Technical Education

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SECOND CHAPTER

The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Sector in
Sri Lanka

The present education system in Sri Lanka comprises of primary, secondary,
senior secondary and higher education. Primary education consists of five
years, secondary education of four years and senior secondary education
consists of two years of education. Generally junior and senior secondary
school leavers go for Technical and Vocational schools if they do not continue
on to higher education. Higher education in Sri Lanka begins after passing
GCE (A.L) Examination, on completing the higher secondary education or
the 13
th
grade. A university degree can be obtained within three- to five years
depending on the course followed. However, in Sri Lanka the term technical
education refers to post-secondary courses of study and practical training
aimed at the preparation of technicians to work as supervisory staff. The
term vocational training refers to lower level education and training for the
population of skilled or semi-skilled workers in various fields.

The aim of this chapter is to examine the importance of improving Technical
Education and Vocational Training (TEVT) sector and to describe briefly
about the present TVET policies and the structure in Sri Lanka. The first
section of the chapter examines the importance of improving the (TVET)
sector in Sri Lanka. The second section briefly explains the overview of the
TVET policies, structure of the TVET, courses offered, National Vocational
Qualification Framework and the budgetary provisions.

2.1 Human Capital Development: The Importance of Improving the
TVET Sector in Sri Lanka
The quality and importance of Technical and Vocational Education and
Training (TVET) have been the focus of policy dialogues in Sri Lanka for
several decades. There are several major reasons for giving priority to
human capital development by improving the TVET sector in Sri Lanka.
These are low educational attainments of certain segments of the population;
the drop-out rate of students from certain disadvantaged communities at the
junior high school level; lack of opportunities to enter higher educational

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institutions even after qualifying at the GCE Advanced Level (A/L)
examination; lack of other alternative path ways for students who could not
enter universities to continue higher studies; higher rates of unemployment
among the youth mainly due to low skill levels; mismatch between the
supply and the demand of the labor market and inability of Sri Lanka to use
the national and international labor demand fully to meet the new
development of an expanding private sector and public sector; high
competition in the international market and relatively high inflation and low
productivity of Sri Lanka and the shrinking labor force due to a shrinking
demographic transition.

2.1.1 Low Educational Attainments of the Population
Sri Lanka is recognized as a country with high literacy - 92% in 2012.
However these statistics mask major short comings of the education system.
Among educational attainments of the total population, the highest
percentages were those who passed grade 9-10(21.6%) and grade 6-8 (18.6%).
Those who passed GCE O/L comprise18.8% while those with GCE A/L was
9.4%. Only 1.8% of the total student population above age 5 record
attainment of a degree. (statistics.gov.lk/education/schools_university.pdf.).

Table: 2:1
Educational Attainment of the Population 2000 & 2012

Educational
attainment
2000 -% 2012 -%
Total Male Female Total Male Female
No Schooling 8.7 5.0 12.2 7.1
Primary 26.3 26.9 25.8 23.9
Secondary 37.2 39.3 35.3 39.6
GCE O/L 17.5 18.2 16.9 18.8
GCE A/L 7.9 7.9 7.9 9.4
Degree/higher 2.3 2.7 2.0 1.2

Source: www.statistics.gov.lk (retrieved on 2013.10.13).

Table 2: 1 shows that more than half of the population has not completed

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Grade 10 and that they join/ed the labor market without proper employment
skills. This is a serious challenge to national development in Sri Lanka
which prioritizes the need to develop vocational and technical skills.

2.1.2 Increasing the Drop-out Rates at Junior High School Levels
In Sri Lanka, children in the 5-14 year age group comprise the student
population, for education is compulsory. Nearly 88.7% of this age group
attends school, with almost no gender discrepancies. .However, the average
attendance of 15-19 years age group was 52.6% and it shows that a large
number of students, (around 47%) dropped out from school before or after the
GCE O/L examinations. Though these school leavers expect to join the labor
market they do not have any formal vocational training or employment skills
which suit the needs of the ever widening economy.

Table: 2:2
School attendance by age and sex – 2011

Age in Years Total Male Female
6-9 94.4 94.3 94.4
10-14 92.2 91.7 92.8
15-19 52.6 50.6 54.6

Source: Dept. of Census and Statistics, 2012.

