PRINTINGT TECHNO

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The history of printing started around 3.000 BC in Mesopotamia with the duplication of images. The use of round "cylinder seals" for rolling an impress onto clay tablets goes back to early Mesopotamian civilization before 3,000 BC, where they are the most common works of art to survive, and feature complex and beautiful images. In both China and Egypt, the use of small stamps for seals preceded the use of larger blocks. In Egypt, Europe and India, the printing of cloth certainly preceded the printing of paper or papyrus; this was probably also the case in China. The process is essentially the same - in Europe special presentation impressions of printswere often printed on silk until at least the seventeenth century.

Block printing
Main article: Woodblock printing

Yuan Dynasty woodblock edition of aChinese play

Block printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asiaand originating in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later, under the influence of Buddhism, on paper. As a method of printing on cloth, the earliest surviving examples from Chinadate to about 220, and from Egypt to the 4th century.[1] Ukiyo-e is the best known type of Japanesewoodblock art print. Most European uses of the technique on paper are covered by the art termwoodcut, except for the block-books produced mainly in the fifteenth century.

[edit]In

India

In Buddhism, great merit is thought to accrue from copying and preserving texts , the fourth-century master, listing the copying of scripture as the first of ten essential religious practices. The importance of perpetuating texts is set out with special force in the larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra which not only urges the devout to hear, learn, remember and study the text but to obtain a good copy and to preserve it. This ‗cult of the book‘ led to techniques for reproducing texts in great numbers, especially the short prayers or charms known as dhāraṇī-s. Stamps were carved for printing these prayers on

clay tablets from at least the seventh century, the date of the oldest surviving examples. [2] Especially popular was the Pratītyasamutpāda Gāthā, a short verse text summing up Nāgārjuna's philosophy of causal genesis or dependent origination. Nagarjuna lived in the early centuries of the current era and the Buddhist Creed, as the Gāthā is frequently called, was printed on clay tablets in huge numbers from the sixth century. This tradition was transmitted to China and Tibet with Buddhism. Printing text from woodblocks does not, however, seem to have been developed in India.

[edit]In

China

The earliest woodblock printed fragments are from China. They consist of printed flowers in three colours on silk. They are generally assigned to the Han dynasty so date before 220 CE.[3] The earliest Egyptian printed cloth, in contrast, dates from a slightly later time, about the fourth century.[1] The technology of printing on cloth in China was adapted to paper under the influence of Buddhism which mandated the circulation of standard translations over a wide area, as well as the production of multiple copies of key texts for religious reasons. The oldest wood-block printed book is the Diamond Sutra, translated into Chinese by Kumarajiva in the fifth century. It carries a date on 'the 13th day of the fourth moon of the ninth year of the Xiantong era' (i.e. 11 May 868).[4] A number printed dhāraṇī-s, however, predate the Diamond Sūtra by about two hundred years (see Tang Dynasty).

[edit]In

the Islamic world

Block printing, called tarsh in Arabic was developed in Arabic Egypt during the 9th-10th centuries, mostly for prayers and amulets. There is some evidence to suggest that the print blocks were made from a variety of different materials besides wood, including metals such as tin, leadand cast iron, as well as stone, glass and clay. However, the techniques employed are uncertain and they appear to have had very little influence outside of the Muslim world. Though Europe adopted woodblock printing from the Muslim world, initially for fabric, the technique of metal block printing remained unknown in Europe. Block printing later went out of use in Islamic Central Asia after movable type printing was introduced from China.[5]

[edit]In

Europe

Block printing first came to Christian Europe as a method for printing on cloth, where it was common by 1300. Images printed on cloth for religious purposes could be quite large and elaborate, and when paper became relatively easily available, around 1400, the medium transferred very quickly to small woodcut religious images and playing cards printed on paper. These prints were produced in very large numbers from about 1425 onwards. Around the mid-century, block-books, woodcut books with both text and images, usually carved in the same block, emerged as a cheaper alternative to manuscripts and books printed with movable type. These were all short heavily illustrated works, the bestsellers of the day, repeated in many different block-book versions: the Ars moriendi and the Biblia pauperum were the most common. There is still some controversy among scholars as to whether their introduction preceded or, the majority view, followed the introduction of movable type, with the range of estimated dates being between about 1440–1460.[6]

The volume of Joseph Needham's Science and Civilization in China dealing with Paper and printing has a chapter that suggests that "European block printers must not only have seen Chinese samples, but perhaps had been taught by missionaries or others who had learned these un-European methods from Chinese printers during their residence in China.", but he also admitted that the "only evidence of European printing transmitted from China is a lack of counterevidence".[7] However, paper itself was needed for the printing process and this came to Europe via trade with the Arabs from China. Historians acknowledge that paper indeed came from China without which printing would have been impossible, however, there is less direct evidence of the influence of printing technology from Asia and its influence on European printing technology.[citation needed]

[edit]Stencil
Main article: Stencil Stencils may have been used to color cloth for a very long time; the technique probably reached its peak of sophistication in Katazome and other techniques used on silks for clothes during the Edo period in Japan. In Europe, from about 1450 they were very commonly used to colourold master prints printed in black and white, usually woodcuts. This was especially the case with playing-cards, which continued to be coloured by stencil long after most other subjects for prints were left in black and white. Stenciling back in the 2600 BC's was different. They used color from plants and flowers such as indigo (which extracts blue). Stencils were used for mass publications, as the type didn't have to be hand-written.

[edit]Movable

type

Main article: Movable type See also: History of typography in East Asia and History of Western typography

Korean moveable metal typeset form, used to print 月印千江之曲 in 1447.

A case of cast metal type pieces and typeset matter in a composing stick

Movable type is the system of printing and typography using movable pieces of metal type, made by casting from matrices struck by letterpunches. Around 1040, the first known movable type system was created in China by Bi Sheng out ofporcelain. Metal movable type was first invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty (around 1230). Neither movable type system was widely used, one reason being the enormous Chinese character set. It is traditionally summarized that Johannes Gutenberg, of the German city of Mainz, developed European movable type printing technology around 1439[8] and in just over a decade, the European age of printing began. However, the details show a more complex evolutionary process spread over multiple locations.[9] Also, Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer experimented with Gutenberg in Mainz. Compared to woodblock printing, movable type page-setting was quicker and more durable. The metal type pieces were more durable and the lettering was more uniform, leading to typography andfonts. The high quality and relatively low price of the Gutenberg Bible (1455) established the superiority of movable type, and printing presses rapidly spread across Europe, leading up to theRenaissance, and later all around the world. Today, practically all movable type printing ultimately derives from Gutenberg's movable type printing, which is often regarded as the most important invention of the second millennium.[10] Gutenberg is also credited with the introduction of an oil-based ink which was more durable than previously used waterbased inks. Having worked as a professional goldsmith, Gutenberg made skillful use of the knowledge of metals he had learned as a craftsman. Gutenberg was also the first to make his type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, known as type metal, printer's lead, or printer's metal, which was critical for producing durable type that produced high-quality printed books, and proved to be more suitable for printing than the clay, wooden or bronze types used in East Asia. To create these lead types, Gutenberg used what some considered his most ingenious invention, a special matrix wherewith the moulding of new movable types with an unprecedented precision at short notice became feasible. Within a year of printing the Gutenberg Bible, Gutenberg also published the first coloured prints. The invention of the printing press revolutionized communication and book production leading to the spread of knowledge. Rapidly, printing spread from Germany by emigrating German printers, but also by foreign apprentices returning home. A printing press was built in Venice in 1469, and by 1500 the city had 417 printers. In 1470 Johann Heynlin set up a printing press in Paris. In 1473 Kasper Straube published theAlmanach cracoviense ad annum 1474 in Kraków. Dirk Martens set up a printing press in Aalst (Flanders) in 1473. He printed a book about the two lovers of Enea Piccolomini who became pope Pius II.In 1476 a printing press was set up in England by William Caxton. BelarusianFrancysk Skaryna printed the first book in Slavic language on August 6, 1517. The Italian Juan Pablos set up an imported press in Mexico Cityin 1539. The first printing press in Southeast Asia was set up in the Philippines by

