PSY 101 - Research Methods

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2/21/15
 

RESEARCH
 METHODS
 
 1
 
Steps
 of
 scientific
 methodology
 

Folk
 psychology
 vs.
 Psychological
 Science
 
!  Everybody
 has
 ideas
 about
 how
 they
 think
 

and
 behave
 and
 how
 other
 people
 think
 and
 
behave
 

!  Scientific
 psychology
 sometimes
 supports
 

and
 sometimes
 contradicts
 these
 ideas
 
 

by
 Gaye
 Soley
 
email:
 [email protected]
 

•  Psychology
 is
 the
 scientific
 study
 of
 
behavior
 and
 mental
 processes.
 
 

1. 


 Describing
 behavior
 

•  The
 same
 methods
 that
 are
 used
 for
 
biology,
 chemistry,
 and
 physics
 can
 be
 
applied
 to
 study
 behavior,
 thought,
 emotion,
 
and
 physiological
 processes.
 

2.
 
 Predicting
 behavior
 

2.
 
 Predicting
 behavior
 

1
 

2/21/15
 

2.
 
 Predicting
 behavior
 

3. 

Explaining
 Behavior
 
“It
 is
 not
 what
 a
 man
 of
 
science
 believes
 that
 
distinguishes
 him,
 but
 how
 
and
 why
 he
 believes
 it.”
 

Women
 of
 science,
 too!!
 

Bertand
 Russell
 

Scientific
 inquiry:
 
!  A
 systematic
 method
 of
 collecting,
 analyzing,
 

and
 interpreting
 data.
 

1. 

Systematic
 Empiricism
 

2. 
! 

Public
 Verification
 

3. 

Solvable
 Problems
 

!  Used
 to
 describe,
 predict,
 control,
 and
 

explain
 why
 particular
 behaviors
 happen.
 

! 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 

Empirical
 approach
 
Observations
 
Questions
 
Hypotheses
 
Experiments
 
Analyses
 
Conclusions
 
Replication
 

Science
 vs.
 pseudoscience
 –
 
unverifiable
 observations
 

Are
 there
 angels?
 

1.
 Empirical
 Approach
 
! 

An
 evidence-­‐based
 approach
 that
 relies
 on
 
direct
 observation
 and
 experimentation
 in
 the
 
acquisition
 of
 new
 knowledge.
 

! 

In
 the
 empirical
 approach,
 scientific
 decisions
 
are
 made
 based
 on
 the
 data
 derived
 from
 direct
 
observation
 and
 experimentation.
 
 

2
 

2/21/15
 

2.
 Observations
 
1. 
2. 
! 

! 

Being
 aware
 of
 the
 world
 around
 us
 
Making
 careful
 measurements.
 
 
Observations
 of
 the
 world
 around
 us
 often
 give
 rise
 
to
 the
 questions
 that
 are
 addressed
 through
 
scientific
 research.
 
 
E.g.,
 observation:
 Those
 friends
 who
 are
 into
 sports,
 
and
 who
 do
 regular
 physical
 exercise
 seem
 happier
 
than
 those
 who
 do
 not
 exercise
 

3.
 Questions
 
! 

Depending
 on
 the
 type
 of
 research
 you
 are
 
conducting,
 your
 questions
 are
 differently
 
formulated
 

3.
 Questions
 
! 

After
 getting
 a
 research
 idea,
 perhaps
 from
 making
 
observations
 of
 the
 world
 around
 us,
 the
 next
 step
 in
 the
 
research
 process
 involves
 translating
 that
 research
 idea
 into
 
an
 answerable
 question.
 
 

! 

It
 would
 be
 a
 frustrating
 and
 ultimately
 unrewarding
 
endeavor
 to
 attempt
 to
 answer
 an
 unanswerable
 research
 
question
 through
 scientific
 investigation.
 

! 

E.g.,
 Could
 there
 be
 a
 relationship
 between
 regular
 exercise
 
and
 happiness?
 

Types
 of
 research
 
 
1. 

Basic
 vs.
 applied
 
!  Applied
 research
 uses
 the
 data
 directly
 for
 real
 

!  What
 learning
 styles
 do
 1st
 year
 psychology
 students
 

world
 application
 

use?
 

!  Basic
 research
 focuses
 on
 testing
 theories
 

!  Which
 learning
 style,
 typically
 used
 by
 1st
 year
 

psychology
 students,
 is
 the
 most
 effective
 in
 their
 
performance?
 

Types
 of
 research
 
 
1.  Basic
 vs.
 applied
 
2. 