2.1.3 Lack of Opportunities to Enter the Higher Educational Institutions
Sri Lanka has 15 public universities and only around 9% of students who sit
for the GCE A/L examination can obtain admission to universities as at
present. This examination is highly competitive, and only about around 58%
of the candidates qualifies for university admissions. For example in 2011,
239,775 students sat for the GCE A/L examination. Out of these, 141,411
(58.9%) qualified for university entrance. However, in 2011 only 22,016
students were admitted to the state universities and that represented only
15.6% of the total qualified (at least minimum „S” pass for all 3 subjects)
students and 9.2% of the total who sat for the GCE A/L examination. It
shows that the balance 90.8% of the students (except the small number who
enters private or public technical and vocational institutes or local branches

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of foreign based private universities or foreign universities) do not have a
clear path to continue their formal education due to limited opportunities in
the public universities and limited access to private sector universities, due
to considerations of both affordability and quality education. Students who
drop out of schools after GCE O/L and A/L examinations, even though
recognized as academically „educated; they would still not be attractive to the
labor market due to their lack of specific job skills.

Table 2:3
Performance of Candidates –GCE O/L and A/L and University
Admissions 2010 - 2012

2010 2011 2012
All sat for GCE
O/L
433,673 443,298 451,039
Qualified for
GCE A/L %
57.62 56.54 60.87
All sat for GCE
A/L
233,354 239,775 233,634
All qualified for
university
entrance
142,415 141,411 144,745
Qualified for
university
entrance %
61.3 58.99 61.95
Total admission
to university& %
of eligible
21,547 (17%) 22,016(15%) not given yet

Source: statistics.gov.lk/education/school_university.pdf (retrieved on
2013.11.17)

2.1.4 Youth Unemployment
In Sri Lanka, since independence in 1948, the emphasis has been on general
education followed by vocational education at the end. This has resulted in
large numbers of people educated up to GCE O/L and A/L remaining

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unemployed, mainly due to the lack of technical skills and training necessary
for employment in the real world of work. The unemployment rate in Sri
Lanka decreased to 3.9% in the fourth quarter of 2012 from 4.1% in the third
quarter of the same year. According to the Migration Profile – 2013,[ in Sri
Lanka the highest total unemployment rate is found among those with a
higher secondary education.

In Sri Lanka the highest unemployment rate is of those with a higher
secondary education- 5.5% for men and 11.7% for women in 2012
(statistics.gov.lk). The total unemployment rate in the first quarter of 2013
was 4.6% (for male 3.3% and female 7.0%) and for the second quarter 4.4%
(3.1% for male and 6.9% for female). Youth unemployment rate of 15-24
years for the second quarter of 2013 was 20.1% and it was the highest
unemployment rate among this age group. The rates for males and females
were 15.0% and 27.8% respectively. Unemployed youth between 15-24 years,
represent 59.7% of the total unemployed in the country and it is much higher
than the overall unemployment rate. Total unemployment rates of specific
age categories are as follows: for between 15-19 years -12.9%; 20-24 years -
42.0%; 25-29- years -17.7%; 40 + years -13.4% in the first quarter of 2013
(Dept. of Census and Statistics, first quarter of 2013- statstics.gov.lk.).

Table 2:4
Youth Unemployment in Sri Lanka – by Age categories
& Educational Level

By Gender 2010 2011 2012 2013*
Total 4.9 4.2 4.0 4.6
Male 3.5 2.7 2.8 3.3
Female 7.7 7.0 6.2 7.0
By age
20-29 13.8 12.3 11.3 13.6
20-24 19.1 17.7 16.8 20.7
25-29 9.2 7.6 6.6 7.5
Educational
level GCE
A/L & over


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Total 11.6 9.0 7.5 9.2
Male 7.8 5.4 4.5 6.1
Female 15.8 13.1 10.8 12.5

Source: Dept. of Census & Statistics and Ministry of Finance and Planning,
First quarter of 2013
*2013 first quarter only

Table: 2: 5
Unemployed Persons by Level of Education and Gender -2012

Gender Below GCC
O/L
GCE O/L GCE A/L &
above
Total
Male 49.9 29.8 20.3 100.0
Female 31.2 25.2 43.6 100.0
Total 40.3 27.4 32.33 100.0
Source: Quarterly Labor Force Survey, Dept. of Census and Statistics, 2012.

