Smart Grid

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We are creatures of the grid. We are embedded in it and empowered by it. The sun used to govern our lives, but now, thanks to the grid, darkness falls at our convenience. During the Depression, when power lines first electrified rural America, a farmer in Tennessee rose in church one Sunday and said—power companies love this story—"The greatest thing on earth is to have the love of God in your heart, and the next greatest thing is to have electricity in your house." He was talking about a few lightbulbs and maybe a radio. He had no idea. Juice from the grid now penetrates every corner of our lives, and we pay no more attention to it than to the oxygen in the air. Until something goes wrong, that is, and we're suddenly in the dark, fumbling for flashlights and candles, worrying about the frozen food in what used to be called (in pre-grid days) the icebox. Or until the batteries run dry in our laptops or smart phones, and we find ourselves scouring the dusty corners of airports for an outlet, desperate for the magical power of electrons. The grid is wondrous. And yet—in part because we've paid so little attention to it, engineers tell us—it's not the grid we need for the 21st century. It's too old. It's reliable but not reliable enough, especially in the United States, especially for our mushrooming population of finicky digital devices. Blackouts, brownouts, and other power outs cost Americans an estimated $80 billion a year. And at the same time that it needs to become more reliable, the grid needs dramatic upgrading to handle a different kind of power, a greener kind. That means, among other things, more transmission lines to carry wind power and solar power from remote places to big cities. Most important, the grid must get smarter. The precise definition of "smart" varies from one engineer to the next. The gist is that a smart grid would be more automated and more "selfhealing," and so less prone to failure. It would be more tolerant of small-scale, variable power sources such as solar panels and wind turbines, in part because it would even out fluctuations by storing energy—in the batteries of electric cars, according to one speculative vision of the future, or perhaps in giant caverns filled with compressed air. But the first thing a smart grid will do, if we let it, is turn us into savvier consumers of electricity. We'll become aware of how much we're consuming and cut back, especially at moments of peak demand, when electricity costs most to produce. That will save us and the utilities money—and incidentally reduce pollution. In a way, we'll stop being mere passive consumers of electrons. In the 21st century we'll become active participants in the management of this vast and seemingly unknowable network that makes our civilization possible. So maybe it's time we got to know it.

There are grids today on six continents, and someday Europe's may reach across the Mediterranean into Africa to carry solar power from the Sahara to Scandinavia. In Canada and the U.S. the grid carries a million megawatts across tens of millions of miles of wire. It has been called the world's biggest machine. The National Academy of Engineering calls it the greatest engineering achievement of the last century. Thomas Edison, already famous for his lightbulb, organized the birth of the grid in 1881, digging up lower Manhattan to lay down copper wires inside brick tunnels. He constructed a power plant, the Pearl Street Station, in the shadow of the Brooklyn Bridge. On September 4, 1882, in the office of tycoon J. P. Morgan, Edison threw a switch. Hundreds of his bulbs lit up Drexel, Morgan & Co. and other offices nearby. Edison was heavily invested in direct current, which worked well in his bulbs and which at the time was low voltage. Alternating current, he argued colorfully, was more appropriate to executing criminals. (He had a circus elephant electrocuted to prove his point.) The argument was misleading: AC, in which the electrons don't stream in one direction but oscillate back and forth at a given frequency, isn't intrinsically more dangerous than DC. High voltage is what's dangerous—but it's also what allows power to be transmitted hundreds of miles without excessive loss. AC won out over DC largely because it can easily be stepped up with transformers, transmitted, then stepped down again to a safer household voltage of 110 or 220. By the 1890s AC lines were running from the new Niagara Falls generating station to Buffalo, some 20 miles away. These days, ironically, high-voltage DC is sometimes preferred for very long distances; it's harder to produce than AC, but it loses even less power. It took decades for electricity to expand from factories and mansions into the homes of the middle class. In 1920 electricity still accounted for less than 10 percent of the U.S. energy supply. But inexorably it infiltrated everyday life. Unlike coal, oil, or gas, electricity is clean at the point of use. There is no noise, except perhaps a faint hum, no odor, and no soot on the walls. When you switch on an electric lamp, you don't think of the huge, sprawling power plant that's generating the electricity (noisily, odoriferously, sootily) many miles away. Refrigerators replaced iceboxes, air conditioners replaced heat prostration, and in 1956 the electric can opener completed our emergence from the dark ages. Today about 40 percent of the energy we use goes into making electricity. At first, utilities were local operations that ran the generating plant and the distribution. A patchwork of mini-grids formed across the U.S. In time the utilities realized they could improve

reliability and achieve economies of scale by linking their transmission networks. After the massive Northeast blackout of 1965, much of the control of the grid shifted to regional operators spanning many states. Yet today there is still no single grid in the U.S.; there are three nearly independent ones—the Eastern, Western, and Texas Interconnections. They function with antiquated technology. The parts of the grid you come into contact with are symptomatic. How does the power company measure your electricity usage? With a meter reader—a human being who goes to your home or business and reads the dials on a meter. How does the power company learn that you've lost power? When you call on the phone. In general, utilities don't have enough instantaneous information on the flow of current through their lines— many of those lines don't carry any data—and people and slow mechanical switches are too involved in controlling that flow. "The electrical grid is still basically 1960s technology," says physicist Phillip F. Schewe, author of The Grid. "The Internet has passed it by. The meter on the side of your house is 1920s technology." Sometimes that quaintness becomes a problem. On the grid these days, things can go bad very fast. When you flip a light switch, the electricity that zips into the bulb was created just a fraction of a second earlier, many miles away. Where it was made, you can't know, because hundreds of power plants spread over many states are all pouring their output into the same communal grid. Electricity can't be stored on a large scale with today's technology; it has to be used instantly. At each instant there has to be a precise balance between generation and demand over the whole grid. In control rooms around the grid, engineers constantly monitor the flow of electricity, trying to keep voltage and frequency steady and to avoid surges that could damage both their customers' equipment and their own. When I flip a switch at my house in Washington, D.C., I'm dipping into a giant pool of electricity called the PJM Interconnection. PJM is one of several regional operators that make up the Eastern grid; it covers the District of Columbia and 13 states, from the Mississippi River east to New Jersey and all the way down to the Outer Banks of North Carolina. It's an electricity market that keeps supply and demand almost perfectly matched—every day, every minute, every fraction of a second—among hundreds of producers and distributors and 51 million people, via 56,350 miles of high-voltage transmission lines. One of PJM's new control centers is an hour north of Philadelphia. Last February I went to visit it with Ray E. Dotter, a company spokesman. Along the way Dotter identified the power lines we

passed under. There was a pair of 500-kilovolt lines linking the Limerick nuclear plant with the Whitpain substation. Then a 230-kilovolt line. Then another. Burying the ungainly lines is prohibitively expensive except in dense cities. "There's a need to build new lines," Dotter said. "But no matter where you propose them, people don't want them." Dotter pulled off the turnpike in the middle of nowhere. A communications tower poked above the treetops. We drove onto a compound surrounded by a security fence. Soon we were in the bunker, built by AT&T during the Cold War to withstand anything but a direct nuclear hit and recently purchased by PJM to serve as its new nerve center. In the windowless control room, dominated by a curved wall of 36 computer screens, dispatch general manager Mike Bryson explained what I was seeing. A dynamic map on one of the screens showed the PJM part of the grid. Arrows represented major transmission lines, each with a number showing how much juice was on the line at that moment. Most of the arrows pointed west to east: In the eastern U.S. electricity flows from major power plants in the heartland toward huge clusters of consumers along the eastern seaboard. At that moment PJM lines were carrying 88,187 megawatts. "Today is a mild winter day—I don't think we'll have over 90,000," Bryson said. The computers take data from 65,000 points on the system, he explained. They track the thermal condition of the wires; too much power flowing through a line can overheat it, causing the line to expand and sag dangerously. PJM engineers try to keep the current alternating at a frequency of precisely 60 hertz. As demand increases, the frequency drops, and if it drops below 59.95 hertz, PJM sends a message to power plants asking for more output. If the frequency increases above 60.05 hertz, they ask the plants to reduce output. It sounds simple, but keeping your balance on a tightrope might sound simple too until you try it. In the case of the grid, small events not under the control of the operators can quickly knock down the whole system. Which brings us to August 14, 2003. Most of PJM's network escaped the disaster, which started near Cleveland. The day was hot; the air conditioners were humming. Shortly after 1 p.m EDT, grid operators at First Energy, the regional utility, called power plants to plead for more volts. At 1:36 p.m. on the shore of Lake Erie, a power station whose operator had just promised to "push it to my max max" responded by crashing. Electricity surged into northern Ohio from elsewhere to take up the slack. At 3:05 a 345-kilovolt transmission line near the town of Walton Hills picked that moment to short out on a tree that hadn't been trimmed. That failure diverted electricity onto other lines,