Descriptive
 vs.
 explanatory
 
!  Descriptive
 research,
 is
 used
 to
 describe
 

characteristics
 of
 a
 population
 or
 a
 phenomenon
 
being
 studied
 
 
!  Explanatory
 research
 implies
 that
 the
 research
 in
 
question
 is
 intended
 to
 explain,
 rather
 than
 simply
 
to
 describe,
 the
 phenomena
 studied.
 

Types
 of
 research
 
 
1.  Basic
 vs.
 applied
 
2. 
3. 

Descriptive
 vs.
 explanatory
 
Quantitative
 vs.
 qualitative
 
!  Qualitative
 research
 gathers
 information
 that
 is
 

not
 in
 numerical
 form.
 

3
 

2/21/15
 

Types
 of
 research
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 A
 researcher
 wonders
 how
 color
 
combinations
 make
 people
 feel…
 
!  Descriptive
 or
 explanatory?
 

4.
 Hypothesis:
 a
 testable
 prediction
 
! 

! 
! 

! 

4.
 Hypothesis:
 a
 testable
 prediction
 
! 

! 

! 

Two
 types
 of
 hypotheses:
 
!  the
 null
 hypothesis
 
 
!  and
 the
 alternate
 (or
 experimental)
 hypothesis.
 

 The
 null
 hypothesis
 always
 predicts
 that
 there
 will
 
be
 no
 differences
 between
 the
 groups
 being
 
studied.
 
 
By
 contrast,
 the
 alternate
 hypothesis
 predicts
 that
 
there
 will
 be
 a
 difference
 between
 the
 groups.
 
 

5.
 Experiments
 
! 

After
 articulating
 the
 hypothesis,
 the
 next
 step
 
involves
 actually
 conducting
 the
 experiment
 (or
 
research
 study).
 
 

! 

A
 key
 aspect
 of
 conducting
 a
 research
 study
 is
 
measuring
 the
 phenomenon
 of
 interest
 in
 an
 
accurate
 and
 reliable
 manner.
 

Hypotheses
 can
 take
 various
 forms,
 depending
 on
 the
 
question
 being
 asked
 
 and
 the
 type
 of
 study
 being
 
conducted.
 
A
 key
 feature
 of
 all
 hypotheses
 is
 that
 each
 must
 make
 a
 
prediction.
 
 
E.g.,
 (everything
 else
 being
 equal),
 
 people
 who
 exercise
 
regularly
 will
 be
 on
 average
 happier
 than
 those
 who
 do
 
not
 exercise
 regularly
 
These
 predictions
 are
 then
 tested
 by
 gathering
 and
 
analyzing
 data,
 and
 the
 hypotheses
 can
 either
 be
 
supported
 or
 refuted
 on
 the
 basis
 of
 the
 data.
 

4.
 Hypothesis:
 a
 testable
 prediction
 
People
 who
 exercise
 regularly
 will
 be
 on
 average
 
happier
 than
 those
 who
 do
 not
 exercise
 regularly
 
Null
 hypothesis:
 There
 won’t
 be
 a
 difference
 between
 exercise
 group
 and
 
no-­‐exercise
 group
 in
 happiness
 levels
 
Alternate
 hypothesis:
 regular
 exercise
 group
 will
 be
 happier
 than
 no-­‐
exercise
 group
 

5.
 Experiments
 
! 

Accuracy
 refers
 to
 whether
 the
 measurement
 is
 
correct,
 whereas
 reliability
 refers
 to
 whether
 the
 
measurement
 is
 consistent.
 

4
 

2/21/15
 

6.
 Analyses
 

7.
 Conclusions
 

!  The
 type
 of
 statistical
 techniques
 used
 by
 a
 

!  After
 analyzing
 the
 data
 and
 determining
 

!  In
 short,
 statistics
 help
 researchers
 minimize
 

!  For
 example,
 if
 the
 researcher
 rejected
 the
 

8.
 Replication
 

!  Induction
 (from
 facts
 to
 hypothesis):
 

researcher
 depends
 on
 the
 design
 of
 the
 
study,
 the
 type
 of
 data
 being
 gathered,
 and
 
the
 questions
 being
 asked.
 
 
the
 likelihood
 of
 reaching
 an
 erroneous
 
conclusion
 about
 the
 relationship
 between
 
the
 variables
 being
 studied.
 