Table: 2: 6
Unemployed Persons by Level of Education and Age -2012
Level of
Education
Less than 29
years
30-39 years 40+years Total
Below GCE
O/L
65.0 18.9 16.2 100
GCE O/L 72.6 15.9 11.5 100.0
GCE A/L &
above
84.1 12.2 100.0

Total 73.0 15.8 11.2 100.0
Source: Quarterly Labor Force Survey, Dept. of Census and Statistics, 2012.

Table 2: 7
Unemployed Persons by Age Groups (2010-13)

Year Total 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-39 40 +
2010 100.0 14.8 38.7 21.2 14.7 10.6

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2011 100.0 12.8 42.5 20.6 15.6 8.5
2012 100.0 14.2 40.6 18.8 15.6 10.7
2013* 100.0 12.9 42.0 17.7 13.9 13.4

Source: Dept. of Census a& Statistics and Ministry of Finance and Planning,
First quarter 2013
*2013 first quarter only

2.1.5 High Unemployment among Educated Youth
High unemployment rates among educated young people and their low skill
levels also has become an issue of critical policy concern for the government
of Sri Lanka. Generally the unemployment rate is higher among the
educated groups. For example, in 2013, 39.6% (male - 29.6% and female -
48.0%) of persons who passed GCE A/L examination and above were
unemployed. The total unemployment rate in the first quarter of 2013
according to the education level is as follows: Grade 5 and below - 3.8%;
Grade 6-10 -40.9%; GCE O/L - 25.7% and GCE A/L - 29.6%. This
phenomenon of high unemployment among youth along with low overall
unemployment signals the existence of a mismatch between the demand and
supply within a particular section of the labor force.

Table 2: 8
Unemployment Rates according to the Educational Level 2013 –First
and Second quarters









Source: Dept. of Census and Statistics, 2013 First and Second Quarters

According to observations made in the Labor Force Survey -2013, the
Level of
Education
Total
2013
Male
first
Female
Quarter
Total
2013
Male
second
Female
Quarter
Total 4.6 3.3 7.0 4.4 3.1 6.9
Below
GCE O/L
2.9 2.2 4.4 2.6 2.2 3.7
GCE O/L 6.0 5.4 7.0 5.4 3.9 8.3
GCE A/L
& above
9.2 6.1 12.5 10.2 6.8 14.0

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statistics on youth unemployment emphasize that Sri Lanka should not only
focus on GCE O/L and A/L passed categories but also on the school leavers
before they enter Grade 10 on specialized education and skills development,
including technical and vocational training to improve employability (Dept.
of Census and Statistics, first quarter of 2013- statstics.gov.lk.).Youth
unemployment has remained a critical social and political issue for policy
makers (Wickramsekera, 2010). Youth uprisings in the early 1970‟s and mid
1980‟s in Sri Lanka were attributed to some degree to the unemployment
situation (Gajaweera, 2010). Several studies have found that youth unrest
both in the north and south indicated largely the frustration and
disappointment of unemployed young people (Hettige, 1996; Lakshman,
2004 & Yen-Nap, 2006).It is increasingly clear that conflict renders young
particularly vulnerable: they are often alienated from socio-economic
structures and support such as adequate education, training and job
opportunities, they are overlooked in national planning and policies, they
face discrimination on both sides of the war, and they experience immense
psychological trauma and social-marginalization. The most urgent issue
facing young people in Sri Lanka is the lack of desirable jobs. According to
Hettige et. al. (1996) this has been the case for several decades; however, it is
still a situation that development interventions and state policies have been
unable to resolve (Hettige and Shanmugam, 2010). An employment oriented
program to enhance the skills and training of educated youth, preferred
mainly by the private sector, leading to a strong developed TVET sector can
immensely and definitely contribute to find an answer not only to the gap
between employable skills and the labor market but also to the ever
emerging situation of youth unrest in Sri Lanka.

