Software Quality Management

QUALITY:  Quality is excellence that is better than a minimum standard.

It is conformance to standards and ‘fitness of purpose’  ISO 9000:2000 definition of quality- It is the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils requirements. Quality is ‗ fitness for use ‗ of the product  Quality is defined as the fitness for use or conformance to requirement. Quality is the ratio of performance to expectations. Quality = performance / Expectations  Conformance to specifications: measures how well the product or service meets the targets and tolerances determined by its designers  Fitness for use: A definition of quality that evaluates how well the product performs for its intended.  Value for price paid is a definition of quality that consumers often use for product or service usefulness. This is the only definition that combines economics with consumer criteria; it assumes that the definition of quality is price sensitive.  Support services provided are often how the quality of a product or service is judged. Quality does not apply only to the product or service itself; it also applies to the people, processes, and organizational environment associated with it. VIEWS OF QUALITY: The producer’s view of quality has these four characteristics:  Doing the right thing  Doing it the right way  Doing it right the first time  Doing it on time without exceeding cost

THE CUSTOMER’S VIEW OF QUALITY HAS THESE CHARACTERISTICS:  Receiving the right product for their use  Being satisfied that their needs have been met  Meeting their expectations  Being treated with integrity, courtesy and respect In addition to the producer and customer views of quality, the organizational infrastructure also includes a provider and a supplier view. These views are as follows: Provider view – This is the perspective of the organization that delivers the products and services to the customer. Supplier view – This is the perspective of the organization (that may be external to the producer‘s company, such as an independent vendor) that provides either the producer and/or the provider with products and services needed to meet the requirements of the customer.

OR Views of Quality: Quality is a multidimensional construct. It may therefore be considered using a polyhedron metaphor. Within this metaphor, a three-dimensional solid represents quality. Each face represents a different aspect of quality such as correctness, reliability, and efficiency. It has been classified according to a number of ‗views‘ or perspective. These views are often diverse and may conflict with each other. Each view comes from a particular context. The

views are generally presented in adversarial pairs such as versus designers. The software project has the following roles 1. Project manager 2. Business analyst 3. Implementation programmer 4. Quality auditor 5. End user 6. Line manager 7. Project sponsor VIEWS OF QUALITY: 1. The transcendent view  Innate excellence  Classical definition 2. The product-based view  Higher the quality higher the cost  Greater functionality  Greater care in development 3. The user-based view  Fitness for purpose  Very hard to quantify 4. The manufacturing view  Measures quality in terms of conformance  Zero defects 5. The value-based view  Provides the data with what the customer requires at a price.

VIEWS OF QUALITY USER WHAT I WANT FAST RESPONSE CONTROL INFORMATION EASY TO USE HELP MENUS AVAILABLE AS REQUIRED EXCEPTION DATA REACTS TO BUSINESS CHANGE INPUT DATA ONCE HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF QUALITY: To compare quality in different situations, both qualitatively and quantitatively, it is necessary to establish a model of quality. Many model suggested for quality. Most are hierarchical in nature. A quantitative assessment is generally made, along with a more quantified assessment. The Two principal models of this type, one by Boehm (1978) and another one by McCall in (1977). A hierarchical model of software quality is based upon a set of quality criteria, each of which has a set of measures or metrics associated with it. DESIGNER GOOD SPECIFICATION TECHNICALLY CORRECT FITS WITHIN SYSTEMS STRUCTURE EASY TO MAINTAIN DIFFICULT FOR USER TO MANAGE FAST DEVELOPMENT LOW MAINTENANCE WELL DOCUMENTS

THE HIERARCHICAL MODELS OF MCCALL AND BOEHM This model was first proposed by McCall in 1977. It was later adapted and revised as the MQ model (Watts, 1987). The model is aimed at system developers, to be used during the development process. However, in an early attempt to bridge the gap between users and developers, the criteria were chosen in an attempt to reflect users‘ view as well as developers‘ priorities. With the perspective of hindsight, the criteria appear to be technically oriented, but they are described by a series of questions which define them in terms acceptable to nonspecialist managers. The model, illustrated in Figure 2.4, identifies three areas of software work: product

operation, product revision and product transition. These are summarized in Table 2.2, and the criteria are defined in Table 2.3. Product operation Requires that it can be learned easily, operated efficiently and that the results are those required by the user. Is concerned with error correction and adaptation of the system. This is important because it is generally considered to be the most costly part of software development. May not be so important in all applications. However, the move towards distributed processing and the rapid rate of change in hardware is likely to increase its importance.

Product revision

Product transition

MCCALL’S CRITERIA OF QUALITY DERIVED Utility is the ease of use of the software. Integrity is the protection of the program from unauthorized access. Efficiency is concerned with the use of resources, e.g. processor time, storage. It falls into two categories: execution efficiency and storage efficiency. Correctness is the extent to which a program fulfills its specification. Reliability is its ability not to fail.

Maintainability is the effort required to locate and fix a fault in the program within its operating environment. Flexibility is the ease of making changes required by changes in the operating environment. Testability is the ease of testing the program, to ensure that it is error-free and meets its specification. Portability is the effort required to transfer a program from one environment to another. Reusability is the ease of reusing software in a different context. Interoperability is the effort required to complete the system to another system.