the Spanish in 1593. The Rev. Jose Glover brought the first printing press to England's American colonies in 1638, but died on the voyage, so his widow, Elizabeth Harris Glover, established the printing house, which was run by Stephen Day and became The Cambridge Press.[11] The Gutenberg press was much more efficient than manual copying and still was largely unchanged in the eras of John Baskerville andGiambattista Bodoni, over 300 years later.[12] By 1800, Lord Stanhope had constructed a press completely from cast iron, reducing the force required by 90% while doubling the size of the printed area.[12] While Stanhope's "mechanical theory" had improved the efficiency of the press, it still was only capable of 250 sheets per hour. [12] German printer Friedrich Koenig would be the first to design a non-manpowered machine—using steam.[12] Having moved to London in 1804, Koenig soon met Thomas Bensley and secured financial support for his project in 1807. [12]Patented in 1810, Koenig had designed a steam press "much like a hand press connected to a steam engine." [12] The first production trial of this model occurred in April 1811.

[edit]Flat-bed

printing press

Main articles: Printing press and Spread of the printing press

Printing press from 1811, photographed in Munich, Germany.

A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring an image. The systems involved were first assembled in Germany by the goldsmith Johann Gutenberg in the mid-15th century.[8] Printing methods based on Gutenberg's printing press spread rapidly throughout first Europe and then the rest of the world, replacing most block printing and making it the sole progenitor of modern movable type printing. As a method of creating reproductions for mass consumption, The printing press has been superseded by the advent of offset printing.

Johannes Gutenberg's work in the printing press began in approximately 1436 when he partnered with Andreas Dritzehen—a man he had previously instructed in gem-cutting—and Andreas Heilmann, owner of a paper mill.[8] It was not until a 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg that official record exists; witnesses testimony discussed type, an inventory of metals (including lead) and his type mold.[8] Others in Europe were developing movable type at this time, including goldsmith Procopius Waldfoghel of France and Laurens Janszoon Coster of the Netherlands.[8] They are not known to have contributed specific advances to the printing press.[8] While the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition had attributed the invention of the printing press to Coster, the company now states that is incorrect.[13]

In this woodblock from 1568, the printer at left is removing a page from the press while the one at right inks the text-blocks

Having previously worked as a professional goldsmith, Gutenberg made skillful use of the knowledge of metals he had learned as a craftsman. He was the first to make type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, which was critical for producing durable type that produced high-quality printed books and proved to be more suitable for printing than the clay, wooden or bronze types invented in East Asia. To create these lead types, Gutenberg used what some considered his most ingenious invention, a special matrix enabling the quick and precise moulding of new type blocks from a uniform template.

[edit]Printing

houses

Early printing houses (near the time of Gutenberg) were run by "master printers." These printers owned shops, selected and edited manuscripts, determined the sizes of print runs, sold the works they produced, raised capital and organized distribution. Some master printing houses, like that ofAldus Manutius, became the cultural center for literati such as Erasmus.



Print shop apprentices: Apprentices, usually between the ages of 15 and 20, worked for master printers. Apprentices were not required to be literate, and literacy rates at the time were very low, in comparison to today. Apprentices prepared ink, dampened sheets of paper, and assisted at the press. An apprentice who wished to learn to become a compositor had to learn Latin and spend time under the supervision of a journeyman.



Journeyman printers: After completing their apprenticeships, journeyman printers were free to move employers. This facilitated the spread of printing to areas that were less print-centred.

 

Compositors: Those who set the type for printing. Pressmen: the person who worked the press. This was physically labour intensive.

The earliest-known image of a European, Gutenberg-style print shop is the Dance of Death by Matthias Huss, at Lyon, 1499. This image depicts a compositor standing at a compositor's case being grabbed by a skeleton. The case is raised to facilitate his work. The image also shows a pressman being grabbed by a skeleton. At the right of the printing house a bookshop is shown.

[edit]Financial aspects
Court records from the city of Mainz document that Johannes Fust was, for some time, Gutenberg's financial backer. By the sixteenth century jobs associated with printing were becoming increasingly specialized. Structures supporting publishers were more and more complex, leading to this division of labour. In Europe between 1500 and 1700 the role of the Master Printer was dying out and giving way to the bookseller—publisher. Printing during this period had a stronger commercial imperative than previously. Risks associated with the industry however were substantial, although dependent on the nature of the publication. Bookseller publishers negotiated at trade fairs and at print shops. Jobbing work appeared in which printers did menial tasks in the beginning of their careers to support themselves. 1500–1700: Publishers developed several new methods of funding projects.

1.

Cooperative associations/publication syndicates—a number of individuals shared the risks associated with printing and shared in the profit. This was pioneered by the French.[citation needed]

2.

Subscription publishing—pioneered by the English in the early 17th century.[citation needed] A prospectus for a publication was drawn up by a publisher to raise funding. The prospectus was given to potential buyers who signed up for a copy. If there were not enough subscriptions the publication did not go ahead. Lists of subscribers were included in the books as endorsements. If enough people subscribed a reprint might occur. Some authors used subscription publication to bypass the publisher entirely.

3.

Installment publishing—books were issued in parts until a complete book had been issued. This was not necessarily done with a fixed time period. It was an effective method of spreading cost over a period of time. It also allowed earlier returns on investment to help cover production costs of subsequent installments.

The Mechanick Exercises, by Joseph Moxon, in London, 1683, was said to be the first publication done in installments.[citation needed] Publishing trade organizations allowed publishers to organize business concerns collectively. Systems of self-regulation occurred in these arrangements. For example, if one publisher did something to irritate other publishers he would be controlled by peer pressure. Such systems are known as cartels, and are in most countries now considered to be in restraint of trade. These arrangements helped deal with labour unrest among journeymen, who faced difficult working conditions. Brotherhoods predated unions, without the formal regulations now associated with unions. In most cases, publishers bought the copyright in a work from the author, and made some arrangement about the possible profits. This required a substantial amount of capital in addition to the capital for the physical equipment and staff. Alternatively, an author who had sufficient moneywould sometimes keep the copyright himself, and simply pay the printer for the production of the book.

