Review Session
Content
Developmental Psychology (PSY 254)
Final Review Session
Clarice Robenalt & Michelle
DeKlyen
January 19. 2015
HOW DO BABIES BREAK
INTO THE COMPLEXITIES
OF LANGUAGE?
Infant-Directed Speech
• Speaking style used by adults when
speaking to infants
• Highly variable pitch, shorter
sentences, more pauses, expanded
vowel space
What’s special about IDS?
• Infants prefer it to ADS
• Conveys emotion and meaning
Happy
regiver presents baby with new toy using…
tone
Harsh
tone
Positive
words
9 month olds
respond more to
tone than words
Negativ
e words
12 month olds
respond equally to
tone and words
Tuning perception to sounds in your
native language
• Newborns distinguish sounds that
make meaningful distinctions (e.g.
rake vs lake)
– …even in a language they may never
had heard before!
• As babies mature, they lose contrasts
that are not meaningful in their
native language
• Bilingual babies retain contrasts in
both of their languages
Statistical Learning
• Statistics help babies find the
boundaries in between words
pret
ty
ba
by
prettybaby
ty
ba
Within words,
adjacent
syllables have
high transitional
probabilities
Between words,
adjacent
syllables have
low transitional
probabilities
Babies generalize patterns they
have learned to new input
le-le-di
go-go-la
familiarize fo-fo-nu
ki-ki-bo
…
test
ci-ci-ru
vs
ci-ru-ci
results
infants
show
novelty
F# F# D
CCE
G G D#
C# C# F
…
G# G# A
vs
G# A G#
no
preferenc
e for
…unless tones
are perceived
as
communicative
What is the name for speech that is higher than normal
pitch, with extreme shifts in intonation and
exaggerated facial expressions and gestures?
Infant-directed speech
What is it called when children and adults experience
speech sounds as belonging to discrete categories?
Categorical perception
HOW DO CHILDREN LEARN
WORDS AND SENTENCES?
Language Milestones
• Babbling: Infant produces repetitive
string of simple syllables (e.g. bababa)
• Early interactions: turn-taking,
intersubjectivity (sharing a mutual
understanding), joint attention
(mutually attending to the same object)
• Early word recognition/production
• Overextension: using a word in a
broader context than is appropriate
Overextensions
• ball: ball, balloon, marble, apple, egg,
pom-pom, spherical water tank
(Rescorla, 1980)
• cat: cat, cat’s usual location on top of
TV when absent (Bowerman, 1978)
• snow: snow, white tail on a horse,
white flannel bed pad, white puddle of
milk on the floor (Bowerman, 1978)
Learning Object Labels
• Pragmatic context
• Grammar
Find the fep one.
Now find the fep.
Constraints on Word
Learning
• Whole object constraint
• Mutual exclusivity
Novel word is
assumed to be an
object label (as
opposed to
characteristic)
Novel word is
assumed to label
unfamiliar object
(the one you
don’t have a
name for)
Cross-situational word
learning
Where’s the gasser?
Where’s the manu?
e
ti m
By tracking
words and
objects over
time, it is
possible to
pair objects
Adults
can do
with their
this, but so can
labels
12 and 14mo
Where’s the gasser?
infants!
Online language processing gets
faster as babies mature
What is it called when a child rapidly learns a new
word simply by hearing the contrastive use of a
familiar and an unfamiliar word?
Fast mapping
What is the name for speech errors in which children
treat irregular forms of words as though they were
regular?
overregularization
HOW IMPORTANT IS
LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE?
Is there a critical period for
language development?
• Brain plasticity: Children recover from brain
damage much more readily than do adults.
• Feral children:
– Ramu: found in India in 1976; apparently raised
by wolves; deformed and couldn’t walk; learned to
dress himself, but never learned to speak; died in
1985
– Genie: discovered in California at age 14; had
lived in darkened room, tied to chair; after 9 years
of intensive tutoring by linguists at UCLA, she
learned many words but never syntax
Is there a critical period for
language development?
• Mixed findings from bilingualism:
Individual Differences in Language
Development
• Cognitive differences: working
memory
• Sex and birth order: girls and firstborns have larger vocabularies and
use more complex language.
• Socioeconomic status: SES exerts
a powerful influence on language
outcomes.
