Rose, BJ, 2009. GHG-Energy-Calc Background Paper March

GHG-Energy Calc Background Paper

Ben J. Rose March 2009

© Ben J. Rose, Rose, 2003 - 2009

Section 1.0 1.1 1.2 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3

Contents INTRODUCTION Australian domestic greenhouse gas emissions Greenhouse gases (GHG) and global warming potential (GWP) GHG – ENERGY- CALC Using GHG-Energy Calc How GHG-Energy Calc works Home Heating Calculator

Page 2 3 6 7 8 9 11

3.0 3.1 3.2

EMBODIED ENERGY AND EMISSIONS FACTORS Definitions and boundaries Estima imation of of em embodied em emission ion fa factors fo for ma manufactured go goods, fo food an and residential buildings

12 12 13

4.0 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

TRANSPORT ENERGY AND EMISSIONS ENERGY AND EMISSIONS OF TRANSPORT MODES Aircraft Ocean liners Private vehicles Bicycle Motor vehicle efficiency Public transport – bus and train

16 17 17 20 21 22 23 24

6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3

ELECTRICITY AND HOME HEATING FUELS ENERGY AND EMISSIONS Electricity (Australian grid systems) Electricity – ‘green power’ renewable (biomass/hydro/wind power) Heating fuels used in the home

27 27 28 29

7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3

FOOD AND WATER EMBODIED ENERGY AND EMISSIONS Foods- emission classes Using the Food section of  GHG-Energy GHG-Energy Calc Water

31 31 32 32

8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5

WASTE EMBODIED ENERGY AND EMISSIONS GHG-Energy Calc waste section Inaccuracies Embodied energy emissions of municipal solid waste Methane generation from landfill Emission savings from recycling

34 34 34 34 35 36

9.0 9.1 9.2 10

HOUSING AND POSSESSIONS EMBODIED ENERGY AND EMISSIONS Housing Possessions FURTHER RESEARCH AND CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

37 37 38 41 43

Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5 Appendix 6

Conversions Definitions Emission factors for fuels Air travel emissions understated

45 45 49 49 51 54

Per Passenger Emissions from Cruise Ships Estimated embodied energy and emissions of goods in a typical home

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1. INTRODUCTION Global warming is now almost universally accepted as being the greatest environmental crisis to affect mankind. The results are already being felt: global warming and a climate change with more extremes - droughts, floods and intense storms that are predicted to become much worse as CO2 levels increase at an unprecedented rate. Reducing the rate of greenhouse gas emssions will be an enormous battle that must be fought on many fronts. However it is winnable because it is a  phenomenon caused directly by human activities and there are many ways we can change to become more energy efficient and less polluting. It is mainly the excessive consumption habits of  ‘westernized’ developed nations that are producing more greenhouse gases than can be assimilated  by natural cycles. The burning of huge amounts of fossils fuels for transport, industry and domestic electricity; unsustainable agricultural practices and clearing of forests are all common practices that must cease or be curtailed if the world is to avert climate catastrophe. This paper describes a greenhouse gas emissions and energy calculator (GHG-Energy Calc) for use  by individuals and businesses to conduct their own energy and emissions audits easily and quickly. It is available for the public to use and can be downloaded from www.ghgenergycalc.com.au . Other  energy-related calculators, information booklets and brochures can also be found on the website. These resources are intended to help the community to minimize greenhouse gas emitting activities and consumption by being more energy efficient and changing to ‘cleaner technology’ energy sources and products. Australians have a lot of reducing to do from their current level of 28 tonnes GHG per head of to the sustainable level of 2 tonnes (from IPCC, 2001). However, it can be achieved – the average Australian can easily reduce emissions by half to 6-7 tonnes by simply leading a more energy efficient lifestyle (see Section 2). If industry and commerce were to do likewise, that would be another 7 tonnes per head. Going the rest of the way will require changing to renewable energy technologies and less emissions intensive industrial and agricultural practices. Surely this will no more technically difficult than putting a man on the moon or producing ‘nano-machines’. However it will require profound societal and cultural changes. Our current consumer culture will only change when a ‘critical mass’ of the population becomes aware and concerned enough to change consumer habits and drive political change. An example familiar to all is cigarette smoking. It was considered quite normal and harmless in the 1940’s but is now recognized by the community as a health hazard and a cost to the taxpayer through increased  burdens on the health care system. Smoking is now banned in public areas, is heavily taxed and our  youth are educated about its dangers. In the same way, if the community become concerned enough about the damage that excessive fossil fuel consumption is doing to the climate on which it depends, many will change their consumption habits. For example, driver-only commuting in large petroleum  powered vehicles, exceeding the per capita sustainable emissions by over 100% from this source alone, may in future be seen for what it is − ‘smoking in a public place’. Such behaviours will be viewed by an increasingly, increasingly, aware community as unacceptable behaviour behaviou r. Eventually there will be a change to a government that will legislate for the necessary regulatory controls. Whether this will happen soon enough to avert climate catastrophe will depend on how quickly the community  become aware and concerned enough to accept some economic pain and lifestyle change. In 2005, the European emissions trading scheme commenced. In 2006, the Kyoto Protocol came into effect, with Russia joining. At the same time, rising oil prices due to the impending ‘oil peak’  provided financial incentives for alternative fuels. The first steps towards ‘climate action’ on a world scale have begun. Climate change and its causes have at last become major issues in the Australian media, with regular and continuing press coverage. The release in August 2006 of the film ‘An Rose, B.J., 2009. GHG-Energy-Calc Background Paper 

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Inconvenient Truth’ by ex-vice-president of the US Al Gore will go down in history as a watershed event in world community awareness. However Australia and the US have been the slowest to take action and by December 2007 had still not joined the Kyoto Protocol or adopted national fiscally  based emissions abatement. This, as explained by Australian Prime Minister John Howard on ABC ‘Four Corners’, 28/8/06 , is because the economies of these countries, in particular exports, are reliant on cheap fossil fuel energy, mainly by coal. He did not believe that price rises of goods and energy would be accepted by the community. This is an interesting paradox, as the community have only begun to be exposed to the reality of climate change and its causes since April 2006 and the Federal Governments of Australia and the US have played little or no role in raising community awareness.  Note: In 2008 a new Labour government under Kevin Rudd ratified the Kyoto Protocol and in July of that year released a ‘green paper’ outlining the emissions trading scheme to be introduced in 2010.

Most individuals can take action to reduce the nation’s greenhouse gas emissions through their  workplace habits and decisions. Making small, achievable personal changes is the first step to action on a national scale. With the establishment of corporate environmental ratings and ethical investment funds, those of us who invest on the stock market can influence corporate policy by choosing to invest in companies with low GHG emission policies and boycotting those with high emissions. Everyone can influence Government decision-making through the ballot box and collective lobbying. With email access to politicians, it is now easier than ever before to lobby individually.

1.1 1.1

Sust Su stai aina nabl blee lev level el of per per capi capita ta GH GHG G Emiss Emissio ions ns

The sustainable equitable level of GHG emissions per person can be estimated by dividing the IPCC figure of 11.5 billion tonnes CO2 that the biosphere can assimilate, by world population (IPCC, 2001). = 11.5/6 The sustainable level of greenhouse gas emissions is less than 2 tonnes CO2e per person per year.

1.2

Australian domestic greenhouse greenhouse gas emissions

In Australia, greenhouse gas emissions from all sources amount to 28 tonnes per person per year. Australian Bureau of Statistic (ABS) figures show that about 56% of Australia’s energy related greenhouse gases were emitted in the production and consumption of goods and services, for the  purpose of household final consumption. A further 23% of energy related emissions were generated in the production of goods and services for export. Other final use categories (general government final consumption and gross fixed capital formation) were responsible for the remaining emissions (AusStats, 2002). Another study (NIES, 2006) estimated that 62 million tonnes of CO2 were emitted by Victorian households via household consumption expenditures. It stated that: Almost half, or 28 million tonnes, of CO2 emissions come from the direct use of petroleum  products, gas or electricity. The remaining 32 million tonnes come from the petroleum  products, gas, electricity, coal, etc. embodied in the complete range of goods and services sold into the Victorian consumer household market. •

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In 2001 the average carbon consumption of Victorian households from private consumption was 35 tonnes per annum. This equates to 12.65 tonnes per person for a 2001 population of  4.9 million. It is possibly an under estimate as other greenhouse gases sch as nitrous oxides from air travel and agriculture appear to have been excluded.

Figure 2.1 shows GHG-Calc estimates results of a ‘CO2e budget’ using energy and consumption figures (AGO) for a typical Australian household of 3. The results show that about 39 tonnes CO2e of GHG emissions for the typical household – about 13 tonnes per person. The scope of GHG-Energy Calc only includes primary emission sources i.e. direct energy use and consumption of goods and transport, over which the consumer can exercise direct choice: Direct energy use – electricity and fuels – in the home and for transport Indirect energy/emissions from the consumption of food and goods by the household. It does not include services as these are considered to be secondary sources of emissions (see Section 3). That is about 46% of the 28 tonne average total emissions, which is 10 % less than the ABS figure. This is to be expected as the ABS figure of 56% includes services to households. • •

Household energy consumption varies greatly. For example, a Swedish study of 6 households (Carlsson-Kanyama et al) showed that energy consumption varied from 80 to 691 GJ, with the Swedish average being 263 GJ. Australians can have a direct influence – through their energy, consumption, transport and waste disposal decisions – on about 46% of the nation’s GHG emissions. An average Australian household can reduce emissions by more than 50% by using energy efficiency measures in the home and for  transport. Table 2.1 shows the emission reductions that are easily achievable. If all Australian households adopted such energy efficiency measures, this would reduce Australia’s emissions by about 23%. No new technology would be required and no loss of quality of life need be incurred to achieve these results. Serious action to reduce greenhouse emissions requires changes to many of our currently accepted consumer habits, focussing first on the big emissions items. For example: Holidaying locally instead of taking one flight to Europe or the US will save about 8 tonnes of CO2e of emissions per year. Having only one small car and minimizing driver-only commuting car can save 5 tonnes of  CO2e per year. Purchasing ‘Green Power’ and thus investing in renewable electricity generation can save 5 tonnes CO2e per year  Changing our diet to minimise containerised food/drinks, meat and dairy products and selecting fresh, locally grown foods can save up to 3 tonnes of CO2e per year. Changing 15 incandescent light bulbs to compact fluorescents will save about 0.4 tonnes CO2e per year. •

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While all emissions reduction measures are worth doing, GHG-Energy Calc quantifies the emissions impacts, giving a realistic picture as to which changes will have the most impact. Making ‘deep cuts’ to emissions means careful choice of how we travel and what goods we consume; it does not mean going without holidays and cars altogether. Domestic emissions reductions of 50% are achievable without suffering reduced quality of life.

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Table able 2.1 2.1 Poten Potentia tiall emiss emission ion reduc reductio tions ns by by chang changing ing consum consumer er habits habits (house (househol hold d of thr three ee people) – as estimated using GHG-Energy Calc (Rose, 2006) Item

Emissions –   Consumer change Emissions –   Emissions typical Energy savings, Australian Wise tonnes household household 1. Overseas 6 Holiday in the continent you live in by 3 3 holiday – air  train, bus or car. Limit air travel to one travel, interstate fight. 15,000  passenger  km 2. Car trave avel, 10 Sell the large car. Reduce car mileage 5 5 25,000 km to 18,000km by using bus/train more, in one large sharing transport. and one small car  3. Elect ectric ricity ity 6 Purchase ‘Natural Power ’. 1 5 and Reduce from 6000 units to 3000 by domestic converting all heating appliances to fuels gas or solar low volume shower-head, energy efficient appliances eg. one smaller fridge, reduce air cond. 4. Food and 8 Eat less processed/ imported/ 5 3 water   packaged foods, red meats and dairy and more local fresh produce. 5. Waste 4 Buy less packaged and disposable 2 2  products. Recycle and compost 6. Housi using and 5 Buy less new things that you don’t use 3 2  possessions often – hire or borrow instead. Live in a smaller house, occupied to capacity Total, typical 39 t 19 t 20 t family EMISSION 20 tonnes CO2e ( 6.3 tonnes per person) SAVINGS  Note: Figures include direct (fuel and electricity) and indirect (embodied) emissions

1.3 1.3

Gree Gr eenh nhou ouse se gas gases es (GH (GHG) G) and and glo globa ball warmin warming g pote potent ntia ial; l; (GW (GWP) P)

Full details of global warming and greenhouse emissions are beyond the scope of this paper and are well documented, for example on the Australian Greenhouse Office website. The essential points are as follows: Most greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are from the combustion of fossil fuels – coal, petroleum  products, natural gas and LPG – for energy, termed fossil fuel energy . The main GHG produced in this way is carbon dioxide (CO2). Other greenhouse gases – methane and nitrous oxides – come from agriculture and the anaerobic decomposition of organic materials, mainly from landfill waste and ruminant digestion.

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Although the least potent in terms of GWP, CO2 causes 70% of global warming; 75% of this figure is from burning of fossil fuels and 25% from land use change (SafeClimate, 2006) . The huge volumes that are being emitted from the burning of all fossil fuels are beyond the capacity of the oceans, soil and forest to absorb and re-convert it via uptake by living organisms into hydrocarbons, which takes hundreds of years. Methane (CH4) is another major greenhouse gas, accounting for 23% of global warming. Significant anthropogenic (man-made) sources of methane are fugitive emissions from fossil fuel extraction, anaerobic decomposition of organic matter in landfill and agriculture and smoke from rangeland  burning and wood-burning stoves/heaters.  Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a significant greenhouse accounting for about 7% of global warming Although its GWP is much higher than CO2 (Table 1.1), the quantities emitted are several orders of  magnitude less. Nitrogen fertilisers and fertilized agricultural land under damp, warm conditions are the main source of nitrous oxide emissions. Another significant cause of global warming is nitrogen oxides from the hot exhausts of jet aircraft at high altitudes and the exhausts of large diesel ship engines. Nitrogen oxides such as NO, NO2 are not greenhouse gases in themselves but react with oxygen to form ozone, a potent greenhouse gas that is not included in the Kyoto list of GHG’s presumably because of its short life. GHG-Energy Calc includes options to include the global warming potential (GWP) of nitrogen oxides. The sources of Australia’s GHG emissions, by sector are (AGO, 2004): Stationary energy 50% Transport 14% Agriculture, 16% (mainly methane and nitrous oxides) Land use, land use change 6% Fugitive emissions 5% Industrial processes 5% Waste 3% • • • • • • •

 Notes: •

• •

The Australian National Greenhouse Accounts transport emissions figure does not include international aviation (see Appendix 5)  Fugitive emissions are mainly methane from the extraction of gas, coal and oil   About 6% of total emissions are are from coal fired electricity used for aluminium smelting  (Australia Institute 2006).

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Table 1.2

Greenhouse gases and relative global warming effect.

Greenhouse Greenhouse gas

CO2

Global warming effect, compared to CO2 (100 yr time horizon) 1

CH4

25

NO2

29 8

Other, mainly Hydro fluoro- carbons and perflourocarbons

2.

150 – 11,700 6,500 – 23,900

Contribution to global warming (GWP, in relation to CO2)

Causes over 80% of global warming because of the huge quantities produced from combustion of fossil fuels Next order of importance. Significant quantities  produced from domestic livestock and waste disposal by landfill. Relatively small quantities produced - jet aircraft, nitrogenous fertilizers, accelerated burning of  vegetation. A very powerful greenhouse gas and significant contributor to global warming. Minor; although many have extremely high GWP  per kg , they only are emitted in very small amounts  by some industries.

GHG-ENERGY CALC

GHG-Energy Calc is a ‘stand alone’ calculator that can be downloaded from the www.ghgenergycalc.com.au website and used without any supporting software. The current version is written in the Delphi program. Users only have to fill in their data once to see both energy and emissions results. It only takes a minute or two to download and gives instant results for any audit or  ‘what if scenario’ figures entered by the user.