2.1.6 Mismatch between the Supply and the Demand of the National
Labor Market
In Sri Lanka school leavers, not only the grade 9 and GCE - O/L and A/L
passed students but also some university graduates, mainly the Social
sciences and humanities – are entering the labor market ill-prepared for the
world of work (Tan and Chandrasiri, 2004). A large number of students
coming out of the formal schools are unemployed even though opportunities
for skilled workers do exist in the economy. There is a disconnect between
education and employability, and it is largely blamed on the lack of skills of

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school leavers in finding jobs or becoming self-employed (UK Trade and
Investment, 2011). Even though consecutive governments have attempted to
attract students to the TVET sector, by introducing new courses and career
guidance programs etc. they do not seem to have found solutions to address
the existing mismatch between employment expectations and skill
development of young people, on the one hand, and employability in the real
world of the current labor market. As a result, the local labor market has
also suffered a set-back and has not grown to realize its vast potential
(Koralage, 2012).According to the labor market information in 2012,
(://www.tvec.gov.lk/lmi/labor_market_eployment.htm).

The ten jobs with the highest demand in the Sri Lankan labor market are:
for graphic designers, sales executives, marketing officers, computer
operators, technical officers, supervisor-generals, office assistants, assistant
managers, customer service executives and electricians. A Sri Lankan
private company, „Top Jobs Labor Market Information‟ has gathered relevant
information from the TVEC and identified that:
1. Sales marketing;
2. IT, Web designing, graphic design and GIS
3. Accounting
4. Automobile & Electrical engineering
5. Administrative support, receptionist, secretary
6. Hotel industry, cooks and chefs
7. Positions in the apparel and clothing industry
8. Human resource, training
9. Customer relations
10. Civil construction
are the employment categories with the highest demand.
(http://www.TopJobs).However, the highest number of certificates issued by
the public and private TVET institutes are for those trained as computer
applicant, electrician, beautician, automobile mechanic, welder, hair dresser,
construction craftsman (masonry) wood craftsman –furniture, motor cycle
mechanic, refrigeration and air conditioning mechanic. This means that
except the demand for computer applicants and electricians the demand for
the other categories is not met by the output of the TVET sector in Sri Lanka.
Due to this gap between the demand-supply, Sri Lanka has been unable to

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fill most of the vacancies in the local labor market.

A study done by Amarasuriya (2010) illustrates that although the private
sector in Sri Lanka has been expanding since late 1970s, even the educated
youth graduating mainly from public schools and universities have not been
employed in significant numbers. This is mainly due to the fact that they are
thought to be incompetent and unsuitable to fit the vacancies as they do not
have the preferred personality: a more cosmopolitan and urban lifestyle
and/or, self-confidence and competence in English language skills
(Jayaweera and Shanmugam, 2002). Wickramasekera (2010) too emphasizes
this stating that the Sri Lankan private sector has been reluctant to employ
the Arts and Social Science graduates who were thought to be lacking
practical and employable skills although the prejudice may have largely
emanated from their lack of fluency in the English .Language .Proficiency in
the English language is recognized not only as a language skill but is also
associated with social skills encouraged in the private sector. However, the
majority of state school and university graduates do not reach out to acquire
this competence. Further even though the public sector has been the
traditional source of employment for these graduates since independence,
various socio-economic and political, factors seem to have prevented the full
acquirement of both professional skills and social attributes sought by the
labor market. Politicization and corruption in the public sector too have
further narrowed down the dynamics and opportunities for jobs within this
sector (Amarasuriya, 2010).

2.1.7 Labor Market Mismatch in Foreign Employment
According to the Economic and Social Statistic Report of Sri Lanka (2013)
migrant employment by skills is as follows: professional- 1.5%; middle level-
3.3%; Clerical and related -5.7%; skilled labor -24.9%; unskilled labor- 22.3%
and housemaid 42.3% (2012). This shows that nearly 65% of migrant
employees are unskilled. Their earnings are comparatively small and many
of them, mainly the majority of the housemaids face immense problems in
the receiving countries. In 2010, 78.7% of the foreign job offers which
amounted to 592,891 jobs in all manpower levels were unutilized. The
highest percentage of unutilized job opportunities was recorded at the skilled
level where 72% of the jobs were unutilized. Similarly, 17% middle level, 52%

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of clerical and related level and 47% of semi-skilled level jobs were unutilized
(Ministry of Foreign Employment Promotion and Welfare, 2013).