[edit]Rotary

printing press

Main article: Rotary printing press A rotary printing press is a printing press in which the impressions are curved around a cylinder so that the printing can be done on long continuous rolls of paper, cardboard, plastic, or a large number of other substrates. Rotary drum printing was invented by Richard March Hoe in 1847, and then significantly improved by William Bullock in 1863.

[edit]Intaglio

Intaglio printing. The top line is the paper, to which a slightly raised layer of ink adheres; the matrix is beneath

Main article: Intaglio (printmaking) Intaglio (pronounced /ɪnˈtæli.oʊ/) is a family of printmaking techniques in which the image is incised into a surface, known as the matrix or plate. Normally, copper or zinc plates are used as a surface, and the incisions are created by etching, engraving, drypoint, aquatint or mezzotint. Collographs may also be printed as intaglio plates. To print an intaglio plate the surface is covered in thick ink and then rubbed with tarlatan cloth to remove most of the excess. The final smooth wipe is usually done by hand, sometimes with the aid of newspaper or old public phone book pages, leaving ink only in the incisions. A damp piece of paper is placed on top and the plate and paper are run through a printing press that, through pressure, transfers the ink from the recesses of the plate to the paper.

[edit]Lithography

(1796)

Lithography press for printing maps in Munich.

stone used for a lithograph with a view of Princeton University (Collection: Princeton University Library, NJ)

Main article: Lithography Invented by Bavarian author Aloys Senefelder in 1796,[14]lithography is a method for printing on a smooth surface. Lithography is a printing process that uses chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the positive part of an image would be a hydrophobic chemical, while the negative image would be water. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a compatible ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image and the water will clean the negative image. This allows for a relatively flat print plate which allows for much longer runs than the older physical methods of imaging (e.g., embossing or engraving). High-volume lithography is used today to produce posters, maps, books, newspapers, and packaging — just about any smooth, mass-produced item with print and graphics on it. Most books, indeed all types of high-volume text, are now printed using offset lithography. In offset lithography, which depends on photographic processes, flexible aluminum, polyester, mylar or paper printing plates are used in place of stone tablets. Modern printing plates have a brushed or roughened texture and are covered with a photosensitive emulsion. A photographic negative of the desired image is placed in contact with the emulsion and the

plate is exposed to ultraviolet light. After development, the emulsion shows a reverse of the negative image, which is thus a duplicate of the original (positive) image. The image on the plate emulsion can also be created through direct laser imaging in a CTP (Computer-To-Plate) device called a platesetter. The positive image is the emulsion that remains after imaging. For many years, chemicals have been used to remove the non-image emulsion, but now plates are available that do not require chemical processing.

[edit]Colour

printing

Main articles: Colour printing and Woodcut

Calvert Lithographic Company, Detroit, MI.Uncle Sam Supplying the World with Berry Brothers Hard Oil Finish, c. 1880. Noel Wisdom Chromolithograph Collection, Special Collections Department, The University of South Florida Tampa Library.

Chromolithography became the most successful of several methods of colour printing developed by the 19th century; other methods were developed by printers such as Jacob Christoph Le Blon,George Baxter and Edmund Evans, and mostly relied on using several woodblocks with the colors. Hand-coloring also remained important; elements of the official British Ordnance Survey maps were colored by hand by boys until 1875. Chromolithography developed from lithography and the term covers various types of lithography that are printed in color.[15] The initial technique involved the use of multiple lithographic stones, one for each color, and was still extremely expensive when done for the best quality results. Depending on the number of colors present, a chromolithograph could take months to produce, by very skilled workers. However much cheaper prints could be produced by simplifying both the number of colors used, and the refinement of the detail in the image. Cheaper images, like the advertisement illustrated, relied heavily on an initial black print (not always a lithograph), on which colors were then overprinted. To make an expensive reproduction print as what was once referred to as a ―‘chromo‘‖, a lithographer, with a finished painting in front of him, gradually created and corrected the many stones using proofs to look as much as possible like the painting in front of him, sometimes using dozens of layers.[16] Alois Senefelder, the inventor of lithography, introduced the subject of colored lithography in his 1818 Vollstaendiges Lehrbuch der Steindruckerey (A Complete Course of Lithography), where he told of his plans to print using color and explained the colors he wished to be able to print someday.[17] Although Senefelder recorded plans for chromolithography, printers in other countries, such as France and England, were also trying to find a new way to print in color. Godefroy Engelmann of Mulhouse in France was awarded a patent on chromolithography in July 1837,[17] but there are disputes over

whether chromolithography was already in use before this date, as some sources say, pointing to areas of printing such as the production of playing cards.[17]

[edit]Offset

press (1870s)

Main article: Offset press Offset printing is a widely used printing technique where the inked image is transferred (or "offset") from a plate to a rubber blanket, then to the printing surface. When used in combination with the lithographic process, which is based on the repulsion of oil and water, the offset technique employs a flat (planographic) image carrier on which the image to be printed obtains ink from ink rollers, while the non-printing area attracts a film of water, keeping the non-printing areas inkfree.

[edit]Screenprinting
Main article: Screenprinting

(1907)

Screenprinting has its origins in simple stencilling, most notably of the Japanese form (katazome), used who cut banana leaves and inserted ink through the design holes on textiles, mostly for clothing. This was taken up in France. The modern screenprinting process originated from patents taken out by Samuel Simon in 1907 in England. This idea was then adopted in San Francisco, California, by John Pilsworth in 1914 who used screenprinting to form multicolor prints in a subtractive mode, differing from screenprinting as it is done today.

[edit]Flexography
Main article: Flexography

A flexographic printing plate.

Flexography (also called "surface printing"), often abbreviated to "flexo", is a method of printing most commonly used for packaging (labels, tape, bags, boxes, banners, and so on). A flexo print is achieved by creating a mirrored master of the required image as a 3D relief in a rubberor polymer material. A measured amount of ink is deposited upon the surface of the printing plate (or printing cylinder) using an anilox roll. The print surface then rotates, contacting the print material which transfers the ink.

Originally flexo printing was basic in quality. Labels requiring high quality have generally been printed Offset until recently. In the last few years great advances have been made to the quality of flexo printing presses. The greatest advances though have been in the area of PhotoPolymer Printing Plates, including improvements to the plate material and the method of plate creation. —usually photographicexposure followed by chemical etch, though also by direct laser engraving.

[edit]Photocopier
Main article: Photocopier

(1960s)

Xerographic office photocopying was introduced by Xerox in the 1960s, and over the following 20 years it gradually replaced copies made by Verifax, Photostat, carbon paper, mimeograph machines, and other duplicating machines. The prevalence of its use is one of the factors that prevented the development of the paperless office heralded early in the digital revolution.

[edit]Thermal

printer

Main article: Thermal printer A thermal printer (or direct thermal printer) produces a printed image by selectively heating coated thermochromic paper, or thermal paper as it is commonly known, when the paper passes over the thermal print head. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated, producing an image.