It is designed to run simple audits and budgets of greenhouse gas emissions for households and small  businesses, from the direct consumption of fuel, electricity, food and goods but not services. GHG Energy Calc is not intended to provide the accurate, detailed audit outputs that may be required, for  example by corporations or industry. However it is useful for the purpose of domestic energy and emissions budgeting, or for ‘first cut’ estimates preliminary to more detailed audits. The accuracy is sufficient to give a good indication of where emissions reductions could be achieved, but is dependent on: Accuracy of the consumption data entered by the user  Error ranges of the energy input algorithms (see Sections 3-9) Error ranges of the emission factor algorithms (Table 2.1). • • •

The design of GHG-Energy Calc will be periodically improved and updated. Emissions factors will change as electricity generation technology becomes more efficient and the energy sources shift from predominantly coal to gas and ‘renewables’. More accurate embodied emissions data will will  become available as the life cycle analysis (LCA) databases currently under development are  published. It is hoped that in future the calculators will give more accurate results and that improved technology will be reflected in lower emissions.

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Preface to the 2008 edition

In the 5 years since GHG-Energy Calc was first released on the Warren Warren Districts Renewable Energy Group website in 2003 there have been 4 updates versions and numerous updates of the ‘Background Paper’. Version 5 of the Calculator features: Updated embodied emission factors derived from more recent research papers by Delucci and Chester et al and a paper by the Author on the embodied emissions of cruise ships. Updated Australia electricity and fuel emission factors from the 2008 version of the DCC factors workbook. Addition of an average world electricity emission factor (BCSE). Addition of an updated section on housing and possessions. A ‘pop-up’ trip calculator for adding and calculating trip distance from trip durations •

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GHG-Energy Calc Version 5 is being used by the Western Australian Government for public awareness campaign and one other commercial user to calculate clients’ emissions for sale of carbon offsets.

Fig. 2.1 GHG-Energy Calc 4 (2007 4  (2007 version written in Delphi  in Delphi ), ), showing emissions for a typical Australian family of three.

Using the Delphi  the Delphi version version of GHG-Energy-Calc of GHG-Energy-Calc

First and foremost, GHG-Energy-Calc is designed to be simple and user-friendly. user-friendly. Moving the cursor/arrow over the data entry boxes shows an explanation or examples of what data is required. Rose, B.J., 2009. GHG-Energy-Calc Background Paper 

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Either energy or emissions results can be displayed for any or all of the six categories of  energy/goods consumption by clicking the radio buttons at the top right hand corner. A help file is attached, giving additional user information and relevant background facts and figures. To use GHG-Energy-Calc , the household’s consumption and waste figures are simply entered into the highlighted boxes. Only numerical data can be entered; other (such as text) will result in an error  display. Emissions for sections/categories are given down the right-hand side, with the total for the household at the bottom. There are three main methods used to enter data: 1. Click Click on arrow arrowss to the right right of of the the lar larger ger box boxes es and select select from from the pullpull-dow down n menu menu the option that most closely fits your situation. 2. Click Click on on the the small smaller er boxe boxess and and enter enter (nume (numeric rical) al) data. data. Ente Enterr numb numbers ers only only, with with num numeri erical cal  precision no greater than to one decimal place. 3. Clic Click k a radi radio o butt button on to to choo choose se eit eithe herr Yes Yes or or No No (mut (mutua uall lly y exc exclu lusi sive ve). ). GHG-Energy-Calc has been designed so that the figures required are easily obtained or estimated. For example, units of electricity per energy bill, annual vehicle mileage and vehicle fuel consumption per km can be obtained directly from bills and logbooks.

For food consumption the user enters kilograms of foods and groceries consumed per week (from their weekly grocery orders) of foods in 8 food categories. Holding the cursor arrow on each food category shows examples of food items, making the process of data entry quite ‘user friendly’. GHG-Energy-Calc sums the emissions / energy in each category, multiplies by 52 (weeks/year) and divides by 1000 to give tonnes of emissions per year. For waste, the user enters: The estimated total weekly volume of waste deposited in the landfill and recycling bins (in litres). Marks the relevant boxes for the waste streams that the household recycles. GHG-Energy-Calc assumes that: 8 L of waste pushed down into the bins by hand equals 1 kg. o All of the wastes indicated are separated from landfill and recycled. o Recycling includes remanufacturing, composting and incineration. o Composting produces no net GHG emissions. o •

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The Calculator estimates the total emissions / energy and deducts a small percentage for each of the waste streams recycled. For housing, the area and type of construction are all that is needed. There is an additional section for contents (other goods), as possessions can account for more annual embodied emissions than the housing. Users can gain most benefit by first running their current energy use and consumption figures, to indicate their main emissions sources and where savings could be made. Other budgets can then be run, compared and considered, to arrive at a desired optimum ‘emissions budget’. Many budget scenarios can be entered quickly, saved and printed.

How GHG-Energy-Calc works

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GHG-Energy Calc is two calculators in one. The user only needs to type in their consumption figures once. Clicking a radio button near the top right hand corner of the screen switches between energy and emissions results. The results windows show: Global warming potential (GWP) expressed in tonnes of CO2 equivalents emitted by the household or business per year. Energy use per year expressed in gigajoules. •

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The Calculator is designed to encourage self-auditing of energy use and emissions by households and small businesses. It estimates all energy and emissions resulting from our consumption of energy and goods: 1. Direct energy and emissions from fuel and electricity used. 2. Upstream energy and emissions from the extraction/ refining of the fuels and generation of the electricity that we use. (1+2 = full cycle energy and emissions) 3. Embodied energy and emissions from the production and manufacture of: Food, groceries and water that we consume and municipal solid waste. Vehicles and other transport modes, housing and other possessions. • •

Fuel, electricity and goods consumption data entered by the user are converted to megajoules (MJ) of energy and multiplied by greenhouse gas emissions factors for the particular energy sources. For  embodied emissions, three emission factors are used, for the manufactured goods, food and residential building categories. (See Section 3 for the derivation of these factors). Details of how energy and emissions are estimated for 6 consumption categories can be found in the corresponding sections: 1. Transpo ransport rt – air air and and ove overse rseas as 2. Transport ransport – priva private te car car and publi publicc (bus/tra (bus/train) in) 3. Electri Electricity city and other other fuels fuels used used by the house household hold 4. Food ood an and wa water  ter  5. Waste 6. Housi Housing ng and and posse possessi ssions ons Transport and electricity emissions are about 75 - 90% from direct energy use, but include embodied emissions from the manufacture and maintenance of vehicles and aircraft. Infrastructure associated with public transport, such as roads, are not included. Food, waste and housing/possessions are indirect or embodied emissions – CO2 from fossil fuels combusted and other emissions such as methane – from production processes. Emissions from services, such as retail trade, health care and education are not included. In aGHG-Energy-Calc audit for a ‘typical Australian household’ direct energy use accounts for about 40 - 50% of domestic emissions. Embodied (indirect) emissions from food, goods, private vehicles, residential housing,  possessions and waste comprise the remainder of domestic emissions This is similar to an analysis of  energy use in 6 Swedish households (Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2000) which showed direct versus indirect energy used be householders to be in the range 48:52 to 32:68. GHG-Energy-Calc will give results closer to 50:50 because services are not included.

To calculate emissions from direct energy used in the home and for transport, GHG-Energy-Calc uses current fuel energy content and full cycle greenhouse gas emission factors from the Australian Greenhouse Office. For public transport, it uses per passenger emissions intensities, estimated for  Rose, B.J., 2009. GHG-Energy-Calc Background Paper 

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assumed passenger loads and including embodied emissions. If the electricity, fuel consumption and travel mileage figures entered by the user are accurate, the direct emissions calculated should be accurate to within about 5% for electricity and fuel consumption. The uncertainty of the public transport estimates would be about 35%, due to the widely varying average passenger loads, depending on the particular route and transport system. About 42 emission factors are used in GHG-Energy-Calc (see Appendix 4). The fuel and electricity factors are taken directly from Department of Climate Change National Greenhouse Accounts Calculator expresses energy as (NGA) Factors Workbook, Jan 2008. The 2008 Version 5 of the Calculator expresses kilowatt hours (kWh) instead of megajoules (MJ). KWh is the unit used in electricity and gas bills and is easier for most people to conceptualize. The conversion factor is 1 kWh = 3.6 MJ.

GHG-Energy-Calc estimates embodied emissions using emission factors (kg CO2e/MJ) for particular  categories of goods, house construction or food. The embodied emissions factors are derived as outlined in the Appendix 1. Energy input data from over 20 references have been used to derive the embodied emission factors. The quantity of goods used or consumed (entered by the user) is multiplied by the embodied emissions factor to give their embodied emissions for that category of  goods. There is much greater uncertainty in the results than for direct emissions from fuel and electricity use. This is due to variation in production processes, uncertainty in quantities entered by the user and uncertainty in the embodied emissions factors. Uncertainty of individual embodied emissions estimates from GHG-Energy-Calc is within about 35%. However the summed total of  uncertainties in estimates is likely to ‘balance out’, so the uncertainty of the total result is likely to be significantly less than 35%. Home Heating Calculator

Sources: Appliance efficiency figures – Sustainable Energy Development Office WA, 2002.  Energy costs – Western Western Power and Alinta Gas. Fuel energy contents – www.natural-gas.com.au – www.natural-gas.com.au , 2002.

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The Home Heating Energy Calculator is an additional tool, which gives emissions and costs of home heating. It can be downloaded from the new GHG-Energy-Calc website. Its purpose is to help homeowners choose the most efficient heating appliance and energy source. Users can enter in their  actual heating energy consumption or their heat energy requirements and Home Heating Calculator  shows the GHG emissions and costs for the options. The greenhouse gas emissions from home heating vary greatly depending on the energy source and heating appliance. Figure 2.2 below shows the home heating calculator screen illustrating the cost and emissions from producing the same amount of heating energy from various types of heaters. The large variation in both emissions and costs between heaters and energy sources is highlighted. For  example, delivering 7,000 MJ of heat energy – enough for 60 sq metres for one winter – with a natural gas portable heater costs $145 and emits 0.59 tonne CO2e. To deliver the same amount of heat with an electric radiant plate heater costs $291 and emits 2.54 tonnes CO2e. Four times more GHG emissions are produced from electric radiant panel heaters than from natural gas heaters (Fig 2.2). Electric heat pumps (reverse cycle air conditioners) are up to 3 times more efficient than electric element heaters. It is interesting to note that due to the superior efficiency of  the heat pump a reasonable emissions figure of 0.83 and low cost of $95 is obtained. These are really the only electric heating technology that is competitive with natural gas and wood in terms of GHG emissions. GHG emissions are still higher than gas heating when coal powered electricity is used. However, for gas- fired power generation emissions would be similar. similar. If electricity is generated from bio- fuels or wind energy, heat pumps become the ‘cleanest’ heating option, after passive solar  design and solar heating. Fig 2.2 shows the energy used to supply about 7,000 MJ of heat energy (sufficient to heat a typical 60 sq metre living space for one year in WA), using different heaters.

3.0 3.0

EMBO EMBODI DIED ED ENER ENERGY GY AND AND EMI EMISS SSIO IONS NS FACTO ACTORS RS

3.1

Definitions an and bo boundaries

For the purposes of this paper and GHG-Energy Calc : Embodied energy is defined as the energy used in the production, manufacturing, packaging and transport of foods and consumer goods. In Australia, over 95% of this energy comes from fossil fuels. Embodied emissions are defined as the sum of the greenhouse gases emitted in the combustion of fossil fuels in all aspects of production, including electricity, upstream fuel emissions and machinery depreciation, together with other GHG emissions such as methane and nitrous oxides that may be emitted as a result of production processes. •

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The scope of GHG-Energy Calc includes mainly primary emission sources i.e. direct energy use and consumption of goods and transport, over which the consumer can exercise direct choice. GHG-Calc Version Version 5 does include: includ e: Estimates for transport infrastructure and vehicle servicing in the ‘per kilometre’ factors for  transport modes. Maintenance of houses •

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These are included in the Calculator because they are directly related to the type transport or house that is chosen by the consumer. For example double brick houses have higher embodied energy but this is offset to some extent by lower maintenance as the external walls do not have to be painted. Rose, B.J., 2009. GHG-Energy-Calc Background Paper 

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Tertiary services are not included in GHG-Energy Calc, for example: Trade (retail and wholesale). . Insurance, finance, health and education. • •

Energy Analysis Program (EAP) data (Wilting et al) includes retail/wholesale trade and waste disposal/ recycling. Where EAP-derived figures were used in GHG-Energy Calc, 20% was deducted to exclude trade and disposal. Other data sources use Life Cycle Analysis (LCA), which is a detailed analysis of all life cycle stages including energy use/emissions during the product life (consumption stage). Where LCA data was used, for example for grain products (Narayanaswamy et al, 2003 ), care has been taken to exclude the trade related components. It must be noted that the GHG-Energy Calc embodied energy and emissions estimates are only indicative, as a single, estimated emission factor is used for each of the goods categories. For  example, embodied energy of particular building materials may vary between sources by up to about 35% (Pullen, 1996) and this also applies to the food and goods categories. 3.2 Estimation Estimatio n of embodied emission factors for manufactured goods, food and residential buildings

For simplicity three embodied emission factors are used for the goods categories: 1. Manu Manufa fact ctur ured ed goo goods ds (es (esti tima mate ted d for for auto automo mobi bile le man manuf ufac actu ture re and and ser servi vici cing ng)) 2. Food ood (est (estim imat ated ed for for brea bread d and and bee beerr prod produc ucti tion on). ). 3. Residential building. Sections 3.1 – 3.3 describes how these emission factors were estimated.  Embodied Emissions Factor for Manufactured Goods

An emissions factor for Australian automobile manufacture was estimated as described below and used in GHG-Energy Calc for all manufactured goods: 1. Listed mass of materials in an average motor vehicle (Table 3.1) 2. Calculated embodied energy of raw materials (data from Alcorn, 1997) 3. Added fabrication/ engineering/ assembly energy (from Chester et al, 2005 figure for  manufacturing energy) 4. Added energy for servicing over lifetime (McLean and Lave, 1998; from ILA website) 5. Estimated emissions – Author's 'guesstimates' of energy sources for each process (emissions factors from AGO Factors and Methods Workbook). From table 3.1 below: • •

•

Energy per tonne to manufacture and service car = 80 MJ/kg weight of car  Emissions per tonne for Australian auto - manufacture and service = 9.63 kg CO2e kg weight of  car  Emission factor for automobile manufactured manufactured and serviced in Australia (also used in GHG Energy Calc for all manufactured goods) = 0.12 g CO 2e/MJ

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Table 3.1 Estimation of embodied energy and emissions for automobile production and servicing in Australia (Sources: Materials estimates -Government of Canada (1991) in Fergus, D; chap. 3; emissions factors - Australian DCC, 2008) Material

% Total  Vehicle Weight 

Weigh t (kg)

Steel

55.0%

785.5

I r on

14.6%

208.6

Aluminium

5.0%

70.7

Plastics

7.1%

1 02

Synthetic rubber  Fluids/lubricant s Copper

4.3%

61.1

5.7%

 Embodied   Energy % of   Assumed energy  Emission  Embodied  energy  from energy  sources   factor kg   Emission virgin raw  in car  CO2e/M   s material  material   J  kg CO2e  MJ/kg  in car   ( Alcor lcorn n,  MJ  1996)

32

25136

22.01%

coal

0.111

2,790

20

4172

3.65%

coal

0.111

463

0.294

3,949

190

13433

11.76%

elec electr tric icity ity coal 10%

90% 90%

95

9690

8.49%

CNG 50:oil 50%

0.07

678

110

6721

5.89%

oil

0.08

538

50

4080

3.57%

oil

0.08

32 6

81.6

1.6%

22.5 97.6

2196

1.92%

15.9

613.7

0.54%

elec electr tric icity ity 90% 90% coal 10% gas 50% 50%, coa coal 50%

0.42%

electr electrici icity ty 50%, 50%, gas 50%

0.19

90

2.08%

electr electrici icity ty 50%, 50%, gas 50%

0.18

428

3300

2.89%

elec electr tric icity ity gas 20%

0.26

858

72190.8

63.22%

Est. Est. cap capital ital good goodss and and transport

2700

2.36%

diesel

0.075

203

Service and tyres (Mclean and Lave)

39300

34.42%

oil

0.07

2,751

Total to manufactur manufacturee and serv servic icee car car

11419 14190 0.8

100 100.00% .00%

Glass Zinc

2.7%

38.6

0.6%

9.1 52.1

Other Materials

3.3%

47.5 50

Est. fabrication/ engi engine neer erin ing/ g/ asse assemb mbly ly (Chester et al) 100.0% 1427.7  SUBTOTALS 

Emission factor 13,761/114,191

474.1

=

2375

0.29

637

0.082

50

80% 80% 10,808

13, 13,761 761

0.12 0.12 kg CO2e CO2e per per MJ

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3.3 Embodied Emission Factor for Food 

Embodied energy and emissions factors (Table 3.2) were derived from a published LCA analysis of  Western Australian grain products (Narayanaswamy, (Narayanaswam y, V., V., Altham, Altham , J., Van Berkel, R. and McGregor, McGregor, M. (Curtain University and GRDC). ‘Environmental Assessment Case Studies for Western ). This study was a full LCA analysis including retail and consumption.  Australian Grain Products’ ). The breakdown of the figures between the different stages was shown and retail/consumption was deducted from the full LCA figures. Table able 3.2 3.2 Embodi Embodied ed ener energy gy and and emis emissio sions ns for for prod product uction ion manuf manufact actur ure, e, tran transpo sport rt for for 1 kg of bread, 1L of beer and 1 L of cooking oil.