overloading and overheating them. One by one, like firecrackers, those lines sagged, touched trees, and short-circuited. Grid operators have a term for this: "cascading failures." The First Energy operators couldn't see the cascade coming because an alarm system had also failed. At 4:06 a final line failure sent the cascade to the East Coast. With no place to park their electricity, 265 power plants shut down. The largest blackout in North American history descended on 50 million people in eight states and Ontario. At the Consolidated Edison control center in lower Manhattan, operators remember that afternoon well. Normally the power load there dips gradually, minute by minute, as workers in the city turn off their lights and computers and head home. Instead, at 4? p.m. lights went out in the control room itself. The operators thought: 9/11. Then the phone rang, and it was the New York Stock Exchange. "What's going on?" someone asked. The operators knew at once that the outage was citywide. There was no stock trading then, no banking, and no manufacturing; restaurants closed, workers were idled, and everyone just sat on the stoops of their apartment buildings. It took a day and a half to get power back, one feeder and substation at a time. The blackout cost six billion dollars. It also alarmed Pentagon and Homeland Security officials. They fear the grid is indeed vulnerable to terrorist attack, not just to untrimmed trees. The blackout and global warming have provided a strong impetus for grid reform. The federal government is spending money on the grid—the economic-stimulus package allocated $4.5 billion to smart grid projects and another six billion dollars or so to new transmission lines. Nearly all the major utilities have smart grid efforts of their own. A smarter grid would help prevent blackouts in two ways. Faster, more detailed feedback on the status of the grid would help operators stay ahead of a failure cascade. Supply and demand would also be easier to balance, because controllers would be able to tinker with both. "The way we designed and built the power system over the last hundred years—basically the way Edison and Westinghouse designed it—we create the supply side," says Steve Hauser of the U.S. Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) near Boulder, Colorado. "We do very little to control demand." Working with the NREL, Xcel Energy has brought smart grid technology to Boulder. The first step is the installation of smart meters that transmit data over fiber-optic cable (it could also be

done wirelessly) to the power company. Those meters allow consumers to see what electricity really costs at different times of day; it costs more to generate during times of peak load, because the utilities have to crank up auxiliary generators that aren't as efficient as the huge ones they run 24/7. When consumers are given a price difference, they can choose to use less of the expensive electricity and more of the cheap kind. They can run clothes dryers and dishwashers at night, for instance. The next step is to let grid operators choose. Instead of only increasing electricity supply to meet demand, the operators could also reduce demand. On sweltering summer days the smart grid could automatically turn up thermostats and refrigerators a bit—with the prior agreement of the homeowners of course. "Demand management" saves energy, but it could also help the grid handle renewable energy sources. One of the biggest problems with renewables like solar and wind power is that they're intermittent. They're not always available when demand peaks. Reducing the peak alleviates that problem. You can even imagine programming smart appliances to operate only when solar or wind power is available. Some countries, such as Italy and Sweden, are ahead of the U.S. in upgrading their electrical intelligence. The Boulder project went online earlier this year, but only about 10 percent of U.S.customers have even the most primitive of smart meters, Hauser estimates. "It's expensive," he says. "Utilities are used to spending 40 bucks on an old mechanical meter that's got spinning dials. A smart meter with a software chip, plus the wireless communication, might cost $200—five times as much. For utilities, that's huge." The Boulder project has cost Xcel Energy nearly three times what it expected. Earlier this year the utility raised rates to try to recoup some of those costs. Although everyone acknowledges the need for a better, smarter, cleaner grid, the paramount goal of the utility industry continues to be cheap electricity. In the U.S. about half of it comes from burning coal. Coal-powered generators produce a third of the mercury emissions in America, a third of our smog, two-thirds of our sulfur dioxide, and nearly a third of our planet-warming carbon dioxide—around 2.5 billion metric tons a year, by the most recent estimate. Not counting hydroelectric plants, only about 3 percent of American electricity comes from renewable energy. The main reason is that coal-fired electricity costs a few cents a kilowatt-hour, and renewables cost substantially more. Generally they're competitive only with the help of

government regulations or tax incentives. Utility executives are a conservative bunch. Their job is to keep the lights on. Radical change makes them nervous; things they can't control, such as government policies, make them nervous. "They tend to like stable environments," says Ted Craver, head of Edison International, a utility conglomerate, "because they tend to make very large capital investments and eat that cooking for 30 or 40 or 50 years." So windmills worry them. A utility executive might look at one and think: What if the wind doesn't blow? Or look at solar panels and think: What if it gets cloudy? A smart grid alone can't solve the intermittence problem. The ultimate solution is finding ways to store large amounts of electricity for a rainy, windless day. Actually the U.S. can already store around 2 percent of its summer power output—and Europe even more—behind hydroelectric dams. At night, when electricity is cheaper, some utilities use it to pump water back uphill into their reservoirs, essentially storing electricity for the next day. A small power plant in Alabama does something similar; it pumps air into an underground cavern at night, compressing it to more than a thousand pounds per square inch. During the day the compressed air comes rushing out and spins a turbine. In the past year the Department of Energy has awarded stimulus money to several utilities for compressed-air projects. One project in Iowa would use wind energy to compress the air. Another way to store electricity, of course, is in batteries. For the moment, it makes sense on a large scale only in extreme situations. For example, the remote city of Fairbanks, Alaska, relies on a huge nickel-cadmium, emergency-backup battery. It's the size of a football field. Lithium-ion batteries have more long-term potential—especially the ones in electric or plug-inhybrid cars. PJM is already paying researchers at the University of Delaware $200 a month to store juice in three electric Toyotas as a test of the idea. The cars draw energy from the grid when they're charging, but when PJM needs electricity to keep its frequency stable, the cars are plugged in to give some back. Many thousands of cars, the researchers say, could someday function as a kind of collective battery for the entire grid. They would draw electricity when wind and solar plants are generating, and then feed some back when the wind dies down or night falls or the sun goes behind clouds. The Boulder smart grid is designed to allow such two-way flow. To accommodate green energy, the grid needs not only more storage but more high-voltage power lines. There aren't enough running to the places where it's easy to generate the energy. To connect wind farms in Kern County with the Los Angeles area, Southern California Edison, a subsidiary of Edison International, is building 250 miles of them, known as the Tehachapi

Renewable Transmission Project. A California law requires utilities to generate at least 20 percent of their electricity from renewable sources as of this year. Green energy would also get a boost if there were more and bigger connections between the three quasi-independent grids in the U.S. West Texas is a Saudi Arabia of wind, but the Texas Interconnection by itself can't handle all that energy. A proposed project called the Tres Amigas Superstation would allow Texas wind—and Arizona sun—to supply Chicago or Los Angeles. Near Clovis, New Mexico, where the three interconnections already nearly touch, they would be joined together by a loop of five-gigawatt-capacity superconducting cable. The three grids would become, in effect, one single grid, national and almost rational. Studying the map of the grid in the PJM control room, I noticed unfamiliar place-names: Amos, Pruntytown, Matt Funk, Sporn. Washington, D.C., was not labeled; Mike Bryson suggested it was somewhere near a substation called Waugh Chapel. One of the largest generating stations on the map, he added helpfully, was the Gavin plant, which at that moment was cranking out 2,633 megawatts. Where's Gavin? I asked. "West Virginia or Kentucky somewhere," Bryson said. It's actually in southern Ohio. The grid is a kind of parallel world that props up our familiar one but doesn't map onto it perfectly. It's a human construction that has grown organically, like a city or a government—what technical people call a kludge. A kludge is an awkward, inelegant contraption that somehow works. The U.S. grid works well by most measures, most of the time; electricity is abundant and cheap. It's just that our measures have changed, and so the grid must too. The power industry, says Ted Craver of Edison International, faces "more change in the next ten years than we've seen in the last hundred." But at least now the rest of us are starting to pay attention.

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The electricity sector in India had an installed capacity of 185.5 Gigawatt (GW) as of November [1] 2011, the world's fifth largest. Thermal power plants constitute 65% of the installed capacity,

hydroelectric about 21% and rest being a combination of wind, small hydro, biomass, waste-toelectricity, and nuclear. In terms of fuel, coal-fired plants account for 55% of India's installed electricity capacity, compared to South Africa's 92%; China's 77%; and Australia's 76%. After coal, renewal hydropower accounts for [2][3] 21%, and natural gas for about 10%. In December 2011, over 300 million Indian citizens had no access to electricity. Over one third of India's rural population lacked electricity, as did 6% of the urban population. Of those who did have access to electricity in India, the supply was intermittent and unreliable. In 2010, blackouts and power shedding interrupted irrigation and manufacturing across the country. The per capita average annual domestic electricity consumption in India in 2009 was 96 kWh in rural areas and 288 kWh in urban areas for those with access to electricity, in contrast to the worldwide per [6] capita annual average of 2600 kWh and 6200 kWh in the European Union. India's total domestic, agricultural and industrial per capita energy consumption estimate vary depending on the source. Two [7][8] sources place it between 400 to 700 kWh in 2008–2009. As of January 2012, one report found the [4] per capita total consumption in India to be 778 kWh. India currently suffers from a major shortage of electricity generation capacity, even though it is the [9] world's fourth largest energy consumer after United States, China and Russia. The International Energy Agency estimates India needs an investment of at least $135 billion to provide universal access of electricity to its population. The International Energy Agency estimates India will add between 600 GW to 1200 GW of additional [5] new power generation capacity before 2050. This added new capacity is equivalent to the 740 GW of total power generation capacity of European Union (EU-27) in 2005. The technologies and fuel sources India adopts, as it adds this electricity generation capacity, may make significant impact to [10] global resource usage and environmental issues. India's electricity sector is amongst the world's most active players in renewable energy utilization, [11] especially wind energy. As of December 2011, India had an installed capacity of about 22.4 GW of renewal technologies-based electricity, exceeding the total installed electricity capacity in Austria by all technologies. Electricity distribution network in India is inefficient compared to other networks in the world. India's [5] network losses exceeded 32% in 2010, compared to world average of less than 15%. Loss reduction technologies, if adopted in India, can add about 30 GW of electrical power, while simultaneously reducing electricity cost and carbon footprint pollution per MWHr used. Key implementation challenges for India's electricity sector include new project management and execution, ensuring availability of fuel quantities and qualities, lack of initiative to develop large coal and natural gas resources present in India, land acquisition, environmental clearances at state and central government level, and training of skilled manpower to prevent talent shortages for operating [7] latest technology plants.
Contents
[hide]
[4][5]