Quantity of Language Input is
Related to SES
Infants who hear more child-directed speech at
19mo show faster language processing at 24mo
Importance of Language Experience
on Development
• Infants need rich, varied, contingent, and
guided verbal interaction in the early years.
• Language experience has a pervasive influence
on the development of children’s language
skills.
• There is a large cost to children who do not
receive rich language experience.
• Increased opportunities for language interaction
can alter the course of language growth
…with cascading advantages for children.
What is the single best predictor of
early reading proficiency?
Phonological awareness: the
ability to attend to, reflect
on, and manipulate the
sounds of speech
WHAT IS EMOTION IN THE
FIRST YEAR OF LIFE?
What is emotion?
• Emotions are feelings we have about what we
are experiencing.
• They are generally positive or negative in
character, they have physiological correlates
(like accelerated heart rate when you’re
scared) and have some sort of external
manifestation (like a smile when you’re happy)
• The limbic system (responsible for emotions)
is a network of old brain regions that is so old it
was probably shared with a common ancestor
of mammals and reptiles
Basic emotions
• Disgust, fear, joy, sadness, anger,
surprise
• Facial displays for these emotions are
the same in every human society
that has ever been observed
Do babies have emotions?
JOY
FEAR
Secondary (self-conscious) emotions
• Embarrassment, guilt, shame, pride,
jealousy, empathy
• Relate to our sense of self and our
consciousness of others’ reactions
• Typically emerge in second year
– Embarrassment ~15-24 mo
– Pride increasingly tied to performance
by ~3 years
Individual differences in emotion
perception: Abuse
Physically abused kids require less visual information
to recognize anger
Individual differences in emotion
perception: Neglect
• Children who had been
institutionalized were compared to
children living with their biological
families
• Findings:
– Institutionalized children were worse
than controls at emotion idenfication
– Institutionalized children were worse
than controls in emotion understanding
for every emotion except anger
Display Rules
• When and how is it appropriate to
display emotion?
• Vary by culture:
– U.S. = individualist society, shame =
harmful to self esteem, anger = OK for
self assertion (non-hostile)
– Nepal = collectivist society, shame =
good, acknowledges wrongdoing, anger
is discouraged
What is it called when a child uses
other people’s emotional
expressions to gain information or
infer the meaning of otherwise
ambiguous situations?
Social referencing
What is the name for a
perseverative focus on one's
negative emotions, their causes
and consequences; a rick factor
for depression?
rumination
HOW DOES ATTACHMENT
TO PARENTS SHAPE
DEVELOPMENT?
Attachment as “secure
base”
• Secure attachment = when the baby
is confident in its ability to secure its
needs, and so doesn’t have to be
particularly needy
• Other attachment styles
– Secure (~60-65%)
– Insecure-avoidant (~20%)
– Insecure-resistant-ambivalent (~10%)
– Insecure-disorganized (~5-15%)
Bowlby’s attachment stages
• Preattachment: 0-2 mo, innate signals +
parental responsiveness
• Attachment-in-the-making: 6-8 mo,
recognition of caregivers and preferential
response to them
• Clear-cut attachment: up to ~2 years,
active seeking of caregiver and distress
upon separation
• Reciprocal relationships: 2+ years, other
children can be seen as relationship
partners
Secure attachment is predicted by…
• Close contact
– Israeli babies who slept in community care
center were less securely attached than babies
who slept at home
– Low income mothers given soft carriers had
more securely attached babies than mothers
given hard carriers
• Specific parenting behaviors
– Sensitivity to needs; adjustment to mood;
availability; acceptance of baby in difficult
times
Other Attachment Styles
• Insecure-avoidant:
– Caregivers don’t respond to babies’ signals
– Little physical contact
– Caregiver is angry and irritable around baby
• Insecure-resistant-ambivalent:
– Caregiver is unaffectionate and inconsistent
• Insecure-disorganized:
– Baby experiences neglect or physical abuse at
the hands of the caregiver
– Baby is raised by a depressed caregiver
Internal Working Models of
Attachment
Parenting Styles
Name the three infant
temperament profiles.
Easy
Slow-to-warm-up
Difficult
What are some benefits of secure attachment
later in life? Name at least two.
• More positive, empathetic, and socially
competent
• Harmonious peer relationships
• Healthy romantic relationships
• Better grades
• More school involvement
• Marital satisfaction
• Less jealousy
• Less prejudice
HOW DO KIDS LEARN
ABOUT THEIR SOCIAL
WORLDS?