Energy MJ/ kg or L GWP kg CO2e/ kg or L Embodied emissions factor  kg/MJ

Bread 18 1.51

Beer 11.17 1.2

Cooking oil 41.2 5.72

.083

.1 0 7

.1 3 9

The embodied emissions factors for bread (0.083) and beer (0.107) are consistent with 90- 95% of  the energy being sourced from diesel (0.08) and about 5-10 % from Australian grid electricity (0.0308). The embodied emissions factor for cooking oils is higher as about 3 kg of seed is needed for 1L of oil and presumably there would be high nitrogen inputs and NOX emissions from the soil. It is likely to be atypical of most foods so it was not used to estimate the food emissions factor. The average of the emissions factors for bread and beers was used: •

Emissions factor for food in GHG-Energy Calc = 0.095 kg CO2e/ MJ.

The production emissions from 8 food classes were calculated separately by multiplying the input energies by this foods emission factor. (Section 7, Food and Water).

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 Embodied Emissions Factor for Residential buildings

An average embodied emission factor for residential buildings was estimated from data derived from Pullen 1996. An emissions factor for each house was derived by dividing emissions (tonnes CO2e)  by energy (GJ). Table able 3.3 Summa Su mmary ry of embodi embodied ed ener energy gy and emissio emissions ns fro from m 14 typica typicall house housess in Adela Adelaide ide (Derived from Pullen, SF, 1996. 'Data Quality of Embodied Energy Methods'. ‘Embodied energy the current state of play'. Conf. Proc)

House No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Embodied Embodied emissions energy andGWP maintenance, GJ (kgCO2e) 1362 150 1348 124 1091 100 2280 198 1722 167 2290 219 1354 124 1351 126 1258 112 1807 156 1368 125 2249 206 1461 129 1452 123

Embodied Embodied Ener Energy gy per  per emissions- GWP yr, 80 yrs life (kgCO2e/yr) 80 yr EE factor   (GJ) life. (kgCO2e/MJ) 17.03 1.88 0.110 16.85 1.55 0.092 13.64 1.25 0.092 28.50 2.48 0.087 21.53 2.09 0.097 28.63 2.74 0.096 16.93 1.55 0.092 16.89 1.58 0.093 15.73 1.40 0.089 22.59 1.95 0.086 17.10 1.56 0.091 28.11 2.58 0.092 18.26 1.61 0.088 18.15 1.54 0.085

Average Embodied Emissions Factor for residential buildings

0.092

Pullen’s figures are for the construction of the basic house shell only, excluding site costs and fittings such as plumbing, wiring, floor coverings, and curtains. The embodied emission factors derived varied by less than 10% and the average was taken as the estimated embodied emissions factor for housing used by GHG-Energy Calc : •

Emissions factor residential residential building = 0.092 kg/MJ

This figure reflects the predominantly direct energy inputs from coal (emission factors of 0.095 –  0.112 kg/MJ), petroleum products (0.078) and natural gas (0.064) with electricity inputs (0.308)  being minor mino r.

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4.

TRANSPORT ENERGY AND EMISSIONS

Transport energy and emissions are made up of: Direct or fuel - from the combustion of fossil fuels. Embodied - fossil fuel energy used to manufacture and maintain the transport vehicle (Section 3).

For mass transit, embodied energy and emissions are a much lower percentage per passenger km than for personal transport vehicles, due mainly to the much larger distances traveled during their  lifetime. For example aircraft have the lowest percentage embodied emissions because they can travel over 30,000,000 km during their lifetime. Embodied emissions are generally a higher percentage than embodied energy, reflecting the fact the emissions factors for manufacturing, where much of the energy is sourced from coal and coal-fired electricity rather than oil or gas-based transport fuels.

5. 0

ENER ENERGY GY AND AND EMI EMISS SSIO IONS NS OF TRAN TRANSP SPOR ORT T MOD MODES ES

5.1

Aircraft

Aircraft emissions are exceptional in that most of the global warming potential is caused by emissions other than CO2. Nitrous oxides (NOx), water vapor contrails and soot from the jet exhausts are involved in complex chemical and physical phenomena in the upper troposphere and stratosphere. Jet aircraft emissions have 2-4 times the global warming potential of the CO2 alone. Aviation is a fast growing source of GHG emissions, estimated to be 4 -9% of the world’s total (EFTE, 2006). Emissions were calculated as follows: 1. The fuel energy of jet aircraft was derived from a table of energy per passenger km for  various flights (Climate Partners website, 2002). By trial and error, ‘best fit’ energy intensities were selected. It was found that energy intensity rises sharply for trips of less than 2000 km return (legs of  less than 1000 km): Fuel energy intensity, long haul flights km legs = 1.5 MJ/passenger km Fuel energy intensity, short haul flights < 800 km legs = 2 MJ / passenger km.  Note: Trips with less than 500 km legs had even higher energy intensity but were not included in GHG-Energy Calc. •

•

2. A more accurate method was used to estimate fuel consumption for long haul flights. Figures for a Qantas Boeing 747-400 3 class Longreach aircraft, with 14 first, 50 business and 315 economy seats (total 379) were used. For this aircraft, business seats occupy 2.4 times the areas of economy and first class 3.3 times. These figures vary between aircraft, configurations and airlines (www.seatguru.com ), so GHG-Energy Calc assumes that business class seats occupy 2 times the Rose, B.J., 2009. GHG-Energy-Calc Background Paper 

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space of economy and first class 3 times and that fuel consumption per seat is proportional to space occupied. Maximum total payload is about 50 tonnes, which is small compared to maximum takeoff weight of  about 390 tonnes. This illustrates that is space occupied and not weight contributed by each  passenger that is the main determinant of the number of passenger the aircraft can carry, and therefore the energy intensity per passenger. As carrying passengers is the primary economic purpose of the aircraft, freight is assumed to account for a negligible portion of fuel consumption. With the maximum freight likely to be carried being 10 tonnes, freight would only account for less than 2.5% of aircraft fuel consumption With all seats occupied (assuming 369 passengers @ 80kg) and assuming an average fuel consumption of 12 L/ km for this type of aircraft (www.qantas.com (www.qantas.com ) the following equation is used to determine the fuel accounted for by an economy class seat (x): 3(14)x + 2(50)x + 318x = 12 (52 +100 + 318) x = 12 470x = 12 x = 0.026 L of jet fuel per km Multiplying by the energy content of aviation turbine fuel kerosene, 36.8 MJ /L (DCC, 2008) = 0.96 MJ Assuming a 75% load factors (typical for long haul routes): =100/75 times 0.96 Long haul jet energy use = 1.28 MJ = 0.356 kWh / economy passenger km

Assuming short haul uses 2/1.5 = 1.33 times more energy (from 1. above): Short haul jet energy use = 1.33 * 1.28 = 1.701 MJ = 0.473 kWh / economy passenger km

2.

Point source fuel emissions factor for jet aircraft (CO2 only) = .0691 kg CO2/MJ (AGO, 2008)

The AGO point source emission factor for aviation turbine fuel burned on the ground is 0.0707 kg CO2e per MJ (AGO, 2006). This is essentially CO2 only and is a gross underestimate of the actual global warming potential (GWP) of emission from jet aircraft. So the estimated global warming  potential factor for fuel burned by jet aircraft in flight used in GHG-Energy Calc is obtained by: The emission factor (CO2 only) for long haul jets = 1.28 *0.0707 = 0.09 kg CO2 / passenger km Similarly The emission factor (CO2 only) for short haul jets = 1.7*0.0707 = 0.12 kg CO2 / passenger km

However, there is additional global warming potential from other gases to be considered. ‘Over the  period from 1992 to 2050, the overall radiative forcing (GWP) by aircraft – excluding that from changes in cirrus clouds – for all scenarios in this report is a factor of 2 to 4 larger than the forcing  by aircraft carbon dioxide alone.’ In GHG-Energy Calc one of the lower radiative forcing scenarios (IPCC, 1999 (2)) is used – a factor of 2.7; i.e an additional 1.7 times GWP over and above the CO2 only.

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Other gases gases (including NOx and contrail) contrail) = 1.7*.09 = .153 kg CO2e in addition addition to CO2 only for long haul Other gases gases (including NOx and contrail) contrail) = 1.7*.12 = .204 kg CO2e in addition addition to CO2 only for long haul

3a. 3a. Embo Embodi died ed ene energ rgy y for for air aircr craf aft, t, est estim imat ated ed by by assu assumi ming ng:: Boeing 747 service life of 45,000 hours @ 700 km/h = 30 million km  Note: Aircraft service life can far exceed these figures. TWA Flight 800 that crashed in the US in 1996 was a 25 y.o. y.o. aircraft that had over 90,000 hours and 16,800 take-off and landing cycles.

A Boeing 747 weighs 180 tonnes (Quantas Virtual Airways, 2006) http://curbe.com/QVA/qva/fplan/qvaaircr.htm . Assuming it carries an average 250 passengers, aircraft weight is about 0.7 tonne per passenger. Assuming maintenance averages $15,000 per day over the life of the aircraft − 10,800 days Maintenance cost total approx. $162 million for the life of the aircraft Cost of Boeing 747 = $180 million Hence we assume EE maintenance and parts replacement over life of aircraft = EE of the aircraft itself. Aircraft is 80% duralium – approx. 6 times the EE/ tonne of a steel automobile. Assume embodied emissions per tonne to manufacture and service aircraft is 6 *2 = 12 times the EE  per tonne to manufacture a car  (see Section 3.1) , (which is approx. 18 t CO 2e per tonne vehicle weight): Embodied emissions =12*18*180 = 39,000 t CO2e. Assume the aircraft travels 30,000,000 km carrying an average of 250 passengers Embodied emissions per passenger are 39,000,000/ (30,000,000*250) = approximately 0.0052 kg CO2e/ passenger km. Round off to 2 decimal places = approx. 0.01 kg CO2e/ passenger km. Similarly, embodied energy is 12 * 113,600 *180 = 245,400,000/ (30,000,000 * 250) = 0.03 MJ/passenger km. These figures for aircraft (747) production and maintenance equate to about 4% of total energy and C02 emissions. 3b. Embodied energy and emissions emi ssions of aircraft and infrastructure, Chester Chester et al. A US study by Chester et al, 2006 using input-output analysis found that embodied emissions of the aircraft manufacture manufacture and maintenance maintenance plus airport infrastructure infrastructure and maintenance varied from 4.5 –  13% of total emissions according to the type of aircraft and also to assumptions about airport use intensity: Table 5.1 Embodied energy and CO2e as a percent of total for 3 types of aircraft

Aircraft 747 737 Embrae r

% pla plane and inf   embodied energy 7.7 3.5 6.5

% plan lane and inf   embodied CO2 Weight 13 397900 4.5 81800 7

25740

Average pass passen enge gers rs 305 94 34

Rose, B.J., 2009. GHG-Energy-Calc Background Paper 

lbs/ lbs/pa pass ssen enge ger  r  1304.59 870.2128 757.0588

20

It is assu assume med d that that Ches Cheste ter’ r’ss figu figure ress for for the the 747 747 were were disp dispro ropo port rtio iona nate tely ly high high due due to high high manufacturing costs used by the I-O analysis, which would not reflect the fact that most of the embodied energy would be in the aluminium and other materials. GHGGHG-Ca Calc lc V5 assum assumes es that that embod embodied ied energ energy y and CO2e CO2e for air trave travell (airc (aircra raft ft plus plus airpo airport rt infrastructure) amount to about 7.5 % of total for both long haul and short haul aircraft. • • •

•

4.

Embodied emissions for air travel = 0.02 kg CO2e/ passenger km Embodied energy for air travel = 0.06 MJ /passenger km Upstream fuel emissions factor of 10% of CO2 emissions for production of fuel = .007 (long haul) and .012 (short haul) kg CO2e/ passenger km. Upstream energy factor 10 % of fuel energy = 0.036 MJ/passenger km long haul, 0.048 for  short haul Summi umming ng emis emissi sion onss inte intens nsit ity y per per pas passeng senger er km: km:

•

•

Total emissions for long-haul aircraft = 0.09+.153 + 0.007+ 0.02 = 0.27 kg / passenger km economy. Total emissions for short haul aircraft = 0.12 +0.204 + 0.012 + 0.02 = 0.36 kg / passenger km, economy.

Summing energy intensity per passenger km: •

•

Total energy for long haul = 0.356 + 0.06+ 0.036 = 0.46 kWh / passenger km, economy. Total energy for short haul = 0.473 + 0.06 + 0.048 = 0.58 kWh / passenger km, economy.

Table able 5.2 5.2

Fuel Fuel comb combus usti tion on emis emissi sion on fact factor orss (tr (tran ansp spor ortt ene energ rgy) y)

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Emissions per passenger km for premium economy, business and first class seats were estimated  proportionally to typical seat area (www.seatguru.com (www.seatguru.com). ). For premium economy, economy passenger emissions are multiplied by 1.2 For business class, economy passenger emissions are multiplied by 2 For first class, economy passenger emissions are multiplied by 3  Notes: 1/ Embodied emissions emissions of an aircraft are are less than 1/10th the EE per passenger km of a driver only car, due mainly to the huge distances – over 30 million km - flown by jet aircraft in their lifetime. This is about 120 times the 250,000 km traveled by a typical car in its lifetime. 5.2

Ocean liners

Although freight transport by ship is the most fuel efficient of any mode, passenger travel by ocean liner is inefficient because: A large gross tonnage of ship per passenger is used – from 21 tonnes per passenger for  o  budget liners to 53 tonnes per passenger for luxury liners such as the QM2. Even the QM2, at 150,000 gross tonnes, carries only 2800 passengers – a ‘people mass’ less than 280 tonnes. A similar cargo ship would carry over 75,000 tonnes. Every passenger requires about 0.4 crew members – passengers and crew must be fed and o entertained over long voyages of a few to several weeks. Liners have fast cruising speeds of 22- 27 knots compared to 14- 18 knots for cargo ships. o This requires at least 40% more energy to move the same tonnage. Estimation of emissions from cruise ships is detailed in Appendix 5 for a typical med-large ocean liner. Cabin class has the greatest impact on emissions as the space taken up by passengers varies by up to 300%. Embodied emissions of the ship are relatively small (less than 3% of total). Direct CO2 emissions from the diesel engines comprise about 65% of the emissions. An additional 32% has been added to account for the global warming effect of ozone-forming nitrogen oxides from ship exhausts Table 5.3 Per passenger energy and emissions emissi ons intensity - cruise ships

Per passenger day (economy) Per passenger kilometre (economy )

5.3

kWh 74 4 1.28

kg CO2e 21 0 0.36

Private vehicles

Car 

GHG-Energy-Calc has choices for several categories of cars / 4WDs and motorcycles. Energy and emissions are calculated per vehicle owned and operated by the household, not per passenger km as for public transport modes. Calculations are as follows: 1.  Fuel energy – GHG-Energy Calc uses the nominated fuel consumption (L/100km) and divides by 100 to give km/L, then multiplies by the km traveled to give L of fuel per year. This figure can then be multiplied by the fuel energy content (Table 5.2) to give annual fuel energy consumed.