Foreign employment during the year 2011 decreased by 1.7% (262,960 in
2011 and 267,507 in 2010).The rate of male participation increased in 2011
and it was 51.67% for males and for females - 48.33%. About 85% female
migrant workers were unskilled housemaids. As the Table 2: 9 shows, in
2011 also 76.7% of total foreign job demands were not utilized by Sri Lanka.
For example, in 2011 there were 1019 vacancies for nurses but Sri Lanka
could supply only 84 nurses. Similarly there were vacancies for cooks in 2010
- 50,606 and 2011 - 20,413 but Sri Lanka sent only 753 and 478 cooks
respectively to foreign countries. There were 9,188-2010 and 7,477 -2011
vacancies for semi-skilled jobs such as baker, electrician, barman, plumber,
welder, room boy, yard man and attendant etc. but Sri Lanka was able to
supply only 1,709 and 1,046 positions in 2010 and 2011 respectively.
Moreover, this study shows that departures for skilled categories will be
increased by 28% in 2015 (Sri Lanka Foreign Employment Bureau, 2011).
According to the 2013 Budget in Sri Lanka the government plans to reduce
the number of house maids seeking employment in the Middle Eastern
countries and instead increase the number of skilled workers in other
categories with higher earning capacities seeking foreign employment
(www.lanka.university-new.com/.../srilankan-budget-2...).

Table 2: 9
Received Job Vacancies and Foreign Employment Departures

Job Category Job orders Departures Not utilized - %
Professional level
2010 5,383 438 84.6
2011 5,988 885 85.2
Middle level
2010 8,183 832 89.8
2011 11,266 2,485 77.9
Clerical &related
2010 15,949 2,239 85.9
2011 17,162 3,798 77.9

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Skilled level
2010 254,583 41,074 83.9
2011 203,001 31,679 84.4
Semi-skilled
level

2010 9,188 1,709 81.4
2011 7,477 1,046 86.0
Unskilled level
2010 118,256 27,289 76.9
2011 125,418 24,997 80.1
Housemaid
2010 341,847 86,917 74.6
2011 259,939 81,566 68.6
Al Foreign jobs
demand

2010 753,389 160,498 78.7
2011 630,251 146,456 76.7

Source: Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment, 2011.

In Sri Lanka there is a significant mismatch between its resource base of
labor supply and the international demand for labor and employment
especially with regard to the type of skills (IOM, 2008). One reason for this is
the skill mismatch hypothesis which argues the existence of a divergence
between the type of skills produced by the Sri Lankan education system and
labor market needs. The ILO Seers Report of 1971 described this as an issue
of “matching employment expectations with aspirations” (ILO, 1971). The
current demand from the foreign labor market is mainly for skilled labor,
while the Sri Lankan labor migration has concentrated mainly on
housemaids and other low skilled categories.

So far Sri Lanka has not been able to take advantage of the high demand in
the foreign labor market mainly due to a lack of skilled labor to meet that
demand.
“In Sri Lanka the supply of technicians and mid-level professionals is
falling short of demand, while Sri Lanka has been unable to fill a

13

significant portion of job orders abroad for mid-level and skilled worker
categories. Despite the large supply-demand gap, unemployment
especially among educated youth is high. The large number of school
leavers lacks the skills for jobs or self- employment. These youth could
be employed in industry if they are trained in relevant technical and
vocational skill s” (Fernando, 2011: 3).

To be competitive in the foreign labor market it is important that Sri Lanka
focuses on the development of technical and vocational skills of mainly youth
to meet both national and international demand. Such a strategy would
undoubtedly alleviate the shortage of skilled labor both for the internal and
external labor markets of Sri Lanka (IOM, 2008).