McCall‘s model forms the basis for much quality work even today. For example, the MQ model published by Watts (1987) is heavily based upon the McCall model. This study carried out by the National Computer Centre (NCC). Product Operation:  Here factors are related to the Operational performance, convenience, ease of usage and correctness. Product Revision:  These factors pertain to the Testing and Maintainability of Software. It gives idea about maintenance, flexibility and Testing effort Product Transition:

 To transfer a product from one platform to another platform or from one technology to another technology. THE BOEHM MODEL (1978) Boehm‘s model (1978) was defined to provide a set of ‗well-defined, well-differentiated characteristics of software quality‘. The model is hierarchical in nature but the hierarchy is extended, so that quality criteria are subdivided. The first division is made according to the uses made of the system. These are classed as ‗general‘ or ‗as is‘ utility, where the ‗as is‘ utilities are a subtype of the general utilities, roughly equating to the product operation criteria of McCall‘s model. There are two levels of actual quality criteria, the intermediate level being further split into primitive characteristics, which are amenable to measurement.

Portability As it Utility

Device Independence Completeness

Reliability
Efficiency

Accuracy Consistency

General Utility General Utility

Human Engg. Testability Understandability

Device Efficiency

Understanda bility

Accessibility

Communicativeness Modifiability Primary Uses Intermediate Constructs Primitive Constructs Primitive Legibility

MEASURING QUALITY Quality measurement, where it is considered at all, is usually expressed in terms of metrics. Software metric is a measurable property which is an indicator of one or more of the quality criteria that we are seeking to measure. As such, there are a number of conditions that a quality metric must meet. It must:  Be clearly linked to the quality criterion that it seeks to measure  Be sensitive to the different degrees of the criterion  Provide objective determination of the criterion that can be mapped onto a suitable scale.  Metrics are not same as direct measures. 1. Measurement techniques applied to software are more akin to the social sciences, where properties are similarly complex and ambiguous. 2. A typically measurable property on which a metric may be based is structured ness. 3. The criteria of quality related to product revision, maintainability, adaptability and reusability are all related to structured ness of the source code. 4. Well-structured code will be easier to maintain or adapt than so-called ― spaghetti code‖

5. Structured ness as it simplest may be calculated in terms of the average length of code modules within the programs. Structuredness α modularity lines of code α lines of code ----------------------Number of modules SOFTWARE METRICS:  "The continuous application of measurement-based techniques to the software development process and its products to supply meaningful and timely management information, together with the use of those techniques to improve that process and its products."  Software metric is a measure of some property of a piece of software or its specifications. Since quantitative measurements are essential in all sciences, there is a continuous effort by computer science practitioners and theoreticians to bring similar approaches to software development.  The goal is obtaining objective, reproducible and quantifiable measurements, which may have numerous valuable applications in schedule and budget planning, cost estimation, quality assurance testing, software debugging, software performance optimization, and optimal personnel task assignments.  Metrics are classified into two types according to whether they are predictive or descriptive.  A predictive metric is used to make predictions about the software later in the lifecycle. Structured ness is used to predict the maintainability of the software product in use.  A descriptive metric describes the state of the software at the time of measurement.  Different authors have taken different approaches to metrics.  Structured ness is measured by questions such as:

 Have the rules for transfer of control between modules been followed?(y/n)  Are modules limited in size?(y/n)  Do all modules have only one exit point?(y/n)  Do all modules have only one entry point?(y/n)A well-structured program will produce positive answers to such questions. WHAT MAKES A GOOD METRIC? SEVEN CRITERIA FOR A GOOD METRIC, AFTER WATTS (1987)  OBJECTIVITY The results should be free from subjective influences. It must not matter who the measurer is.  RELIABILITY The results should be precise and repeatable.  VALIDITY The metric must measure the correct characteristic.  STANDARDIZATION The metric must be unambiguous and allow for comparison.  COMPARABILITY The metric must be comparable with other measures of the same Criterion.  ECONOMY The simpler and therefore, the cheaper the measure is to use, the Better.  USEFULNESS The measure must address a need, not simply measure a property for its own sake.  A further important feature is CONSISTENCY.  AUTOMATION is also desirable.

AN OVERALL MEASURE OF QUALITY Much of the work in this area has been concerned with simple reduction of a set of scores to a single ‗figure-of-merit‘. Five such methods are detailed by Watts (1987) as part of the MQ approach. 1. Simple scoring In this method, each criterion is allocated a score. The overall quality is given by the mean of the individual scores. 2. Weighted scoring This scheme allows the user to weight each criterion according to how important they consider them to be. Each criterion is evaluated to produce a score between 0 and 1. Each score is weighted before summation and the resulting figure reflects the relative importance if the different factors. 3. Phased weighting factor method This is an extension of weighted scoring. A weighting is assigned to a group characteristics before each individual weighting is considered. 4. The Kepner-Tregoe method (1981) The criteria are divided into ‗essential‘ and ‗desirable‘. A minimum value is specified for each essential criterion and any software failing to reach these scores is designated unsuitable. ‗Suitable‘ software is then judged by use of the weighting factor method. 5. The Cologne combination method (Schmitz, 1975) This method is designed with comparative evaluation is mind. Using the chosen criteria, each product is ranked in order.