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2. GHG-Energy Calc estimates fuel emissions by multiplying the litres of fuel used by the full cycle emission factor for the fuel (DCC, 2008). It divides by 1000 to give GHG emissions (tonnes CO2e). 3. GHG-Energy Calc calculates the embodied emissions of the vehicle according to the weight of the vehicle (Delucci et al Table 5.4), on a per km basis, assuming a default life of 225,000 km. 4. Emiss Emission ionss per per vehi vehicle cle km from from roa road d const construc ructi tion on and and mai mainte ntena nance nce are calcul calculate ated d as for 3 above. (from Chester et al, Table 5.5) 5. The embodied emissions are added to the fuel emissions to give total emissions. 6. Table 5.4 Embodied energy and emissions for manufacture and service of automobiles (from Delucci et al, 2005)

Car (1 tonne wt)

Manu Manuf. f. Main Maintt kg CO2e * 10,201

Manu Manuf. f. Main Maintt CO2e per km * 0.045

Manu Manuf/ f/ Main Maintt energy MJ/vehicle **** 85,008

Ditto kWh/ km 0.105

Embodied CO2e per vehicle km for vehicle manufacture, maintenance and tyres = 10,201/225,000 = 0.045 kg CO2e / tonne weight / vehicle km Embodied energy per vehicle km for vehicle manufacture, maintenance and tyres, assuming manufacturing emission factor of 0.12 kg CO2e/ MJ = .045/.12/3.6 = 0.104 kWh / tonne weight / vehicle km Table 5.5 Embodied energy and emissions per car km for the construction and maintenance mainte nance of  Californian roads. (derived from Chester et al, University of California, 2005)

Car (1 tonne wt)

Road Road Cons Const. t.// main maint. t. CO2e CO2e// vehicle life 8,734

Road Const. / main maint. t. CO2e CO2e// vehicle km ** 0.039

Road Road Cons Const. t.// maint. MJ /veh life ** 102,215

Ditto kWh/ veh km 0.126

CO2e per vehicle km for road construction and maintenance = 8734/225,000 = 0.039 kg CO2e / vehicle km Embodied energy per vehicle km for road construction and maintenance, assuming building and construction emission factor of 0.092 kg CO2e/ MJ = .043/.092/3.6 = 0.126 kWh / vehicle km  Bicycle

Bicycles are powered by energy from food consumed by the rider and this does have a fossil fuel emission factor (Section 3). A bike requires about 75 watts of power to maintain a leisurely pace of  16 km per hour. This equates to 75 watt hours to travel 16 km. As the body is only about 24% efficient at producing work energy, about 100/24 * 75 = 312 watt hours = .312 kW hrs = .312 * 3.6 = 1.12 MJ of food energy is required to travel 16 km. Assuming that it takes on average 3 times more energy than the food contains to produce it (Section 7) , this equates to 3.4 MJ to travel 16 km = 3.4/16 = 0.21 MJ/km. Fuel energy intensity for bicycles = 0.21 MJ = .058 kWh per passenger km.

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Using emissions factor for food (Section 3) = .095 * .21 Fuel emissions for bicycle = 0.02 kg CO2e per passenger km.

Add embodied energy per vehicle km for road construction and maintenance, assume 0.25 of 1 t car  = .03 kWh/ rider km kg CO2e / bicycle Energy intensity of bicycle = .058 + .03 = .09 kWh/rider km Emission factor for bicycle = .02 +.01 = .03 kg CO2e per rider km

The current version of GHG-Energy Calc does not have a box for entering emissions from bicycle travel, because the figure would be so low as to negligible. Embodied energy / emissions of the household’s bicycles can be included by adding the weight (12-15 kg per bike) in the ‘external items’  box of the ‘House’ section of the Calculator.

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Table able 5.6 5.6 Ener En ergy gy cont conten entt and and emis emissi sion on fact factor orss of of fue fuels ls (Source: Australian Greenhouse Office , 2004 Factors and Methods Workbook) Fuel combusted

Energy content of   fuel GJ/t; MJ/L; GJ/kL

LPG: non transport

Point-source Full fuel cycle emissions factor kg emissions factor kg CO2/MJ CO2-e/MJ

Full fuel cycle emissions factor kgCO2e/ L or kg

49.6 GJ/t

0.0594

0.0671

1.86

36.8 GJ/kL

0.0705

0.0782

2.9

36.6

0.2115

n/a

n/a

37.3 GJ/kL

0.0697

0.0774

34.2

0.073

0.0812

2.8

Automotive Diesel (ADO)

38.6 GJ/kL

0.0695

0.0772

3.0

Industrial/marine diesel fuel

39.6 GJ/kL

0.0705

0.0782

3.1

0.0743

0.082

3.3

Kerosene/ aviation turbine fuel Aviation turbine fuel burned at high altitude (est. from IPCC = 2.7 times CO2 GWP) Heating Oil Automotive gasoline

Fuel oil (• Refer specifications of actual fuel) • default 40.8 GJ/kL Natural Gas (e) –

5.4

53.6 GJ/t

0.0547

0.069

2.7

Motor vehicle efficien iency

The number of passengers carried, vehicle size and weight are and will remain the main factors contributing to efficiency and emission intensity of transport by motor vehicle. Other factors such as old or worn or poorly maintained engines also increase the fuel consumption and emissions. In terms of engine design, there have been few improvements in fuel since the mid1980’s when advances such as fuel injection for petrol engines were introduced. Figure 5 illustrates greenhouse gases emitted by existing commuting options. It shows that we can continue to travel the same distances with only 10–20 % of the GHG emissions by simply switching from ‘driver-only car’ to mass transit, shared transport or ultra light-weight personal transport. Table 2 shows dollar and GHG savings from changing to more efficient transport modes. The main problem today is the use of heavy vehicles for transporting one or two people. One person driving alone in a medium to large car as is common in Australia today uses 9 to 15 litres of fossil fuel, and emits 24 – 43 kg of greenhouse gases for every100 km travelled. To keep the per passenger fuel consumption to a minimum, vehicles should be loaded to their design capacity (Table 5.7). A useful ‘rule of thumb’ for vehicle efficiency is a maximum 0.25 tonnes of  vehicle weight for every passenger. Table able 5.7 5.7

Per passe passenge ngerr fuel fuel effic efficien iency cy and emissio emissions ns intens intensity ity of motor motor vehicl vehicles es

Vehicle

Weight (tonne)

9 .9 .05

No. of  passengers transported 36 4 1

Fuel consumption , L / 100 km 40 6 1.2

Per passenger fuel consumption, L / 100 km 1.1 1.5 1.2

Per passenger fuel emissions (kg CO2e/100 km) 3.9 4.3 5.5

Bus, 36 people Light car, 4 people Moped bicycle <25cc rider only Large car, 5 people Motor cycle 250cc rider  only

1.7 0.15

5 1

12 3.5

2.4 3.5

7.0 10.1

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5.5

Publ Public ic trans ransp port ort – bus and train rain

GHG-Energy Calc uses emissions intensity factors (kg CO2e/ passenger km), calculated in 3 steps as follows:

1. Calculate Calculate fuel energy energy per per passenger passenger km and apply apply emission emission factor to give fuel fuel emissions emissions per  km. 2. Calculate Calculate embodied embodied energy energy of the vehicle and transport transport infrastructure. infrastructure. Convert to embodied embodied energy intensity per passenger km by applying assumed vehicle life kilometers and average  passenger load (20 passengers). 3. Add fuel fuel energy energy and embodied energy to give energy intensity per passenger passenger km 4. Simila Similarly rly,, calculat calculatee emission emissionss intensity intensity in in kg CO2e/ passenger km by summing full cycle fuel emissions/km and embodied emissions/km. The emissions intensity factor calculations for each public transport mode are shown below:

 Bus

1. Bus fuel consumption (diesel, 20 passengers) = 2.5 km/L (Transperth bus drivers, pers. comm.) = 0.4 L/km = .02 L/passenger km. Multiply by the energy content per litre of diesel = .02*38.6 = 0.72 MJ/ passenger km. Fuel energy for buses = 0.72 MJ/ passenger km Fuel energy for bus = 0.2 kWh / passenger km Applying the fuel emissions factor for diesel, = 0.078 * 0.72 Fuel emissions from bus = 0.056 kgCO2e/ passenger km 2. Assum Assumee bus bus weig weighs hs 11 11 tonne tonnes; s; life lifetim timee milea mileage ge of 1.8 1.8 milli million on km; km; embod embodied ied emissi emissions ons/to /tonne nne from Table 5.8 below (Delucci et al) : embodied emissions = 11*8950/1,800,000. Vehicle embodied emissions = 0.003 kg CO2/ passenger km Similarly, embodied energy for bus manufacture and maintenance (assuming EF of .12 kg CO2/ MJ) Vehicle embodied energy =.006 kWh / passenger km. Table 5.8 Embodied energy and emissions per kg vehicle weight for manufacture and service of a bus (from Delucci et al, 2005) Manuf. Maint kg CO2e * 11 tonne Bus 20 passengers

98,439

Manuf. Maint CO2e CO2e per  per  km *

Manuf./ maint kg CO2e per   pass. km

0.055

Rose, B.J., 2009. GHG-Energy-Calc Background Paper 

0.003

Manuf/ Maint energy MJ/vehicle ****

Ditto kWh/ km

Manuf/ maint energy kWh pass passen enge gerr km (20 passengers)

820,325

0.127

0.006

27

Table 5.9 Embodied energy and emissions per bus passenger km for the construction and maintenance of Californian roads. (derived from Chester et al, University of California, 2005) Road Const./ maint. CO2e/ bus life 11 tonne Bus 20 passengers

Road Const. / maint. CO2e CO2e// bus bus km **

33,800

Road Const./ maint. maint. CO2e /pass. km (20 pass.)

0.019

0.001

Road Const./ maint. MJ / bus life **

Ditto kWh/ bus km

482,000

Road Const./ maint. kWh / pass. Km (20 passengers)*****

0.074

0.004

3. Calcu Calculat lated ed as as for for 2. above above (Tabl (Tablee 5.9 5.9 above above,, Ches Chester ter et al) al),, assum assumin ing g vehic vehicle le lif lifee of 1.8 1.8 m km km and passenger load of 20: Embodied emissions from road construction and maintenance = 0.001 kg CO2/ passenger km Embodied energy of road construction and maintenance = .004 kWh / passenger km 4. Addi Adding ng fuel fuel and and embod embodied ied emiss emission ionss = 0.056 0.056 + 0.0 0.003 03 + .001 .001 = 0.0 0.06, 6, rounde rounded d = 0.06 0.06 Emissions intensity factor for bus = 0.06 kgCO 2e/ passenger km

5. Addi Adding ng fuel fuel and and emb embod odie ied d ene energ rgy y for for bus bus = 0.2 0.2+. +.00 006+ 6+.0 .004 04 = 0.2 0.21 1 Energy intensity factor for bus = .21 kWh/passenger km  Diesel Train

1. Fuel Fuel cons consum umpt ptio ion n (die (diese sel, l, 3 carr carria iage ge)) = 2.5 2.5 mpg= mpg= 1L 1L// km. km. (Trains and the Environment, 2002.) An average of 120 passengers was assumed. = .0083 L/km/passenger. Multiply by the energy content per litre of diesel = .0083* 38.6 Fuel energy diesel train = 0.32 MJ/ passenger km. 2. Mult Mu ltip iply ly by emis emissi sion onss fac facto torr die diese sell = 0.07 0.078* 8*.3 .32 2 Fuel emissions = 0.023 kgCO2e/ passenger km 3. Embodied energy and emissions of rail infrastructure and rail vehicles: ‘For energy inputs and ‘GHG emissions, the non-operational life-cycle components account for around 50% of total effects (Chester et al, 2005) 5. Add fuel and embodied emissions = 2*.023 = .046; rounded = 0.05 kgCO2e/pass. km Energy intensity factor for diesel train

= 0.64 MJ = 0.18 kWh /pass. km

Emissions intensity factor for diesel diesel train = 0.05 kgCO 2e/ passenger km

 Electric train

1. Thee elec Th electri tricc trai train n was was assum assumed ed to to be the same same size size and and carr carry y the the sam samee avera average ge numb number er of  of   passengers as the diesel train. Electric motors are assumed to have about 35 % fuel efficiency compared to about 30% for the diesel (see section 5.5) = (30/35) * 0.32 Fuel energy consumption of electric train = 0. 27 MJ/ passenger km Multiply emission factor for 50% coal /50% gas = .27*.08 Fuel emissions = .022 kg CO2e/passenger km 2. Embo Embodi died ed emis emissi sion onss tra train in and and inf infra rast stru ruct ctur uree as as for for dies diesel el trai train n Rose, B.J., 2009. GHG-Energy-Calc Background Paper 

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3.

Add fuel and embodied emissions = .026 + .022= 0.048

Energy intensity factor for electric train

= 0.59 MJ = .16 kWh /pass. km

Emissions intensity factor for electric train = 0.05 kgCO 2e/ passenger km

 Note that GHG-Energy Calc uses the electric train figures above for all suburban commuter trains Taxi (2 passengers)

1. Taxi axi of of 1.6 1.6 tonn tonnes es,, 4 L engi engine ne capa capaci city ty was was ass assum umed ed to give give 8 km/ km/L L = 0.13 L/km. Multiply by the energy content of gasoline = 34.2*0.13 = 4.45 MJ = 1.25 kWh Fuel energy use = 1.24 kWh / km Multiply for emission factor gasoline = 0.085*4.45 Fuel emissions = 0.38 kg/ km 2. Add Add fuel fuel plus plus emb embodi odied ed ene energ rgy y of of vehic vehicle le and and road roadss (as (as for for Car Carss abov above) e) : = 1.2 1.24 4 +1.6 +1.6(( .104 .104 +.126) = 1.61 kWh/ km . Assume average 2 passengers Energy intensity for taxi (2 passengers) = 0.8 kWh/ passenger km 3. Add Add fuel fuel plus plus emb embodi odied ed emi emissi ssions ons of vehi vehicle cle and roads roads = .38 .38 + 1.6(. 1.6(.045 045 + 0.039 0.039)) = 0.51 0.51 kg CO2/km. Assume average 2 passengers: Emissions intensity factor for taxi (2 passengers) = 0.26 kgCO 2e/ passenger km

Table 5.10 Comparison of per passenger Energy and emission intensities of transport modes used in GHG-Energy Calc Version5, 2008. Transport mode Bicycle Train 120 passengers (NSW grid electric or diesel) Bus 20 passengers (diesel) Taxi (6 cyl. 2 passengers) Air (economy, long haul) Air (economy, short haul) Cruise ship (standard cabin) Car (large V8 or SUV L/100 km, driver-only)

Emissions intensity kg CO2e/km 0.03 0.05

Energy intensity kWh / km 0.09 0.16

0.06 0.26 0.27 0.40 0.36 0.51

0.21 0.8 1.38 2.13 1.28 1.61

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6. ELECTRICITY ELECTRICIT Y AND HOME HEATING FUEL ENERGY AND EMISSIONS

Only about 33% of the energy used to supply electricity is delivered to the home (CSIRO, 2002), due to: Power stations being only about 30-40% efficient and Further energy losses in transmission lines Energy input for electricity generation = electricity delivered + heat and friction losses at the power  station + transmission losses. • •

In contrast, all of the energy from heating fuels used in the home is converted to heat at the home, with relatively minor losses depending on the heater efficiency. 6.1 6.1

Elec Electr tric icit ity y (Au (Aust stra rali lian an grid grid syst system ems) s)

GHG-Energy Calc has boxes for the user to enter the State they live in and the percentage of ‘green’  power they purchase, both of which have a significant influence on the emission factor of the electricity used.