!  Conducting
 the
 same
 research
 study
 a
 second
 

time
 with
 another
 group
 of
 participants
 to
 
see
 whether
 the
 same
 results
 are
 obtained.
 

whether
 to
 reject
 the
 null
 hypothesis,
 the
 
researcher
 is
 now
 in
 a
 position
 to
 draw
 some
 
conclusions
 about
 the
 results
 of
 the
 study.
 
 
null
 hypothesis,
 the
 researcher
 can
 conclude
 
that
 the
 phenomenon
 being
 studied
 had
 a
 
statistically
 significant
 effect.
 

abstracting
 a
 hypothesis
 from
 a
 collection
 of
 
facts
 

!  The
 same
 researcher
 may
 attempt
 to
 

replicate
 previously
 obtained
 results,
 or
 
perhaps
 other
 researchers
 may
 undertake
 
that
 task.
 

!  Deduction
 (from
 theory
 to
 hypothesis):
 a
 

process
 of
 reasoning
 from
 a
 general
 
proposition
 (the
 theory)
 to
 specific
 
implications
 of
 that
 proposition
 (the
 
hypotheses).
 


 
 
 
 Theory:
 a
 
hypothetical
 
account
 of
 how
 and
 
why
 a
 phenomenon
 
occurs
 
Hypothesis:
 a
 testable
 
prediction
 made
 by
 a
 
theory
 

Heat
 is
 the
 result
 of
 
molecular
 motion
 

Slowing
 molecules
 
should
 make
 an
 object
 
cooler
 

5
 

2/21/15
 


 
 
 
 Theory:
 a
 
hypothetical
 
account
 of
 how
 and
 
why
 a
 phenomenon
 
occurs
 
Hypothesis:
 a
 testable
 
prediction
 made
 by
 a
 
theory
 

Theory
 of
 Diffusion
 of
 
Responsibility:
 People
 feel
 
less
 responsibility
 for
 their
 
own
 actions
 when
 they
 are
 
in
 a
 group
 than
 when
 they
 
are
 alone
 

Theory
 of
 Diffusion
 of
 
Responsibility:
 People
 feel
 
less
 responsibility
 for
 their
 
own
 actions
 when
 they
 are
 
in
 a
 group
 than
 when
 they
 
are
 alone
 

People
 are
 less
 likely
 to
 call
 
the
 police
 in
 an
 emergency
 
in
 a
 group
 than
 when
 they
 
are
 alone
 

People
 are
 less
 likely
 to
 call
 
the
 police
 in
 an
 emergency
 
in
 a
 group
 than
 when
 they
 
are
 alone
 
Kitty
 Genovese
 

!  How
 do
 we
 decide
 which
 theory
 is
 good?
 

1.
 Parsimony
 
2.
 Precision
 
3.
 Generativity
 
4.
 Testability
 &
 Falsifiability
 

2.
 
 Precision
 
!  Can
 we
 agree
 on
 the
 theory’s
 predictions?
 

1. 

Parsimony
 (Occam's
 razor)
 

!  Explain
 reality
 by
 simplification
 
! 
 If
 exceptional
 assumptions
 are
 required,
 the
 

theory
 is
 not
 parsimonious
 

!  Conceptual
 definition
 –
 much
 like
 a
 definition
 

that
 one
 would
 find
 in
 a
 dictionary
 

!  Sometimes
 too
 fuzzy
 for
 precise
 scientific
 

communication
 

!  A
 good
 theory
 should
 have
 key
 terms
 and
 

concepts
 that
 are
 operationally
 defined
 

!  Operational
 definition
 –
 specifies
 precisely
 

how
 a
 concept
 is
 measured
 or
 manipulated
 in
 
a
 particular
 study
 

6
 

2/21/15
 

▪  Example:
 A
 researcher
 is
 investigating
 the
 effects
 
of
 regular
 exercise
 on
 happiness.
 

!  Example:
 Babies’
 ability
 to
 pay
 attention
 

decreases
 as
 they
 become
 more
 hungry
 

▪  Decides
 to
 use
 a
 ten-­‐question
 happiness
 scale
 to
 
measure
 positive
 outlook
 in
 participants
 
(operational
 definition
 of
 happiness
 in
 this
 case
 is
 a
 
given
 subject’s
 score
 on
 the
 test)
 

!  Hunger
 (conceptual
 definition):
 having
 a
 desire
 for
 

food
 
!  Hunger
 (operational
 definition):
 being
 deprived
 of
 

food
 for
 12
 hours
 

▪ 
 
 
 
 
 What
 else
 needs
 to
 be
 operationally
 defined?
 

3. 

Generativity
 

4.
 Testability
 and
 falsifiability
 

! 