Overimitation
1.
2.
3.
4.
Procedure
Preschoolers see an
adult demonstrate a
series of unnecessary
actions in order to
retrieve a toy.
In a training phase, the
adult explains that
certain actions are
unnecessary.
Children are asked to
retrieve the toy.
Measure how many
irrelevant actions are
Findings of Overimitation
Studies
• Children are highly likely to copy adults’
irrelevant actions
– …even when they were told to watch out for
irrelevant actions
– …even when speed was emphasized
• Why?
– Extreme causal opacity (how does this thing work
anyway?)
– Social cues tell children that all steps are
important
Intentionality Matters for
Imitation
DO CHILDREN HAVE A
SENSE OF SELF?
Early Self-World
Differentiation
• Newborns display distress signals
when they hear cries of other babies.
They do not do so when they hear
their own cries recorded.
• Newborns display their rooting reflex
(turning head when cheek is
touched) more reliably to an
experimenter’s touch than to a
spontaneous self-touch
Development of Personal
Agency
• Contingency: infants were seated in front of
a monitor with a string tied around their wrist.
For half the babies, pulling the string made a
short animation play on the screen. These
babies played with the string for longer and
showed anger when the string stopped
working
• Reaching: 6 month old infants were seated in
front of objects of varying distances. Babies
who had better postural control were more
likely to reach for distant object
Rouge Test for SelfAwareness
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=M2I0kwSua44
Sense of Self Over Time
• 3-4 years: physical features, preferences,
possessions, social characteristics, and skills
– e.g., I have brown eyes, I like ice cream, I have a blue
purse, I have a brother
• 5-7 years: focus on competencies (mostly positive)
– e.g., I’m good at playing soccer, I’m good at school
• 8-10 years: more aware of uniqueness, more
complex, personal attributes
– e.g., I am smart in math, but dumb in social studies. I am
popular, nice, and helpful.
• Adolescence: awareness is increasingly more
abstract and complex, takes into account more
aspects of personality.
Mindset
ARE CHILDREN MORAL
CREATURES?
Piaget’s Stages of Moral
Development
• Stage 1 (before 7-8 years of age)
– Moral realism
– Objective responsibility
– Punishment for its own sake
– Imminent justice
• Transitional stage (around 7-10 years)
– More interactions with peers
– Start to value fairness and equality
– Become more autonomous in their thinking
• Stage 2(around 11-12 years)
– Rules are arbitrary
– Intent > objective consequences
– Punishment should fit the crime
Kohlberg’s Heinz Dilemma
Heinz’s wife is dying from an illness. A drug
that might save her has been discovered by a
local pharmacist, but he was charging 10
times what it took him to make it. This was far
more money than Heinz had. So Heinz went to
everyone he knew to borrow the money, but
he could only get together about half the
price. He told the pharmacist that his wife was
dying and asked for a discount, or if he could
pay the rest later. But, the pharmacist said,
“No, I discovered the drug and I’m going to
make money from it”. So, Heinz got desperate
and broke into the store to steal the drug for
his wife.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development
• Preconventional, Stage 1
– Obedience to authority
– Fear of punishment
– Pro: “If you let your wife die, you will get in trouble”
– Con: “You shouldn’t steal because you could go to jail”
• Preconventional, Stage 2
– What is right is what’s in one’s own best interest
– Might involve equal exchange between people
– Pro: “He can always pay him back”
– Con: “The druggist just wants to make a profit like others
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development
• Conventional, Stage 3
– Moral behavior is that which pleases, helps, or is approved by
others
– Primary objective is to be thought of as ‘good’
– Pro: “No one will think you are bad if you steal the drug, but your
family will think you are inhuman if you don’t”
– Con: “If you steal, you might bring dishonor on your family; you
won’t be able to face anyone.”
• Conventional, Stage 4
– What is right is fulfilling duties, upholding laws, & contributing to
group/society
– Don’t fear punishment; rather, believe rules & laws maintain order
worth preserving
– Pro: “The druggist is leading the wrong kind of life if he lets someone
die, so Heinz had to steal… but he must pay the druggist back and
accept punishment”
– Con: “Natural to want to steal, but you have to follow the rules
regardless of your personal feelings”
THE END
any questions?