According to Kottegoda (2004) while migration is characteristic of the Sri
Lankan labor market, at the individual level it is mostly a temporary
phenomenon. However, Abeyasekara (2010) argues that this temporary
migration can be promoted as a viable employment option for youth. Dias &
Jayasundera (2004) recommend that foreign employment can be a valuable
opportunity for young people to gain and strengthen professional and /or
vocational experience. Even though Sri Lanka does have some training
programs to train workers for foreign labor markets, these courses are not
sufficiently matched with the skills demanded by the foreign labor market.
For instance, in 2010, a significant number of vacancies were for
carpenter-joiner, but most of the training courses offered by the TVET
institutes in Sri Lanka were in the field of carpenter-furniture. The short
term training given to women aspiring to migrate to foreign countries as
housemaids is not sufficient to produce an efficient workforce. For example, a
study of the Chamber of Commerce of Sri Lanka reveals that care for the
elderly has great potential as a new service area for migrant workers. With
an increasing aging population in the developed countries, mainly in Europe
and Japan, the study suggested that Sri Lanka should provide training in
relevant skills (Abeyasekera, 2010).

By giving the TVET skills to the potential work force, mainly youth aspiring
for foreign employment, they can be equipped with marketable skills to
secure higher wages. On the domestic front, Sri Lanka‟s economy would also

14

benefit from a higher skilled workforce to address the country‟s labor gaps,
especially in areas such as computer application, design, agriculture, food
processing and electronic sector etc.(National Education Commission, 2009
quoted in Koralage and Hewapathirana, 2012).Therefore to minimize the
demand and supply gap of both local and foreign labor market and to fully
utilize the foreign job opportunities the TVET sector can play a vital role by
introducing new technical and vocational courses or reforming existing
courses to meet the current needs and demands.

2.1.8 Meeting the Needs of the Competitive Economy
Due to the economic changes identified mainly after the 1970‟s, issues such
as addressing the growing mismatch between labor market supply and
demand from industry in the face of opening up the economy; limited or
restricted educational and career development avenues for youth; and the
need for increased productivity and competitiveness and a flexible and
globally employable workforce etc. have become the main issues of the
human resource development agenda in Sri Lanka.

The widening of the economy and the diversification of sectors into many
avenues of manufacturing industries, agriculture-food processing, garment
production, service sectors including finance, information and
communication technology, trading etc. have led to concerns about the
quality of the human resources produced and their relevance to economic
needs (Gajaweera, 2010). Globalization has brought new challenges to
developing countries. To face these challenges it is necessary to be
competitive in the world market, which to a large extent is driven by
scientific and technological innovations. Similarly, new production methods
of goods and services, technology revolution, increasing regional and
international competition for exports and foreign investment, and new forms
of business organization and production etc. have created a demand for new,
diversified industry relevant skills and knowledge (Kazmi, n.d.). Therefore,
it is necessary to improve the quality and relevance of tertiary education and
vocational training and prepare this youth category with the advanced skills
set that a competitive economy demands. (www.undp.org/contents/srilanka/
en/home/Countryinfor/...).


15

Sri Lanka has had an economic growth of the GDP 7.8% in the third quarter
of 2013 (statistics.gov.lk). The private sector shows a gradual growth.
Post-war reconstruction, public sector investment, service sector and credit
expansion can also be recognized as growing sectors. To match these
economic and social needs it is necessary for Sri Lanka to develop the
entrepreneur ability of the people, mainly the youth. A study done by
Weeratunge (2010) on “Developing Youth Entrepreneurs a Viable Youth
Employment Strategy in Sri Lanka”, recommends to promote
entrepreneurship abilities among youth, mainly school leavers, graduates of
TVET and universities to help them select appropriate entrepreneurship and
to enhance the enterprise culture. Though many private educational
institutions offer various entrepreneurship training programs, the numbers
of successful trainees is not known. Similarly, no systematic and rigorous
assessment on quantity and quality of such courses has been done. TVET
institutions should take a clue from the high demand for jobs related to
banking, commerce, accounting and related fields particularly in the private
sect and plan for new training courses to meet the demand in these and
related areas.