Does
 this
 formulation
 of
 the
 theory
 allow
 
hypotheses
 to
 be
 formulated?
 
Does
 it
 stimulate
 controversy,
 disbelief,
 and
 
resistance?
 
Does
 stimulate
 thinking,
 and
 offer
 tentative
 
explanations
 that
 account
 for
 phenomena?
 

! 

! 
! 

Empirical
 data
 to
 confirm
 or
 refute
 claims
 
“No
 human
 lives
 forever”
 
 -­‐
 not
 falsibiable
 (i.e.,
 
one
 needs
 to
 observe
 a
 human
 living
 forever
 to
 
falsify
 this
 claim)
 
!  “All
 humans
 live
 forever”
 –
 falisifiable
 (i.e.,
 
presentation
 of
 just
 one
 dead
 human
 could
 prove
 
the
 statement
 wrong)
 
! 

4.
 Testability
 and
 falsifiability
 
! 
! 

!  The
 logical
 impossibility
 of
 proof
 

Empirical
 data
 to
 confirm
 or
 
refute
 claims
 
Example:
 Freud’s
 
psychoanalytic
 theory:
 
repression
 

!  The
 practical
 impossibility
 of
 disproof
 

Sigmund
 Freud
 
1856-­‐1939
 

7
 

2/21/15
 

The
 logical
 impossibility
 of
 proof
 
!  We
 cannot
 logically
 prove
 a
 theory
 by
 

affirming
 hypotheses
 that
 are
 derived
 from
 it.
 

!  We
 often
 talk
 of
 theories
 being
 confirmed
 or
 

supported
 by
 research
 findings.
 

Practical
 Impossibility
 of
 Disproof
 
!  Failing
 to
 find
 research
 support
 for
 a
 

hypothesis
 does
 not
 necessarily
 imply
 that
 
the
 theory
 is
 incorrect
 because
 many
 things
 
can
 lead
 to
 a
 failure
 to
 obtain
 supportive
 data
 

!  File-­‐drawer
 problem
 

!  We
 cannot
 logically
 prove
 a
 theory
 by
 

affirming
 hypotheses
 that
 are
 derived
 from
 it.
 
!  Theory:
 tiny
 green
 men
 live
 under
 people’s
 skin.
 
 
!  Hypothesis:
 If
 Theory
 X
 is
 true,
 people
 who
 are
 

stabbed
 will
 feel
 pain
 because
 the
 little
 green
 men
 
will
 be
 hurt.
 
!  A
 researcher
 stabs
 50
 people
 and
 finds
 that
 they
 
all
 feel
 pain.
 

!  Data
 may
 fail
 to
 support
 our
 hypotheses
 for
 

reasons
 that
 have
 noting
 to
 do
 with
 the
 
validity
 of
 a
 theory.
 

!  Failure
 to
 find
 empirical
 support
 for
 a
 

hypothesis
 can
 be
 due
 to
 several
 factors.
 

!  What
 is
 truth
 ..?
 -­‐
 Can’t
 prove
 or
 disprove,
 so
 

what?
 

! 
 Just
 because
 a
 theory
 makes
 it
 through
 all
 

scientific
 research
 steps,
 this
 doesn’t
 mean
 it
 
is
 ‘true’
 in
 the
 common
 usage
 of
 the
 term.
 

!  The
 findings
 of
 a
 particular
 study
 are
 true
 to
 

some
 extent,
 but
 by
 definition
 a
 theory
 is
 an
 
approximation
 to
 the
 truth.
 

8
 

2/21/15
 

RESEARCH
 METHODS
 
 2
 
Types
 of
 measures
 
Strategies
 of
 Behavioral
 Research
 

!  Psychological
 measures
 can
 be
 roughly
 

divided
 into
 the
 categories
 below:
 
1.  Observational
 

2.  Physiological
 /
 neuroscientific
 measures
 
3.  Self-­‐report
 measures
 
4.  Archival
 methods
 

by
 Gaye
 Soley
 
email:
 [email protected]
 

!  A
 researcher
 who
 is
 conducting
 a
 study
 on
 

shyness
 may:
 

!  Observe
 participants’
 behavior
 (observational
 

measure)
 
 
!  Measure
 their
 physiological
 responses
 during
 a
 
social
 interaction
 (physiological
 measure)
 
!  Ask
 them
 to
 answer
 questions
 on
 a
 questionnaire
 
(self-­‐report
 measure)
 
!  Content-­‐analyze
 the
 entries
 in
 the
 diaries
 (archival
 
measure)
 

3
 decisions
 to
 be
 made:
 

