farmers’ Veterinary Guide. Dairy Exporter Books ,NZ Zimmer Gary Dairy Nutrition. Available from www.midweternbioag.com Zimmer Gary The Biological Farmer.Available from www.midweternbioag.com

Product:
www.organicvalley.com www.meat.co.nz www.koanga.org.nz www.qconz.co.nz

Suppliers (this list is not complete and may change)
Earthwise and Bettacrop Box 9128 Hamilton Ph: 07 824 4881

Soil Foodweb contact:
Richard and Cherryle Prew 982 Kaipaki Rd, R D 3 Cambridge Ph: 07 827 6682 Fax: 07 827 3787 Email: [email protected] Web: www.compost–tea.co.nz

Research/certification:
www.organicsnewzealand.org www.biodynamics.org.nz hwww.bio–gro.co.nz hwww.agriquality.co.nz www.eartheal.org.nz : (permaculture) www.soilandhealth.org.nz www.organic–research.com www.environment.org.nz/ccog www.agresearch.cri.nz www.hortreasearch.cri.nz

Fertiliser
Ocean Organics Ltd 4 Fraser St, Paeroa, New Zealand Ph: 07 862 8424 Fax: 07 862 8404 Web: www.oceanorganics.co.nz. Sieber NZ Ltd (Biophos and Moana Chelates) P O Box 405, Waiuku Ph: 09 239 0210 Agrissentials NZ Ltd (fertiliser) 126 Lochead Rd, P O Box 16 091, Tauranga Ph: 07 552 4343 Fax: 07 552 4383 Freeph: 0800 843 539 Email: [email protected] Web: www.agrissentials.com

Potassium

Calcium

Soil:
www.soilfoodweb.com www.compost–tea.co.nz

Magnesium

Boron

USA organic sites:
www.acresusa.com www.mosesorganic.org www.midwesternbioag.com

Books
Touchwood Books Box 610, Hastings. Ph: 06 874 2872 Web: www.touchwoodbooks.co.nz

Iron

Lists of suppliers giving sources of organic products and services:

Source of refractometers
Bell Technology – John Butler 0–18% Brix model RES Series Ph: 09 525 1875 or Fax: 09 525 1874 Probitas Ltd Woodland Rd, R D 2, Waihi Ph: 07 863 7981 Fax: 07 863 7989

Manganese

Websites:
Consultants/general information:
www.organicconsultants.co.nz www.lifestyleblock.co.nz/ www.2farm.co.nz www.dexcel.co.nz/ www.farmwise.co.nz/ www.caprine.co.nz/ www.qconz.co.nz

www.bio–gro.co.nz www.organicpathways.co.nz www.touchwoodbooks.co.nz www.organic–register.com home.xtra.co.nz/hosts/earthwise www.soilandhealth.org/index.html

Zinc

Copper

Homoeopathy for Animals
Seasonal Solutions Ltd Heather Stewart Welcome Bay, Tauranga Freeph: 0800 926462 HFS (Homoeopathic Farm Support) P O Box 9025, Hamilton Ph: 07 858 4233 Fax: 07 858 4234 Email: [email protected] Web: www.farmsupport.co.nz

Molybdenum

Source: Taranaki Farmers Maize Silage Club Newsletter Aug Edition 2002. with permission from Taranaki Farmers.

Animal health:
www.searchnz.co.nz/mastitis www.dreamland.co.nz/haurakihomeopathics (Email: [email protected]) www.farmsupport.co.nz/ www.maf.govt.nz/MAFnet/links/organiclnk.html www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4152521,00.html (homoeopathy research)

Cider vinegar and animal remedies
Coral Tree Organic Products Ltd 44 Waihou Rd, P O Box 660, Levin. Ph: 06 368 0833 Fax: 06 368 7888 Email [email protected] Web: www.organically-nz.co.nz

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INDEX

Appendix 8 various elements found in rock Paramagnetic values of
Element uCGS.