 

1 History 2 Demand



3 Generation

o o o 

3.1 Thermal power 3.2 Hydro power 3.3 Nuclear power

4 Other renewable energy

o o o o o        

4.1 Solar power 4.2 Wind power 4.3 Biomass power 4.4 Geothermal energy 4.5 Tidal wave energy

5 Problems with India's power sector 6 Resource potential in electricity sector 7 Rural electrification 8 Human resource development 9 Trading 10 Regulation and administration 11 See also 12 References

[edit]History The first demonstration of electric light in Calcutta was conducted on 24 July, 1879 by P W Fleury & Co. Mumbai saw electric lighting for the first time in 1882 at Crawford Market. First hydro-electric installation in India was setup by Crompton & Co for the Darjeeling Municipality in 1896. The Bombay Electric Supply & Tramways Company (B.E.S.T.) set up a generating station in 1905 to provide electricity for the tramway. The first electric train ran between Bombay's Victoria Terminus and Kurla along the Harbour Line, in February 1925. In November, 1931, electrification of the meter gauge track between Madras Beach and Tambaram was started. [edit]Demand Demand drivers

Satellite pictures of India show thick haze and black carbon smoke above India and other Asian countries. This problem is particularly severe along the Ganges Basin in northern India. Major sources of particulate matter and aerosols are believed to be smoke from biomass burning in rural parts of India, and air pollution from large cities in northern India.

"Expanding access to energy means including 2.4 billion people: 1.4 billion that still has no access to electricity (87% of whom live in the rural areas) and 1 billion that only has access to unreliable electricity networks. We need smart and practical approaches because energy, as a driver of development, plays a central role in both fighting poverty and addressing climate change. The implications are enormous: families forego entrepreneurial endeavors, children cannot study after dark, health clinics do not function properly, and women are burdened with time consuming chores such as pounding grain or hauling water, leaving them with less time to engage in income generating activities. Further, it is estimated that kitchen smoke leads to around 1.5 million premature deaths every year, more than the number of deaths from malaria each year. After gaining access to energy, households generate more income, are more productive and are less hungry, further multiplying the Millenium Development Goal's progress." — Rebeca Grynspan, UNDP Associate Administrator and Under Secretary General, Bloomberg New Energy Summit, April 7, 2011
[12]

Of the 1.4 billion people of the world who have no access to electricity in the world, India accounts for over 300 million. Some 800 million Indians use traditional fuels – fuelwood, agricultural waste and biomass cakes – for cooking and general heating needs. These traditional fuels are burnt in cook stoves, known [13][14] as chulah or chulha in some parts of India. Traditional fuel is inefficient source of energy, its burning releases high levels of smoke, PM10 particulate matter, NOX, SOX, PAHs, polyaromatics, [15][16][17][18] formaldehyde, carbon monoxide and other air pollutants. Some reports, including one by the World Health Organization, claim 300,000 to 400,000 people in India die of indoor air pollution and carbon monoxide poisoning every year because of biomass burning and use of [19] chullahs. Traditional fuel burning in conventional cook stoves releases unnecessarily large amounts of pollutants, between 5 to 15 times higher than industrial combustion of coal, thereby affecting outdoor air quality, haze and smog, chronic health problems, damage to forests, ecosystems and global climate. Burning of biomass and firewood will not stop, these reports claim, unless electricity or clean burning fuel and combustion technologies become reliably available and widely adopted in rural

and urban India. The growth of electricity sector in India may help find a sustainable alternative to traditional fuel burning. In addition to air pollution problems, a 2007 study finds that discharge of untreated sewage is single most important cause for pollution of surface and ground water in India. There is a large gap between generation and treatment of domestic wastewater in India. The problem is not only that India lacks sufficient treatment capacity but also that the sewage treatment plants that exist do not operate and are not maintained. Majority of the government-owned sewage treatment plants remain closed most of the time in part because of the lack of reliable electricity supply to operate the plants. The wastewater generated in these areas normally percolates in the soil or evaporates. The uncollected wastes accumulate in the urban areas cause unhygienic conditions, release heavy metals and [20][21] pollutants that leaches to surface and groundwater. Almost all rivers, lakes and water bodies are severely polluted in India. Water pollution also adversely impacts river, wetland and ocean life. Reliable generation and supply of electricity is essential for addressing India's water pollution and associated environmental issues. Other drivers for India's electricity sector are its rapidly growing economy, rising exports, improving infrastructure and increasing household incomes. Demand trends

Electricity transmission grid in eastern India.

As in previous years, during the year 2010–11, demand for electricity in India far outstripped availability, both in terms of base load energy and peak availability. Base load requirement was 861,591 (MU) against availability of 788,355 MU, a 8.5% deficit. During peak loads, the demand was [22] for 122 GW against availability of 110 GW, a 9.8% shortfall. In a May 2011 report, India's Central Electricity Authority anticipated, for 2011–12 year, a base load energy deficit and peaking shortage to be 10.3% and 12.9% respectively. The peaking shortage would prevail in all regions of the country, varying from 5.9% in the North-Eastern region to 14.5% in the Southern Region. India also expects all regions to face energy shortage varying from 0.3% in the North-Eastern region to 11.0% in the Western region. India's Central Electricity Authority expects a surplus output in some of the states of Northern India, those with predominantly hydropower capacity, but only during the monsoon months. In these states, shortage conditions would prevail during winter [22] season. According to this report, the five states with largest power demand and availability, as of May 2011, were Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. In late 2011 newspaper articles, Gujarat was declared a power surplus state, with about 2–3 GW more power available than its internal demand. The state was expecting more capacity to become available. It was expecting to find customers, sell excess capacity to meet power demand in other [23][24] states of India, thereby generate revenues for the state. Despite an ambitious rural electrification program, some 400 million Indians lose electricity access [26] during blackouts. While 80% of Indian villages have at least an electricity line, just 52.5% of rural
[25]

households have access to electricity. In urban areas, the access to electricity is 93.1% in 2008. The overall electrification rate in India is 64.5% while 35.5% of the population still live without access to [27] electricity. According to a sample of 97,882 households in 2002, electricity was the main source of lighting for [28] 53% of rural households compared to 36% in 1993. The 17th electric power survey of India report claims: 
[29]

Over 2010–11, India's industrial demand accounted for 35% of electrical power requirement, domestic household use accounted for 28%, agriculture 21%, commercial 9%, public lighting and other miscellaneous applications accounted for the rest. The electrical energy demand for 2016–17 is expected to be at least 1392 Tera Watt Hours, with a peak electric demand of 218 GW. The electrical energy demand for 2021–22 is expected to be at least 1915 Tera Watt Hours, with a peak electric demand of 298 GW.

 

If current average transmission and distribution average losses remain same (32%), India needs to add about 135 GW of power generation capacity, before 2017, to satisfy the projected demand after losses. McKinsey claims that India's demand for electricity may cross 300 GW, earlier than most estimates. To explain their estimates, they point to four reasons:     India's manufacturing sector is likely to grow faster than in the past Domestic demand will increase more rapidly as the quality of life for more Indians improve About 125,000 villages are likely to get connected to India's electricity grid Currently blackouts and load shedding artificially suppresses demand; this demand will be sought as revenue potential by power distribution companies
[30]

A demand of 300GW will require about 400 GW of installed capacity, McKinsey notes. The extra capacity is necessary to account for plant availability, infrastructure maintenance, spinning reserve and losses. In 2010, electricity losses in India during transmission and distribution were about 24%, while losses [31] because of consumer theft or billing deficiencies added another 10–15%. According to two studies published in 2004, theft of electricity in India, amounted to a nationwide loss [32][33] of $4.5 billion. This led several states of India to enact and implement regulatory, and institutional framework; develop a new industry and market structure; and privatize distribution. The state of Andhra Pradesh, for example, enacted an electricity reform law; unbundled the utility into one generation, one transmission, and four distribution and supply companies; and established an independent regulatory commission responsible for licensing, setting tariffs, and promoting efficiency and competition. Some state governments amended the Indian Electricity Act of 1910 to make electricity theft a cognizable offense and impose stringent penalties. A separate law, unprecedented in India, provided for mandatory imprisonment and penalties for offenders, allowed constitution of special courts and tribunals for speedy trial, and recognized collusion by utility staff as a criminal offense. The state government made advance preparations and constituted special courts and appellate tribunals as soon as the new law came into force. High quality metering and enhanced audit information flow was implemented. Such campaigns have made a big difference in the Indian utilities’ bottom line. Monthly billing has increased substantially, and the collection rate reached more than 98%. Transmission and distribution losses were reduced by 8%.