!  Involve
 the
 direct
 observation
 of
 behavior
 
!  Can
 be
 used
 to
 measure
 anything
 an
 organism
 

does
 that
 can
 be
 observed
 

!  Reaction
 time,
 whether
 a
 rat
 presses
 a
 lever,
 eye
 

contact
 during
 conversation,
 aggressive
 
behavior…
 

!  Naturalistic
 observation
 
!  Involves
 the
 observation
 of
 ongoing
 behavior
 as
 it
 

!  i-­‐
 Will
 the
 observation
 occur
 in
 a
 natural
 or
 

contrived
 setting?
 (i.e.
 natural
 or
 arranged
 
settings
 for
 observation)
 
!  ii-­‐
 Will
 the
 participants
 know
 they
 are
 being
 
observed?
 
!  iii-­‐
 How
 will
 participants’
 behavior
 be
 recorded?
 

occurs
 naturally
 with
 no
 intrusion
 or
 intervention
 
by
 the
 researcher
 
!  Parent-­‐child
 interactions
 on
 the
 playground
 
!  Tool
 use
 by
 elephants
 
!  Aggression
 among
 monkeys
 

9
 

2/21/15
 

Participant
 Observation
 
!  Researchers
 might
 pose
 as
 
cult
 members,
 homeless
 
people,
 devil
 worshipers,
 
salespeople,
 gang
 members
 
etc..
 

!  Contrived
 observation
 
!  Participants
 know
 they
 are
 being
 observed
 but
 the
 

observers
 are
 usually
 concealed
 (e.g.,
 behind
 a
 
one-­‐way
 mirror)
 

!  Losing
 objectivity
 
!  The
 risk
 of
 influencing
 the
 

behavior
 of
 the
 individuals
 
being
 studied
 

Contrived
 Observation
 (cont.):
 
!  In
 other
 settings,
 researchers
 use
 contrived
 
observation
 in
 “real
 world”
 
!  Researchers
 set
 up
 situations
 outside
 of
 the
 

laboratory
 to
 observe
 people’s
 reactions.
 

!  Researchers
 were
 interested
 in
 factors
 that
 affect
 

helping
 so
 they
 staged
 an
 emergency
 on
 a
 NYC
 
subway.
 

!  The
 individuals
 being
 studied
 

know
 that
 the
 researcher
 is
 
observing
 the
 behavior
 
(undisguised
 observation)
 
!  People
 often
 do
 not
 respond
 

naturally
 when
 they
 know
 they
 
are
 being
 scrutinized
 (studied
 
closely)
 "
 
 reactivity
 

! 

Disguised
 Observation
 
!  When
 researchers
 are
 

concerned
 about
 reactivity,
 
they
 may
 conceal
 the
 fact
 
that
 they
 are
 observing
 and
 
recording
 participants’
 
behavior
 
!  May
 violate
 right
 of
 informed
 
consent
 
!  Potential
 violation
 of
 privacy
 

 ethical
 issues
 

10
 

2/21/15
 

!  As
 long
 as
 the
 behaviors
 under
 observation
 

occur
 in
 public
 and
 the
 researcher
 does
 not
 
unnecessarily
 inconvenience
 or
 upset
 the
 
participants,
 the
 ethical
 considerations
 are
 
small
 

!  However,
 if
 the
 behaviors
 are
 not
 public
 or
 

the
 researcher
 intrudes
 uninvited
 into
 
participants’
 everyday
 lives,
 then
 disguised
 
observation
 is
 problematic
 

!  E.g.
 What
 parts
 of
 a
 textbook
 students
 

consider
 important
 could
 be
 examined
 by
 
looking
 at
 the
 sections
 that
 they
 underlined
 
or
 highlighted
 

!  E.g.
 Inferring
 the
 most
 popular
 exhibits
 in
 a
 

museum
 from
 where
 the
 floor
 tiles
 are
 worn
 
down
 

Examples:
 
 
!  Temporal
 Measures:
 Latency
 and
 duration
 
!  Checklist:
 Recording
 whether
 a
 behavior
 
happened
 or
 not
 
!  Rating
 Scales:
 Measures
 quality
 or
 intensity
 
of
 a
 behavior
 

Ways
 to
 minimize
 reactivity:
 
!  Partial
 concealment
 –
 allow
 participants
 to
 know
 

that
 they
 are
 being
 observed
 but
 do
 not
 tell
 them
 
what
 specific
 aspects
 of
 behavior
 are
 being
 
observed
 

!  Unobtrusive
 measures
 –
 use
 indirect
 measures
 

that
 can
 be
 taken
 without
 the
 participants
 
knowing
 they
 are
 being
 studied
 

!  Simple
 and
 easily
 recorded
 behaviors:
 
!  Number
 of
 times
 a
 pigeon
 pecks
 a
 key
 
!  The
 number
 of
 M&Ms
 eaten
 by
 participant
 (to
 

look
 at
 social
 influences
 on
 eating)
 

!  In
 other
 cases,
 behavior
 are
 more
 complex
 
!  E.g.
 Embarrassment,
 group
 discussion,
 

negotiations..
 