Index
Symbols
16 elements 18, 39

The composition of igneous rock (that which comes from larva or magma - volcanic rock) is listed below.
Element . . . . . . . . . . . . PPM. (part per million) Element . . . . . . . . . . . . PPM. (part per million)

H
Chicory 83, 117, 121, 122, 125, 129 chlorine 18, 20, 29, 81, 142, 159 Cider vinegar 66, 73, 78, 81, 87, 91, 99, 100, 101, 106, 154, 167, 171 Clay 169 Clovers 115 Cobalt 36, 58, 64, 71, 79, 81, 98 Cocksfoot 113, 119, 122, 124 Compost 33, 35, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54, 61, 147 Compost Preparations 44 Compost tea 50 Copper 16, 18, 23, 27, 37, 55, 58, 64, 71, 79, 82, 83, 85, 129, 167, 170 Coppicing 140 cow condition scoring 155 cow manure composts. See cow pat pits cow pat pits 44 Cow Pox 105 Cracks 105 Crop nutrients 19 Crop rotation 41 Cud chewing 65 herbal ley 112, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123 Herbs 69, 117 Herb teas 81 Humates 33 humic acids 33, 56, 61 Humus 12, 16, 24, 48 hydrogen 18, 19, 20, 25, 28, 30, 53, 59, 169

Aluminium (Al) . . . . . . . . 16.5 Americium (Am) . . . . 1000.0 Cerium (Ce) . . . . . . . . 2420.0 - 6230.0 Cesium (Cs) . . . . . . . . 29.0 CsO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4504.0 Chromium (Cr) . . . . . . . . 180.0 Cr(SO4)2*8H20 . . . . 12700.0 Cobalt (Co) (ferro) CoBr2 ........ 13000.0 Co(PO4)2 . . . . . . . . 28110.0 Copper (Cu) ........ -5.5 (diamagnetic) Cu(NO3)2*6H2O . . . . 1625.0 Dysprosium (Dy) 103500.0 Dy2(SO4)2 . . . . . . . . 91400.0 Erbium (Er) .... 44300.0 Er2S3 ........ 77200.0 Europium (Eu) . . . . 34000.0 Gadolinium (Gd) 755000.0 Holmium (Ho) Ho2(SO4)2 . . . . . . . . 91700.0 Iron (Fe) (ferro) FeCl3*6H2O .... 15250.0 Manganese (Mn) . . . . 529.0 MnSO4*5 H2O . . . . 14700.0 Molybdennum (Mo) . . . . 108.0 MoCl4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750.0 Neodymium (Nd) . . . . 5628.0 Nd2O3 ........ 10200.0 Nickel (Ni) (ferro) NiCl2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 6145.0 Niobium (Nb) . . . . . . . . 195.0 Palladium (Pd) . . . . . . . . 567.4 PdF3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1760.0 Potassium (K) . . . . . . . . 20.0 (most compounds are diamagnetic) K2 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3230.0 (with this exception) Praseodymium (Pr) . . . . 5010.0 Pr2S3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 10770.0 Rhenium (Re) . . . . . . . . 67.6 ReCl5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225.0 Rhodium (Rh) . . . . . . . . 111.0 Rh2O3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 500.0 Rubidium (Rb) . . . . . . . . 17.0 RbO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1527.0 Ruthenium (Ru) . . . . 43.2 RuCl3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1998.0 Samarium (Sm) . . . . 1860.0 SmBr2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 5337.0 Scandium (Sc) . . . . . . . . 315.0 Tantalum (Ta) . . . . . . . . 154.0 TaF3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795.0 Technetium (Tc) . . . . 250.0 Terbium (Tb) . . . . 146000.0 Thulium (Tm) . . . . 25500.0 TmO3 ........ 51444.0 Titanium (Ti) . . . . . . . . 153.0 TiF2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1790.0 Tungsten (W) . . . . . . . . 59.0 WO3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5850.0 Uranium (U) . . . . . . . . 395.0 UH3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9306.0 Vanadium (V) . . . . . . . . 255.0 VBr3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8540.0 Ytterbium (Yb) . . . . . . . . 249.0 Yb2S3 ........ 18300.0