Power cuts are common throughout India and the consequent failure to satisfy the demand for [34][35] electricity has adversely effected India's economic growth. [edit]Generation

Tehri Hydroelectric Power station's lake in Uttarakhand. Tehri is Asia's tallest, and world's 8th tallest dam. [36] With a capacity of 2.4 GW, it is India's largest hydroelectric power generation installation.

Power development in India was first started in 1897 in Darjeeling, followed by commissioning of a hydropower station at Sivasamudram in Karnataka during 1902. India's electricity generation capacity additions from 1950 to 1985 were very low when compared to developed nations. Since 1990, India has been one of the fastest growing markets for new electricity generation capacity. The country's annual electricity generation capacity has increased in last 20 years by about 120 GW, [37] [38] [39] from about 66 GW in 1991 to over 100 GW in 2001, to over 185 GW in 2011. India's Power Finance Corporation Limited projects that current and approved electricity capacity addition projects in India are expected to add about 100 GW of installed capacity between 2012 and 2017. This growth [40][41] makes India one the fastest growing markets for electricity infrastructure equipment. India's installed capacity growth rates are still less than those achieved by China, and short of capacity needed to ensure universal availability of electricity throughout India by 2017. State-owned and privately owned companies are significant players in India's electricity sector, with the private sector growing at a faster rate. India's central government and state governments jointly regulate electricity sector in India. As of August 2011, the states and union territories of India with power surplus were Himachal [22][23] Pradesh, Sikkim, Tripura, Gujarat, Delhi andDadra and Nagar Haveli. Major economic and social drivers for India's push for electricity generation include India's goal to provide universal access, the need to replace current highly polluting energy sources in use in India with cleaner energy sources, a rapidly growing economy, increasing household incomes, limited domestic reserves of fossil fuels and the adverse impact on the environment of rapid development in [42] urban and regional areas. The table below presents the electricity generation capacity, as well as availability to India's end user and their demand. The difference between installed capacity and availability is the transmission, distribution and consumer losses. The gap between availability and demand is the shortage India is

suffering. This shortage in supply ignores the effects of waiting list of users in rural, urban and industrial customers; it also ignores the demand gap from India's unreliable electricity supply.

Electricity sector capacity and availability in India (excludes effect of blackouts / powershedding)

Item

Value

Date reported

Reference

Total installed capacity (GW)

185.5

November 2011

[1]

Available base load supply (MU)

837374

May 2011

[39]

Available peak load supply (GW)

118.7

May 2011

[39]

Demand base load (MU)

933741

May 2011

[39]

Demand peak load (GW)

136.2

May 2011

[39]

According to India's Ministry of Power, about 14.1 GW of new thermal power plants under construction are expected to be put in use by December 2012, so are 2.1 GW capacity hydropower [39] plants and a 1 GW capacity nuclear power plant. India's installed generation capacity should top 200 GW in 2012. In 2010, the five largest power companies in India, by installed capacity, in decreasing order, were the state-owned NTPC, state-owned NHPC, followed by three privately owned companies: Tata Power, Reliance Power and Adani Power. In India's effort to add electricity generation capacity over 2009–2011, both central government and state government owned power companies have repeatedly failed to add the capacity targets because of issues with procurement of equipment and poor project management. Private companies [43] have delivered better results. [edit]Thermal

power

A super thermal power plant in Rajasthan

A thermal power plant in Maharashtra

Thermal power plants convert energy rich fuel into electricity and heat. Possible fuels include coal, natural gas, petroleum products, agricultural waste and domestic trash / waste. Other sources of fuel include landfill gas and biogases. In some plants, renewal fuels such as biogas are co-fired with coal. Coal and lignite accounted for about 57% of India's installed capacity. However, since wind energy depends on wind speed, and hydropower energy on water levels, thermal power plants account for over 65% of India's generated electricity. India's electricity sector consumes about 80% of the coal produced in the country. India expects that its projected rapid growth in electricity generation over the next couple of decades is expected to be largely met by thermal power plants. Fuel constraints A large part of Indian coal reserve is similar to Gondwana coal. It is of low calorific value and high ash content. The iron content is low in India's coal, and toxic trace element concentrations are negligible. The natural fuel value of Indian coal is poor. On average, the Indian power plants using India's coal supply consume about 0.7 kg of coal to generate a kWh, whereas United States thermal power plants consume about 0.45 kg of coal per kWh. The high ash content in India's coal affects the thermal power plant's potential emissions. Therefore, India's Ministry of Environment & Forests has mandated the use of beneficiated coals whose ash content has been reduced to 34% (or lower) in power plants in urban, ecologically sensitive and other critically polluted areas, and ecologically sensitive areas. Coal benefaction industry has rapidly grown in India, with current capacity topping 90 MT. Thermal power plants can deploy a wide range of technologies. Some of the major technologies include:   Steam cycle facilities (most commonly used for large utilities); Gas turbines (commonly used for moderate sized peaking facilities);

 

Cogeneration and combined cycle facility (the combination of gas turbines or internal combustion engines with heat recovery systems); and Internal combustion engines (commonly used for small remote sites or stand-by power generation).

India has an extensive review process, one that includes environment impact assessment, prior to a thermal power plant being approved for construction and commissioning. The Ministry of Environment and Forests has published a technical guidance manual to help project proposers and to prevent [44] environmental pollution in India from thermal power plants. Installed thermal power capacity The installed capacity of Thermal Power in India, as of June 30 2011, was 115649.48 MW which is [45] 65.34% of total installed capacity.    Current installed base of Coal Based Thermal Power is 96,743.38 MW which comes to 54.66% of total installed base. Current installed base of Gas Based Thermal Power is 17,706.35 MW which is 10.00% of total installed capacity. Current installed base of Oil Based Thermal Power is 1,199.75 MW which is 0.67% of total installed capacity.

The state of Maharashtra is the largest producer of thermal power in the country. [edit]Hydro

power

Main article: Hydroelectric power in India

Indira Sagar Dam partially completed in 2008

Nagarjuna Sagar Hydroelectric power plant on river Krishna. It is the world's largest masonry dam, with an installed capacity of 800MW. The dam also irrigates about 1.4 million acres of previously drought-prone land.

In this system of power generation, the potential of the water falling under gravitational force is utilized to rotate a turbine which again is coupled to a Generator, leading to generation of electricity. India is one of the pioneering countries in establishing hydro-electric power plants. The power plants

at Darjeeling and Shimsha (Shivanasamudra) were established in 1898 and 1902 respectively and are among the first in Asia. India is endowed with economically exploitable and viable hydro potential assessed to be about 84,000 MW at 60% load factor. In addition, 6780 MW in terms of installed capacity from Small, Mini, and Micro Hydel schemes have been assessed. Also, 56 sites for pumped storage schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of 94,000 MW have been identified. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy. India is blessed with immense amount of hydro-electric potential and ranks 5th in terms of exploitable hydro-potential on global scenario. The present installed capacity as on 30-06[46] 2011 is approximately 37,367.4 MW which is 21.53% of total Electricity Generation in India. The [47] public sector has a predominant share of 97% in this sector. National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC), Northeast Electric Power Company (NEEPCO), Satluj jal vidyut nigam (SJVNL), Tehri Hydro Development Corporation, NTPC-Hydro are a few public sector companies engaged in development of Hydroelectric Power in India. Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB), an illustrative state owned enterprise in north India, has an installed capacity of 2.9 GW and generates 12000-14000 million units per year. The cost of [citation needed] generation of energy after four decades of operation is about 20 paise/kWh. BBMB is a major source of peaking power and black start to the northern grid in India. Large reservoirs provide operational flexibility. BBMB reservoirs annually supply water for irrigation to 125 lac (12.5 million) acres of agricultural land of partner states, enabling northern India in its green revolution. [edit]Nuclear

power

Kudankulam nuclear power plant under construction in 2009. It was 96% complete as of March 2011, with first phase expected to be in use in 2012. With initial installed capacity of 2 GW, this plant will be expanded to 6 GW capacity.

As of 2011, India had 4.8 GW of installed electricity generation capacity using nuclear fuels. It [48] produced over 26000 million units of electricity. India's nuclear power plant development began in 1964. India signed an agreement with General Electric of the United States for the construction and commissioning of two boiling water reactors at Tarapur. In 1967, this effort was placed under India's Department of Atomic Energy. In 1971, India set up its first pressurised heavy water reactors with Canadian collaboration in Rajasthan. In 1987, India created Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited to commercialize nuclear power. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited is a public sector enterprise, wholly owned by the Government of India, under the administrative control of its Department of Atomic Energy. Its objective is to implement and operate nuclear power stations for India's electricity sector. The stateowned company has ambitious plans to establish 63 GW generation capacity by 2032, as a safe, environmentally benign and economically viable source of electrical energy to meet the increasing [49] electricity needs of India.