!  Reaction
 time:
 time
 that
 elapses
 between
 

the
 presentation
 of
 a
 stimulus
 and
 the
 
participant’s
 response
 (such
 as
 pressing
 a
 
key).
 
!  The
 longer
 the
 reaction
 time,
 the
 more
 
internal
 processing
 must
 be
 occurring.
 
 

11
 

2/21/15
 

Implicit
 Association
 Test
 –
 IAT
 

Observational
 Rating
 
Scales:
 
!  E.g.
 A
 developmental
 

psychologist
 may
 want
 
to
 know
 how
 intensely
 
the
 baby
 cried
 during
 
the
 experiment
 

!  Inter-­‐rater
 Reliability:
 Degree
 to
 which
 the
 

observations
 of
 two
 or
 more
 independent
 
raters
 or
 observers
 agree.
 

!  Researchers
 must
 have
 clear
 and
 precise
 

operational
 definitions
 for
 all
 behaviors
 that
 
will
 be
 observed
 and
 recorded.
 

!  Raters
 should
 practice
 using
 the
 coding
 

system
 by
 comparing
 and
 discussing
 their
 
practice
 ratings.
 

!  To
 study
 the
 relationship
 between
 bodily
 

processes
 and
 behavior
 
!  Involves
 the
 use
 of
 specialized
 equipment
 to
 
measure
 
!  Examples:
 heart
 rate,
 brain
 activity,
 hormonal
 
changes…
 

Examples:
 

! 

Measures
 of
 Neural
 Electrical
 Activity
 
Neuroimaging
 
!  Measures
 of
 Autonomic
 Nervous
 System
 Activity
 
!  Blood
 and
 Saliva
 Assays
 
! 
! 

12
 

2/21/15
 

!  E.g.,
 researchers
 who
 study
 sleep,
 

dreaming,
 and
 other
 states
 of
 
consciousness
 use
 the
 
electroencephalogram
 (EEG)
 to
 
measure
 brain
 waves
 (different
 
patterns
 of
 firing
 of
 nerve
 cells
 for
 
sleep,
 dreaming..)
 

!  Allows
 researcher
 to
 see
 activity
 occurring
 

within
 the
 brain.
 

!  E.g.,
 fMRI
 (functional
 magnetic
 resonance
 

imaging):
 measures
 relative
 amount
 of
 
oxygenated
 blood
 in
 a
 particular
 region
 is
 
associated
 with
 higher
 neural
 activity
 in
 that
 
part
 of
 the
 brain.
 

!  E.g.
 A
 pulse
 plethysmogram
 measures
 pulse
 

rates
 by
 measuring
 the
 diameter
 of
 your
 
finger.
 
!  Can
 be
 used
 to
 measure
 anxiety.
 

!  E.g.
 certain
 hormones
 such
 as
 adrenalin
 and
 

!  Questionnaires
 require
 participants
 to
 

!  E.g.,
 testosterone
 hormone
 is
 related
 to
 

!  Interviews
 involve
 the
 participant
 responding
 

cortisol
 are
 released
 in
 response
 to
 stress.
 
activity
 level
 and
 aggression.
 

respond
 to
 written
 statements
 or
 questions.
 
orally
 to
 questions
 

13
 

2/21/15
 

Likert-­‐type
 scales
 
!  Series
 of
 statements,
 each
 of
 which
 expresses
 
an
 attitude
 or
 behavior
 that
 can
 vary
 in
 
frequency
 or
 intensity
 
!  Require
 graded
 responses
 to
 each
 item
 
!  1-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐3-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐5
 