Ac Actinium . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0000000000000005.5 Ag Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.07 Al Aluminum . . . . . . . . 5000 Ar Argon . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 5 As Arsenic ........ 1-8 Au Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.004 B Boron . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Ba Barium . . . . . . . . 425 Be Beryllium . . . . . . . . 2 - 8 Bi Bismuth ........ 0.17 Br Bromium . . . . . . . . 3 - 5 C Carbon . . . . . . . . 200 Ca Calcium .... 41500 Cd Cadmium . . . . . . . . 0.2 Ce Cerium . . . . . . . . 60 Cl Chlorine . . . . . . . . 130 Cm Curium ........ 0.001 Co Cobalt . . . . . . . . 25 Cr Chromium . . . . . . . . 100 Cs Cesium ........ 1 Cu Copper . . . . . . . . 55 Dy Dysprosium .... 3 Er Erbium ........ 2.8 Eu Europium . . . . . . . . 1 - 2 F Florine . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 Fe Iron . . . . . . . . 56300 Ga Gallium . . . . . . . . 15 Gd Gadolium . . . . . . . . 5.4 Ge Germanium .... 5.4 H Hydrogen . . . . . . . . 1000 He Helium ........ 0.008 Hf Hafnium ........ 3 Hg Mercury ........ 0.08 Ho Holmium . . . . . . . . 1.2 I Iodine . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 In Indium ........ 0.05 - 1.0 Ir Iridium . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.001 K Potassium . . . . 20000 Kr Krypton ........ 0.001 La Lanthanum . . . . . . . . 30 Li Lithium . . . . . . . . 20 Lu Lutecium . . . . . . . . 0.5 Mg Magnesium 23300 Mn Manganese . . . . 950 Mo Molybdenum .... 1.5

N Nitrogen . . . . . . . . 20 Na Sodium .... 23600 Nb Niobium . . . . . . . . 20 Nd Neodymium . . . . 28 Ne Neon . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.005 Ni Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 O Oxygen . . . . 464000 Os Osmium ........ 0.0015 P Phosphorus . . . . . . . . 1050 Pa Protoactinium . . . . 0.000001.4 Pb Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 Pd Palladium . . . . . . . . 0.01 Po Polonium . . . . . . . . 0.0000000002 Pr Praseodymium . . . . 8.2 Pt Platinum ........ 0.005 Ra Radium ........ 0.0000009 Rb Rubidium . . . . . . . . 90 Re Rhenium . . . . . . . . 0.005 Rh Rhodium . . . . . . . . 0.001 Rn Radon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0000000000004 Ru Ruthenium . . . . . . . . 0.001 S Sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Sb Antimony . . . . . . . . 0.2 Sc Scandium . . . . . . . . 22 Se Selenium . . . . . . . . 0.05 Si Silicon . . . . . . . . 281500 Sm Samarium . . . . . . . . 6 Sn Tin ............ 2 Sr Strontium . . . . . . . . 375 Ta Tantalum . . . . . . . . 2 Tb Terbium ........ 0.9 Te Tellurium . . . . . . . . 0.001 Th Thorium ........ 6-9 Ti Titanium . . . . . . . . 5700 Tl Thallium ........ 0.45 Tm Thullium . . . . . . . . 0.48 U Uranium ........ 2.7 V Vanadium . . . . . . . . 135 W Tungsten . . . . . . . . 1.5 Xe Xenon . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00003 Y Yttrium . . . . . . . . 33 Yb Ytterbium . . . . . . . . 3 Zn Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Zr Zirconium . . . . . . . . 165

A
abortion 99, 106, 162, 163 aerobic 33, 35, 44, 47, 59, 135, 147 Air 11 Algae 15 Alterative 71 Aluminium 23, 24, 25 Analgesic 71, 100 Animal Remedies Act 67 Animal requirements 165 Animal Welfare Act 7 Anoestrus 96, 97, 98 anti-fungal. See Antimicrobial Anti-spasmodic 71 Anti- inflammatory 71 Antimicrobial 71 Antiseptic 71 Arthropods 17