India's nuclear power generation effort satisfies many safeguards and oversights, such as getting ISO-14001 accreditation for environment management system and peer review by World Association of Nuclear Operators including a pre-start up peer review. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited admits, in its annual report for 2011, that its biggest challenge is to address the public and policy maker perceptions about the safety of nuclear power, particularly after the Fukushima incident in [48] Japan. In 2011, India had 18 pressurized heavy water reactors in operation, with another four projects of 2.8 GW capacity launched. The country plans to implement fast breeder reactors, using plutonium based fuel. Plutonium is obtained by reprocessing spent fuel of first stage reactors. India successfully launched its first prototype fast breeder reactor of 500 MW capacity in Tamil Nadu, and now operates two such reactors. India has nuclear power plants operating in the following states: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. These reactors have an installed electricity generation capacity between 100 to 540 MW each. New reactors with installed capacity of 1000 MW per reactor are expected to be in use by 2012. In 2011, The Wall Street Journal reported the discovery of uranium in a new mine in India, the country's largest ever. The estimated reserves of 64,000 tonnes, could be as large as 150,000 tonnes (making the mine one of the world's largest). The new mine is expected to provide India with a fuel that it currently imports. Nuclear fuel supply constraints had limited India's ability to grow its nuclear power generation capacity. The newly discovered ore, unlike those in Australia, is of slightly lower [50] grade. This mine is expected to be in operation in 2012. India's share of nuclear power plant generation capacity is just 1.2% of worldwide nuclear power production capacity, making it the 15th largest nuclear power producer. Nuclear power provided 3% of the country's total electricity generation in 2011. India aims to supply 9% of it electricity needs with [48] nuclear power by 2032. India's largest nuclear power plant project under implementation is at Jaitapur, Maharashtra in partnership with Areva, France. [edit]Other

renewable energy

Main article: Renewable energy in India Renewable energy in India is a sector that is still in its infancy. As of December 2011, India had an installed capacity of about 22.4 GW of renewal technologies[51] based electricity, about 12% of its total. For context, the total installed capacity for electricity in Switzerland was about 18 GW in 2009. The table below provides the capacity breakdown by various technologies.

Renewal energy installed capacity in India (as of August 31, 2011)

Type

[52]

Technology

Installed capacity (in MW)

Grid connected power

Wind

14989

Small hydro

3154

Biomass

1084

Bagasse Cogeneration

1779

Waste-to-Energy (WtE)

74

Solar

46

Off-grid, captive power

Biomass

141

Biomass non-bagasse cogen

328

Waste-to-Energy (WtE)

76

Solar

73

Aerogen/Hybrids

1

As of August 2011, India had deployed renewal energy to provide electricity in 8846 remote villages, installed 4.4 million family biogas plants, 1800 microhydel units and 4.7 million square meters of solar water heating capacity. India anticipates to add another 3.6 GW of renewal energy installed capacity [52] by December 2012. India plans to add about 30 GW of installed electricity generation capacity based on renewal energy [51] technologies, by 2017. Renewable energy projects in India are regulated and championed by the central government's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. [edit]Solar

power

Main article: Solar power in India

Solar resource map for India. The western states of the country are naturally gifted with high solar incidence.

India is bestowed with solar irradiation ranging from 4 to 7 kWh/square meter/day across the country, [53] with western and southern regions having higher solar incidence. India is endowed with rich solar energy resource. India receives the highest global solar radiation on a [citation needed] horizontal surface. With its growing electricity demand, India has initiated steps to develop its large potential for solar energy based power generation. In November 2009, the Government of India launched its Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission under the National Action Plan on Climate Change. Under this central government initiative, India plans to generate 1 GW of power by 2013 and up to 20 GW grid-based solar power, 2 GW of off-grid solar power and cover 20 million square metres with solar energy [54] collectors by 2020. India plans utility scale solar power generation plants through solar parks with dedicated infrastructure by state governments, among others, the governments of Gujarat and [53] Rajasthan. The Government of Gujarat taking advantage of the national initiative and high solar irradiation in the state, launched the Solar Power Policy in 2009 and proposes to establish a number of large-scale solar parks starting with the Charanka solar park in Patan district in the sparsely populated northern part of the state. The development of solar parks will streamline the project development timeline by letting government agencies undertake land acquisition and necessary permits, and provide dedicated common infrastructure for setting up solar power generation plants largely in the private sector. This approach will facilitate the accelerated installation of private sector solar power generation capacity reducing costs by addressing issues faced by stand alone projects. Common infrastructure for the solar park include site preparation and leveling, power evacuation, availability of water, access roads, security and services. In parallel with the central government's initiative, the Gujarat Electricity Regulatory Commission has announced feed-in-tariff to mainstream solar power generation which will be applied for solar power generation plants in the solar park. Gujarat Power Corporation Limited is the responsible agency for developing the solar park of 500 megawatts and will lease the lands to the project developers to generate solar power. Gujarat Energy Transmission Corporation Limited will develop the transmission evacuation from the identified interconnection points [53] with the solar developer. This project is being supported, in part, by the Asian Development Bank. The first Indian solar thermal power project (2X50MW) is in progress in Phalodi (Rajasthan), and is [citation needed] constructed by CORPORATE ISPAT ALLOY LTD.

The Indian Solar Loan Programme, supported by the United Nations Environment Programme has won the prestigious Energy Globe World award for Sustainability for helping to establish a consumer financing program for solar home power systems. Over the span of three years more than 16,000 solar home systems have been financed through 2,000 bank branches, particularly in rural areas of South India where the electricity grid does not yet extend. Launched in 2003, the Indian Solar Loan Programme was a four-year partnership between UNEP, the UNEP Risoe Centre, and two of India's [55][56] largest banks, the Canara Bank and Syndicate Bank. Land acquisition is a challenge to solar farm projects in India. Some state governments are exploring means to address land availability through innovation; for example, by exploring means to deploy solar capacity above their extensive irrigation canal projects, thereby harvesting solar energy while reducing the loss of irrigation water by solar evaporation. [edit]Wind

power

Main article: Wind power in India

Wind farm in Rajasthan.

Wind turbines midst India's agricultural farms.

Wind farms midst paddy fields in India.

India has the fifth largest installed wind power capacity in the world. In 2010, wind power accounted for 6% of India's total installed power capacity, and 1.6% of the country's power output. The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s by Tamil Nadu Electric Board near Tuticorin, and has significantly increased in the last few years. Suzlon is the leading Indian company in wind power, with an installed generation capacity of 6.2 GW in India. Vestas is another major [58] company active in India's wind energy initiative. As of December 2011, the installed capacity of wind power in India was 15.9 GW, spread across [51][57] many states of India. The largest wind power generating state was Tamil Nadu accounting for 30% of installed capacity, followed in decreasing order by Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, [59] andRajasthan. It is estimated that 6 GW of additional wind power capacity will be installed in India [60] by 2012. In Tamil Nadu, wind power is mostly harvested in the southern districts such as Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli and Tuticorin. The state of Gujarat is estimated to have the maximum gross wind power potential in India, with a [58] potential of 10.6 GW. [edit]Biomass

[57]

power

In this system biomass, bagasse, forestry and agro residue & agricultural wastes are used as fuel to [61] produce electricity. Biomass gasifier India has been promoting biomass gasifier technologies in its rural areas, to utilize surplus biomass resources such as rice husk, crop stalks, small wood chips, other agro-residues. The goal was to produce electricity for villages with power plants of up to 2 MW capacities. During 2011, India installed 25 rice husk based gasifier systems for distributed power generation in 70 remote villages of Bihar. In addition, gasifier systems are being installed at 60 rice mills in India. During the year, biomass gasifier [51] projects of 1.20 MW in Gujarat and 0.5 MW in Tamil Nadu were successfully installed. Biogas

This pilot program aims to install small scale biogas plants for meeting the cooking energy needs in rural areas of India. During 2011, some 45000 small scale biogas plants were installed. Cumulatively, India has installed 4.44 million small scale biogas plants. In 2011, India started a new initiative with the aim to demonstrate medium size mixed feed biogasfertilizer pilot plants. This technology aims for generation, purification/enrichment, bottling and piped distribution of biogas. India approved 21 of these projects with aggregate capacity of 37016 cubic [51] meter per day, of which 2 projects have been successfully commissioned by December 2011. India has additionally commissioned 158 projects under its Biogas based Distributed/Grid Power Generation programme, with a total installed capacity of about 2 MW. India is rich in biomass and has a potential of 16,881MW (agro-residues and plantations), 5000MW (bagasse cogeneration) and 2700MW (energy recovery from waste). Biomass power generation in India is an industry that attracts investments of over INR 600 crores every year, generating more than 5000 million units of electricity and yearly employment of more than 10 million man-days in the rural [citation needed] areas. As of 2010, India burnt over 200 million tonnes of coal replacement worth of traditional biomass fuel every year to meet its energy need for cooking and other domestic use. This traditional biomass fuel – fuelwood, crop waste and animal dung – is a potential raw material for the application of biomass technologies for the recovery of cleaner fuel, fertilizers and electricity with significantly lower pollution. Biomass available in India can and has been playing an important role as fuel for sugar mills, textiles, paper mills, and small and medium enterprises (SME). In particular there is a significant potential in breweries, textile mills, fertilizer plants, the paper and pulp industry, solvent extraction units, rice mills, [62] petrochemical plants and other industries to harness biomass power. [edit]Geothermal

energy

India's geothermal energy installed capacity is experimental. Commercial use is insignificant. India has potential resources to harvest geothermal energy. The resource map for India has been [63] grouped into six geothermal provinces:       Himalayan Province – Tertiary Orogenic belt with Tertiary magmatism Areas of Faulted blocks – Aravalli belt, Naga-Lushi, West coast regions and Son-Narmada lineament. Volcanic arc – Andaman and Nicobar arc. Deep sedimentary basin of Tertiary age such as Cambay basin in Gujarat. Radioactive Province – Surajkund, Hazaribagh, Jharkhand. Cratonic province – Peninsular India