Final Review Session
Clarice Robenalt & Michelle
DeKlyen
January 19. 2015
HOW DO BABIES BREAK
INTO THE COMPLEXITIES
OF LANGUAGE?
Infant-Directed Speech
• Speaking style used by adults when
speaking to infants
• Highly variable pitch, shorter
sentences, more pauses, expanded
vowel space
What’s special about IDS?
• Infants prefer it to ADS
• Conveys emotion and meaning
Happy
regiver presents baby with new toy using…
tone
Harsh
tone
Positive
words
9 month olds
respond more to
tone than words
Negativ
e words
12 month olds
respond equally to
tone and words
Tuning perception to sounds in your
native language
• Newborns distinguish sounds that
make meaningful distinctions (e.g.
rake vs lake)
– …even in a language they may never
had heard before!
• As babies mature, they lose contrasts
that are not meaningful in their
native language
• Bilingual babies retain contrasts in
both of their languages
Statistical Learning
• Statistics help babies find the
boundaries in between words
pret
ty
ba
by
prettybaby
ty
ba
Within words,
adjacent
syllables have
high transitional
probabilities
Between words,
adjacent
syllables have
low transitional
probabilities
Babies generalize patterns they
have learned to new input
le-le-di
go-go-la
familiarize fo-fo-nu
ki-ki-bo
…
test
ci-ci-ru
vs
ci-ru-ci
results
infants
show
novelty
F# F# D
CCE
G G D#
C# C# F
…
G# G# A
vs
G# A G#
no
preferenc
e for
…unless tones
are perceived
as
communicative
What is the name for speech that is higher than normal
pitch, with extreme shifts in intonation and
exaggerated facial expressions and gestures?
Infant-directed speech
What is it called when children and adults experience
speech sounds as belonging to discrete categories?
Categorical perception
HOW DO CHILDREN LEARN
WORDS AND SENTENCES?
Language Milestones
• Babbling: Infant produces repetitive
string of simple syllables (e.g. bababa)
• Early interactions: turn-taking,
intersubjectivity (sharing a mutual
understanding), joint attention
(mutually attending to the same object)
• Early word recognition/production
• Overextension: using a word in a
broader context than is appropriate
Overextensions
• ball: ball, balloon, marble, apple, egg,
pom-pom, spherical water tank
(Rescorla, 1980)
• cat: cat, cat’s usual location on top of
TV when absent (Bowerman, 1978)
• snow: snow, white tail on a horse,
white flannel bed pad, white puddle of
milk on the floor (Bowerman, 1978)
Learning Object Labels
• Pragmatic context
• Grammar
Find the fep one.
Now find the fep.
Constraints on Word
Learning
• Whole object constraint
• Mutual exclusivity
Novel word is
assumed to be an
object label (as
opposed to
characteristic)
Novel word is
assumed to label
unfamiliar object
(the one you
don’t have a
name for)
Cross-situational word
learning
Where’s the gasser?
Where’s the manu?
e
ti m
By tracking
words and
objects over
time, it is
possible to
pair objects
Adults
can do
with their
this, but so can
labels
12 and 14mo
Where’s the gasser?
infants!
Online language processing gets
faster as babies mature
What is it called when a child rapidly learns a new
word simply by hearing the contrastive use of a
familiar and an unfamiliar word?
Fast mapping
What is the name for speech errors in which children
treat irregular forms of words as though they were
regular?
overregularization
HOW IMPORTANT IS
LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE?
Is there a critical period for
language development?
• Brain plasticity: Children recover from brain
damage much more readily than do adults.
• Feral children:
– Ramu: found in India in 1976; apparently raised
by wolves; deformed and couldn’t walk; learned to
dress himself, but never learned to speak; died in
1985
– Genie: discovered in California at age 14; had
lived in darkened room, tied to chair; after 9 years
of intensive tutoring by linguists at UCLA, she
learned many words but never syntax
Is there a critical period for
language development?
• Mixed findings from bilingualism:
Individual Differences in Language
Development
• Cognitive differences: working
memory
• Sex and birth order: girls and firstborns have larger vocabularies and
use more complex language.
• Socioeconomic status: SES exerts
a powerful influence on language
outcomes.