POLARITY PROFILING:  In this scheme, quality is represented by series of ranges from -3 to +3.  The required quality may be represented and compared to the actual quality achieved.  It is a common problem amongst software developers that they focus upon particular aspects of quality.  When a user complains of poor quality, they tend to improve the product further in these areas.  Often the product has already exceeded the user‘s expectations in these areas, and a further improvement does not improve their overall view of the quality of the product.  This effort wasted.  Worse, the user‘s needs still have not been met in other critical areas, leading to tensions between the developers and users.  Two different outcomes result.  In the first case, usability is improved. Unfortunately, reliability and efficiency are still not up to the required standard, and usability was already considered satisfactory.  In the second case, improvements in reliability and efficiency are traded for a reduction in adaptability and maintainability, perhaps by ‗tweaking‘ the code.  The consequence is that all criteria are now at the required level, resulting in an overall perception of quality and satisfied users. CODE REVIEW  The practice of identifying and verifying the choice of algorithms, coding styles and compliance with the software design.  Code review is a phase in the software development process in which the authors of code, peer reviewers, and perhaps quality assurance (QA) testers get together to review code.

 Finding and correcting errors at this stage is relatively inexpensive and tends to reduce the more expensive process of handling, locating, and fixing bugs during later stages of development or after programs are delivered to users. Reviewers read the code line by line to check for:  Flaws or potential flaws  Consistency with the overall program design  The quality of comments  Adherence to coding standards.  Code review is systematic examination (often known as peer review) of computer source code. It is intended to find and fix mistakes overlooked in the initial development phase, improving both the overall quality of software and the developers' skills.  Reviews are done in various forms such as pair programming, informal walkthroughs, and formal inspections.  Code reviews can often find and remove common vulnerabilities such as format string exploits, race conditions, memory leaks and buffer overflows, thereby improving software security.  Online software repositories based on Subversion (with Red mine or Trac), Mercurial, Git or others allow groups of individuals to collaboratively review code. Additionally, specific tools for collaborative code review can facilitate the code review process. Code review practices fall into three main categories:  Pair programming,  Formal code review and  Light weight code review.  Formal code review, such as a Fagan inspection, involves a careful and detailed process with multiple participants and multiple phases.

 Formal code reviews are the traditional method of review, in which software developers attend a series of meetings and review code line by line, usually using printed copies of the material.  Formal inspections are extremely thorough and have been proven effective at finding defects in the code under review.  Lightweight code review typically requires less overhead than formal code inspections, though it can be equally effective when done properly. Lightweight reviews are often conducted as part of the normal development process: Over-the-shoulder – One developer looks over the author's shoulder as the latter walks through the code. Email pass-around – Source code management system emails code to reviewers automatically after checking is made. Pair Programming – Two authors develop code together at the same workstation; such is common in Extreme Programming. Tool-assisted code review – Authors and reviewers use specialized tools designed for peer code review. Some of these may also be labelled a "Walkthrough" (informal) or "Critique" (fast and informal). SOFTWARE QUALITY CRITERIA            CORRECTNESS EFFICIENCY FLEXIBILITY ROBUSTNESS INTEROPERABILITY MAINTAINABILITY PERFORMANCE PORTABILITY RELIABILITY REUSABILITY TESTABILITY

 USABILITY  AVAILABILITY  UNDERSTAND ABILITY SOFTWARE QUALITY ASSURANCE  Set of systematic activities providing evidence of the ability of the software process to produce a software product that is fit to use.  Monitoring processes and products throughout the software development lifecycle to ensure the quality of the delivered product(s)  Monitoring the processes  Provides management with objective feedback regarding process compliance to approved plans, procedures, standards, and analyses  Monitoring the products  Focus on the quality of product within each phase of the SDLC  e.g., requirements, test plan, architecture, etc.  Objective: identify and remove defects throughout the lifecycle, as early as possible ACTIVITIES OF SQA GROUP: 1. Prepare a QA plan for Project. This plan will include evaluation to be performed.  Review, Inspection and audit  Standards applicable for Project  Procedure for error reporting and Training.  Documents to prepare by SQA group  Amount of Feedback recorded for SQA group 2. SQA group participates in development of S/w process description and reviews it for employer with the Organization Policy and Preparation of SOW (Statement of Work) 3. QA reviews Software Engg. Activities to verify the compliances. This group identifies the documents and track deviation from the process and verify that correction has been made.