[edit]Laser

printer (1969)

Main article: Laser printer The laser printer, based on a modified xerographic copier, was invented at Xerox in 1969 by researcher Gary Starkweather, who had a fully functional networked printer system working by 1971.[18][19] Laser printing eventually became a multibilliondollar business for Xerox. The first commercial implementation of a laser printer was the IBM model 3800 in 1976, used for high-volume printing of documents such as invoices and mailing labels. It is often cited as "taking up a whole room," implying that it was a primitive version of the later familiar device used with a personal computer. While large, it was designed for an entirely different purpose. Many 3800s are still in use. The first laser printer designed for use with an individual computer was released with the Xerox Star 8010 in 1981. Although it was innovative, the Star was an expensive ($17,000) system that was only purchased by a small number of laboratories and institutions. After personal computersbecame more widespread, the first laser printer intended for a mass market was the HP LaserJet 8ppm, released in 1984, using a Canon engine controlled by HP software. The HP LaserJet printer was quickly followed by other laser printers from Brother Industries, IBM, and others.

Most noteworthy was the role the laser printer played in popularizing desktop publishing with the introduction of the Apple LaserWriter for the Apple Macintosh, along with Aldus PageMaker software, in 1985. With these products, users could create documents that would previously have required professional typesetting.

[edit]Dot

matrix printer (1970)

Main article: Dot matrix printer A dot matrix printer or impact matrix printer refers to a type of computer printer with a print head that runs back and forth on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like a typewriter. Unlike a typewriter or daisy wheel printer, letters are drawn out of a dot matrix, and thus, varied fonts and arbitrary graphics can be produced. Because the printing involves mechanical pressure, these printers can create carbon copies and carbonless copies. Each dot is produced by a tiny metal rod, also called a "wire" or "pin", which is driven forward by the power of a tiny electromagnet or solenoid, either directly or through small levers (pawls). Facing the ribbon and the paper is a small guide plate (often made of an artificial jewel such assapphire or ruby [1]) pierced with holes to serve as guides for the pins. The moving portion of the printer is called the print head, and when running the printer as a generic text device generally prints one line of text at a time. Most dot matrix printers have a single vertical line of dot-making equipment on their print heads; others have a few interleaved rows in order to improve dot density.

[edit]Inkjet

printer

Main article: Inkjet printer Inkjet printers are a type of computer printer that operates by propelling tiny droplets of liquid ink onto paper.

[edit]Dye-sublimation

printer

Main article: Dye-sublimation printer A dye-sublimation printer (or dye-sub printer) is a computer printer which employs a printing process that uses heat to transfer dye to a medium such as a plastic card, printer paper or poster paper. The process is usually to lay one color at a time using a ribbon that has color panels. Most dye-sublimation printers use CMYO colors which differs from the more recognised CMYK colors in that the black dye is eliminated in favour of a clear overcoating. This overcoating (which has numerous names depending on the manufacturer) is effectively a thin laminate which protects the print from discoloration from UV light and the air while also rendering the print water-resistant. Many consumer and professionaldye-sublimation printers are designed and used for producing photographic prints.

[edit]Digital

press (1993)

Main article: Digital printing Digital printing is the reproduction of digital images on a physical surface, such as common or photographic paper or paperboard-cover stock,film, cloth, plastic, vinyl, magnets, labels etc.

It can be differentiated from litho, flexography, gravure or letterpress printing in many ways, some of which are;



Every impression made onto the paper can be different, as opposed to making several hundred or thousand impressions of the same image from one set of printing plates, as in traditional methods.



The Ink or Toner does not absorb into the substrate, as does conventional ink, but forms a layer on the surface and may be fused to the substrate by using an inline fuser fluid with heat process(toner) or UV curing process(ink).



It generally requires less waste in terms of chemicals used and paper wasted in set up or makeready(bringing the image "up to color" and checking position).



It is excellent for rapid prototyping, or small print runs which means that it is more accessible to a wider range of designers and more cost effective in short runs.

[edit]Frescography

(1998)

With CAM-program created Frescography

Screenshot of a CAM program for designing frescographies.

Main article: Frescography frescography is a method for reproduction/creation of murals using digital printing methods. The frescography is based on digitally cut-out motifs which are stored in a database. CAM software programs then allow to enter the measurements of a wall or ceiling to create a mural design with low resolution motifs. Since architectural elements such as beams,

windows or doors can be integrated, the design will result in an accurately and tailor-fit wall mural. Once a design is finished, the low resolution motifs are converted into the original high resolution images and are printed on canvas by Wide-format printers. The canvas then can be applied to the wall in awall-paperhanging like procedure and will then look like on-site created mural.

[edit]3D

printing

Main article: 3D printing Three-dimensional printing is a method of converting a virtual 3D model into a physical object. 3D printing is a category of rapid prototypingtechnology. 3D printers typically work by 'printing' successive layers on top of the previous to build up a three dimensional object. 3D printers are generally faster, more affordable and easier to use than other additive fabrication technologies.[20]

[edit]Technological [edit]Woodcut
Main article: Woodcut

developments

Woodcut is a relief printing artistic technique in printmaking in which an image is carved into the surface of a block of wood, with the printing parts remaining level with the surface while the non-printing parts are removed, typically with gouges. The areas to show 'white' are cut away with a knife or chisel, leaving the characters or image to show in 'black' at the original surface level. The block is cut along the grain of the wood (unlike wood engraving where the block is cut in the end-grain). In Europe beechwood was most commonly used; in Japan, a special type ofcherry wood was popular. Woodcut first appeared in ancient China. From 6th century onward, woodcut icons became popular and especially flourished in Buddhist texts. Since the 10th century, woodcut pictures appeared in inbetweenings of Chinese literature, and some banknotes, such as Jiaozi (currency). Woodcut New Year picture are also very popular with the Chinese. In China and Tibet printed images mostly remained tied as illustrations to accompanying text until the modern period. The earliest woodblock printed book, the Diamond Sutra contains a large image as frontispiece, and many Buddhist texts contain some images. Later some notable Chinese artists designed woodcuts for books, the individual print develop in China in the form of New Year picture as an art-form in the way it did in Europe and Japan. In Europe, Woodcut is the oldest technique used for old master prints, developing about 1400, by using on paper existing techniques for printing on cloth. The explosion of sales of cheap woodcuts in the middle of the century led to a fall in standards, and many popular prints were very crude. The development of hatching followed on rather later than in engraving. Michael Wolgemut was significant in making German woodcut more sophisticated from about 1475, and Erhard Reuwich was the first to use cross-hatching (far harder to do than in engraving or etching). Both of these produced mainly book-illustrations, as did various Italian artists who were also raising standards there at the same period. At the end of the century Albrecht Dürer brought the Western woodcut to a level that has never been surpassed, and greatly increased the status of thesingle-leaf (i.e. an image sold separately) woodcut.