Quantity of Language Input is
Related to SES
Infants who hear more child-directed speech at
19mo show faster language processing at 24mo
Importance of Language Experience
on Development
• Infants need rich, varied, contingent, and
guided verbal interaction in the early years.
• Language experience has a pervasive influence
on the development of children’s language
skills.
• There is a large cost to children who do not
receive rich language experience.
• Increased opportunities for language interaction
can alter the course of language growth
…with cascading advantages for children.
What is the single best predictor of
early reading proficiency?
Phonological awareness: the
ability to attend to, reflect
on, and manipulate the
sounds of speech
WHAT IS EMOTION IN THE
FIRST YEAR OF LIFE?
What is emotion?
• Emotions are feelings we have about what we
are experiencing.
• They are generally positive or negative in
character, they have physiological correlates
(like accelerated heart rate when you’re
scared) and have some sort of external
manifestation (like a smile when you’re happy)
• The limbic system (responsible for emotions)
is a network of old brain regions that is so old it
was probably shared with a common ancestor
of mammals and reptiles
Basic emotions
• Disgust, fear, joy, sadness, anger,
surprise
• Facial displays for these emotions are
the same in every human society
that has ever been observed
Do babies have emotions?
JOY
FEAR
Secondary (self-conscious) emotions
• Embarrassment, guilt, shame, pride,
jealousy, empathy
• Relate to our sense of self and our
consciousness of others’ reactions
• Typically emerge in second year
– Embarrassment ~15-24 mo
– Pride increasingly tied to performance
by ~3 years
Individual differences in emotion
perception: Abuse
Physically abused kids require less visual information
to recognize anger
Individual differences in emotion
perception: Neglect
• Children who had been
institutionalized were compared to
children living with their biological
families
• Findings:
– Institutionalized children were worse
than controls at emotion idenfication
– Institutionalized children were worse
than controls in emotion understanding
for every emotion except anger
Display Rules
• When and how is it appropriate to
display emotion?
• Vary by culture:
– U.S. = individualist society, shame =
harmful to self esteem, anger = OK for
self assertion (non-hostile)
– Nepal = collectivist society, shame =
good, acknowledges wrongdoing, anger
is discouraged
What is it called when a child uses
other people’s emotional
expressions to gain information or
infer the meaning of otherwise
ambiguous situations?
Social referencing
What is the name for a
perseverative focus on one's
negative emotions, their causes
and consequences; a rick factor
for depression?
rumination
HOW DOES ATTACHMENT
TO PARENTS SHAPE
DEVELOPMENT?
Attachment as “secure
base”
• Secure attachment = when the baby
is confident in its ability to secure its
needs, and so doesn’t have to be
particularly needy
• Other attachment styles
– Secure (~60-65%)
– Insecure-avoidant (~20%)
– Insecure-resistant-ambivalent (~10%)
– Insecure-disorganized (~5-15%)
Bowlby’s attachment stages
• Preattachment: 0-2 mo, innate signals +
parental responsiveness
• Attachment-in-the-making: 6-8 mo,
recognition of caregivers and preferential
response to them
• Clear-cut attachment: up to ~2 years,
active seeking of caregiver and distress
upon separation
• Reciprocal relationships: 2+ years, other
children can be seen as relationship
partners
Secure attachment is predicted by…
• Close contact
– Israeli babies who slept in community care
center were less securely attached than babies
who slept at home
– Low income mothers given soft carriers had
more securely attached babies than mothers
given hard carriers
• Specific parenting behaviors
– Sensitivity to needs; adjustment to mood;
availability; acceptance of baby in difficult
times
Other Attachment Styles
• Insecure-avoidant:
– Caregivers don’t respond to babies’ signals
– Little physical contact
– Caregiver is angry and irritable around baby
• Insecure-resistant-ambivalent:
– Caregiver is unaffectionate and inconsistent
• Insecure-disorganized:
– Baby experiences neglect or physical abuse at
the hands of the caregiver
– Baby is raised by a depressed caregiver
Internal Working Models of
Attachment
Parenting Styles
Name the three infant
temperament profiles.
Easy
Slow-to-warm-up
Difficult
What are some benefits of secure attachment
later in life? Name at least two.
• More positive, empathetic, and socially
competent
• Harmonious peer relationships
• Healthy romantic relationships
• Better grades
• More school involvement
• Marital satisfaction
• Less jealousy
• Less prejudice
HOW DO KIDS LEARN
ABOUT THEIR SOCIAL
WORLDS?