India has about 340 hot springs spread over the country. Of this, 62 are distributed along the northwest Himalaya, in the States of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. They are found concentrated along a 30-50-km wide thermal band mostly along the river valleys. NagaLusai and West Coast Provinces manifest a series of thermal springs. Andaman and Nicobar arc is the only place in India where volcanic activity, a continuation of the Indonesian geothermal fields, and can be good potential sites for geothermal energy. Cambay graben geothermal belt is 200 km long and 50 km wide with Tertiary sediments. Thermal springs have been reported from the belt although they are not of very high temperature and discharge. During oil and gas drilling in this area, in recent times, high subsurface temperature and thermal fluid have been reported in deep drill wells in depth ranges of 1.7 to 1.9 km. Steam blowout have also been reported in the drill holes in depth range of

1.5 to 3.4 km. The thermal springs in India's peninsular region are more related to the faults, which allow down circulation of meteoric water to considerable depths. The circulating water acquires heat from the normal thermal gradient in the area, and depending upon local condition, emerges out at suitable localities. The area includes Aravalli range, Son-Narmada-Tapti lineament, Godavari and [63] Mahanadi valleys and South Cratonic Belts. In a December 2011 report, India identified six most promising geothermal sites for the development of geothermal energy. These are, in decreasing order of potential:       Tattapani in Chhattisgarh Puga in Jammu & Kashmir Cambay Graben in Gujarat Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh Surajkund in Jharkhand Chhumathang in Jammu & Kashmir

India plans to set up its first geothermal power plant, with 2–5 MW capacity at Puga in Jammu and [64] Kashmir. [edit]Tidal

wave energy

Tidal energy technologies harvest energy from the seas. The potential of tidal wave energy becomes higher in certain regions by local effects such as shelving, funneling, reflection and resonance. India is surrounded by sea on three sides, its potential to harness tidal energy is significant. Energy can be extracted from tides in several ways. In one method, a reservoir is created behind a barrage and then tidal waters pass through turbines in the barrage to generate electricity. This method requires mean tidal differences greater than 4 meters and also favorable topographical conditions to keep installation costs low. One report claims the most attractive locations in India, for the barrage technology, are the Gulf of Khambhat and the Gulf of Kutch on India's west coast where the maximum tidal range is 11 m and 8 m with average tidal range of 6.77 m and 5.23 m respectively. The Ganges Delta in the Sunderbans, West Bengal is another possibility, although with significantly less recoverable energy; the maximum tidal range in Sunderbans is approximately 5 m with an average tidal range of 2.97 m. The report claims, barrage technology could harvest about 8 GW from tidal energy in India, mostly in Gujarat. The barrage approach has several disadvantages, one being the effect of any badly engineered barrage on the migratory fishes, marine ecosystem and aquatic life. Integrated barrage technology plants can be expensive to build. In December 2011, the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, Government of India and the Renewable Energy Development Agency of Govt. of West Bengal jointly approved and agreed to implement India's first 3.75 MW Durgaduani mini tidal power project. Indian government believes that tidal energy may be an attractive solution to meet the local energy demands of this remote delta [64] region. Another tidal wave technology harvests energy from surface waves or from pressure fluctuations below the sea surface. A report from the Ocean Engineering Centre, Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai estimates the annual wave energy potential along the Indian coast is between 5 MW to 15 MW per meter, suggesting a theoretical maximum potential for electricity harvesting from India's 7500 kilometer coast line may be about 40 GW. However, the realistic economical potential, the report [65] claims, is likely to be considerably less. A significant barrier to surface energy harvesting is the interference of its equipment to fishing and other sea bound vessels, particularly in unsettled weather.

India built its first seas surface energy harvesting technology demonstration plant in Vizhinjam, near Thiruruvananthpuram. The third approach to harvesting tidal energy consists of ocean thermal energy technology. This approach tries to harvest the solar energy trapped in ocean waters into usable energy. Oceans have a thermal gradient, the surface being much warmer than deeper levels of ocean. This thermal gradient may be harvested using modified Rankine cycle. India's National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) attempted this approach over the last 20 years, but without success. In 2003, with Saga University of Japan, NIOT attempted to build and deploy a 1 MW demonstration [66] plant. However, mechanical problems prevented success. After initial tests near Kerala, the unit was scheduled for redeployment and further development in the Lakshadweep Islands in 2005. The demonstration project's experience have limited follow-on efforts with ocean thermal energy technology in India. [edit]Problems

with India's power sector
[4][18]

India's electricity sector faces many issues. Some are: 

Government giveaways such as free electricity for farmers, partly to curry political favor, have depleted the cash reserves of state-run electricity-distribution system. This has financially crippled the distribution network, and its ability to pay for power to meet the demand. This situation has been worsened by government departments of India that do not pay their bills. Shortages of fuel: despite abundant reserves of coal, India is facing a severe shortage of coal. The country isn't producing enough to feed its power plants. Some plants do not have reserve coal supplies to last a day of operations. India's monopoly coal producer, state-controlled Coal India, is constrained by primitive mining techniques and is rife with theft and corruption; Coal India has consistently missed production targets and growth targets. Poor coal transport infrastructure has worsened these problems. To expand its coal production capacity, Coal India needs to mine new deposits. However, most of India's coal lies under protected forests or designated tribal lands. Any mining activity or land acquisition for infrastructure in these coal-rich areas of India, has been rife with political demonstrations, social activism and public interest litigations. The giant new offshore natural gas field has delivered less fuel than projected. India faces a shortage of natural gas. Hydroelectric power projects in India's mountainous north and northeast regions have been slowed down by ecological, environmental and rehabilitation controversies, coupled with public interest litigations. India's nuclear power generation potential has been stymied by political activism since the Fukushima disaster in Japan. Average transmission, distribution and consumer-level losses exceeding 30%. Over 300 million people in India have no access to electricity. Of those who do, almost all find electricity supply intermittent and unreliable. Lack of clean and reliable energy sources such as electricity is, in part, causing about 800 million people in India to continue using traditional biomass energy sources – namely fuelwood, [13] agricultural waste and livestock dung – for cooking and other domestic needs. Traditional fuel combustion is the primary source of indoor air pollution in India, causes between 300,000 to 400,000 deaths per year and other chronic health issues. India’s coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal power plants are inefficient and offer significant potential for greenhouse gas (CO2) emission reduction through better technology. Compared to the average emissions from coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal power



 

   



plants in European Union (EU-27) countries, India’s thermal power plants emit 50 to 120 percent [67] more CO2 per kWh produced. [edit]Resource

potential in electricity sector

According to Oil and Gas Journal, India had approximately 38 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural gas reserves as of January 2011, world’s 26th largest. United States Energy Information Administration estimates that India produced approximately 1.8 Tcf of natural gas in 2010, while consuming roughly 2.3 Tcf of natural gas. The electrical power and fertilizer sectors account for nearly three-quarters of natural gas consumption in India. Natural gas is expected to be an increasingly important component of energy consumption as the country pursues energy resource diversification [68][69] and overall energy security. Until 2008, the majority of India's natural gas production came from the Mumbai High complex in the northwest part of the country. Recent discoveries in the Bay of Bengal have shifted the center of gravity of Indian natural gas production. The country already produces some coalbed methane and has major potential to expand this source of cleaner fuel. According to a 2011 Oil and Gas Journal report, India is estimated to have between 600 to 2000 Tcf of shale gas resources (one of the world’s largest). Despite its natural resource potential, and an opportunity to create energy industry jobs, India has yet to hold a licensing round for its shale gas blocks. It is not even mentioned in India's central government energy infrastructure or electricity generation plan documents through 2025. The traditional natural gas reserves too have been very slow to develop in India because regulatory burdens and bureaucratic red tape severely [4][67][70] limit the country’s ability to harness its natural gas resources. [edit]Rural

electrification

Main article: Rural Electrification Corporation Limited India's Ministry of Power launched Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana as one of its flagship programme in March 2005 with the objective of electrifying over one lakh un-electrified villages and to provide free electricity connections to 2.34 crore rural households. This free electricity program promises energy access to India's rural areas, but is in part creating problems for India's electricity [4] sector. [edit]Human

resource development

Rapid growth of electricity sector in India demands that talent and trained personnel become available as India's new installed capacity adds new jobs. India has initiated the process to rapidly expand energy education in the country, to enable the existing educational institutions to introduce courses related to energy capacity addition, production, operations and maintenance, in their regular curriculum. This initiative includes conventional and renewal energy. A Ministry of Renewal and New Energy announcement claims State Renewable Energy Agencies are being supported to organize short-term training programmes for installation, operation and maintenance and repair of renewable energy systems in such places where intensive RE programme are being implemented. Renewable Energy Chairs have been established in IIT Roorkee and IIT [51] Kharagpur. Education and availability of skilled workers is expected to be a key challenge in India's effort to rapidly expand its electricity sector. [edit]Trading

India lit up at night. This media, courtesy of NASA, was taken by the crew of Expedition 29 on October 21, 2011. It starts over Turkmenistan, moving east. India begins past the long wavy solid orange line, marking the lights at the IndiaPakistan borderline. New Delhi, India's capital and the Kathiawar Peninsula are lit. So are Mumbai, Hyderabad, Chennai, Bangalore and many smaller cities in central and southern India, as this International Space Station's video shifts south-eastward through southern India, into the Bay of Bengal. Lightning storms are also present, represented by the flashing lights throughout the video. The pass ends over western Indonesia.