[edit]Engraving
Main article: Engraving Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard, flat surface, by cutting grooves into it. The result may be a decorated object in itself, as when silver, gold or steel are engraved, or may provide an intaglio printing plate, of copper or another metal, for printing images on paper, which are called engravings. Engraving was a historically important method of producing images on paper, both in artistic printmaking, and also for commercial reproductions and illustrations for books and magazines. It has long been replaced by photography in its commercial applications and, partly because of the difficulty of learning the technique, is much less common in printmaking, where it has been largely replaced by etching and other techniques. Other terms often used for engravings are copper-plate engraving and Line engraving. These should all mean exactly the same, but especially in the past were often used very loosely to cover several printmaking techniques, so that many so-called engravings were in fact produced by totally different techniques, such as etching. In antiquity, the only engraving that could be carried out is evident in the shallow grooves found in some jewellery after the beginning of the 1st Millennium B.C. The majority of so-called engraved designs on ancient gold rings or other items were produced by chasing or sometimes a combination of lost-wax casting and chasing. In the European Middle Ages goldsmiths used engraving to decorate and inscribe metalwork. It is thought that they began to print impressions of their designs to record them. From this grew the engraving of copper printing plates to produce artistic images on paper, known as old master prints in Germany in the 1430s. Italy soon followed. Many early engravers came from a goldsmithing background. The first and greatest period of the engraving was from about 1470 to 1530, with such masters as Martin Schongauer, Albrecht Dürer, and Lucas van Leiden.

[edit]Etching
Main article: Etching

[edit]Halftoning
Main article: Halftone Halftone is the reprographic technique that simulates continuous tone imagery through the use of equally spaced dots of varying size.[21]'Halftone' can also be used to refer specifically to the image that is produced by this process. [21] The idea of halftone printing originates from William Fox Talbot. In the early 1850s he suggested using "photographic screens or veils" in connection with a photographic intaglio process.[22] Several different kinds of screens were proposed during the following decades, but the first half-tone photo-engraving process was invented by Canadians George-Édouard Desbarats and William Leggo Jr.[2] On October 30, 1869, Desbarats published the Canadian Illustrated Newswhich became the world‘s first periodical to successfully employ this photomechanical technique; featuring a full page half-tone image of His Royal Highness Prince Arthur, from a photograph by Notman.[3] Ambitious to exploit a much larger circulation, Debarats and Leggo went to New York and launched the New York Daily Graphic in March 1873, which became the world‘s first illustrated daily.

The first truly successful commercial method was patented by Frederic Ives of Philadelphia in 1881.[22][23] But although he found a way of breaking up the image into dots of varying sizes he did not make use of a screen. In 1882 the German George Meisenbach patented a halftone process in England. His invention was based on the previous ideas of Berchtold and Swan. He used single lined screens which were turned during exposure to produce cross-lined effects. He was the first to achieve any commercial success with relief halftones.[22]

[edit]Xerography
Main article: Xerography Xerography (or electrophotography) is a photocopying technique developed by Chester Carlson in 1938 and patented on October 6, 1942. He received US patent 2,297,691 for his invention. The name xerography came from the Greek radicals xeros (dry) and graphos (writing), because there are no liquid chemicals involved in the process, unlike earlier reproduction techniques like cyanotype. In 1937 Bulgarian physicist Georgi Nadjakov found that when placed into electric field and exposed to light, some dielectrics acquire permanent electric polarization in the exposed areas.[4] That polarization persists in the dark and is destroyed in light. Chester Carlson, the inventor of photocopying, was originally a patent attorney and part-time researcher and inventor. His job at the patent office in New York required him to make a large number of copies of important papers. Carlson, who was arthritic, found this a painful and tedious process. This prompted him to conduct experiments with photoconductivity. Carlson experimented with "electrophotography" in his kitchen and in 1938, applied for a patent for the process. He made the first "photocopy" using a zinc plate covered with sulfur. The words "10-22-38 Astoria" were written on a microscopeslide, which was placed on top of more sulfur and under a bright light. After the slide was removed, a mirror image of the words remained. Carlson tried to sell his invention to some companies, but because the process was still underdeveloped he failed. At the time multiple copies were made using carbon paper or duplicating machines and people did not feel the need for an electronic machine. Between 1939 and 1944, Carlson was turned down by over 20 companies, including IBM and GE, neither of which believed there was a significant market for copiers.[citation needed]

[edit]See

also

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Printing in India Publishing History of graphic design History of writing History of the alphabet Phaistos disc; a few researchers liken the stamping technology to a precursor of printing. Global spread of the printing press

[edit]References

1. 2. 3.

^ a b Ancient Coptic Christian Fabrics from Egypt ^ Zwalf, Buddhism: Art and Faith (London: British Museum, 1985). ^ Shelagh Vainker in Anne Farrer (ed), "Caves of the Thousand Buddhas", 1990, British Museum publications, ISBN 0-7141-1447-2

4.

^ http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/hightours/diamsutra/index.htmlThe Xiantong era (咸通 Xián tōng) ran from 86074, crossing the reigns of Yi Zong (懿宗 Yì zōng) and Xi Zong (僖宗 Xī zōng), see List of Tang Emperors. The book was thus prepared in the time of Yi Zong.

5.

^ Richard W. Bulliet (1987), "Medieval Arabic Tarsh: A Forgotten Chapter in the History of Printing", Journal of the American Oriental Society 107 (3), p. 427-438.

6. 7.

^ Master E.S., Alan Shestack, Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1967 ^ Originally, printing was invented by the Chinese during the Tang Dynasty under the rule of Empress Wu- the first and only female ruler of China. Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). "part one, vol.5". In Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China,. Paper and Printing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

8. 9.

^ a b c d e f Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 58–69) ^ Review of research by Paul Needham and Blaise Aguera y Arcas at the BBC / Open University

10. ^ In 1997, Time Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention to be the most important of the second millennium. In 1999, the A&E Network voted Johannes Gutenberg "Man of the Millennium". See also 1,000 Years, 1,000 People: Ranking The Men and Women Who Shaped The Millennium which was composed by four prominent US journalists in 1998. 11. ^ Stowell, Marion B. (1977) Early American Almanacs: The Colonial Weekday Bible. ISBN 0891020632 / 9780891020639 12. ^ a b c d e f Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 130–133) ISBN 0-471291-98-6 13. ^ Typography - Gutenberg and printing in Germany.Encyclopædia Britannica ©2007. 14. ^ Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. ©1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p 146 ISBN 0-471-291-98-6 15. ^ ―Planographic Printing.‖ Seeing is Believing.2001. The New York Public Library. 11 April 2007.<http://seeing.nypl.org/planographic.html>. 16. ^ Clapper, Michael. ―‘I Was Once a Barefoot Boy!‘: Cultural Tensions in a Popular Chromo.‖ American Art 16(2002): 16-39. 17. ^ a b c Ferry, Kathryn. ―Printing the Alhambra: Owen Jones and Chromolithography.‖ Architectural History 46(2003): 175–188. 18. ^ Edwin D. Reilly (2003). Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology. Greenwood Press. ISBN 1573565210.

19. ^ Roy A. Allan (2001). A History of the Personal Computer: The People and the Technology. Allan Publishing. ISBN 0968910807. 20. ^ Close-Up On Technology - 3D Printers Lead Growth of Rapid Prototyping - 08/04 21. ^ a b Campbell, Alastair. The Designer's Lexicon. ©2000 Chronicle, San Francisco. 22. ^ a b c Twyman, Michael. Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1970.