4. Audit, Software and verify compliances. 5. Ensures that deviation in software work and work products are documented and handled according to laid down procedure. 6. Recording of any non-compliance and report to Senior Management. QUALITY ASSURANCE AND STANDARDS  Standards are the key to effective quality management.  They may be international, national and organizational or project standards.  Product standards define characteristics that all components should exhibit e.g. a common programming style.  Process standards define how the software process should be enacted. IMPORTANCE OF STANDARDS  Encapsulation of best practice- avoids repetition of past mistakes.  They are a framework for quality assurance processes - they involve checking compliance to standards.  They provide continuity - new staff can understand the organisation by understanding the standards that are used. PRODUCT AND PROCESS STANDARDS PRODUCT STANDARDS Design review form Requirements document structure Method header format Java programming style Project plan format Change request form PROCESS STANDARDS Design review conduct Submission of documents to cm Version release process Project plan approval process Change control process Test recording process

QUALITY ASSURANCE STANDARDS  Differing views of quality standards: taking a systems view (that good management systems yield high quality); and taking an analytical view (that good measurement frameworks yield high quality). Examples:  Quality management: ISO 9000-3 Quality Management and Quality Assurance Standards - Part 3: Guidelines for the application of 9001 to the development, supply, installation and maintenance of computer software  Quality measurement: IEEE Std. 1061-1992 Standard for Software Quality Metrics Methodology CMM (CAPABILITY MATURITY MODEL)  CMM is one of the most renowned models of software maturity. Its latest update is known as CMMI (Capability Maturity Model Integration), developed by SEI. It consists of 5 levels of process maturity that determine effectiveness of software quality. The focus of CMMI model is to organize processes of large enterprises, though it fits to any organization starting from a start-up level and mature it every step of the way till it becomes a large entity. Below is a bit of brief about the levels of CMMI.  A capability level is a thoroughly defined evolutionary platform, describing organization‘s capability relative to a process area. A capability level consists of related specific and generic practices for a process area that can improve organization‘s processes associated with that process area. Each level is a layer in the foundation for continuous process improvement. Level 0: Incomplete  An ―incomplete process‖ is a process that is missed or partially performed. Few of the targets are missed or not satisfied in totality. Leads to chaotic processes requiring heroic efforts required by individuals to successfully complete projects.

Level 1: Performed  Level 1 process is a process that is expected to perform all of generic practices. Performance charts may not be coherent or steady and may not meet specific objectives such as quality and schedule etc but work will be completed. This level is characterized as start of process improvement. Level 2: Managed  A managed process is planned with software project tracking; requirements management, realistic planning, and configuration management processes are in place. As the title of this level indicates, you are actively monitoring way the processes are handled through different metrics. Level 3: Defined  Level 3 processes are more defined in nature. From a defined process it is meant that standard software development and maintenance processes are integrated throughout the organization and training programs are used to ensure understanding and compliance. Level 4: Quantitatively Managed  Level 4 process is characterized as quantitatively managed, a defined process that is controlled using statistical and metrics are used to track productivity, processes, and products. Project performance is predictable and quality is consistently high. Level 5: Optimizing  An optimizing process is focused on continuous process improvement adjusting the impact of new processes and technologies can be predicted and effectively implemented when required. Both the defined processes and the organization‘s set of standard processes are targets of improvement activities.

IMPLICATIONS OF MATURITY

SQA RESPONSIBILITIES FOR A PROJECT 1. Review of documents developed by development team. 2. Track the compliance with standards. 3. Development of QA Plan (test plan + test cases). 4. Implementation of test cases (Black Box or Glass Box Testing). 5. Management of bug repository.
6. Participating in code and design reviews.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD SQA ENGINEER: 1. Experience & Education as a programmer or analyst. 2. A thick skin. 3. Good sense of humour. 4. Tolerance for chaos. 5. Firmness. 6. Evidence oriented. 7. Logical. 8. Honest. 9. Self-sufficient QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM:  A system by which an organization aims to reduce and eventually eliminate nonconformance to specifications, standards, and customer expectations in the most cost effective and efficient manner.  A Quality Management System can be seen as a complex system consisting of all the parts and components of an organisation dealing with the quality of processes and products. A QMS can be defined as the managing structure, responsibilities, procedures, processes, and management resources to implement the principles and action lines needed to achieve the quality objectives of an organisation.  ―Management system to direct and control an organization with regard to quality‖

 A quality management system (QMS) can be expressed as the organizational structure, procedures, processes and resources needed to implement quality management.  A quality management system is a set of interrelated or interacting elements that organizations use to direct and control how quality policies are implemented and quality objectives are achieved.  A process-based QMS uses a process approach to manage and control how its quality policy is implemented and quality objectives are achieved. A process-based QMS is a network of many interrelated and interconnected processes (elements).  Each process uses resources to transform inputs into outputs. Since the output of one process becomes the input of another process, processes interact and are interrelated by means of such input-output relationships. These process interactions create a single process-based QMS. THE OBJECTIVES ARE:  Customer focus – actively reviewing customer needs through dialogue; making customers aware of new products and services; ensuring the organisation is aware of customer needs; corrective action when the service fails to meet expectations.  Continual improvement – of products, services, working environment, staff development, and management and production processes.  Reduced waste – a reduction in wasted products, repeated or corrective work and unnecessary processes. THE MAIN COMPONENTS ARE:  The active and positive commitment of senior management.  Good two-way communication throughout the organisation that encourages a culture of initiative and improvement.

 Simple, efficient monitoring systems that enable all levels of management to identify bottlenecks and waste.  Staff development that provides the correct level of competence for each job, and provides staff with opportunities to progress.  Documentation that supports the above. THE BENEFITS OF A QMS: 1. improved customer satisfaction; 2. improved quality of products and services; 3. workers‘ satisfaction and more commitment to the organisation; 4. better management and a more effective organisation; 5. improve relations with suppliers; 6. improved promotion of corporate image THREE GROUPS OF GURUS

W. EDWARDS DEMING AND HIS PHYLOSOPHY W. Edwards Deming is best known for his management philosophy establishing quality, productivity, and competitive position. The most important Deming works are: Dr Shewhart cycle development, or Deming cycle, The Fourteen Points, The Seven Deadly Diseases.