The Australian Greenhouse Office has calculated emission factors for each State in Australia, taking into account the efficiency of the power stations and energy sources used (Table 6.1). Over all, electricity supplied in Australia is about 80% sourced from coal, with some states using significant amounts of natural gas and Tasmania having mainly hydropower. Electricity generation in Victoria (mainly brown coal) has an emission factor more than double that of the Northern Territory (>90 % natural gas) GHG-Energy Calc estimates emissions by converting the kWh of electricity consumption entered by the user (from their electricity bills) by a full fuel cycle emission factor from Table 6.1 column E  below. Table 6.1 Full cycle emission factors for electricity purchased/used/delivered in Australia

(DCC, 2008)

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 Discussion

Electricity generation essentially converts heat to electrical energy. The process is quite inefficient, about 60-70% of the energy being lost as heat from boilers, turbines and transmission. Electric motors are 85- 95 % efficient and large combined cycle power plants are 30- 40% efficient, giving an overall efficiency of 25 – 35% for electric motors. They are generally more efficient than internal combustion engines, which are only 20- 25% efficient. However, the emissions intensity of  electricity varies according to the energy source used to generate the electricity. Electric motors run from coal fired electricity are likely to generate more GHG emissions than diesel motors because the full cycle emission factors are 95-109 for black coal and 82.4 for diesel. Heating is generally more efficient and less emissions intensive when the energy source is fuel  burned directly in the heater, rather than electricity (see Section 6.4 below) 6.2

Electr Electrici icity ty -‘gr -‘green een power’ power’ / rene renewab wable le (bio (biomas mass/h s/hydr ydro/ o/wind wind power power))

 Energy

The Net Energy Requirement (NER) of electricity generation is defined as kWh of non-renewable energy required to generate 1 kWh of electricity. GHG-Energy Calc uses (derived from Dey and   Lenzen, 2000): For fossil fuel fired power 3.0 kWh / kWh delivered at meter. This reflects the fact that our  electricity grid is only about 33% efficient in converting fossil fuel energy to electricity delivered to the home (CSIRO,2004) •

•

For renewable energy = 0.2 kWh / kWh (an estimate based on photovoltaic power with no  back-up),

GHG-Energy Calc converts kWh of electricity entered by the user to NER, based on the percentage of renewable energy purchased.  Emissions

Total emission factors for power generation, including embodied energy of the plant are known as Greenhouse Gas Costs (GGCs). Emission factors Australian grid power average about 1.2 kg CO2e/kWhr (AGO, 2000), depending on the State power grid (See Table A2.4). CO2 emissions from electricity generation using biomass gasifier technology, including fossil fuel use in transportation, but excluding embodied emissions of the plant, have been estimated to be 24 g/kWh compared with 815 g/kWh for coal (Bhattacharya, S, 2001; Asian figures). = 24/3.6 = 6.67 g/MJ = 0.007 kg CO2/kWh. GGCs of 0.034 − 0.125 kg/kWh for wind, 0.05 − 0.15 for photovoltaic and 0.018 − 0.026 for hydro electricity are cited (Dey and Lenzen, 2000). AGO cites a GGC of 0.002 kg/kWh for hydropower in Tasmania but embodied emissions are likely to be an underestimated in this figure and the capacity for new generation from hydro in Australia is limited. Most new RE is likely to be from wind,  biomass or solar sources.

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 Note: The GGC of nuclear fission energy is cited as 0.015 kg/kWh (Meier and Kulcinski, 2000), but  nuclear power is not considered an acceptable, renewable option to fossil fuel power generation and  is not included in the Calculators.

On the basis of the figures for wind and biomass: Emission factor estimate for all ‘renewable electricity’ = 0.1 kg/kWh

For the ‘% electricity’ options, GHG-Energy-Calc estimates the portion of ‘green power’ at 0.1 kg/kWh. In all cases the emissions from ‘renewable electricity’ are small compared to fossil fuelsourced electricity ele ctricity..

6.3

Heati eating ng fuels uels use used in the home home

GHG-Energy-Calc applies fuel emission factors derived from DCC, 2008, then divides by 1000 to give tonnes of CO2e emissions:  Natural gas

Energy content of natural gas is 1 kWh per unit  Natural gas full cycle emissions are cited as as 65.5 kg CO2e/GJ = 3.6*65.5/(1000) = .236 kg/kWh To obtain emissions, GHG multiplies the units (kWh) entered by 0.236  LPG

Energy content of LPG is 25.5 MJ/L = 25.5/3.6 = 7.08 kWh/L LPG density is 0.54 Energy content of LPG = 7.08*100/54 = 13.1 kWh / kg

 LPG EF is 1.7kg CO2e per L. Converting to EF per kg = 1.7/.54 Emission factors for LPG = 3.15 kgCO2e/ kg LPG.

Multiplies the emissions figure 3.15 * 45 to give emissions per 45 kg cylinder of LPG. It then multiplies this figure by the user’s number of cylinders used per year to give annual emissions from LPG.

Oil/ kerosene Energy – multiplies litres used by 37.5/3.6 = 10.4 kWh/ L Emissions - multiplies the litres used by 2.8

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Wood 

Wood energy content = 16200 MJ/tonne = 16200/3.6 = 4500 kWh/t Wood emissions = .0156 kg/MJ = .0156*16200/1000 = 0.25 t CO2e / tonne wood The Calculator multiplies tonnes of wood by 0.25. In reality, emissions and efficiency of wood heaters varies greatly depending on heater design, air setting and wood dryness. Wood heaters range in efficiency from about 25% for old, open-type stoves to about 70% efficient for modern catalytic models. (Bhattacharya et al, 2001)  Note: Wood has the highest particulate (smoke) emissions of any fuel.

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7.

FOOD FOODS S AND AND WATE TER R EMB EMBOD ODIE IED D ENE ENERG RGY Y AND AND EMI EMISS SSIO IONS NS

7.1

Foods - emiss ission classes

Full tables of energy inputs for foodstuffs could not be found in the literature, so the author has compiled a table of estimated energy inputs for the primary production (Pimentel, 1980,  Narayanaswamy et al, 2003) and manufacture (Carlsson- Kanyama and Faist, 2000; (Narayanaswamy et al, 2003 ) of foods. Transport energy was estimated for Australia intrastate, interstate and imported. Food containers/packages were weighed and the embodied energy of the containers estimated. These inputs were summed to give an estimate, by process energy analysis, of  energy inputs for the primary production, manufacture, packaging and transport of foods. The Australian Food and Grocery Council Environmental Report 2003 estimates retailing adds an average of about 0.3 kg CO2e per kg of food, but GHG-Energy Calc does not include emissions from retail of wholesale trade. The figures were checked against full life cycle energy figures for Swedish foods (Carlsson-Kanyama, Carlsson et al, 2002) The main non-food groceries such as soaps, shampoos, detergents, nappies and toilet paper are included in the food section. To estimate GHG emissions from the energy inputs of various categories of foods, the emission factor for foods derived in Section 3 was used for all foods •

Emission factor for foods/ groceries = 0.095 g CO2e /MJ

Emissions (in kgCO2e/ kg food) were thus estimated by multiplying the energy input in MJ by 0.095. Methane emissions were added for red meats and dairy products (ICF Consulting, 1999): Mature dairy cows = 249 lbs =110 kg CH4/ head/ year = 2.2 tonne CO2e/ head per year. Annual production of 320 kg milk solids/ year (NZ MAF) = 2200/320 = 6.8 kg CO2e/kg milk  solids = 0.7 kg CO2e/ kg milk  Yearling system steers/ heifers = 1.01 tonne CO2e/ head per year  •

•

The total GHG emissions for food types were cross- referenced by figures from SE England (Taking  Stock… , 2004). From these tables, the simplified Table 7.1 below was compiled to give ‘ball park’ estimates of  average GHG emissions for 8 groups of foods used in GHG-Energy Calc . Food packaging, newspapers, magazines and nappies

Food packaging, which has embodied energy of around 35 MJ/kg for paper, about 80 for plastic and over 100 for aluminium, is included in the food section and also in the in the waste section, meaning that it is double counted but at the much lower embodied energy figure of 15.45 MJ/kg for waste. Disposable nappies –embodied energy 100 MJ/kg – are included in the food section and are double counted in the waste section but at the much lower embodied energy of 15.5 for waste. Newspapers, magazines and other throw-away items are not included in groceries as they comprise a larger   portion of waste and are counted in the waste section. They are therefore under-counted at only 15.45 MJ/kg, which is much less than the actual embodied energy, for example of newspapers (about 35 MJ/kg) and magazines (about 100 MJ/kg).

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Is not possible to avoid the problem of double counting in the waste and food sections entirely and it contributes to the uncertainty of the GHG-Energy Calc outputs for these sections. However, double counting of some items is likely to be offset by under counting of others. Table able 7.1 7.1

Global Global Warmin arming g Pote Potenti ntial al (GW (GWP) P) for 8 cat catego egorie riess of of food foods, s, used used in in GHG Energy Calc . * (Rose, 2004, unpublished; Eckard, R., 2006.University of   Melbourne, Vic DPI) Emissions from energy, lower, kg CO2/kg food = (B)*.095

Emissions from energy higher, kg CO2/kg food = (C)*.095

Average totlal emissions kg CO2e/kg

Energy inputs lower (MJ/kg )

Energy inputs higher (MJ/kg )

Average EI energy input MJ/kg (a)

Methane, Nox emissions (kg CO2e / kg product *

3

10

6.5

0

0.285

0.95

0.6

11

20

15.5

0

1.045

1.9

1.5

6

10

8

0.7

0.57

0.95

1.5

M2 - Canned or bottled fruit/veg based foods, frozen fruit/veg, dried fruits/nuts, sugar, beer, honey, soaps,   papers, eggs, pastries

21

30

25.5

0

1.995

2.85

2.4

MH1 - Chicken meat, chocolates, wine, jam, potato chips, cooking oil, margarine, tea/herbs, ground coffee,  processed breakfast cereals Dairy – yoghurts, icecreams custards

30

44

37

0

2.85

4.18

3.9

45

120

82.5

0

4.275

11.4

7.8

44

90

67

6.4

4.18

8.55

12.8

44

90

67

9

4.18

8.55

20

Food class

L1- Fresh/minimally   processed. Fresh fruit/veg, grains, flour, rolled oats L2 - Pasta, biscuits, rice, muesli, pulses, soy products, canned/bottled cool/juice drinks, cakes, breads M1 Milks (dairy and soy)

MH2 - Soup powders, instant coffee, spirits; pork, fish, soaps and detergent, shampoo, disposable nappies H1 - Red meats (lamb and other ruminants), Dairy cheese/butter/cream/milk   powders H2 Beef 

Emissions from meat and dairy milk production were calculated for typical breeding herds, using software developed by: Eckard, R, 2007. ‘A decision Support Framework for Greenhouse Greenhouse Accounting’ CO2 calculators for beef, dairy and sheep enterprises. University of Melbourne, DPI DP I Victoria. Victoria. http://www.greenhouse.unimelb.edu.au

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7.2

GHG-Energy Calc Using th the Fo Food se section of  of GHG-Energy

The user enters kilograms of foods and groceries consumed per week (from their weekly grocery orders) of foods in 8 categories, as shown in Table 7.1. Holding the cursor arrow on each category shows examples of food items. GHG-Energy Calc sums the emissions in each category, multiplies  by 52 (weeks/year) and divides by 1000 to give yearly figures. 7.3 Water

From a study of embodied energy of water supply to suburbs or Adelaide, Australia (Pullen, 1999), the annualised energy consumption for the water systems amounted to 0.7, 2.4, and 1.6 GJ/ house  per year for the water supply, supply, sewerage and storm water respectively – a total of 4.7 GJ. Pullen’s calculation per kL delivered through the water meter and drained in sewerage was 2.9 MJ/ kL for the embodied energy of the storage, delivery and treatment systems and 7.8 MJ/ kL for the fuel energy used for pumping = 10.7 MJ/ kL for the total energy. A fixed embodied energy was calculated for the average household connected to scheme water, sewage and drainage by multiplying Pullen’s figure of 2.9 by 237 (which is the AusStats figure for  average household water consumption in Australian cities) Average embodied energy of water supply and sewerage = 687 MJ per household per year  year  The energy factors used in the water section of GHG-Energy Calc were: • •

Operating energy, domestic reticulated water = 7.8 MJ = 2.17 kWh/ kL. Fixed embodied energy of the water system = 687 MJ = 191 kWh per year per household.

The average emissions factor for electricity generated in Australia − 0.293 kg/ MJ (AGO,2006;  ABARE, 2006) − was used to convert energy to emissions. Fuel emission factor for water = 7.8*.293= 2.3 kg/ kL Fixed embodied emission factor was calculated by multiplying embodied energy by the embodied emission factor for manufacturing, 0.12 kg /MJ (see Vehicles section) = 687 * 0.12 kg/1000 = 0.082 tonnes Embodied emissions of water supply = 0.082 tonnes / household / year. • •

Fuel (electricity) emissions, domestic reticulated water = 2.3 kg/kL Embodied emissions of the water system = 0.08 tonnes per year per household.

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7. WASTE EMBODIED ENERGY AND EMISSIONS By weight, WA WA’s Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) was about 934,000 9 34,000 tonnes tonne s per year, (32% of total waste). Of this, 800,000 tonnes went to landfill and 134,000 tonnes was recycled (Wastenet, 2001). Building/construction waste was about 1.5m tonnes (52% of total waste) and commercial/industrial waste was about 450,000 tonnes (16%); these waste stream are not dealt with by GHG-Energy Calc MSW – domestic, local council, commercial and food waste – amounts to about 680 kg per capita  per year. GHG-Energy Calc only deals with MSW and does not include construction and industrial waste. The 30 % green/garden waste is also excluded, as it is normally collected separately and composted or burned, making negligible net contribution to GHG emissions. Average MSW per person WA WA kerbside bin collections col lections = 476 kg per year = 9.1 kg/week  Table 8.1 Average composition of waste in kerbside bins Waste category Percent in Methane emission kerbside factor tCO2e/ wet collection* tonne **

F oo d Paper/cardboard Metals plastic glass and other  inert waste MSW mixed landfill * from EPA NSW, 1997  ** DCC, 2008 *** Grant 2001

8.1

37 34 29

.9 2 .5 0

Methane released, assuming 55% is captured and burned as fuel *** .4 0 5 1.13 0

1.11

0.50

GHG HG--En Eneergy Calc Calc Waste ste sec secttion ion

GHG-Energy Calc assumes that: 8 L of waste pushed down into the bins by hand equals 1 kg. • All of recyclable waste streams can be separated from landfill and recycled. • Recycling includes remanufacturing, composting and incineration. • Composting and incineration produce no net GHG emissions. • Other forms of recycling reduce embodied emissions by displacing virgin materials • (Grant et al)

The user enters: The estimated total weekly volume of waste deposited in the landfill and recycling bins (in litres) Marks the relevant boxes for the waste streams that the household recycles. •

•

GHG-Energy Calc estimates the total emissions and deducts a percentage for the recycled waste streams (Table 8.3, derived from Grant et al ). ). 8.2

Inaccuracies

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The problem of overlap and double counting in the food and waste sections has been explained in the food section. However the main inaccuracy lies in the assumptions that, for every household 8L of waste = 1 kg and that the waste wast e composition is the average av erage for MSW. MSW. To achieve more accuracy accurac y, the waste streams would have to be weighed each week for several weeks, a task that few householders would be willing to undertake. Entering total volume of waste in the bins was considered to be the only user- friendly way to treat waste quantities. Users need to be aware of the inaccuracy and use the results more for comparison than absolute values. 8.3 8.3

Embo Embodi died ed ene energ rgy y and and emis emissi sion onss of of muni munici cipa pall soli solid d wast wastee

MSW contributes to greenhouse gas emissions in two ways: Embodied energy of the waste material. Methane generation from anaerobic decomposition of organic materials (food scraps and paper  waste) in landfill.