Top 7 Types Of Printing Processes: A Primer
By Margie Gallo Dana

[ Print | Email This | Bookmark ] "I’m a printer" can mean many different things, depending on a particular process. This list should help define the major ones and guide business people in their choice for the perfect vendor: 1. Offset Lithography the most common printing process today the workhorse! It offsets ink from metal plates to a rubber blanket (cylinder) to the paper. Almost every commercial printer does offset printing. 2. Engraving think "fine stationery." Produces the sharpest image of all. Image feels indented (run your fingers over the back side of the sheet). Most law firms still use engraving. 3. Thermography raised printing, less expensive than engraving. Uses special powder that’s adhered to any color ink. Mainly used for stationery products. 4. Reprographics general term covering copying and duplicating. Think inhouse copying departments and copy or quick-printing shops. They take your originals and make duplicates of them. 5. Digital Printing the newest printing process and the least understood! Includes all processes that use digital imaging to create printed pieces. Doesn’t use film. (Think desktop to the digital press.) For short-run, fastturnaround jobs. Limitations include color, paper choices, and quality. But not for long -- the technology is exploding! 6. Letterpress the original process founded by Gutenberg in 1440. "Relief" printing (like rubber stamps, images on the plate are higher than the surface). Fine letterpress is being done by fewer and fewer printers. 7. Screen a.k.a. silk-screening. Ink is forced through a screen following a stencil pattern. Used for ring binders, t shirts, bumper stickers, billboards. Bonus types of printing

o

Flexography special type of printing for packaging products. The plates used are flexible. Products include cardboard boxes, grocery bags, gift wrap, and can and bottle labels.

o

Gravure prints directly from cylinder to paper. Used when printing for millions of impressions think magazines, newspapers, and direct mail catalogs.

So when you’re looking for a printer, make sure you know he or she can deliver what you need. Printing is complicated stuff the more you ask, the better your printed results should be! Margie Gallo Dana is president of Dana Consulting in Chestnut Hill, MA. Her firm helps printers and print buyers communicate better. Margie sends out a free PRINT TIP OF THE WEEK via email. To subscribe, email her [email protected]. Or she can be reached at (617) 730-5951 or via her new Web site athttp://www.printconsulting.com. A public speaker and an author, Margie's mission is to eliminate the misconceptions between consumers and the printing industry. Flat (Offset) Printing
Offset printing, also called offset lithography, produces a finished product where the ink is completely flat on the paper with a matte finish. The first step in the process is to create a printing plate. An image of the design to be printed is put on the printing plate using a photomechanical processes and the plates may be made of metal, plastic, or other materials, depending on the type of press being used. A different printing plate is created for every product which will be printed (one for the invitation, one for the response card, response envelope, etc). If multiple colors are to be printed on the same product, a different plate would be created for each color in each product. To keep our products affordable, we only offer one-color printing at this time. Once the plates are made, the press run can begin. The printing plate is attached to a cylinder on the press, specialty Pantoneink is applied to the plate's image area, transferred (or "offset") to rubber blankets or rollers and then to paper. All of our products printed on dark papers (such as Black and Chocolate) are printed using the flat printing technique. < back to top Thermography Printing The Thermography print process produces raised printing similar in appearance to Engraving and is a great alternative to the more expensive Engraving process. The process for Thermography printing is very similar to Offset printing, except that while the ink is still wet, it is lightly dusted with a colorless resinous powder. The paper then passes through a radiant oven system to bake the powder and fuse it to the ink, which creates the raised effect. Because of the resin and heating process added to the ink, colors tend to be a little more intense or vibrant than Flat printed colors. Please note that due to the process, the raised effect of Thermography printing cannot be achieved on both sides of one card. For example, our folded response cards, folded enclosure cards and folded wedding programs will feature raised printing on one side (the cover) and flat printing on the other side (the text on the inside of the card). All betsywhite wedding stationery (except items printed on dark papers) are printed using the Thermography process. However, to avoid having excess Thermography resin trapped in the folds of envelopes, we print all return addresses using the flat printing technique (explained above). < back to top Digital Printing Digital printing is a modern, affordable process which produces a finished product where the ink is completely flat on the paper.

With Digital printing, no plates need to be made - digital artwork is sent directly to the printing press, making the process more affordable than Offset or Thermography. Also, since a printing plate does not need to be created for each color printed, multiple colors can be included on one product without increasing the cost. Rather than using specialty Pantone inks, colors on the Digital press are generated by four color toners (cyan, magenta, yellow and black, or CMYK). By using these four colors in various percentages, the digital press can create just about any color under the rainbow. These toner inks sit on the surface of the paper (rather than sinking into the fibers of the paper) which produces rich, vibrant colors. < back to top Production Workflow After you place an order and we receive your proof approval, pre-press production begins. ‘Camera-ready’ artwork is created for each item to be printed and the plate-making process begins. It usually takes 48-72 hours to have the plates made. After the plates are made, your order is then added to the print queue. Depending on the number of orders in production at the time, it can take 2-5 business days for your order to reach the front of the queue. After printing, your order is checked for quality then packaged for shipping. < back to top Pantone The Pantone Matching System is a set of standard colors used by the printing industry, each of which is specified by a unique ‘PMS’ number.

Illustration by Thomas Kerr

This image has nothing to do with the text below.

Starting at the rear – the end use of the printed piece determines how production must proceed: A mailing piece, folded? A book bound from loose pages or folded signatures? Letterheads or fliers packed in bulk or more carefully for longer storage? Special finishing for mounting, die cutting or machine insertion. Stickers on rolls or flat sheets? Then the quality of the printing required: How difficult will it be to print? How exacting are the customer's standards? All affect the method of printing, type of paper stocks, size of press, and degree of finishing. Which production method will produce the best finished job, within a given turnaround time, while still meeting the customer's budgetary limitations? These are the questions a printer has to consider when pricing a job. A price that meets the budget, in both the immediate sense of what the customer can afford for the current job and the long range sense of whether the price appears reasonable enough for the customer to return with future work....at the same time remembering, Me, the Printermust make a reasonable profit in order to stay in business and serve his customers. – Joel "Sticker Dude" Cohen
Ragged Edge Press, NY

    

Elements of Printing
Ink on paper. Turn on the press and a printed piece comes out the other end. If only it were that simple, there would be no need for highly-skilled craftsmen to produce a printed piece. In reality, printing can be complicated, with many variables. A good commercial printer will make the process simple for you and turn out a product that will get results. There are many ways to get your message across: web pages, podcasts, email marketing, DVDs, and other digital media. Printed communication is part of the mix. There is no substitute for a solid, enduring piece that you can hold in your hand, interact with in real-time, and revisit. Printing is an art that has been perfected, and reproduction can be at a level not possible in the digital realm. Ink on paper isn’t always as fast, but its impact can be lasting.

The following are just a few of the elements of printing. The Printer The first thing is to find a printer that you trust. There are lots of great printing companies, and they can all put the image on the page for you. Because most print jobs are custom-made, it is important that your printer understand your organization and its objectives, its preferences and its quirks. A printer who is, after all, in business to make money, will be most effective in the long run by operating with your best interests in mind. There’s no substitute for this. The Process You probably have to wear a lot of hats in your organization and, unless your only job is to be a print buyer, you may not have time to be an expert in all aspects of print production. There’s a lot of detail. A good commercial printer will anticipate your needs, think ahead for you, eliminate questions and problems on the front end and surprises on the back end. A printer should truly be a partner in your business, always asking what it will take for your print project to be successful and how your print needs fit in with your other forms of communication. Look for a printer that is not just an order-taker. Rely on your printer, and involve him or her early in the process, even before the design stage. Any printer can do a job correctly, on time and for the price quoted; expect more. Quoting Price is important, and in the competitive print market, there is no reason to over-pay. Even when asking for a quote on a simple printing job with well-defined specs, there are intangibles to consider:

    

Have you used this printer before? Has he or she performed as promised? Was the process easy, or hard? Were any extra services provided that were not in the actual specs, like consulting, advice, or improvements to the project? Were there any surprises?