DEMINGS CYCLE

 Deming learned the basic concepts of Statistical Quality Control.  Deming encouraged the Japanese to adopt a systematic approach to problem solving―Deming Cycle‖  Deming cycle- ―Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle‖  However Deming referred to it as ―Shewhart Cycle‖.  ―Check‖ was changed with ―study‖  His greatest contribution to the Japanese is the message regarding a typical business system:  ―The consumers are the most important part of a production line‖  ―Meeting and exceeding the customer‘s requirements is the task that evryone within an organisation needs to accomplish‖  ―The management system has to enable everyone to be responsible for the quality of his output to his internal customers‖  Deming‘s thinking can be expressed as ―Management by Positive Co-operation‖.  He talks about a ―new climate‖ which consists of three elements:  Joy in work  Innovation

 Co-operation  He referred to new climate as ―WIN-WIN‖ DEMING’S 14 POINTS  Deming produced his 14 points for management, in order to help people understand and implement the necessary transformation. They are applied to both small and large organisations, and to service industries as well as to manufacturing. DEMINGS 14 PRINCIPLES: 1. Create consistency of purpose towards the improvement of products and service. 2. Learn the new philosophy. 3. Cease dependence on inspection of the product to achieve quality. But require statistical evidence of process control along with incoming critical parts. 4. Buy materials only if the supplier has a quality process. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of the price tag alone. 5. Use statistical methods to find trouble spots and constantly improve the system. 6. Institute modern aids to training on the job. 7. Institute modern methods of supervision. 8. Drive out fear.

9. Break down barriers between departments. 10. Eliminate numerical goals. 11. Review work standards to account for quality. 12. Remove barriers that rob people of their pride of workmanship. 13. Institute a vigorous program for training people in new skills. 14. Create a structure in top management that will push the above 13 points every day.

PHILIP CROSBY:  Crosby began his career as an assembly line inspector and tester, he progressed to corporate vice president and then in 1979 went on to become chairman and CEO of the management consulting firm which he founded, Philip Crosby Associates Inc. This consulting group provided educational courses in quality management both at their headquarters in Winter Park, Florida and at eight other locations across the globe. FOUR MAJOR PRINCIPLES: 1. QUALITY IS CONFORMANCE TO REQUIREMENTS 2. THE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IS PREVENTION 3. THE PERFORMANCE STANDARD IS ZERO DEFECTS 4. THE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM IS THE COST OF QUALITY  The principles Crosby conveys on zero defects are not unlike the focus of the modern Six Sigma movement. Crosby states that zero defects is not something that originates from the assembly line, but is more of an ethos that management should adopt and promote, setting an atmosphere and tone for employees to follow.  Before his death in 2001 Crosby published a further 12 books, all of which became international best-sellers and have been translated into 15 languages, ensuring that his legacy will live on inspiring better quality within thousands of organizations across the globe.  Crosby's name is best known in relations to the concepts of Do It Right First Time (DRIFT) and Zero Defects. He considers traditional quality control, acceptable quality limits and waivers of sub-standard products to represent failure rather than assurance of success.

 Crosby therefore defines quality as conformance to the requirements which the company itself has established for its products based directly on its customers' needs.  He believes that since most companies have organisations and systems that allow deviation from what is really required, manufacturing companies spend around 20% of their revenues doing things wrong and doing them over again. According to Crosby this can be 35% of operating expenses for service companies.  In the Crosby approach the Quality Improvement message is spread by creating a core of quality specialists within the company. There is strong emphasis on the top-down approach, since he believes that senior management is entirely responsible for quality.

 The ultimate goal is to train all the staff and give them the tools for quality improvement, to apply the basic precept of Prevention Management in every area.  This is aided by viewing all work as a process or series of actions conducted to produce a desired result.  A process model can be used to ensure that clear requirements have been defined and understood by both the supplier and the customer.  He also views quality improvement as an on-going process since the work 'programme' implies a temporary situation. OR  Phillip Crosby philosophy for quality assurance is ―Zero Defect‖ or ―Right the First Time‖, meaning train properly and thoroughly to get it done right the first time. He believes it is cheaper the do it right the first time instead patching then coming back to the situation. Crosby also believed that managers need to lead by example set standards the all employees can reach as well as the needs of the business.