Multi Commodity Exchange has sought permission to offer electricity future markets in India. [edit]Regulation

[71]

and administration

The Ministry of Power is India's apex central government body regulating the electrical energy sector in India. This ministry was created on 2 July 1992. It is responsible for planning, policy formulation, processing of projects for investment decisions, monitoring project implementation, training and manpower development, and the administration and enactment of legislation in regard to thermal, hydro power generation, transmission and distribution. It is also responsible for the administration of India's Electricity Act (2003), the Energy Conservation Act (2001) and to undertake such amendments [72] to these Acts, as and when necessary, in conformity with the Indian government's policy objectives. Effective 28 May 2010, the Union Minister of Power is Sushil Kumar Shinde. Electricity is a concurrent subject at Entry 38 in List III of the seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India. In India's federal governance structure this means that both the central government and India's state governments are involved in establishing policy and laws for its electricity sector. This principle motivates central government of India and individual state governments to enter into memorandum of [73] understanding to help expedite projects and reform electricity sector in respective state. Government owned power companies India's Ministry of Power administers central government owned companies involved in the generation of electricity in India. These include National Thermal Power Corporation, Damodar Valley Corporation, National Hydroelectric Power Corporation and Nuclear Power Corporation of India. The Power Grid Corporation of India is also administered by the Ministry; it is responsible for the interstate transmission of electricity and the development of national grid. The Ministry works with various state governments in matters related to state government owned corporations in India's electricity sector. Examples of state corporations include Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Corporation Limited, Tamil Nadu Electricity Board, Maharashtra State Electricity Board, Kerala State Electricity Board, and Gujarat Urja Vikas Nigam Limited. Funding of power infrastructure

India's Ministry of Power administers Rural Electrification Corporation Limited and Power Finance Corporation Limited. These central government owned public sector enterprises provide loans and guarantees for public and private electricity sector infrastructure projects in India. [edit]See  

also

Fact sheet on India Energy policy of India

"Power Grid" redirects here. For the board game, see Power Grid (board game). For other uses, see Grid (disambiguation).

General layout of electricity networks. Voltages and depictions of electrical lines are typical for Germany and other European systems.

An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers. It consists of three main components: 1)generating plants that produce electricity from combustible fuels (coal, natural gas, biomass) or non-combustible fuels (wind, solar, nuclear,hydro power); 2) transmission lines that carry electricity from power plants to demand centers; and [1] 3) transformers that reduce voltage so distribution lines carry power for final delivery. In the power industry, electrical grid is a term used for an electricity network which includes the following three distinct operations: 1. Electricity generation - Generating plants are usually located near a source of water, and away from heavily populated areas. They are usually quite large in order to take advantage of the economies of scale. The electric power which is generated is stepped up to a higher voltage-at which it connects to the transmission network.

2. Electric power transmission - The transmission network will move (wheel) the power long distances-often across state lines, and sometimes across international boundaries until it reaches its wholesale customer (usually the company that owns the local distribution network). 3. Electricity distribution - Upon arrival at the substation, the power will be stepped down in voltage—from a transmission level voltage to a distribution level voltage. As it exits the substation, it enters the distribution wiring. Finally, upon arrival at the service location, the power is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to the required service voltage(s).
Contents
[hide]

 

1 Term 2 History

o 

2.1 Deregulation

3 Features

o o o      

3.1 Structure of distribution grids 3.2 Geography of transmission networks 3.3 Redundancy and defining "grid"

4 Aging Infrastructure 5 Modern trends 6 Future trends 7 Emerging smart grid 8 See also 9 References

[edit]Term The term grid usually refers to a network, and should not be taken to imply a particular physical layout or breadth. Grid may also be used to refer to an entire continent's electrical network, a regional transmission network or may be used to describe a subnetwork such as a local utility's transmission grid or distribution grid. [edit]History The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (September 2011) Since its inception in the Industrial Age, the electrical grid has evolved from an insular system that serviced a particular geographic area to a wider, expansive network that incorporated multiple areas. At one point, all energy was produced near the device or service requiring that energy. In the early 19th century, electricity was a novel invention that competed with steam, hydraulics, direct heatingand cooling, light, and most notably gas. During this period, gas production and delivery had become the first centralized element in the modern energy industry. It was first produced on customer’s premises but later evolved into large gasifiers that enjoyed economies of scale. Virtually every city in the U.S.

and Europe had town gas piped through their municipalities as it was a dominant form of household energy use. By the mid-19th century, electric arc lighting soon became advantageous compared to volatile gas lamps since gas lamps produced poor light, tremendous wasted heat which made rooms hot and smoky, and noxious elements in the form of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Modeling after the gas lighting industry, Thomas Edison invented the first electric utility system which supplied energy through virtual mains to light filtration as opposed to gas burners. With this, electric utilities also took advantage of economies of scale and moved to centralized power generation, distribution, [2] and system management. During the 20th century, institutional arrangement of electric utilities changed. At the beginning, electric utilities were isolated systems without connection to other utilities and serviced a specific service territory. In the 1920s, utilities joined together establishing a wider utility grid as jointoperations saw the benefits of sharing peak load coverage and backup power. Also, electric utilities were easily financed by Wall Street private investors who backed many of their ventures. In 1934, with the passage of the Public Utility Holding Company Act (USA), electric utilities were recognized aspublic goods of importance along with gas, water, and telephone companies and thereby were given outlined restrictions and regulatory oversight of their operations. This ushered in the Golden Age of Regulation for more than 60 years. However, with the successful deregulation of airlines and telecommunication industries in late 1970s, the Energy Policy Act (EPAct) of 1992 advocated deregulation of electric utilities by creating wholesale electric markets. It required transmission line [2][3] owners to allow electric generation companies open access to their network. [edit]Deregulation With deregulation, a more complex environment occurred as opposed to the traditional verticallyintegrated monopoly that oversees the entire grid’s operations. Newer participants entered the market including Independent Power Providers (IPPs) who decided and constructed the new facility; Transmission Companies (TRANSCOs) who constructed and owned the transmission equipment; retailers who signed up end-use customers, procured their electric service, and billed them; integrated energy companies (combined IPPs and retailers); and Independent System Operation (ISO)who managed the grid being indifferent to market outcomes. Also, day-to-day to long term operations altered. Infrastructure additions which were long-term planning now became an investment analysiswith IPPs that decided construction of a new power plant under economic considerations (i.e., taxes, labor and material costs) and ability to obtain financing. Load and supply management that fell under mid-term planning became risk management as private utilities had to manage a portfolio of end customers and assets with the company’s risk preference. Day-ahead scheduling and real time grid management in the short-term planning which involves forecasting demand and dispatch schedule became asset management as power plants and grid equipment were assets to be scheduled and dispatched. Here, the ISO sets dispatch schedule at the market clearing [3] price where the supply bids of generating units equilibriated with demand bids of retailers. Many engineers argue the unfortunate disadvantages that stem from deregulation. Where under regulated monopolies, long distance energy lines were used for emergencies as backup in case of generation outages, now, particularly in North America, the majority of domestic generation is sold over ever-increasing distances on the wholesale market before delivery to customers. Consequently, [3][4] the power grid witnesses fluctuating power flows that impact system stability and reliability. To reduce system failure, the power flow of a transmission line must operate below the transmission line’s capacity. Yet now, companies are continually operating near capacity. Additionally, as utilities exchange power to other utilities, power flows along all paths of connection. Therefore, any change in one point of generation and transmission affects the load on all other points. Oftentimes, this is unanticipated and uncontrolled. Usually, a longer line’s capacity is less than a shorter line’s capacity.

If not, power-supply instability occurs resulting in transmission lines that break or sag. Such phase and voltage fluctuations cause system interruptions as witnessed in the Northeast Blackout of 1965(which involved a circuit breaker to trip) and 2003 (which involved a sagging line on a tree that rippled in magnitude). Furthermore, IPPs add new generating units at random locations determined by economics that extend the distance to main consuming areas adversely affecting power supply. Also, utilities, because of competitive information needs, do not publicize needed data to predict and react to system stress such as with energy flows and blackout statistics. Overall, the economics of the electrical grid do not align sufficiently with the physics of the grid. Experts advocate for fundamental [3] changes to avoid serious consequences in the near future. [edit]Features [edit]Structure

of distribution grids

The following text needs to be harmonized with text in Electricity distribution.

The wide area synchronous grids of Europe. Most are members of the European Transmission System Operators association.

The Continental U.S. power transmission grid consists of about 300,000 km of lines operated by approximately 500 companies.

High-voltage direct currentinterconnections in western Europe - red are existing links, green are under construction, and blue are proposed.