• •

Table 8.2

Embodied energy of materials in municipal solid waste (Adapted from EPA of NSW, 1997; Alcorn, 1998; Waste Net, 2002; Victoria University Wellington, 2002; Grant et al, 2001.)

Waste material

Paper, newsprint and cardboard Food (mainl y veg scraps) Garden and wood  (Excluded from MSW figure) Plastic

Glass (M (Mostly recycled) Steel and other metals

Embodied energy (E (EE) of material ( MJ / kg) - range cited in literature 36 - 51 (virgin) 28- 34 (recycled) 0

0

40- 65 (PVC) 75-103 (HDPE) 81 (PET) 30 (v (virgin) 10 (recycled) 7-18 (steel recycled) 32-40 (steel recycled 206 (aluminium virgin) 14-27(aluminium recycled)

Comments- best practice disposal

Recycle, burn or compost to prevent methane generation Aerobic composting to prevent Me generation Compost Burn Recycle

Recycle. Recycled glass has 43% of  the embodied energy of virgin glass Recycle to save up to about 60% of  the embodied energy

The embodied energy of municipal solid waste (MSW) was calculated by taking the sum of  (embodied energy of manufactured waste streams) times percentage by weight of waste stream. (Table 8.1) Estimated average embodied energy of MSW = 15.45 MJ = 4.3 kWh/kg

Average embodied emissions per kg of MSW were calculated by multiplying the embodied energy  by the EE factor of 0.12 kg CO2e/kg of manufactured goods: = (0.12* 15.45) = 1.85 Methane generation from landfill

Methane emitted by landfill counts as GHG emissions because it is produced by this man-made source. It results from anaerobic decomposition and would not have been produced if the organic materials had decomposed by natural aerobic processes – composting or burning. Although these Rose, B.J., 2009. GHG-Energy-Calc Background Paper 

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 processes produce carbon dioxide, the CO2 taken up by the organic material is cycled back into the atmosphere, and is assumed to produce negligible net GHG emissions, as in the case of biomass fuel combustion. Methane emission factors (from DCC, 2001) are shown in table 8.1 Methane EF land filled MSW with 55% capture is assumed to be 0.5 Total embodied emissions factor for MSW was estimated by adding the embodied energy emissions and methane emissions = 1.85 + .5 = 2.35 Estimated embodied emissions of MSW = 2.35 kg CO 2e/ kg MSW.

8.5

Emissi ission on savin aving gs fr from rec recyc ycli ling ng

In 98% of Perth’s waste collections and some regional centres, glass, plastics, metals and  paper/cardboard wastes are collected in a separate bin and recycled. Recycled materials generally contain much less embodied energy than virgin materials. For steel the figure is about 30%, paper  60% and aluminium 10%. However, actual energy and GHG saving for recycling are much less than these figures indicate, as significant amounts of energy are consumed in the collection, sorting, cleaning and pulverizing of the waste before it can be used as recycled feedstock. Table 7.4 below shows actual emission savings from recycling an average kerbside waste bin as about 10% for paper  and 10% for glass/ plastic/ metal waste – a total of about 20% savings. This is a significant reduction and the reduction in aquatic, toxic and nutrient pollution and volume of landfill are even greater. According to Grant et al, of an average 6.6 kg of recycleable materials in household bins in Melbourne, 2.1 kg went to landfill and 4.1 kg (62%) was actually recycled. The results of recycling this 62 % are shown in the table below. Table 8.3 GHG emissions savings from recycling recycling an average household’s municipal solid waste (MSW) (Derived from RMIT, Grant et al, 2001 ‘Life Cycle Assessment of Paper and Packaging waste management scenarios in Victoria’ )

Weight in bin

% by weight

Net recycling CO2 savings

CO2e/ kg virgin

Newsprint and office paper, cardboard 2.96 44.8% 1.611 3.46 Paper and board 0.68 10.3% 0.34 3.46 Glass 1.51 22.9% 0.41 2.12 Aluminium **** 0.05 0.8% 0.44 19.36 Steel cans * 0.44 6.7% 0.19 3.82 Plastics 0.854 12.9% 0.17 5.9 TOTAL 6.494 0.983939 3.161 Total CO2e in average waste bin (embodied plus methane)

KG CO2 embodied in average average waste bin

% savin savings gs on CO2e, AV WASTE BIN

10.2416 2.3528 3.2012 0.968 1.6808 5.0386 23.483 16.04018

16% 14% 13% 45% 11% 3%

% of total CO2 embo embodi died ed in ave average bin saved by recycling

10.0% 2.1% 2.6% 2.7% 1.2% 1.1% 19.7%

From this it is assumed that the recycled stream had 100/62* 19.7% = 32% reduction in emissions.

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Embodied emissions of recycle bin contents = 0.68* 2.35 = 1.6 kg CO2e per kg recyclable waste

The percent embodied energy reduction in the recycled stream is assumed to be 53% of the emission reduction, as 47% of the emission reduction was from avoided methane emissions (Grant el al) and the rest from embodied fossil fuel energy. I.e 0.53*32 – 17% Embodied energy of recycle recycle bin = 100 – 17 = .83* 4.3 = 3.57 kWh/ kg

The above analysis assumes that food scraps are not included. If food scraps are included in the MSW i.e. not composted, additional emissions are incurred. From Table 8.1: Additional methane emissions from food scraps in waste bin = .37*.405 = .15 tCO2e per tonne of total kerbside waste.

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9.

HOUSING AND POSSESSIONS EMBODIED ENERGY AND EMISSIONS

9.1

Housing

Embodied GHG emissions of housing are significant and are included in GHG-Energy Calc under  House and Possessions. Depending on the lifetime and type of construction, direct emissions from energy used for space and water heating, air conditioning and lighting over the lifetime of the house are generally 4-6 times greater than embodied emissions. GHG-Energy Calc estimates show embodied emissions from Australian homes to be in the range 0.5 – 3 tonnes CO2e/ year. Embodied energy per square metre of floor space for different types of construction, from various sources, are shown in Table 8.1 below (note that the references with lower figures are for the house  shell materials only). GHG-Energy Calc estimates are based on average energy/ square metre for  each type of building, inclusive of site works, construction, plumbing, electrical wiring, fittings,  painting and finishing (Glover, 2001). Emissions per m2 (column 8), were estimated by applying the embodied energy factor of 0.092 (see section 3.3). The energy to plan, construct and retail a steel framed, fibro cement transportable home is estimated at 7 - 8% of the energy embodied embodied in the materials (Rose, B., 2007. Energy audit of a transportable homes company office and construction yard, Lawson, 1996. Embodied  Embodied energy of house shell) GHG-Energy Calc only provides an indicative comparison between the construction types and an estimate of emissions, accurate to about 35%. In reality there are large variations due to efficiency of materials manufacturing processes and due to the energy sources used by the manufacturer. Another source of uncertainty is the assumption of a single emissions factor for housing of 0.092 MJ/m2 fro all building components when in reality this will vary with the type of material and where it was produced.

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Table 9.1 Embodied energy and emissions emission s per square metre of floor area, free standing residential house

Construction type Timber frame, timber  weatherboard cladding; tile roof, timber elevated floor. Steel frame, fibro- cement clad, all steel roof, steel /  board elevated floor 

Steel frame, fibro- cement clad, steel roof, 110 mm concrete slab Steel frame, steel (colorbond) clad, all steel roof, 110 mm concrete slab Single concrete cavity  block, steel roof 110 mm concrete slab on ground. Timber frame brick veneer  clad, clay or concrete tile roof, 110 mm concrete slab on ground. Double clay brick, clay or  concrete tile timber frame roof, 110 mm concrete slab on ground. Double clay brick, all steel roof, 110 mm concrete slab on ground. Double clay brick 2 storey, all steel roof, 125 mm concrete slab both storeys

9.2

Lawson, 1996 (energy embodied in walls, floor and roof  materials only) (1)

Baird and Chan g (NZ, 1983) (2)

Alcorn (NZ, 1996), (House shell only) (3)

(Buchanan , A. and Honey, B, 1993, in Glover, 2001) (4)

71 5

1 50 0

70 0

22 87

Rose, 2008 (For fully fitted house and landscaped small lot)

983

1 35 8

23 0 0

1100

1438

Estimate used in GHGEnergy Calc (MJ/m2)

Estimate used in GHGEnergy Calc (kWh /m2)

Embodied emissions/ sq m = energy/ sq m * .092. (kgCO2e/ m2/year) used in GHG-Energ Calc

2350

653

216.2

3230

897

297.16

4200

1167

386.4

4700

1306

432.4

1 32 5

27 0 0

1 60 0

3 9 57

4100

1139

377.2

1 4 46

3 20 0

14 00

5 5 30

5700

1583

524.4

5910

1642

543.72

1988

6610

1836

608.12

2093

6960

1933

640.32

1776

5100

Possessions

Embodied emissions of possessions were calculated by: Taking full life cycle embodied energy figures from Carlsson- Kanyama et al, 2001 and Rose, 2004, rounded to nearest 100 MJ. Subtracting 20% for trade and disposal where the figures were for full life cycle. Dividing by an expected life –from 5 years for computers to 30 years for boats and caravans. Multiplying by the emissions factor for manufactured goods of 0.12 kg/MJ and dividing by 1000 to give tonnes of emissions per year  •

• • •

Annual consumption of goods was estimated for low, average and high households (Fig 8.3, shaded columns). The totals were used as ‘embodied energy and emissions of possessions’ low, average and high options in GHG-Energy Calc : Rose, B.J., 2009. GHG-Energy-Calc Background Paper 

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Table 9.2 Annual embodied energy and emissions attributable to possessions (other than car and house ) Household contents / possessions LOW - Minimal furnishings for a 1- 2 brm flat, some old or used only small sized basic appliances,  basic clothing and bedding, mostly more than 5 years old. BASIC - basic furnishings, for a small house or unit and only small sized sized appliances, basic clothing clothing and  bedding. AVERAGE - Furnishings for medium sized house; standard appliances and furnishings, one of each common appliance, including computer, average quality wardrobe and bedding HIGH - High quality furnishings for large house. Possessions exceed any three of the following: more than one of a particular large appliance, e.g. fridge/freezers, TV's, dishwashers, computers, pianos, audio equipment; more than one lounge or dining suite, more than 70 kg of books, large wardrobe of clothes and bedding mostly less than 3 years old. EXTREME - Top quality furnishings for very large or luxury house . More than one of more than 5 appliances or suites as above; large wardrobe of  near new expensive clothes and bedding

Embodied energy kWh / year 5 83

Embodied emissions tonnes CO2e/ year 1.3*0.2 = .26

1 75 0

1.3*0.6 = .78

2 91 7

1 .3

4 08 3

1.3*1.4 = 1.82

5 25 1

1.3*1.8 = 2.34

The user then enters the estimated weight in kg of external items such as boats, trailers and caravans owned by the household. Embodied energy of external items = 0.5 kgbCO2e/ kg weight Embodied emissions of external items = 4.1 kWh / kg weight

GHG-Energy Calc sums the embodied energy of possessions and shows a figure in the right hand column.

Items that are older than the assumed life can be omitted - external items > 30 yrs, appliances > 20 yrs and computers > 6 years can be omitted. For the reasons stated in housing above, the accuracy of GHG-Energy Calc output can only be expected to be in the range of about 35%. For example, metal/plastic manufactured items generally have from 130 - 240 MJ/kg embodied energy. Appendix 6 shows estimated embodied energy and emissions of goods, annualized over an assumed lifetime

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10. FURTHER RESEARCH AND CONCLUSIONS CONCLUSION S Further research

To develop d evelop GHG-Energy Calc into a more accurate tool, sections 6-8, which relate mainly to embodied energy, could be researched and expanded further, for example: More accurate life cycle analyses of energy inputs for manufactured goods under categories including automotive, white goods, electronic goods, furniture and textiles. More comprehensive set of embodied emissions factors, in addition to the three used in this version. Verification/ adjustment the emission factor for air travel, which is a major ‘emission intensive’ energy consumption category. GWP of jet aircraft emissions is uncertain, being 24 times CO2e emissions (IPCC ). Note: This was adjusted down from 3 to 2.7 in Version 4 •

•

•

 Note that estimate factors for embodied energy and emissions of infrastructure such as roads, bridges, traffic control, control, rail track, stations and airports 5 (Chester et al, University of  California,2005 have been added in GHG-Energy Calc Version.

To develop a tool for more detailed auditing, all sections could be expanded with more options and links to other more detailed calculators.  Note : A :  A travel accumulator pop-up that adds trips and estimates km from trip duration was added  to GHG-Energy Calc Version 5.

Calculators similar to the Home Heating Calculator could be programmed for vehicles, embodied energy and household appliances, and linked to GHG-Energy Calc for more detailed and accurate analysis. However, this may be beyond the scope of a simple, user-friendly tool for households.  Environmental Impact Labelling 

GHG-Energy-Calc has stimulated community interest in the embodied energy and emissions of food, goods and housing. However, it can only give estimates with an uncertainty of about 35%. Consumer demand for a system of product environmental impact labelling (including CO2 emissions and energy use) is increasing. For labelling to be introduced, it would be necessary to: Develop and promote an ISO-standard system of labelling for use by all producers and service providers in Australia. Establish standard boundaries, processes and procedures for conducting impact analysis (including energy and emissions) of products and services. •

•

 Embodied energy of services

Tertiary services are not included in GHG-Energy Calc because an energy source or physical product is not being directly consumed. However, services such as health and education do carry with them GHG emissions, depending on the energy intensity of the activities of the companies and individuals delivering them. Consumers may like to consider the energy intensity of services purchased when choosing providers. It is hoped that providers would be undertaking their own energy audits to decrease their energy and emissions intensity. Services could be covered in a separate calculator of energy and emissions (EE) intensity per dollar for services such as retail, education, health and insurance. This would enable Rose, B.J., 2009. GHG-Energy-Calc Background Paper 

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services to be considered separately from products and would be a more useful method than process LCA of accounting for their environmental impacts. Conclusions

GHG-Energy Calc has the potential if widely promoted and extended to contribute to: 1. Raise consumer consumer awareness awareness by providing a simple tool tool to show show emissions emissions (GWP) (GWP) from their  their  consumption of energy, transport services, goods and food, but excluding other services. 2. Help households, households, Government Government and industry industry achieve greater energy efficiency efficiency and and reduce environmental impacts. 3. Stimulate Stimulate consumer consumer demand for for product environmental environmental impact impact information. information. The ultimate ultimate aim is an environmental impact labelling system, applied to all goods, showing energy input and emissions affecting the environment such greenhouse gas emissions (GWP), toxics and nutrients. This, combined with an ‘energy efficiency star rating’, as is currently used for  Australian vehicles and appliances, would enable consumers to make meaningful choices  between competing products and brands on the basis of environmental impacts. 4. Stimulate Stimulate industry industry and Government Government towards towards cleaner cleaner,, more efficient efficient production. The variation variation in energy inputs and emissions between different sources of particular products illustrates the  potential for more efficient, cleaner production even using currently available technology. 5. Contribute Contribute to the development development of a national national standard standard set of energy energy and and emissions emissions calculators calculators for households, industry and government.  Note: GHG-Energy Calc website was started in 2007, with two commercial subscribers. In 2008, the Western Australian Department of Planning and Infrastructure adopted GHG-Energy Calc as their official calculator for use in their Living Smart community education program.