2.1.9 Challenges in Achieving Sustainable Development
In development efforts to foster sustainable growth Sri Lanka faces two
challenges, particularly related to the labor market. The first is high and
increasing competition in the international market and high inflation and
relatively lower productivity compared to almost all nations. One effective
solution to this problem is to raise productivity of the labor force. The second
is the shrinking relative size of the economically active population, the labor
force with demographic transition. By 2031 the population aged between
15-49 years will be 47.2% while the over 60 population will be 23.1%. This
indicates an increasing dependent elderly population that would need to be
taken care of by the shrinking labor force, whilst contributing to foster
economic growth and sustain it. The only option available to address this
issue is to raise productivity (Karunathileka, n.d). TEVT is the systematic
and orderly transmission of knowledge, skills and values to develop a
workforce that is able to enhance productivity and sustain competitiveness
in the global economy. It is not merely an option but a necessity. Education
alone is democracy but with technology, it becomes power. TVET is both

16

democracy and power. It is democracy because it liberates the learner from
the bondage of ignorance and illiteracy. It is considered power because it
brings technological superiority thereby breeding competitiveness and
productivity to a country (Park, 2005).

Skills and knowledge are key ingredients necessary for economic growth and
social development of any country. Countries with higher and better levels of
knowledge and skills respond more effectively and promptly to challenges
and opportunities of globalization. Sri Lanka is in transition to a knowledge
based economy and its competitive edge will be determined by the abilities of
its people to create, share and use knowledge more effectively. This
transition will require Sri Lanka to develop well informed and highly skilled
and multi-skilled, flexible, analytical and adaptable workers. Moreover, such
development will contribute to find solutions to the long-term youth unrest
and social and political conflicts of the country and will pave the way to
successful reconciliation and sustainable peace to a certain extent. To fulfill
this requirement Sri Lanka definitely has to pay more attention to
developing systematically, a flexible technical and vocational education and
training sector. As Quisumbing (2005) emphasized, if education is the key to
development, vocational and technical education is the master key that
opens the door to the world of work and the economy, alleviate poverty, save
the environment and improve the quality of life.

Skills development of youth have been done by some developed and newly
developed countries by improving the TEVT sector but Sri Lanka lacks
significant resources and the expertise needed to develop and expand the
required TVET system. The existing institutions are unable to offer either
the required quality or quantity of programs that are geared to the needs of
the local and foreign labor market while fostering peace-building and social
integration and development (www.giz.de/the.men/en/36722.htm).

Although some efforts have been taken to improve the TVET sector in Sri
Lanka mainly since the 1990‟s, with the support of various international
organizations such as the World Bank, British Council, Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA), International Labor Organization (ILO),
German Technical Co-operation (GTZ), German Development Bank (GDB),

17

International Organization for Migration (IOM), Canadian International
Development Agency (CIDA), Norway, India, European Union (EU), UNICEF,
UNDP, UNHCR, USAID, AusAID, Asian Development Bank (ADB) and
Korean International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) etc. (Knutson., 2011)it
has not been successful as expected. Although the reforms were instituted to
respond to changing national and global environments, still the issues
related to harmonization and standardization are not fully resolved. Sri
Lanka needs to reorient its planning and policy framework to suit the
requirements of a middle-income country, drawing on the experiences of
other Asian countries. In this present context the ADB has emphasized the
importance of Sri Lanka to develop financial services and to strengthen the
construction industry. Therefore, the Sri Lanka Country Operation Business
Plan (2013-15) has identified education and skill development as a key
strategic priority (Asian Development Bank, 2013).

2.2 Overview of the Polices Related to TVET Sector in Sri Lanka

Technical and vocational education and training has been used by many
developed countries as a strategy to develop their countries. It also has
emerged as one of the most effective human resource development strategies
that developing countries need to concentrate on, in order to train their work
force for overall development. However, in Sri Lanka TVET was left at the
periphery and its significance has not really been incorporated into
development strategies. Thirty eight Technical Colleges have been
established in the country since the establishment of the Maradana
Technical College in 1837 but the government has not really focused
systematically on the TVET sector. In late 1960‟s Prof. Dudley Seers, who
conducted a social and economic survey in Sri Lanka found that education
policy structure of the country has commented that it is a grave error that
less priority has been given to TVET education and that the university
education was purely focused on academic skills beyond practical
skills. .Matching employment opportunities and expectations under the
existing education policies in the country was a remote task addressed by
that the government in the policy making process. In 1965, the Sri Lankan
government realized the seriousness of these issues and introduced the
Junior University concept with a view to encourage TEVT sector in the

18

country. Unfortunately it was blocked by some educators and youth
motivated by left politics (Wanigasekera, 2009).