!  The
 sum
 of
 the
 item
 credits
 represents
 an
 
individual’s
 attitude
 

www.trackyourhappiness.org
 

!  Social
 desirability
 response
 bias
 
 
!  Participants
 often
 worry
 about
 how
 the
 researchers
 

will
 think
 of
 them
 

!  Existing
 data,
 not
 collected
 for
 the
 study
 
!  Court
 records,
 personal
 letters,
 newspapers,
 

census
 data
 etc…
 

!  Descriptive
 Research
 
!  Correlational
 Research
 

!  Quasi-­‐experimental
 Research
 
!  Experimental
 Research
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

More
 information
 about
 causation
 

!  Describes
 the
 behavior,
 thoughts,
 or
 feelings
 

of
 a
 particular
 group
 of
 individuals
 
!  opinion
 poll,
 census
 

!  prevalence
 or
 symptoms
 of
 a
 disorder
 
!  developmental
 studies
 
▪  Changes
 in
 behavior
 due
 to
 age
 (cross-­‐sectional
 vs.
 
longitudinal)
 

14
 

2/21/15
 

!  Longitudinal
 design
 
!  Test
 the
 same
 individuals
 at
 intervals
 as
 they
 grow
 

!  Cross-­‐sectional
 design
 
!  Test
 individuals
 of
 different
 ages
 

!  Surveys
 
▪  How prevalent it is to have a opposite-sex
roommate at each class (freshmen,
sophomore, junior, etc..) among Bogazici
students?

!  Representative
 Sample
 –
 a
 sample
 from
 

which
 we
 can
 draw
 accurate,
 unbiased
 
estimates
 of
 the
 characteristics
 of
 the
 larger
 
population
 

!  Surveys
 
!  most common type of descriptive research.
!  Involve observation of all of a population, or a

representative subset, at one specific point in
time.
!  Psychologists may inquire about people’s
attitudes, lifestyles, behaviors, and problems
 

!  Sampling
 is
 the
 process
 by
 which
 a
 

researcher
 selects
 a
 sample
 of
 participants
 for
 
a
 study
 from
 the
 population
 of
 interest.
 

!  Simple
 random
 sample
 –
 every
 possible
 

sample
 of
 the
 desired
 size
 has
 the
 same
 
chance
 of
 being
 selected
 from
 the
 population
 

!  Probability
 sampling
 vs
 non-­‐probability
 sampling
 

15
 

2/21/15
 

!  Researchers
 do
 not
 know
 the
 probability
 that
 

a
 particular
 case
 will
 be
 chosen
 for
 the
 sample
 

!  Most
 research
 involves
 this
 type
 of
 sampling
 
!  Convenience
 Sampling
 –
 use
 whatever
 

participants
 are
 readily
 available
 

!  E.g.,
 convenience
 sample
 of
 Psychology
 101
 

students.
 

! 

Tend
 to
 be
 more
 intelligent
 than
 the
 general
 
population.
 
 

! 

Tend
 to
 come
 from
 middle
 or
 upper
 class
 
backgrounds.
 

! 

Tend
 to
 hold
 slightly
 more
 liberal
 attitudes
 than
 the
 
population
 

! 

Students
 who
 volunteer
 tend
 to
 be
 more
 
unconventional,
 more
 self-­‐confident,
 more
 
extraverted
 and
 higher
 in
 need
 for
 achievement
 

!  Typicality
 may
 not
 

matter!
 

!  Typicality
 can
 be
 

investigated
 

!  Typicality
 may
 be
 a
 

reasonable
 assumption
 

Typical
 person
 

Typical
 subject
 

!  Descriptive
 Research
 
!  Correlational
 Research
 

!  Experimental
 Research
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

More
 information
 about
 causation
 

!  Tries
 to
 find
 associations
 and
 relationships
 

between
 naturally
 occurring
 variables
 

!  Are
 people
 who
 score
 high
 on
 anxiety
 measures
 

also
 tend
 to
 score
 high
 on
 depression
 measures?
 
!  Is
 I.Q.
 related
 to
 reaction
 time?
 

16
 

2/21/15
 

!  Positive
 correlation
 
! 
 Two
 variables
 move
 (or
 vary)
 in
 the
 same
 

direction
 

v1
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 v2
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 v1
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 v2
 

! 
 Negative
 correlation
 
!  Two
 variables
 move
 (or
 vary)
 in
 the
 opposite
 

direction—
 either
 up
 or
 down
 

v1
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 v2
 


 scatter
 plot
 
Correlation
 between
 watching
 TV
 and
 violent
 
actions
 
1)
 Watching
 TV
 makes
 you
 act
 more
 violent.
 
Watching
 TV
 

Acting
 violent
 

r
 ranges
 from
 -­‐1.00
 to
 +1.00
 
 

2)
 Acting
 aggressively
 makes
 you
 want
 to
 
watch
 more
 violent
 TV.
 