Overimitation
1.
2.
3.
4.
Procedure
Preschoolers see an
adult demonstrate a
series of unnecessary
actions in order to
retrieve a toy.
In a training phase, the
adult explains that
certain actions are
unnecessary.
Children are asked to
retrieve the toy.
Measure how many
irrelevant actions are
Findings of Overimitation
Studies
• Children are highly likely to copy adults’
irrelevant actions
– …even when they were told to watch out for
irrelevant actions
– …even when speed was emphasized
• Why?
– Extreme causal opacity (how does this thing work
anyway?)
– Social cues tell children that all steps are
important
Intentionality Matters for
Imitation
DO CHILDREN HAVE A
SENSE OF SELF?
Early Self-World
Differentiation
• Newborns display distress signals
when they hear cries of other babies.
They do not do so when they hear
their own cries recorded.
• Newborns display their rooting reflex
(turning head when cheek is
touched) more reliably to an
experimenter’s touch than to a
spontaneous self-touch
Development of Personal
Agency
• Contingency: infants were seated in front of
a monitor with a string tied around their wrist.
For half the babies, pulling the string made a
short animation play on the screen. These
babies played with the string for longer and
showed anger when the string stopped
working
• Reaching: 6 month old infants were seated in
front of objects of varying distances. Babies
who had better postural control were more
likely to reach for distant object
Rouge Test for SelfAwareness
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=M2I0kwSua44
Sense of Self Over Time
• 3-4 years: physical features, preferences,
possessions, social characteristics, and skills
– e.g., I have brown eyes, I like ice cream, I have a blue
purse, I have a brother
• 5-7 years: focus on competencies (mostly positive)
– e.g., I’m good at playing soccer, I’m good at school
• 8-10 years: more aware of uniqueness, more
complex, personal attributes
– e.g., I am smart in math, but dumb in social studies. I am
popular, nice, and helpful.
• Adolescence: awareness is increasingly more
abstract and complex, takes into account more
aspects of personality.
Mindset
ARE CHILDREN MORAL
CREATURES?
Piaget’s Stages of Moral
Development
• Stage 1 (before 7-8 years of age)
– Moral realism
– Objective responsibility
– Punishment for its own sake
– Imminent justice
• Transitional stage (around 7-10 years)
– More interactions with peers
– Start to value fairness and equality
– Become more autonomous in their thinking
• Stage 2(around 11-12 years)
– Rules are arbitrary
– Intent > objective consequences
– Punishment should fit the crime
Kohlberg’s Heinz Dilemma
Heinz’s wife is dying from an illness. A drug
that might save her has been discovered by a
local pharmacist, but he was charging 10
times what it took him to make it. This was far
more money than Heinz had. So Heinz went to
everyone he knew to borrow the money, but
he could only get together about half the
price. He told the pharmacist that his wife was
dying and asked for a discount, or if he could
pay the rest later. But, the pharmacist said,
“No, I discovered the drug and I’m going to
make money from it”. So, Heinz got desperate
and broke into the store to steal the drug for
his wife.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development
• Preconventional, Stage 1
– Obedience to authority
– Fear of punishment
– Pro: “If you let your wife die, you will get in trouble”
– Con: “You shouldn’t steal because you could go to jail”
• Preconventional, Stage 2
– What is right is what’s in one’s own best interest
– Might involve equal exchange between people
– Pro: “He can always pay him back”
– Con: “The druggist just wants to make a profit like others
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development
• Conventional, Stage 3
– Moral behavior is that which pleases, helps, or is approved by
others
– Primary objective is to be thought of as ‘good’
– Pro: “No one will think you are bad if you steal the drug, but your
family will think you are inhuman if you don’t”
– Con: “If you steal, you might bring dishonor on your family; you
won’t be able to face anyone.”
• Conventional, Stage 4
– What is right is fulfilling duties, upholding laws, & contributing to
group/society
– Don’t fear punishment; rather, believe rules & laws maintain order
worth preserving
– Pro: “The druggist is leading the wrong kind of life if he lets someone
die, so Heinz had to steal… but he must pay the druggist back and
accept punishment”
– Con: “Natural to want to steal, but you have to follow the rules
regardless of your personal feelings”
THE END
any questions?