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References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

ABARE, 2006. Table I. Australian consumption of electricity, by state. www.abareconomics.com ABS, 2005.  Australian Social Trends, 2005: Housing  AGO, 2000. Australia’s National Greenhouse Inventory, Appendices A, B, AGO, 2002. GGAP Round Two Default Values for Transport  AGO, 2007. ‘Your Home Technical Manual’ . http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/technical/fs31.htm 6. Airbus Airbus Indust Industrie rie websit website, e, 200 2003. 3. 7.  Alcorn, A., 1998. In ATLA ATLA News, issue 7 no 4, Nov 1998 http://www.converge.org.nz/atla/new-11-98-p4.html http://www.converge.org.nz/atla/new-11-98-p4.html 8. Atlantic Consulting and IPU, 1998 LCA Study (version 1.2) EU Ecolabels for Personal Computers 9. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2000.  Energy and greenhouse gas emissions accounts, Australia, 1992-98 www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/productsbyCatalogue/3C48092D51139CD6CA256A4E000198B7 10. Australian Food and Grocery Council, 2003. ‘Environmental ‘Environmental Report 2003’  11. Benders, R., Wilting, Kramer and Moll, 2001. 'Description and Application of the EAP Computer Program for  Calculating Life Cycle Energy Use 12. Bhattacharya, S, 2001. Commercialisation Commercialisation Options for Biomass Energy in ESCAP countries. Background  paper. M ., 2000 . 'Energy Use in the Food Sector, 13. Carlsson-Kanyama, A and Faist, M., Sector, a Data Survey….Appendix 6: Food   processing  processing and food preparation'  (compilation from various sources). FMS Environmental Strategies Research Group, Stockholm University. University. 14. Carlsson-Kanyama, A; Karlsson, R., 2000. (Environmental Strategies Research Group/FOI Stockholm, Sweden). Moll, H and Kok, R. (IVEM University of Groningen the Netherlands). Household Metabolism in the Five Cities. Swedish National Report-Stockholm. 15. Chester, M and Horvath, A., 2005.  Environmental  Environmental Life Cycle Analysis of Passenger Transportation. Transportation. University of California working paper. 16. Chooseclimate, 2002. (Matthews, B).  Into the Sky: Aircraft Emissions of Greenhouse Greenhouse Gases, 2002. http:/www.chooseclimate.org/flying/emit.html 17. Climate Partners, 2002. Greenhouse gas emissions from air travel www.climatepartners 18. CSIRO, 2002. CSIRO Solutions for Greenhouse. Greenhouse. www.csiro.au/csiro/ghsolutions/s4.html 19. CSIRO, 2004.  Energy Transformed Research Theme 4 - Low Emissions Distributed Energy. http://www.csiro.au/index.asp?type=blank&id=Energy http://www.csiro.au/index.asp?type=blank&id=EnergyTransformed_Resea Transformed_ResearchTheme4 rchTheme4 20. CSIRO; University of Sydney, Sydney, 2005. 'Balancing Act, a Triple Triple Bottom Line Analysis of the Australian Economy'. 21. Delucci, MA. 2005. A Multi-Country Life Cycle Analysis of Emissions from Transportation Transportation Fuels and Motor  Vehicles. Report for Nissan Motor Company. 22. Dept of Agriculture WA. Crop budgeting handbooks

23. Department of Climate Change National Greenhouse Accounts (NGA) Factors Workbook, Jan 2008. 24. Dey, Dey, C. and Lenzen, M, 2000. Greenhouse Greenhouse Gas Analysis of Electricity Generation of El ectricity Generation Systems. ANSZES conf. proc., 2000. 25. Eckard, R, 2007. ‘A decision Support Framework for Greenhouse Accounting’ CO2 calculators for beef, dairy and sheep enterprises. University of Melbourne, DPI Victoria. http://www.greenhouse.unimelb.edu.au 26. Energy Fact Sheet, 2002. http:/www.iclei.org/efacts/transp.htm 27. EPA NSW, 1997. NSW SoE 97 CH 5 Waste Generation and Disposal  EPA Victori Victoria, a, 2002 20 02. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Energy efficiency in Industry (p9). Pub. 825 28. EPA 29. EFTE - European Federation for Transport and Environment, 2006. Clearing the Air, Air, the Myth and Reality of   Aviation  Aviation and Climate Change. http://www.transportenvironment.org/docs/Publications/ a. 2006 2006/2006 /2006-06_ -06_aviatio aviation_clea n_clearing_ ring_the_ai the_air_my r_myths_re ths_reality ality.pdf  .pdf  30. FAO. Livestock-Environment http://www.fao. www.fao.org/W org/WAIRDOCS/LEAD/X6100E/Post.htm AIRDOCS/LEAD/X6100E/Post.htm Livestock-Environment Initiative http:// 31. Farmingmatters, 2002. Farming Our Future. http://www.farmingmatter.or http://www.farmingmatter.org.uk/farming_our_future/g g.uk/farming_our_future/greenoptions.html reenoptions.html 32. Fergus, D. 2002. Monetisation of Environmental Impacts on Roads. (Chapter 3) http://www.geocities.com/davefergus/transportation/3chap3/htm

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33. Gregory, A., Keolian, G, Kar, K, Manion, M., Bulkley, W, 1997.  Industrial Ecology of the Automobile- A ci ted in; http://www.sustainable-busforum.org/bldgmat.html. http://www.sustainable-busforum.org/bldgmat.html.  Lifestyle Perspective. Table cited 34. Heeringa, Dan, 2002 Milk processing: from from the Cow to the Plant  http:/www.wsu.edu:8080/gmhyde/433_web_p http:/www.wsu.edu:8080/gmhyde/433_web_pages/2002webpages…./AgTMMILKrev ages/2002webpages…./AgTMMILKrev.ht .ht 35. Houck, E., Tiegs, P., P., McCrillis, R., Keithly, Keithly, C., and Crouch, J., 1998.  Air Emissions from Residential Heating: The Wood Wood Heating Option Put Into Environmental Perspective. Conf. Paper. 36. ICF Consulting, 1999. ‘Methods for Estimating Methane Emissions from Domesticated Animals’ Report for  Greenhouse Gas Committee Emission Inventory Improvement Program. Lifec ycle Analysis, 1998. Automobiles: Manufacture vs. Use. 37. Institute of Lifecycle http://www.ilea.org/lcas/macleanlave1998.html 38. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (IPCC), 1999. Summary for policymakers Aviation and the  global atmosphere 39. IPCC, 2001. Climate Change 2001: Working Group Group I: The Scientific Basis. Introduction 40. IPCC, 1999 (2) . Aviation and the Global Atmosphere, Ch 6.1.3 Aviation Scenarios Adopted for Climate  Assessment. http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/aviation/068.htm 41. Key Issues and Information Resources – Consumption – Discussion Paper http://www.agrifoodforum.net/issues/consumption/paper.asp.. forum.net/issues/consumption/paper.asp 42. Laboratory of Ecosystem Management, Ecole Polytechnique Pol ytechnique Federale de Lausanne Comparison of IO and   Process LCA for computers computers on a per kg k g basis 43. Lawson, WR, 1996 . Timber in Building Construction: Ecological Implications in Environment:  Environment: Environmental   Properties of Timber http://oak.arch.utas.edu.au/environment/env_prop/env_prop.html 44. Lenzen, M., 1999. Total Requirements of Energy and Greenhouse Gases for Australian Transport. Transportation Research, Vol 4 No 4, July 1999.

45. Lenzen, M and Dey, J, 2006. Economic, energy and greenhouse emissions impacts of  some consumer choice, technology and government outlay options 46. Leopold Centre for Sustainable S ustainable Agriculture, 2001. Food Fuel and Freeways. www.ag.iastate.edu/centres/leopold 47. Livestock- Environment Interactions (LEI) www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/X6111E/x6111e05.htm 48. Lufthansa website, 2005. http://konzern.lufthansa.com/en/html/magazin/a_340600 49. MAF, MAF, NZ. 'Total 'Total Energy Indicators of Agricultural Sustainability: Dairy Farming Case Study' 50. Meier, PJ and Kulcinski, GL, 2000.  Life Cycle Energy Costs and Greenhouse Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Gas Turbine  Power. Fusion Technology Institute. http://fti.neep.wisc.edu 51. National Institute of Economic and Industry Research (NIES), 2006. The impact of carbon prices on Victorian  selected household types – a preliminary analysis. A report for the Brotherhood of St Laurence 52. (NTSB Report) National Transportation Safety Board Report, 1996. The Crash of TWA 800 www.natural-gas.com.au,, 53. Natural Gas website, 2002.  Handy Reference Guides- Properties of Fuels www.natural-gas.com.au 54. Oliver, C., Parker, S. and Riley, P., 2006. 500 Things you should know about science.(childrens’ text) 55. Pechan and Associates, 1993.  Emission Factor Documentation for AP-42 Section 1.10, Residential Wood  Wood  Stoves. For US Environmental Protection Agency. 56. Pullen, SF, 1999. Consideration of Environmental Issues when Renewing Facilities and Infrastructure. Conf.  paper http://ausnet.rmit.au/papers/8dbmc

57. Quantas Virtual Virtual Airways, Airways, 2006. http://curbe.com/QVA/qva/fplan/qvaaircr.htm http://curbe.com/QVA/qva/fplan/qvaaircr.htm.. www.rmi.org/sitepage/pid600.php 58. Rocky Mountain Institute, 1999. Climate- Air Travel Emissions. www.rmi.org/sitepage/pid600.php 59. SS Canberra. www.sscanberra.com/stats3.htm 60. SafeClimate, 2006. http://www.safeclimate.net/business/understanding/impacts.php slide presentation. http://www.seatguru.com/airlines/Qantas_Airways/Qantas_Airways_Boeing_747-400.php 747-400.php 61. Seat Guru, 2006. http://www.seatguru.com/airlines/Qantas_Airways/Qantas_Airways_Boeing_ 62. Sustain/Elm Farm Research Centre, 2001 . Eating Oil- Food in a Changing Climate. 63. Sustainable Energy Development Office WA, WA, 2002.  Home Heating- Running costs and Greenhouse Greenhouse Gas  Emissions 64. Swedish Society for Nature Conservation. Foundations concerning criteria for BRA MILJOVAL MILJOVAL Surfactants 2000 65. Taking Stock – Managing Our Impact . Ch 3 Consumption of Goods and Services in t he South East’ .

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http://www.takingstock.org/Downloads/ 66. Thomas, Ulrig and Sclenzig, 1999. From GT2 Environmental Manual Database. 67. Trains and the Environment, 2002. http:/members.tripod.com 68. US Dept of Environment, 2002. Energy Efficiency Report. www.eia.doe.gov 69. US Environmental Protection Agency Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, 1998. Greenhouse gas  Emissions from Management of Selected Materials in Municipal Solid Waste. 70. Vale, R. and Pritchard, M., 2001.  An Analysis of the Environmental Impact of Food Production. http://evworld.com/databases/storybuilder.cfm?storyid=193 71. Waste Net, 2002. Municipal Solid waste www.wastenews.com 72. Western estern Power and Alinta Alinta Gas power bills 73. 67. Wilting, H., 1998. 'An Energy Perspective on Economic Activities'.

Appendix 1 Units and conversions Several conventions for fuel and energy units are used in GHG-Energy Calc : •

Quantities of fuels are expressed as litres or kilograms.

•

Vehicle fuel consumption is expressed as litres per 100 km.

•

Energy is expressed as megajoules (MJ). All other energy units are converted to MJ.

•

GHG-Energy Calc converts total fuel used into MJ.

•

One unit of energy as shown on electricity and power bills is equal to one kilowatt hour  (kWh), which is converted into MJ: 1kWh = 3.6 MJ 1 kilocalorie = 0.00418 MJ

•

•

Calculated greenhouse gas emissions are in metric tonnes. GHG emissions factors are expressed as kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalents per  megajoule of energy (kg CO2e /MJ).  Note: GHG emission factors can also be expressed as weight of CO 2 equivalents per weight  of fuel used, for example the EF for diesel produces 3.18 t  CO2e / t; EF of natural natural gas 1.86 t  CO2e / t. However, GHG-Energy Calc does not use these units, as it converts fuel  consumption into energy consumption and then into greenhouse gas emissions .

Appendix 2. Definitions For the purposes of this paper, and in GHG-Energy Calc, the terms used have the following definitions:

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Combustion energy Combustion energy is the total energy released when a fossil fuel energy source is burned.  Pre-combustion energy Pre-combustion (or upstream) GHG emissions are from the production of fuels. The figures range from 10% (CNG) to 22% (diesel) of total end use emissions. Fuel energy Fuel energy is the total energy contained in a fuel, that is released when the fuel is burned (combustion energy), plus the upstream energy used to extract, refine and transport the fuel. Only a certain fraction of the fuel energy used to drive a machine (about 20- 40% depending on the efficiency of the machine) is used to do work; the remainder is wasted as heat or friction. Fuel emissions Full cycle (combustion plus pre-combustion) GHG emissions from energy sourced from fossil fuels.  Embodied energy Embodied energy is defined as the energy used to produce the raw materials, manufacture, package, store and transport and service a particular food or consumer good. This energy will come from a variety of sources. In Australia, Australia, over 95% of embodied energy comes from mix of fossil fuel sources  Embodied emissions Embodied emissions are defined as the sum of the greenhouse gases emitted from: Embodied energy sources from fossil fuels (see above) including the emissions from • electricity used and upstream fuel emissions, Other GHG emissions such as methane and nitrous oxides that may be emitted as a result of  • any of the processes described under embodied energy. For example methane from ruminant  production is added to the energy-related emission of dairy products  Note: Energy analysis as described by Wilting et al relates to the full life cycle of the product, including resale and wholesale trade and waste disposal/ recycling. Embodied emissions figures used in GHG-Energy Calc are not life cycle emissions as retail/ and are excluded. Embodied emissions are generally about 20% less than full life cycle emissions described by Wilting et al, but this varies greatly with different goods.  Emission factor  The quantity of a given GHG emitted per unit of energy (kg CO2/GJ), fuel (t CH4/t coal) or other  such measure. Used to calculate GHG emissions by multiplying the factor (e.g. kg CO2/litre petrol) with activity data (e.g. litres of petrol used). EFs can be categorized as point source – emissions at the point of consumption – or full fuel cycle. Full cycle emission factors Point source emissions plus the pre-combustion or upstream emissions from the production and transport of the fuel (an additional 5-20%). In this paper and in GHG-Energy Calc. Emission factor  always refers to full cycle emission factor.  Energy content (of a fuel) The energy contained by a fuel – expressed in MJ/kg or L – that is released when the fuel is burned (oxidised) completely. GHG 

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Greenhouse gas  Radiative Forcing  A change in average net radiation (in W m-2) at the top of the troposphere resulting from a change in either solar or infrared radiation due to a change in atmospheric greenhouse gases concentrations;  perturbance in the balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation

Appendix 3 Emission factors for stationery energy fuels.

Combustion (Scope1) emissions are from the burning of fossil fuels to produce energy. Full cycle emissions include the additional Scope 3 emissions from extracting, transporting and  processing the coal and running of the power station

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Table A3. Fuel combustion emission factors (DCC, 2008)

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APPENDIX 4 Air Travel Emissions Understated

Less than 1/6 th of Australia's actual greenhouse gas emissions from air travel are officially reported, because: •

•

Kyoto Protocol greenhouse gas national inventory inventor y reporting only accounted for the emissions e missions that would be produced if aviation turbine fuel were burned in at ground level, essentially emitting onl y CO2. The greenhouse effect of the nitrous oxides, ozone and contrails produced by jets at high altitude are not accounted for. for. Only domestic flights are included in the inventories; international flights are not accounted for.