If you haven’t used this printer before…

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Is this a vendor that comes highly recommended? Can this printer provide a full range of project-related services all under one roof? Did the printer ask enough questions in the quoting process to understand the job? Do you feel comfortable with what the printer is telling you?

The Project Once you enter into a project, there are some key elements that will go a long way to producing a good result.

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Sales Consulting—A good rep is critical; he or she understands the big picture and guides your project, start to finish. Customer Service—There is a back-up person (or persons) who knows the status of your project and can facilitate any part of it. Pre-Press—Expert technicians handle your project with expertise and trouble-shoot for you. Production—A team of craftspeople makes the job happen, with skill in all the techniques of printing and finishing. Delivery—Whether the project is a one-time thing or part of an ongoing fulfillment system, the product arrives when it is expected. Ownership—Management knows you as a customer, is available for consulting, and is looking out for your best interests.

The Result Printing is about so much more than putting ink on paper. It’s about a goal, and getting there together. At Phillips Printing, we truly believe that if we do a project for you that doesn’t achieve your objectives, we haven’t fully done our jobs. Like most commercial printers, we understand the technical part…we’ve been doing that since 1959. Technical expertise alone is not enough; we need to be adaptable to the marketplace, and to your needs. That’s what we hope to do, every day.



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Paper
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Paper (disambiguation).

A stack of manila paper

Look up paper in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Paper

Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets.

Paper is a versatile material with many uses. Whilst the most common is for writing and printingupon, it is also widely used as a packaging material, in many cleaning products, in a number of industrial and construction processes, and occasionally as a food ingredient, particularly in Asian cultures.
Contents
[hide]

 

1 History 2 Papermaking

o o o o o o       

2.1 Chemical pulping 2.2 Mechanical pulping 2.3 Deinked pulp 2.4 Additives 2.5 Producing paper 2.6 Finishing

3 Applications 4 Types, thickness and weight 5 Paper stability 6 The future of paper 7 See also 8 References and notes 9 External links

History
Main article: History of paper Further information: Science and technology of the Han Dynasty and List of Chinese inventions The word paper derives from the Greek term for the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which was formed from beaten strips ofpapyrus plants. The immediate predecessor to modern paper is believed to have originated in China in approximately the 2nd century AD, although there is some evidence for it being used before this date.
[1]

Papermaking is considered to be one of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China,

since the first pulp papermaking process was developed in China during the early 2nd century AD by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun. China used paper as an effective and cheap alternative to silk, letting them sell more silk, leading to a Golden Age.

The use of paper spread from China through the Islamic world and entered production in medieval Europe in the 13th century, where the first water-powered paper mills were built and mechanization of papermaking began.
[2]

The industrial production of paper in the early 19th century caused significant cultural changes

worldwide, allowing for relatively cheap exchange of information in the form of letters, newspapers and books for the first time. In 1844, both Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and German inventor F.G. Keller had invented the machine and process for pulping wood for the use in paper making.
[3]

This would end the

nearly 2000-year use of pulped rags and start a new era for the production of newsprint and eventually all paper out of pulped wood.

Papermaking

The microscopic structure of paper: Micrograph of paperautofluorescing under ultraviolet illumination. The individual fibres in this sample are around 10 µm in diameter.

Main article: Papermaking

Chemical pulping
Main articles: kraft process, sulfite process, and soda pulping The purpose of a chemical pulping process is to break down the chemical structure oflignin and render it soluble in the cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from thecellulose fibers. Because lignin holds the plant cells together, chemical pulping frees the fibres and makes pulp. The pulp can also be bleached to produce white paper forprinting, painting and writing. Chemical pulps tend to cost more than mechanical pulps, largely due to the low yield, 40–50% of the original wood. Since the process preserves fibre length, however, chemical pulps tend to make stronger paper. Another advantage of chemical pulping is that the

majority of the heat and electricity needed to run the process is produced by burning the lignin removed during pulping. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers. Not to be confused with tree-free paper. The Kraft process is the most commonly practiced strategy for pulp manufacturing and produces especially strong, unbleached papers that can be used directly for bags and boxes but are often processed further, e.g. to make corrugated cardboard.

Mechanical pulping
There are two major mechanical pulps, thermo mechanical pulp (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into large steam-heated refiners where the chips are squeezed and fibreized between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones and fibreized. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, >95%, but also causes paper made from this pulp to yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibre lengths and produce weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than chemical pulp.

Deinked pulp
Main article: deinking Paper recycling processes can use either chemical or mechanical pulp. By mixing with water and applying mechanical action the hydrogenbonds in the paper can be broken and fibres separated again. Most recycled paper contains a proportion of virgin fibre in the interests of quality. Generally deinked pulp is of the same quality or lower than the collected paper it was made from. There are three main classifications of recycled fibre:.



Mill Broke or Internal Mill Waste — this incorporates any substandard or grade-change paper made within the paper mill which then goes back into the manufacturing system to be repulped back into paper. Such out-of-specification paper is not sold and is therefore often not classified as genuine reclaimed recycled fibre. However, most paper mills have been recycling their own waste fibre for many years, long before recycling become popular.



Preconsumer Waste — this is offcuts and processing waste, such as guillotine trims and envelope blank waste. This waste is generated outside the paper mill and could potentially go to landfill, and is a genuine recycled fibre source. Also includes de-inked preconsumer (recycled material that has been printed but did not reach its intended end use, such as waste from printers and unsold publications).
[4]



Postconsumer waste — this is fibre from paper which has been used for its intended end use and would include office waste, magazine papers and newsprint. As the vast majority of this paper has been printed (either digitally or by more conventional means such as litho or gravure), it will either be recycled as printed paper or go through a deinking process first.

Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp. They are (generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from virgin pulp.

Additives
Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay, which improve the characteristics of the paper for printing or writing. Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed into the pulp and/or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process. The purpose of sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit the ink or paint.

Producing paper
Main articles: Papermachine and handmade paper See also: Air-laid paper The pulp is feed to a paper machine where it is formed as a paper web and the water is removed from it by pressing and drying. Pressing the sheet removes the water by force. Once the water is forced from the sheet, felt (not to be confused with the traditional felt) is used to collect the water. When making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used. Drying involves using air and or heat to remove water from the paper sheet. In the earliest days of papermaking this was done by hanging the paper sheets like laundry. In more modern times, various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine, the most common is the steam-heated can dryer. These dryers can heat to temperatures above 200°F (93°C) and are used in long sequences of more than 40 cans. The heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than 6% moisture.

Finishing
The paper may then undergo sizing to alter its physical properties for use in various applications. Paper at this point is uncoated. Coated paper has a thin layer of material such as calcium carbonate or china clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for highresolution halftone screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by calendering. Coated papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and gloss. Gloss papers give the highest optical density in the printed image.