I
infections. See Antiseptic infection of the uterus 101 Infertility 96, 107 initiate labour 99 Iodine 64, 79, 83, 87, 129, 142, 167 Iron 16, 18, 23, 37, 55, 58, 71, 79, 82, 83, 129, 170

L
lameness 65, 84, 101, 102, 109, 154 Land Management Research 164, 168 legumes 36, 38, 49, 56, 79, 81, 112, 113, 115, 118, 119, 120, 121, 125, 139, 170 liquid fertilisers 44, 45, 79, 80, 125, 127, 128 liquid teas, 44 Liver samples 64, 79 Lucerne 113, 116, 117, 122, 124, 125, 129, 139 lungs. See Pectoral

B
Bacteria 14 basalt 45, 58, 59 base exchange 20 base saturation 24, 27, 28, 29, 116 beef 79, 120, 123, 127, 133, 142, 143, 149, 153, 154 behaviour 29, 60, 63, 88, 97, 109, 154, 157, 158, 165 Biodynamic 47, 60 biological control 41, 61 Birdsfoot Trefoil 116, 122 Black leg 103 bleeding. See Syptic blood purifier. See Alterative Blood tests 64 boron 18, 24, 27, 36 bray 31 breeding 77, 90, 95, 96, 102, 149, 151, 158 Brix 18, 51, 52, 60, 61, 139, 171 Brome. See Matua Brought-in feed 166 Bulk Density). See Volume Weight bulls 73, 98, 144, 151, 154, 156, 157 burns. See Demulcent

D
Demulcent 71 digestive. See Carminative drench gun, 106 Drying off 105

E
Earthworms 15 earthworms 43 effluent 44, 45, 52, 53, 61, 81, 109, 111, 125, 135, 136, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 160 elemental sulphur 32, 89, 165 endophyte 113, 114 excessive element 18 Existing Bush 133 extracts or oils 71

M
MAF 23 Magnesium 16, 18, 24, 25, 28, 170, 172 Mandersonís Mixture 93 manganese 18, 19, 20, 27, 37, 143 Manuka Honey 106 Mastitis 86, 107 mating 80, 81, 96, 97, 98, 156, 157, 166 Matua 113 mechanical 41 mercury 18 micro-organisms 46 milk production. See Galactorue Mineral 11 Molasses 94 molybdenum 18, 19, 20, 36, 37, 38, 82, 125 mutilations 154, 166 mycorrhizal fungi 21, 56

F
Fibre 65 financial study 168 fish 6, 31, 35, 49, 53, 54, 64, 144, 146 five freedoms 63. See Animal Welfare Act Fly strike 153 Fodder trees 137 Footbaths 102 Fungi 14 fungi 20, 31, 34, 50

Hence the reason for adding volcanic rock to soils in a finely ground form!

C
cadmium 18 Calcium 16, 18, 23, 24, 27, 33, 57, 60, 71, 79, 83, 129 calves 32, 76, 77 Carbohydrates 33 Carbon 18, 33, 34, 47, 49, 79 Carminative 71 Case Study 168 cation balance 22 Cation exchange capacity (CEC) 24 Certification 45, 161, 164 Chaffing 105

G
Gorse 127, 128 granite 58, 59 Grasses 113 Grass staggers 95 grazing off 65, 166 Green manures 35, 120

N
Navel Ill 78 Neem oil 89, 90, 167 Nematodes 15 nematodes 34, 50 nerves. See Sedative; See Sedative Nitrogen 16, 18, 33, 34, 35, 47, 52, 58, 79, 170 nitrogen cycle 28, 33, 34

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nourishes. See Nutritive Nutrient uptake by roots 20 Nutritive 71