Total radiative forcing (greenhouse effect) of aircraft emissions is 2-4 times that of CO2 alone (International Panel on Climate Change, 1999). This fact is ignored in the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory. Officially, Officially, Australia’s Australia’s aircraft e missions were reported under the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory as: “Domestic aviation contributed 6% - 4.8 million tonnes of transport emissions.” e missions.” This equates to about 0.8% of Australia’s Australia’s total emissions. Table 1 below shows that when international flight kms are added (estimated by the Author from ABS international arrivals and departures statistics), this figure rises to about 11.5 million tonnes. For travel by jet aircraft, the latest version of GHG-Energy Calc uses a multiplier of 2.7 times the global warming potential (GWP) of CO2 emissions from from burning aviation turbine fuel on the ground. ground. This is one of the lower scenarios listed in the IPCC, 1999. ‘Aviation and the Global Atmosphere’ report. (http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/aviation/068.htm http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/aviation/068.htm.) .) Using this multiplier to arrive at a figure for actual global warming potential caused by b y Australian domestic and international flight kilometers, the figure is about 31 million tonnes CO2e. This is about 6.5 times higher than that officially reported in the National Greenhouse gas Inventory, and equates to about 5.2% of Australia’s Australia’s total emissions. As a result of the current under-reporting, the real global warming impacts of air travel are not officially recognized by Government. Consequently, Consequently, national greenhouse reduction strategies and public awareness campaigns ignore air travel and the level of community co mmunity awareness of the impacts is still low. Added to this are the t he current advertising campaigns by airlines offering cheap emissions offsets. The most misleading (even fraudulent) aspect of these campaigns is that flight emissions are grossly understated by using the AGO emission factor based on aviation turbine fuel burned on the ground rather than actual global warming impact of jet aircraft in flight at high altitudes. Australians travel, on average half as far by air as we do by b y car. The average distance per head of population traveled by air is about 4940 km per year (derived from ABS international and domestic travel data, 2003), compared to about 9,900 km traveled by road (ABS, 2005). About 69% of international flights are for  holidays.

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Table A.5.1 Estimation of of emissions from air air travel by Australians, derived from from ABS published statistics, 2003 Derived from ABS stats

Million passenger km

Domestic

International

Total

TOTAL million t

34,643

64,252

98,895

1,732

3,213

4,945

Thousand litres of fu fuel(2)

1,850,000

2570080

4,420,080

Tonnes CO2e using AGO figu figure re for for turb turbin inee fuel fuel  burned at ground level

4,810,000

6,682,208

11,492,208

Total tonnes CO2e using the 2.7 time multiplier for   jet aircraft in flight 12,987,000

18,041,962

31,028,962

Average km air travel (20 million population)

31 mi million t

 Notes:

1.  Fuel use was estimated using 4L/1000 passenger km for international and 5.3L/ 1000 km for  domestic flights. 2. Emissions Emissions were were estim estimated ated @ 2.8 2.8 tonnes tonnes CO2e CO2e / 1000 L fuel (AGO, (AGO, 2005) 2005) and and multiplied multiplied by three three to include emissions from nitrous oxides and contrails (IPCC, 2000)

Air travel continues to grow due to its low cost, and the l ack of alternative bus and train services on longer  routes. There are several reasons for the low cost of air travel, one being lower labour costs due to shorter  travel times. However, another major reason is that there is virtually no tax on aviation turbine fuel. Under a 1930’s 1930’s international agreement, it is levied at only a few cents per litre compared to, for example 38c/L for  road transport fuels in Australia and over 80c/L in Europe. If a 38c/L levy were applied to aviation turbine fuel this mean a price increase of about 40%. If a carbon cost of $30-40 per tonne CO2e were applied (the current European ‘cap and a nd trade’ abatement scheme does not apply to air transport) the cost of aviation turbine fuel would rise by a further 10%. It can  be argued that taxes reflecting ‘intangibles’, including environmental, public infrastructure and health costs should be added. It can also be argued that a GST G ST or VA VAT tax should be applied to the whole cost of tickets worldwide. This would raise the cost of jet fuel to well over 50% higher than current levels and would ‘level the playing field’ in line with road fuel costs. Rising crude oil prices are adding to this. As fuel comprises about 30% of the cost of flying, fares would be expected to rise by over 20%. However, with the popularity of overseas holidays and increasing affluence of the ‘haves’ of of this world, it is unlikely that even a doubling of ticket prices would be sufficient to curtail the growth in air travel. In view of the already significant contribution of aviation to global warming and the ‘deep cut hard emission targets’ that already being set by some countries, it is likely that other, more equitable measures will eventually need to be taken to restrict air travel.

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Appendix 5 Per Passenger Emissions from Cruise Ships

 Assumption : The lifetime of the’ hypothetical cruse ship’ is assumed to be 40 years at an average of  240 cruise days per year, which equates to 9600 cruise days in lifetime. Embodied emissions per   ship cruise day are apportioned accordingly.

Total CO2e emissions per ship cruise day are calculated as follows: Total emissions per ‘average cruise day’ for the ‘hypothetical large cruise ship = sum (operational  CO2e from fuel use + assumed global warming potential of operational NOX/ozone from ship exhaust + ship embodied emissions) Table 5.3 Emissions per passenger day and km km for a medium-large medium-la rge cruise ship Ship example Oosterdam L*B Gross tonnes 8 2 00 0 Displacement 3 8 30 7 passengers @ 100% occpanc y 2 38 8 % occupancy rate 95 % Assumed average number of passengers 2,269 crew 81 2 stated cruise speed knots 22 average speed knots over duration of cruise 13 Average kms per day 57 7 kW (all engines combined) 51 84 0 Engine type medium speed diesels average % of max fuel use while cruising 62% fuel type Fuel oil Specific fuel consumption g/kWh (assumed) 20 0 Estimated fuel use ,000 Litres per day 138.8 Fuel Emission factor, t CO2/kL 3.2 t CO2 emissions per cruise day (economy) 444.3 GWP* Effect of NOx emissions - ozone production - (assumed +50%) 222.2 Crew and passengers consumable and services emissions per cruise day @ 1.5 t CO2e per year 17.1 Embodied CO2 emissions emissions per cruise day @ 4.9 tCO2/ tonne lwt disp; 9600 cruise days in 40 year lifetime 19.55 Total est. GHG emissions tonnes CO2e per day 703.14 Total otal fuel fuel plus plus embo embodi died ed ener energy gy use use per per day day = 1.05 1.05*1 *100 000 0 (39. (39.7* 7*13 138. 8.8) 8) / 3.6 3.6 1.6 1.6 milli illion on kWh kWh Embodied Emissions of ship and services % of total CO2/day 5% Average GHG emissions t CO2e per passenger per day (ppd)* 0.31 tCO2e ppd economy 0.21 tCO2e ppd deluxe 0.31 tCO2e ppd ultra deluxe 0.47 tCO2e ppd luxury suite 0.62 kg CO2e/km economy * 0.36 CO2e/km deluxe 0.54 CO2e/km ultra deluxe 0.81 CO2e/km luxury suite 1.08

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1.4 1.4

Esti Estima mati tion on of emis emissi sion onss per per pass passen enge gerr crui cruise se day day

Occupancy rate One hundred percent occupancy rate is defined as all lower berths occupied. Occupancy exceeds 100% when all lower berths and some upper berths are occupied.

The worldwide cruise industry occupancy rates were projected at 90% for 2003. However, the actual occupancy rate for the 3 large groups cruising from the US was 108% in that year (Ebersold, 2004). Four Luxury lines averaged 69% occupancy. The generally accepted minimal occupancy rate is 80%. (http://www.tq.com.au/fms/tq_corporate/special_interests/cruise_shipping/Appendix%201%20%204.pdf )  Assumption 9: For the purpose of this study, the assumed passenger load is 95%  Assumption 10: emissions per cruise day for the whole ship are allocated to the passengers, at the assumed average occupancy rate, according to cabin class (i.e. space occupied per berth). Table able 5.4 5.4

Typical ypical space space per passen passenger ger for differ different ent cabin cabin acco accommo mmodat dation ion classe classess

Suggested classes s td pp cabin area sq ft 75-100 Average pp cabin area sq ft suggested emission multipliers Average emissions = x .6 7 x

deluxe ultra deluxe luxury suite 100-150 1 50 - 2 0 0 200-250 80 12 0 18 0 2 40 1 1.5 2.25 3 x 1.5x 2x

 Note: Emissions should be incurred proportionally to per person suite area Table able 5.5 5.5

Alloc Allocati ation on of emissi emissions ons per per pas passen senge gerr day by cabin cabin class class (GH (GHG-E G-Ener nergy gy Calc Calc 5) 5)

Cabin class on large cruise ship economy (80 sq ft pp) deluxe (120 sq ft pp) ultra deluxe (180 sq ft pp) luxury suite (240 sq ft pp)

Tonnes CO2e per passenger day (T CO2e ppd) 0.21 0.31 0.47 0.62

Rose, B.J., 2009. GHG-Energy-Calc Background Paper 

Kg CO2e pp km assuming average cruise speed of 13 knots .36 .54 .81 1.08

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Table 5.2 Embodied energy and emissions from shipbuilding  Estimat   EE  ed  materia  Estimated items/  Tonnes l GWh /   Assumed energy  Material  quantity in in tonne  sources 64,000 t ship 64,000 t  (Alcorn  ship  , 1996) Steel imported Ship hull; superstructural, 576 90 9.7 coking coal structure (virgin) Includes engines Iron 2000 5.6 coking coal (6*200 t tonnes)

90% 90%

 EE   ship GWh

% of   EE of   ship

 Assumed  emission  factor  (EF) tCO2e/G  Wh

560,8 75

80.2 %

0.396

3.9

222,107

11,11 1

1.6%

0.396

1.6

4,400

53,05 6

7.6%

0.55

29.2

29,181

CO2e  Embodied   EF t  CO2e CO2/ t  64,000 t   product   ship

Aluminium (virgin)

Engines; superstructure

1000

53.1

elec electr trici icity ty coal 10%

Plastics (including 50 lifeboats@ 3 t; 15,500 seats)

Seats; equal amount other  furniture

60 0

26.4

LNG 50:oil 50%

15,83 3

2.3%

0.25

6.6

3,958

Paint

30 0

27.2

LNG 50%; oil 50%

8,167

1.2%

0.25

6.8

2,042

Synthetic rubber

1 00

30.6

LNG 50:oil 50%

3,056

0.4%

0.25

7.6

764

406 67

3.3%

0.55

14.9

1282 4

Copper  ( including cables 3000km @ 0.25 t/km; gen / mtrs

5 azipods**+ 6 generators @ 10t copper each

86 0

27.1

elec electr trici icity ty coal 10%

Plate Glass (assume 15mm)

5,000 sq m of @ 40 kg/sq m

20 0

4.4

gas gas 50%, 50%, coal coal 50%

88 3

0.1%

0.33

1.5

292

Carpet

50,000 sq m @ 3 kg/ sq m

15 0

16.7

LNG 50:oil 50%

2,500

0.4%

0.25

4.2

625

Zinc

Galvanizing

400

14.5

electr electricit icity y 50%, 50%, gas 50%

5,789

0.8%

0.28

4.1

1,621

70 0

2.9

electr electricit icity y 50%, 50%, gas 50%

2,022

0.3%

0.28

0.8

566

Other Materials  –e.g. wood) Total ship

Furniture; flooring; deck  fittings Tonnes

90% 90%

64000

Est. shipbuilding construction *

EU av. electricity

8,700

1.2%

0.475

0.0

4,133

Est. engine and machinery construction energy

EU av. electricity

4,000

0.6%

0.475

0.0

1,900

699,307

100.0 %

TOTAL SHIP Mainte Maintenan nance ce - recond reconditi itioni oning, ng, refurb refurbish ishmen mentt and painting; add 15% EE over life of ship

electricity 50%, 50%, gas gas 50%

TOTAL SHIP PLUS MAINTENANCE

104,896

284,411 0.28

0.0

804,203

29,371 313,782

T CO2e per tonne of ship

4.90

 Notes : * Energy costs in ship construction is cited as 0.8% of the total cost (US EPA, 2007)  Electricity cost for large commercial users in Finland is cited as 8c/kWh.  Energy use is estimated as 0.008*870M*100/8 **The azipods (swivelling electric propulsion units) of big cruise ships are large – e.g. 400t each for  QE2

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Appendix 6 Table able A6 Estim Estimate ated d embo embodie died d ener energy gy and emiss emission ionss of of g good oodss in in a typica typicall home home annu annualiz alized ed over an assumed lifetime. ENTER NUMBER OF  ITEMS

EMBODIED ENERGY/  YR MJ

EMBODIED EMISSIONS/  YR (kg CO2e)

ITEM

Ref

Bicycle Fridge; freezer; Washing machine Dish washer; clothes drier; air conditioner Toaster, iron, camera, small electric hand tool/kitchen implement, telephone, TV (15" or smaller); video camera VCR; sound system, microwave Computer system - CPU + screen+ printer  + keyboard * Stove Electric Electric sewing sewing machine machine or large power  tool Bed plus mattress Jacket Trouser Sweater Shirt, blouse, hat Underwear (10 pieces) Sets of bedding (doona+blanket) Sheets set (2 sheets + pillow case) Lawnmower (petrol, hand pushed)/ edger,

1 1 1 1

2 1 1 1

267 280 347 267

42.1 44.2 41.6 32.0

Assumed life (years) 15 20 15 15

1 1 1

7 1 2

187 240 267

22.4 28.8 32.0

15 15 15

3,6 1

1 1

1733 160

208.0 19.2

6 30

3 5 4 8 6 10 3 3 6 1

360 1200 352 512 480 480 240 240 300 132

43.2 144.0 42.2 61.4 57.6 57.6 28.8 28.8 36.0 15.8

20 20 10 5 5 5 4 10 8 20

528 533 1200

63.4 64.0 144.0

10 30 30

1200

144.0

10

480 280

57.6 33.6

15 20

200

24.0

20

200 500

24.0 60.0

20 30

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

ENTER ESTIMATED KG WEIGHT Sporting equipment (kg) 1 6 Wood furniture (kg) 1 400 Metal furniture (kg) 4 300 Metal/ tal/ plastic stic sma small ite items, tool tools s & equipment (kg) 1 100 Small Small electr electron onic ic appli applian ances ces,, compu computer  ter  peripherals, (kg) 1 30 Books (kg) 1 50 ENTER ESTIMATED SQ. METRES Vinyl/ lino floor covering (sq m) 1 50 Carpet - synthetic light- med weight types (sq m) 5 50 High quality wool carpet (squ m) 1 50

ANNUA NUAL EMB EMBODIE ODIED D ENER ENERG GY POSSESSIONS (GJ / year ) *

10531.2

ANNUA ANNUAL L EMBODI EMBODIED ED EMISSI EMISSIONS ONS (Tonnes CO2e / year) * Boat, trailer, caravan (per kg, excl retail)

1280.36

4

300

1220

146.4

* 20% is subtracted for retail 

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30

References

1. Carlsson-Kanyama, Carlsson-Kanyama, A; Carlsson, R. (Environmental Strategies Research Group/FOI Group/FOI Stockholm, 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Sweden). Moll, H and Kok, R. (IVEM University of Groningen Groningen The Netherlands). Netherlands). Household  Metabolism in the Five Cities. Swedish National Report-Stockholm. Rose, 2004. GHG-Calc, a Tool for Self-audit of Domestic Greenhouse Gas Emissions Atlantic Consulting and IPU, 1998. LCA Study (version 1.2) EU Ecolabels for Personal  Computers Institute of Lifecycle Analysis, 1998. 1998. Automobiles: Manufacture vs. Use. http://www.ilea.org/lcas/m http://www.ilea.org/lcas/macleanlave1 acleanlave1998.html  998.html  Alcorn, A., 1998. in ATLA News, issue 7 no 4, Nov 1998. http://www.converge.org.nz/atla/new-1198-p4.html. Embodied Energy in NZ Materials California Energy Commission, 2005.'Optimization 2005. 'Optimization of Product Life Cycles to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions in California' California '

Notes: 1/ Possessions that are older than the indicated life and still in use can be omitted  2/ Embodied energy and emissions are estimates for the production, manufacture, packaging and  transport of the goods. Retail and wholesale trade, insurance, and disposal are not included  3/ Embodied emissions factor of 0.12 kg CO2e / kg goods was applied for all goods. 4/ 20% was deducted from the energy figures from Carlsson-Kanyama et al to exclude retailing. 5/ Expected lifetimes of goods categories were Author's estimates.

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