3)
 A
 “third
 variable”
 influences
 both
 
variables,
 causing
 them
 to
 be
 correlated
 
Watching
 TV
 

Watching
 TV
 

Acting
 violent
 

Acting
 violent
 

Living
 in
 a
 violent
 family
 

17
 

2/21/15
 

!  Descriptive
 Research
 
!  Correlational
 Research
 

!  Experimental
 Research
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

More
 information
 about
 causation
 

“Correlation
 does
 not
 imply
 causation”
 

!  Independent
 variable
 –
 what
 the
 researcher
 

manipulates
 

!  An
 experiment
 must
 be
 conducted
 to
 see
 

whether
 or
 not
 one
 variable
 may
 be
 causing
 
another
 variable.
 

!  Dependent
 variable
 –
 the
 response
 being
 

measured
 in
 a
 study,
 typically
 a
 measure
 of
 
participants’
 thoughts,
 feelings,
 behavior,
 or
 
physiological
 reactions
 

!  e.g.
 if
 we
 want
 to
 know
 if
 a
 new
 drug
 

improves
 schizophrenic
 symptoms
 

A
 well-­‐designed
 experiment
 has
 three
 essential
 
properties:
 
1.  Experimental
 &
 control
 groups
 

!  Drug:
 independent
 variable
 
!  Schizophrenic
 symptoms:
 dependent
 variable
 

2. 

Randomization
 

3. 

Double-­‐blind
 procedure
 

18
 

2/21/15
 

!  Experimental
 group
 –
 participants
 in
 an
 

experiment
 who
 receive
 a
 nonzero
 level
 of
 
the
 independent
 variable
 
!  E.g.,
 the
 group
 that
 receives
 the
 drug
 

!  Control
 group
 –
 participants
 in
 an
 experiment
 

who
 receive
 a
 zero
 level
 of
 the
 independent
 
variable
 (or
 the
 absence
 of
 the
 variable
 of
 
interest)
 

A
 well-­‐designed
 experiment
 has
 three
 essential
 
properties:
 
1.  Experimental
 &
 control
 groups
 
2. 

Randomization
 

3. 

Double-­‐blind
 procedure
 

!  The
 group
 that
 doesn’t
 receive
 drug
 

!  The
 IV
 is
 whether
 the
 patients
 get
 the
 drug
 or
 

not;
 the
 DV
 is
 how
 severe
 their
 symptoms
 are
 

! 

It
 is
 important
 that
 patients
 are
 randomly
 assigned
 
to
 conditions
 –
 have
 equal
 chance
 of
 being
 assigned
 
to
 the
 groups
 

!  Internal
 validity
 is
 the
 degree
 to
 which
 a
 

researcher
 draws
 accurate
 conclusions
 about
 
the
 effects
 of
 the
 independent
 variable
 on
 a
 
dependent
 variable.
 

A
 well-­‐designed
 experiment
 has
 three
 essential
 
properties:
 
1.  Experimental
 &
 control
 groups
 
2. 

Randomization
 

3. 

Double-­‐blind
 procedure
 

! 

Experimenter
 expectancy
 effect
 occurs
 when
 a
 
researcher’s
 expectations
 about
 the
 outcome
 of
 a
 
study
 influences
 participants’
 reactions.
 

! 

Maze-­‐bright
 rats
 
Maze-­‐dull
 rats
 

! 

19
 

2/21/15
 

Demand
 characteristics
 occur
 when
 aspects
 of
 a
 
study
 indicate
 to
 participants
 how
 they
 should
 
respond.
 
!  Clever
 Hans
 
! 

! 

To
 avoid
 these,
 researchers
 use
 double-­‐blind
 
procedures
 in
 which
 neither
 the
 participants
 nor
 
the
 experimenter
 who
 interacts
 with
 them
 
 know
 
which
 condition
 the
 participant
 is
 in.
 

!  External
 Validity
 is
 the
 degree
 to
 which
 the
 

results
 obtained
 in
 one
 study
 can
 be
 
replicated
 or
 generalized
 to
 other
 samples,
 
research
 settings,
 and
 procedures
 

Typical
 situation
 

!  Typicality
 may
 not
 

matter!
 

!  Typicality
 can
 be
 

investigated
 
!  Typicality
 may
 be
 a
 
reasonable
 assumption
 

Typical
 experiment
 

!  Slides
 will
 be
 posted
 on
 CIMS
 
!  Exam
 questions
 will
 be
 from
 the
 lectures
 as
 

well
 as
 the
 textbook.
 

20
 

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