CROSBY HAS 14 STEPS TO QUALITY IMPROVEMENT: 1. Management is committed to quality 2. Create quality improvement teams – with (senior) representatives from all departments. 3. Measure processes to determine current and potential quality issues. 4. Calculate the cost of (poor) quality 5. Raise quality awareness of all employees 6. Take action to correct quality issues 7. Monitor progress of quality improvement – establish a zero defects committee. 8. Train supervisors in quality improvement 9. Hold ―zero defects‖ days 10. Encourage employees to create their own quality improvement goals 11. Encourage employee communication with management about obstacles to quality 12. Recognize participants‘ effort 13. Create quality councils 14. Do it all over again – quality improvement does not end  These steps would allow employer and employees to follow a ―game plane‖ to continuous quality assurance. Quality assurance teams should be put in place with senior members to insure all steps are taken the quality assurance. This team will also train the employees on how to do it right the first time. This management philosophy is a continuous process of providing quality customer service.  This philosophy is one I believe in personally. It is so much easier to do thing right the first time. In my profession I want all information to make the right decisions so it will

only have to be done once or right. Steps on how to do my job or provide good customer service will always be helpful. JOSEPH JURAN  Juran expressed his approach to quality in the form of ―Quality Trilogy‖.  These three aspects of company-wide strategic quality planning are further broken down in Juran‘s ―Quality Planning Road Map‖, into following key elements: 1. QUALITY PLANNING The structured process for designing products and services that meet new break through goals and ensure that customer needs are met.  Identify who are the customers  Determine the needs of those customers  Translate those needs into our language  Develop a product that can respond to those needs.  Optimise the product features so as to meet our needs and customer needs. STEPS IN THE QUALITY PLANNING PROCESS: 1. Establish the project 2. Identify the customers 3. Discover the customer needs 4. Develop the product 5. Develop the process 6. Develop the controls and transfer to operations 2. QUALITY CONTROL  A universal managerial process for conducting operations so as to provide stability--to prevent adverse change and to ―maintain the status quo‖  Quality control can also be described as ―a process for meeting the established goals by evaluating and comparing actual performance and planned performance, and taking action on the difference‖

 Develop a process which is able to produce the product.  Optimise the process. THE QUALITY CONTROL PROCESS: 1. Choose control subject 2. Establish Measurement 3. Establish standards of Performance 4. Measure Actual Performance 5. Compare to Standards (interpret the difference) 6. Take action on the difference 3. QUALITY IMPROVEMENT:  The process for creating breakthrough levels of performance by eliminating wastes and defects to reduce the cost of poor quality  Prove that the process can produce the product under operating conditions.  Transfer the process to operations. 1. Prove the need for improvement 2. Identify the improvement projects 3. Establish project improvement teams 4. Provide the project teams with resources, training, and motivation to:  diagnose the causes  stimulate the remedies  establish controls to hold the gains

THE KEY STEPS IN IMPLEMENTING COMPANY-WIDE STRATEGIC GOALS ARE:  Identify customers and their needs – both internal and external – and work to meet those needs  Create measures of quality, establish optimal quality goals and organise to meet them.  Create processes capable of meeting quality goals in ―real‖ operating conditions. \

YEAR

JURAN’S EXPERIENCE AND CONTRIBUTIONS: JURAN STARTED WORK WITH THE INSPECTION DEPARTMENT OF

1925

WESTERN ELECTRIC WHERE HE WAS FACED WITH MANY QUALITY MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES

1928

JURAN APPLIED STATISTICAL METHODS TO MANUFACTURING PROBLEMS

1937

JURAN BECOMES CHIEF OF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AT WESTERN ELECTRIC’S HOME OFFICE

THE QUALITY CONTROL HANDBOOK: 1951 A REFERENCE BOOK FOR ALL WHO ARE INVOLVED IN QUALITY MANAGEMENT

1950’s

REVOLUTIONIZED THE JAPANESE PHILOSOPHY FOR TQM AND HELPED SHAPE THEIR ECONOMY INTO AN INDUSTRIAL SUPERPOWER

1964

THE MANAGERIAL BREAKTHROUGH

1979

JURAN INSTITUTE FOUNDED

1986

THE JURAN TRILOGY

STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL:  Statistical Process Control is an analytical decision making tool which allows you to see when a process is working correctly and when it is not. Variation is present in any process, deciding when the variation is natural and when it needs correction is the key to quality control.  The foundation for Statistical Process Control was laid by Dr. Walter Shewart working in the Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1920s conducting research on methods to improve quality and lower costs. He developed the concept of control with regard to variation, and came up with Statistical Process Control Charts which provide a simple way to determine if the process is in control or not.  Today, SPC is used in manufacturing facilities around the world.  This is a control system which uses statistical techniques for knowing, all the time, changes in the process.  It is an effective method in preventing defects and helps continuous quality improvement.  SPC does not refer to a particular technique, algorithm or procedure  SPC is an optimisation philosophy concerned with continuous process improvements, using a collection of (statistical) tools for  data and process analysis  making inferences about process behaviour  decision making Ultimately, SPC seeks to maximize profit by:  IMPROVING PRODUCT QUALITY  IMPROVING PRODUCTIVITY  STREAMLINING PROCESS  REDUCING WASTAGE

 REDUCING EMISSIONS  IMPROVING CUSTOMER SERVICE, ETC. STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL TECHNIQUES: 1. CHECK SHEET  The check sheet is a form (document) used to collect data in real time at the location where the data is generated. The data it captures can be quantitative or qualitative. When the information is quantitative, the check sheet is sometimes called a tally sheet.  A check sheet is one of the seven basic quality tools. Data collection can often become an unstructured and messy exercise. It is a simple form you can use to collect data in an organized manner and easily convert it into readily useful information.  Data collection is important because it is the starting point for statistical analysis. The

function of a check sheet is to present information in an efficient, graphical format. A check sheet is a table or a form used to systematically register data as it is collected. Check sheets help organize data by category.  They show how many times each particular value occurs, and their information is increasingly helpful as more data are collected.  Main applications of a check sheet include registering how often different problems occur and registering the frequency of incidents that are believed to cause problems.  E.g.: In a machine shop there is a costly CNC machine which was not giving the desired output. It was decided to visit the shop around 25 times in a week to check the reasons of machine not working. The check sheet was designed for collecting the data as follows. This data can be used further for attacking the important reasons.  A check sheet is used to:  Clearly identify what is being observed. The events being observed should be clearly labelled. Everyone has to be looking for the same thing.