S
sacrifice paddock). See quarantine paddock salt 19, 25, 27, 29, 36, 49, 59, 60 Salt fertilisers 59 salt lick 94 Sand 20 Sandy 169 Scours 76, 78 seaweed 41, 44, 49, 53, 54, 64, 80, 81, 93, 94, 98, 99, 100, 104, 106, 111, 133, 154 Sedative 71 Selenium 38, 64, 71, 79, 81, 85, 98 Sheep 107, 115, 135, 143, 149, 153, 154, 155, 160 Sheeps/Salad Burnett 118 shelter belt 162 Shock 105 Silicon 38, 79, 129 Sodium 16, 23, 24, 29, 30, 55, 60, 79, 83, 90, 124, 129 sodium content 124 Soil and plant interaction 18 soil food web 20, 47, 52 Soil nutrient reserves 17 soil testing 22 Somatic cell counts 84 soothing. See Demulcent Sore Teats 105 spray drift 50, 57, 111, 132, 134, 138, 159 Spray equipment. See spray tanks spray tanks 158, 159 steam cleaning 76 Stocking rate 165 stock management 63, 64 stock transportation 154 Straw 8, 29, 66 Strawberry clover 117 Subterranean Clover 117 Sulla 117, 122 sulphur 24, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 43, 44, 49, 57 superphosphate 30, 31, 32, 60, 64 Syptic 71

U
Udder treatments 87 Ulcers 105 uterine contractions. See Oxytocic

O
Oats 31, 70, 71, 124, 125 Oestrus 97, 98, 157, 166 Ointments 72, 87 Olsen P 23, 30 Organic matter 11, 24 Oxygen 18, 47, 58, 172 Oxytocic 71

V
Vaccination 76 Vermicast 54, 55, 56, 147 vitamin C 82, 93, 99 Volume weight 23, 169

P
pain relief. See Analgesic Paralysis 100 paramagnetic 41, 57, 58, 59, 60 Peat 169 Pectoral 71 Peppering 128, 130 Permitted Materials 167 Pest control 130 pH 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 30, 37, 38, 47, 49, 52 Phalaris 117, 118, 122, 124 Phosphate retention 31 phosphorus 18, 20, 23, 28, 30, 31, 83, 116, 129 Poisonous Native Plants 138 Possums 130, 135 potassium 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 36, 39, 40, 44, 53, 54, 57, 169 Potassium chloride 29, 60 Potassium sulphate 28, 40, 60 Potentisation 68, 128 Power Lines 132 Preparation 500 43 Preparation 501 44 Protozoa 15 protozoa 34, 50 Pulpy kidney 153

W
Warts 105 Water 11, 141 Water requirements 143 Water uptake 19 Weeds 79, 107, 113, 126, 127, 161, 165 Welfare 63, 67, 75, 111, 143, 166 Wetlands 53, 135, 143, 144, 147, 161 White Clover 115 White line disease 101, 102 Woody tongue 104 Worms 75, 76, 77, 106, 129, 143, 147 Wounds 104

Y
Yorkshire Fog 115

Z
Zinc 16, 18, 23, 39, 55, 64, 79, 82, 85, 102, 167, 170

Q
quarantine paddock 109, 116, 121, 122, 158, 166

T
Tail docking 154 Tall Fescue 114, 115, 122, 124 Teas 61, 72, 128 Teatree oil 101 Teat sprays 87 The Senses 156 Timothy 114, 115, 119, 122, 124 Tonic 71, 73, 106 transpiration 19 treating effluent 146 Trees and shrubs for honey 139 Trees for Firewood 140 Trees for protection of waterways 135 Trees for shade 134 Trees for shelter 134 Trees for timber and erosion control 135 Tree Planting around ponds, dams, and effluent ponds 135

R
Rabbits 130 Ragwort 127, 128 Rearing calves 75 Record keeping 165 Red Clover 71, 82, 115, 117, 124, 125 refractometer 18, 30, 51, 52, 60 Reserve Potassium 29 Resin P 23, 30, 31 Restricted fertilisers 165 Restricted Materials 167 Retained membranes 100 Ribwort Plantain 118 Ringworm 89, 105 rock dust 57, 128 Rotavirus 76 Ryegrass 113, 114, 122, 124

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