The structure, or "topology" of a grid can vary considerably. The physical layout is often forced by what land is available and its geology. The logical topology can vary depending on the constraints of budget, requirements for system reliability, and the load and generation characteristics. The cheapest and simplest topology for a distribution or transmission grid is a radial structure. This is a tree shape where power from a large supply radiates out into progressively lower voltage lines until the destination homes and businesses are reached. Most transmission grids require the reliability that more complex mesh networks provide. If one were to imagine running redundant lines between limbs/branches of a tree that could be turned in case any particular limb of the tree were severed, then this image approximates how a mesh system operates. The expense of mesh topologies restrict their application to transmission and medium voltage distribution grids. Redundancy allows line failures to occur and power is simply rerouted while workmen repair the damaged and deactivated line. Other topologies used are looped systems found in Europe and tied ring networks. The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (February 2010) In cities and towns of North America, the grid tends to follow the classic radially fed design. A substation receives its power from the transmission network, the power is stepped down with a transformer and sent to a bus from which feeders fan out in all directions across the countryside. These feeders carry three-phase power, and tend to follow the major streets near the substation. As the distance from the substation grows, the fanout continues as smaller laterals spread out to cover areas missed by the feeders. This tree-like structure grows outward from the substation, but for reliability reasons, usually contains at least one unused backup connection to a nearby substation. This connection can be enabled in case of an emergency, so that a portion of a substation's service territory can be alternatively fed by another substation. [edit]Geography

of transmission networks

The following text needs to be harmonized with text in Electric power transmission. Transmission networks are more complex with redundant pathways. For example, see the map of the United States' (right) high-voltage transmission network. A wide area synchronous grid or "interconnection" is a group of distribution areas all operating with alternating current (AC) frequencies synchronized (so that peaks occur at the same time). This allows transmission of AC power throughout the area, connecting a large number of electricity generators and consumers and potentially enabling more efficient electricity markets and redundant generation. Interconnection maps are shown of North America (right) and Europe (below left). Electricity generation and consumption must be balanced across the entire grid, because energy is consumed almost immediately after it is produced. A large failure in one part of the grid - unless quickly compensated for - can cause current to re-route itself to flow from the remaining generators to consumers over transmission lines of insufficient capacity, causing further failures. One downside to a widely connected grid is thus the possibility of cascading failure and widespread power outage. A central authority is usually designated to facilitate communication and develop protocols to maintain a stable grid. For example, the North American Electric Reliability Corporation gained binding powers in the United States in 2006, and has advisory powers in the applicable parts of Canada and Mexico.

The U.S. government has also designated National Interest Electric Transmission Corridors, where it believes transmission bottlenecks have developed. Some areas, for example rural communities in Alaska, do not operate on a large grid, relying instead [5] on local diesel generators. High-voltage direct current lines or variable frequency transformers can be used to connect two alternating current interconnection networks which are not synchronized with each other. This provides the benefit of interconnection without the need to synchronize an even wider area. For example, compare the wide area synchronous grid map of Europe (above left) with the map of HVDC lines (below right). [edit]Redundancy

and defining "grid"

A town is only said to have achieved grid connection when it is connected to several redundant sources, generally involving long-distance transmission. This redundancy is limited. Existing national or regional grids simply provide the interconnection of facilities to utilize whatever redundancy is available. The exact stage of development at which the supply structure becomes a grid is arbitrary. Similarly, the term national grid is something of an anachronism in many parts of the world, as transmission cables now frequently cross national boundaries. The terms distribution grid for local connections and transmission grid for long-distance transmissions are therefore preferred, but national grid is often still used for the overall structure. [edit]Aging

Infrastructure

Despite the novel institutional arrangements and network designs of the electrical grid, its power delivery infrastructures suffer aging across the developed world. Four contributing factors to the current state of the electric grid and its consequences include: 1. Aging power equipment – older equipment have higher failure rates, leading to customer interruption rates affecting the economy and society; also, older assets and facilities lead to higher inspection maintenance costs and further repair/restoration costs. 2. Obsolete system layout – older areas require serious additional substation sites and rights-ofway that cannot be obtained in current area and are forced to use existing, insufficient facilities. 3. Outdated engineering – traditional tools for power delivery planning and engineering are ineffective in addressing current problems of aged equipment, obsolete system layouts, and modern deregulated loading levels 4. Old cultural value – planning, engineering, operating of system using concepts and procedures that worked in vertically integrated industry exacerbate the problem under a [6] deregulated industry [edit]Modern

trends

As the 21st century progresses, the electric utility industry seeks to take advantage of novel approaches to meet growing energy demand. Utilities are under pressure to evolve their classic topologies to accommodate distributed generation. As generation becomes more common from rooftop solar and wind generators, the differences between distribution and transmission grids will continue to blur. Also, demand response is a grid management technique where retail or wholesale customers are requested either electronically or manually to reduce their load. Currently, transmission grid operators use demand response to request load reduction from major energy users such as [7] industrial plants.

With everything interconnected, and open competition occurring in a free market economy, it starts to make sense to allow and even encourage distributed generation (DG). Smaller generators, usually not owned by the utility, can be brought on-line to help supply the need for power. The smaller generation facility might be a home-owner with excess power from their solar panel or wind turbine. It might be a small office with a diesel generator. These resources can be brought on-line either at the utility's behest, or by owner of the generation in an effort to sell electricity. Many small generators are allowed to sell electricity back to the grid for the same price they would pay to buy it. Furthermore, numerous efforts are underway to develop a "smart grid". In the U.S., the Energy Policy Act of 2005 and Title XIII of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 are providing funding to encourage smart grid development. The hope is to enable utilities to better predict their needs, and in some cases involve consumers in some form of time-of-use based tariff. Funds have also been [8][9] allocated to develop more robust energy control technologies. Decentralization of the power transmission distribution system is vital to the success and reliability of this system. Currently the system is reliant upon relatively few generation stations. This makes current systems susceptible to impact from failures not within said area. Micro grids would have local power generation, and allow smaller grid areas to be separated from the rest of the grid if a failure were to occur. Furthermore, micro grid systems could help power each other if needed. Generation within a micro grid could be a downsized industrial generator or several smaller systems such as photo-voltaic systems, or wind generation. When combined with Smart Grid technology, electricity could be better controlled and distributed, and more efficient. Conversely, various planned and proposed systems to dramatically increase transmission capacity are known as super, or mega grids. The promised benefits include enabling the renewable energy industry to sell electricity to distant markets, the ability to increase usage of intermittent energy sources by balancing them across vast geological regions, and the removal of congestion that prevents electricity markets from flourishing. Local opposition to siting new lines and the significant cost of these projects are major obstacles to super grids. [edit]Future

trends

As deregulation continues further, utilities are driven to sell their assets as the energy market follows in line with the gas market in use of the futures and spot markets and other financial arrangements. Even globalization with foreign purchases are taking place. Recently, U.K’s National Grid, the largest private electric utility in the world, bought New England’s electric system for $3.2 billion. See the SEC filing dated March 15, 2000 Here Also, Scottish Power purchased Pacific Energy for $12.8 [citation needed] billion. Domestically, local electric and gas firms begin to merge operations as they see advantage of joint affiliation especially with the reduced cost of joint-metering. Technological advances will take place in the competitive wholesale electric markets such examples already being utilized include fuel cells used in space flight, aeroderivative gas turbines used in jet aircrafts, solar engineering and photovoltaic systems, off-shore wind farms, and the communication advances spawned by the digital world particularly with microprocessing which aids in monitoring and [2] dispatching. Electricity will continue to see a growing demand in the future years as the Information Revolution is highly reliant on it, including emerging new electricity-exclusive technologies, developments in space [2] conditioning, industrial process, and transportation (i.e., hybrid vehicles, locomotives). [edit]Emerging

smart grid

As mentioned above, the electrical grid is expected to evolve to a new grid paradigm--smart grid, an enhancement of the 20th century electrical grid. The traditional electrical grids are generally used to carry power from a few central generators to a large number of users or customers. In contrast, the

new emerging smart grid uses two-way flows of electricity and information to create an automated and distributed advanced energy delivery network. Many research projects have been conducted to explore the concept of smart grid. According to a [10] newest survey on smart grid, the research is mainly focused on three systems in smart grid- the infrastructure system, the management system, and the protection system. The infrastructure system is the energy, information, and communication infrastructure underlying of the smart grid that supports 1) advanced electricity generation, delivery, and consumption; 2) advanced information metering, monitoring, and management; and 3) advanced communication technologies. In the transition from the conventional power grid to smart grid, we will replace a physical infrastructure with a digital one. The needs and changes present the power industry with one of the biggest challenges it has ever faced. The management system is the subsystem in smart grid that provides advanced management and control services. Most of the existing works aim to improve energy efficiency, demand profile, utility, cost, and emission, based on the infrastructure by using optimization, machine learning, and game theory. Within the advanced infrastructure framework of smart grid, more and more new management services and applications are expected to emerge and eventually revolutionize consumers' daily lives. The protection system is the subsystem in smart grid that provides advanced grid reliability analysis, failure protection, and security and privacy protection services. We must note that the advanced infrastructure used in smart grid on one hand empowers us to realize more powerful mechanisms to defend against attacks and handle failures, but on the other hand, opens up many new vulnerabilities. For example, NIST pointed out that the major benefit provided by smart grid, i.e. the ability to get richer data to and from customer smart meters and other electric devices, is also its Achilles' heel from a privacy viewpoint. The obvious privacy concern is that the energy use information stored at the meter acts as an information rich side channel. This information can be mined and retrieved by interested parites to reveal personal information such as individual's habits, behaviors, activities, and even beliefs.

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