 Keep the data collection process as easy as possible. Collecting data should no become a job in and of itself. Simple check marks are the easiest.  Group the data. Collected data should be grouped in a way that makes the data valuable and reliable. Similar problems must be in similar groups.  Be creative. Try to create a format that will give you the most information with the least amount of effort. ADVANTAGES OF USING A CHECK SHEET:  Effective way of displaying data  Easy to use  Can identify the root cause of a problem  A first step in the construction of other graphical tools  Provides a structure for uniform data collection  Can be used to substantiate or refute allegations

2. PARETO CHART  Used to identify factors that have the greatest cumulative effect on the system.  Pareto principle: 80% of problems stem from 20% of the various causes.

 A special type of bar chart created by plotting the cumulative frequencies of the relative frequency in descending order.  A technique used for decision making based on the Pareto Principle, known as the 80/20 rule.  It is a decision-making technique that statistically separates a limited number of input factors as having the greatest impact on an outcome, either desirable or undesirable.  Pareto analysis is based on the idea that 80% of a project's benefit can be achieved by doing 20% of the work or conversely 80% of problems are traced to 20% of the causes.  For example, if your business was investigating the delay associated with processing credit card applications, you could group the data into the following categories:  No signature  Residential address not valid  Non-legible handwriting  Already a customer  Other

3. FLOW CHART  Common type of chart.  Defined as a pictorial representation of describing a process used to plan stages of a project.

 A flowchart is a formalized graphic representation of a logic sequence, work or manufacturing process, organization chart, or similar formalized structure.  The purpose of a flow chart is to provide people with a common language or reference point when dealing with a project or process.  Flowcharts use simple geometric symbols and arrows to define relationships. In programming, for instance, the beginning or end of a program is represented by an oval.  A process is represented by a rectangle, a decision is represented by a diamond and an I/O process is represented by a parallelogram. The Internet is represented by a cloud.

4. CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM  Diagram showing the cause of a certain event.  Used to identify potential factors causing an overall effect.  Used to see all possible causes of a result and hopefully find the root of process imperfections.  It is known as fishbone diagram because its shape is similar to side view of a fish skeleton.

 A Cause-and-Effect Diagram is a tool that helps identify, sort, and display possible causes of a specific problem or quality characteristic. It graphically illustrates the relationship between a given outcome and all the factors that influence the outcome. This type of diagram is sometimes called an "Ishikawa diagram" because it was invented by Kaoru Ishikawa, or a "fishbone diagram" because of the way it looks. BENEFITS OF USING A CAUSE-AND-EFFECT DIAGRAM  Helps determine root causes  Encourages group participation  Uses an orderly, easy-to-read format  Indicates possible causes of variation  Increases process knowledge  Identifies areas for collecting data

5. HISTOGRAM  A Histogram is a graphic summary of variation in a set of data.  It enables us to see patterns that are difficult to see in a simple table of numbers. Can be analyzed to draw conclusions about the data set.  A graphical representation, similar to a bar chart in structure, that organizes a group of data points into user-specified ranges.  The histogram condenses a data series into an easily interpreted visual by taking many data points and grouping them into logical ranges or bins.  A histogram is a graph in which the continuous variable is clustered into categories and the value of each cluster is plotted to give a series of bars.  The below example reveals the skewed distribution of a set of product measurements that remain nevertheless within specified limits.  Without using some form of graphic this kind of problem can be difficult to analyze, recognize or identify.

6. SCATTER DIAGRAM  A scatter plot is effectively a line graph with no line - i.e. the point intersections between the two data sets are plotted but no attempt is made to physically draw a line.  The Y axis is conventionally used for the characteristic whose behaviour we would like to predict.  Used, to define the area of relationship between two variables.  A scatter diagram is a tool for analyzing relationships between two variables. One variable is plotted on the horizontal axis and the other is plotted on the vertical axis. The pattern of their intersecting points can graphically show relationship patterns.  Most often a scatter diagram is used to prove or disprove cause-and-effect relationships. While the diagram shows relationships, it does not by itself prove that one variable causes the other.  In addition to showing possible cause and-effect relationships, a scatter diagram can show that two variables are from a common cause that is unknown or that one variable can be used as a surrogate for the other.