The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet. All paper produced by paper machines as the Fourdrinier machine are wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured finishes, watermarks and wire patterns imitating hand-made laidpaper can be created by the use of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine. Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders.
[5]

Applications

A Paper cutter



To write or print on: the piece of paper becomes a document; this may be for keeping a record (or in the case of printing from a computer or copying from another paper: an additional record) and forcommunication; see also reading.

Paper can be produced with a wide variety of properties, depending on its intended use.

[6]

 

To represent a value: paper money, bank note, cheque, security (see Security paper), voucher and ticket For storing information: book, notebook, magazine, newspaper, art, zine, letter

 

for personal use: diary, note to remind oneself, etc.; for temporary personal use: scratch paper for communication to someone else:



by transportation of the paper from the place where it is written or printed to the place where it is read: delivered by sender, transported by a third party (e.g. in the case of mail), or taken by the receiver



by writing at the same place as where it is read:

 

if sender and receiver are not there at the same time, in the case of a posted notice if sender and receiver are both present, but use paper for illustration, or if communication by talking is not suitable:

     

because one is mute or the other is deaf to avoid other people hearing it, because it is secret, or in order not to disturb them in a noisy environment

For packaging: corrugated box, paper bag, envelope, wrapping tissue, Charta emporetica and wallpaper For cleaning: toilet paper, handkerchiefs, paper towels, facial tissue and cat litter For construction: papier-mâché, origami, paper planes, quilling, Paper honeycomb, used as a core material in composite materials, paper engineering, construction paper and paper clothing



Other uses: emery paper, sandpaper, blotting paper, litmus paper, universal indicator paper, paper chromatography, electrical insulation paper (see also dielectrics and permittivity) and filter paper

Types, thickness and weight

Card and paper stock for craft use comes in a wide variety of textures and colors.

Main articles: Paper size and Paper density The thickness of paper is often measured by caliper, which is typically given in thousandths of an inch.
[7]

Paper may be between 0.07 millimetres (0.0028 in) and 0.18 millimetres (0.0071 in) thick.

[8]

Paper is often characterized by weight. In the United States, the weight assigned to a paper is the weight of a ream, 500 sheets, of varying "basic sizes", before the paper is cut into the size it is sold to end customers. For example, a ream of 20 lb, 8.5 × 11 in (216 × 279 mm) paper weighs 5 pounds, because it has been cut

from a larger sheet into four pieces.

[9]

In the United States, printing paper is generally 20 lb, 24 lb, or 32 lb at

most. Cover stock is generally 68 lb, and 110 lb or more is considered card stock. The 8.5 × 11 in (215.9 × 279.4 mm) size stems from the original size of a vat that was used to make paper.
[citation needed]

At the time, paper was made from passing a fiber and water slurry through a screen at the

bottom of a box. The box was 17 in (431.8 mm) deep and 44 in (1,117.6 mm) wide. That sheet, folded in half in the long direction, then twice in the opposite direction, made a sheet of paper that was exactly 8.5 × 11 in (215.9 × 279.4 mm). In Europe, and other regions using the ISO 216 paper sizing system, the weight is expressed in grammes per square metre (g/m or usually just g) of the paper. Printing paper is generally between 60 g and 120 g. Anything heavier than 160 g is considered card. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions of the paper and its thickness. The sizing system in Europe is based on common width to height ratios for different paper sizes. The largest standard size paper is A0 (A zero). Two sheets of A1, placed upright side by side fit exactly into one sheet of A0 laid on its side. Similarly, two sheets of A2 fit into one sheet of A1 and so forth. Common sizes used in the office and the home are A4 and A3 (A3 is the size of two A4 sheets). The density of paper ranges from 250 kg/m (16 lb/cu ft) for tissue paper to 1,500 kg/m (94 lb/cu ft) for some speciality paper. Printing paper is about 800 kg/m (50 lb/cu ft). Some paper types include:
3 [10] 3 3 2

       

Bank paper Banana paper Bond paper Book paper

   

Fish paper (vulcanized fibres for electrical insulation)  Inkjet paper Kraft paper Laid paper Leather paper Mummy paper Sandpaper

Tyvek paper Wallpaper Washi Waterproof paper Wax paper Wove paper Xuan paper

     

Coated paper: glossy and matte surface  Construction paper/sugar paper Cotton paper Electronic paper

 

Paper stability
Much of the early paper made from wood pulp contained significant amounts of alum, a variety of aluminium sulfate salts that are significantlyacidic. Alum was added to paper to assist in sizing the paper,
[11]

making it

somewhat water resistant so that inks did not "run" or spread uncontrollably. The early papermakers did not realize that the alum they added liberally to cure almost every problem encountered in making their product would eventually be detrimental.
[12]

The cellulose fibres which make up paper are hydrolyzed by acid, and the

presence of alum would eventually degrade the fibres until the paper disintegrated in a process which has come to be known as "slow fire". Documents written onrag paper were significantly more stable. The use of non-acidic additives to make paper is becoming more prevalent and the stability of these papers is less of an issue. Paper made from mechanical pulp contains significant amounts of lignin, a major component in wood. In the presence of light and oxygen lignin reacts to give yellow materials, which is why newsprint and other mechanical paper yellows with age. Paper made from bleached kraft or sulfitepulps does not contain significant amounts of lignin and is therefore better suited for books, documents and other applications where whiteness of the paper is essential. It is important to note that just because a paper is made of wood pulp, does not necessarily mean it is any less durable than a rag paper. The factor that determines the ageing behavior of a paper is how it was manufactured, not the original source of the fibres.
[13]

Furthermore, tests sponsored by the Library of

Congress prove that all paper is at risk of acid decay, because cellulose itself produces formic, acetic, lactic and oxalic acids.
[14]

Mechanical pulping yields almost a tonne of pulp per tonne of dry wood used (which is why mechanical pulps are sometimes referred to as "high yield" pulps), which is about twice as much as chemical pulping. Consequently, paper made with mechanical pulps is often cheaper than that made with bleached chemical pulps. Mass-market paperback books and newspapers use these mechanical papers. Book publishers tend to use acid-free paper, made from fully bleached chemical pulps for hardback and trade paperback books.

The future of paper
Some manufacturers have started using a new, significantly more environmentally friendly alternative to expanded plastic packaging made out of paper, known commercially as paperfoam. The packaging has very similar mechanical properties to some expanded plastic packaging, but is biodegradable and can also be recycled with ordinary paper.
[15]

With increasing environmental concerns about synthetic coatings (such as PFOA) and the higher prices of hydrocarbon based petrochemicals, there is a focus on zein (corn protein) as a coating for paper in high grease applications such as popcorn bags.
[16]

Also, synthetics such as Tyvek and Teslin have been introduced as printing media as a more durable material than paper.

See also
 
Arches paper Buckypaper

 

Paper engineering Paper recycling

 

Papier "paper" in French or German Roll hardness tester

   

Deinked pulp Graphene oxide paper Origami Paper and ink testing

  

Paper size Paper towels Papier-mâché

  

Security paper Seed paper Toilet paper

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