7. CONTROL CHART  Control charts are a method of Statistical Process Control, SPC. (Control system for production processes).  They enable the control of distribution of variation rather than attempting to control each individual variation.  Upper and lower control and tolerance limits are calculated for a process and sampled measures are regularly plotted about a central line between the two sets of limits.  The plotted line corresponds to the stability/trend of the process. Action can be taken based on trend rather than on individual variation.  This prevents over-correction/compensation for random variation, which would lead to many rejects.  Control charts are used to routinely monitor quality. Depending on the number of process characteristics to be monitored, there are two basic types of control charts. The first, referred to as a Univariate control chart, is a graphical display (chart) of one quality

characteristic. The second, referred to as a multivariate control chart, is a graphical display of a statistic that summarizes or represents more than one quality characteristic.

QUALITY IMPROVEMENT  The systematic approach to reduction or elimination of waste, rework, and losses in production process. There are many methods for quality improvement. These cover product improvement, process improvement and people based improvement. In the following list are methods of quality management and techniques that incorporate and drive quality improvement: 1. ISO 9004: 2008 — guidelines for performance improvement.

2. ISO 15504-4: 2005 — information technology — process assessment — Part 4: Guidance on use for process improvement and process capability determination. 3. QFD — quality function deployment, also known as the house of quality approach. 4. Kaizen — 改善, Japanese for change for the better; the common English term is continuous improvement. 5. Zero Defect Program — created by NEC Corporation of Japan, based upon statistical process control and one of the inputs for the inventors of Six Sigma. 6. Six Sigma — 6σ, Six Sigma combines established methods such as statistical process control, design of experiments and failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) in an overall framework. 7. PDCA — plan, do, check, act cycle for quality control purposes. (Six Sigma's DMAIC method (define, measure, analyze, improve, control) may be viewed as a particular implementation of this.) 8. Quality circle — a group (people oriented) approach to improvement. 9. Taguchi methods — statistical oriented methods including quality robustness, quality loss function, and target specifications. 10. The Toyota Production System — reworked in the west into lean manufacturing. 11. Kansei engineering — an approach that focuses on capturing customer emotional feedback about products to drive improvement. 12. TQM — total quality management is a management strategy aimed at embedding awareness of quality in all organizational processes. First promoted in Japan with the Deming prize which was adopted and adapted in USA as the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award and in Europe as the European Foundation for Quality Management award (each with their own variations). 13. TRIZ — meaning "theory of inventive problem solving"

14. BPR — business process reengineering, a management approach aiming at 'clean slate' improvements (That is, ignoring existing practices). 15. OQM — Object-oriented Quality Management, a model for quality management.[6] KAIZEN  Kaizen means "improvement". Kaizen strategy calls for never-ending efforts for improvement involving everyone in the organization – managers and workers alike.  Kaizen (改善?), Japanese for "improvement", or "change for the better" refers to philosophy or practices that focus upon continuous improvement of processes in manufacturing, engineering, game development, and business management. It has been applied in healthcare, psychotherapy, life-coaching, government, banking, and other industries.  When used in the business sense and applied to the workplace, kaizen refers to activities that continually improve all functions, and involves all employees from the CEO to the assembly line workers.  It also applies to processes, such as purchasing and logistics that cross organizational boundaries into the supply chain. By improving standardized activities and processes, kaizen aims to eliminate waste.  Kaizen was first implemented in several Japanese businesses after the Second World War, influenced in part by American business and quality management teachers who visited the country. It has since spread throughout the world and is now being implemented in many other venues besides just business and productivity.  Kaizen is a system that involves every employee - from upper management to the cleaning crew. Everyone is encouraged to come up with small improvement suggestions on a regular basis. This is not a once a month or once a year activity.

 It is continuous. Japanese companies, such as Toyota and Canon, a total of 60 to 70 suggestions per employee per year are written down, shared and implemented.

ISO 9000 SERIES OF QMS  ISO 9000 is a series of standards , development and published by the ISO that define, establish and maintain an effective quality assurance system for manufacturing and service industries.  ISO 9000 is a series of international standards that deals with quality systems that are used to ensure that customers receive what they are expecting to receive. It sets the standards and provides guidelines on how to implement and improve a quality management system. The series of standards consist of:  ISO 9000:2005 - describes the fundamentals of quality management systems, which form the subject of the ISO 9000 family, and specifies the terminologies used.  ISO 9001:2008 - is the requirement standard and its main objective is to focus organisations on achieving their quality requirements, fulfilling applicable regulatory

requirements, enhancing customer satisfaction and having a system for achieving continuous improvements in reaching their objectives.  ISO 9004:2009 - provides guidelines for performance improvement based upon the eight quality management principles. It lays out the principles to be used by senior management to improve their organisation‘s performance by considering the needs of all stakeholders, not just customers.

PRINCIPLE of ISO

STRUCTURE OF SERIES

STEPS TO ISO REGISTRATION

ISO 9000 AND QUALITY MANAGEMENT

DOCUMENTATION PROCESS

SOFTWARE QUALITY ATTRIBUTES

QUALITY Definition of quality: The degree to which a system, component, or process meets (1) Specified requirements, and (2) Customer or user needs or expectations. SOFTWARE QUALITY MANAGEMENT:  The aim of Software Quality Management (SQM) is to manage the quality of software and of its development process.  A quality product is one which meets its requirements and satisfies the user  A quality culture is an organizational environment where quality is viewed as everyone‘s responsibility.