However, considerable socio-economic and political changes occurred mainly
after the 1970‟s forced the Sri Lankan governments to pay some attention to
the development of the TVET sector. Among the most significant changes Sri
Lanka experienced during the last four decades that brought about social
upheavals were the youth insurrections of 1971 and 1989 and the 30 year
long (1979 -2009, May) ethnic conflict. In 1977, the introduction of liberal
economic policies set in motion a radical shift in the economy. As a response
to youth insurrection in 1971, the government established the National
Apprenticeship Board, which was upgraded as National Apprenticeship and
Industrial Training Authority (NAITA) in 1990. One of the recommendations
of the Youth Commission, which probed into the youth uprising of 1989, was
the establishment of the National Education Commission. In 1990, the
government set up the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission
(Fernando, 2011).

After introducing the liberal economic policies in 1977 the necessity for
promoting TVET became very visible. The 1977 policy reforms of trade and
industry, and adoption of export-led growth strategies led to expansion of the
secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy, creating additional demand
for skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled labor. The state TVET sector did not
have the resources or the institutional flexibility to respond, which created
opportunities for private sector providers to enter and fill this high demand
for training. There was a considerable mismatch between the outputs of
vocational education and labor market demands (Asian Development Bank,
1999). The private sector training role was explicitly recognized as a part of a
larger strategy of promoting TVET for national competitiveness in the 1989
Industrialization Strategy of the Ministry of Industrial Development (MID).
To develop specific skills and expertise required by an outward looking
industrial sector, MID made upgrading of technical training institutes and
establishment of a Vocational and Tertiary Education Commission (VTEC)
priorities for immediate action.

The Tertiary and Vocational Education Act No 20 was passed by the

19

legislature in 1990 and it became the main legal document guiding the TVET
sector in Sri Lanka. It stipulates the establishment of the Tertiary and
Vocational Education Commission (TVEC) in 1991. It also stressed the need
to expand the role for private industry and NGOs in TEVT development,
with industry providing more training facilities at lower levels and voluntary
organizations offering training in technology and management skills (Tan
and Chandrasiri, 2004).

The 1994 government paid more attention to developing the TVET sector.
The Executive President of Sri Lanka at the opening of the new Parliament
set the stage for TVET reforms by emphasizing the issue as follows:
“The Sri Lankan workforce lacks the required skills that are
essential for industrial upgrading and diversification. The numerous
state-run skill development programs are essentially supply-oriented
and therefore have a poor record of providing industry relevant skills.
The vocational training system will be extensively restructured so as
to be demand-driven, in cooperation with the private sector who will
be the eventual employers. (The Presidential Task Force on Technical
Education and Vocational Training Reforms, 1997:5).
The 1995 budget speech also emphasized the importance of “consolidating
the variety of dispersed and uncoordinated facilities for vocational training
and directing them to create skills which are sorely needed by the growing
economy” (Ibid.).

Technical education was traditionally with the Ministry of Education and
vocational training was a part of the employment services of the labor
Department. In 1994, the government decided to bring together all the main
public agencies responsible for TVET under one ministry (Fernando, 2011).
In 1995, the New Industrialization Strategy of MID identified three major
areas for TEVT reforms: i) restructuring tertiary education and vocational
training system, ii) setting up a Skills Development Fund, iii) reorienting
public sector technical institutes to meet market needs. In 1995 a Special
Task Force was appointed by the Executive President of Sri Lanka to study
inter-ministerial barriers and to come up with policy recommendations for
TVET sector development involving both the public and private sectors. The
report of the Task Force was presented in 1998, focused on TVET policies

20

under the broad topics of the role of government involvement of the private
sector in training; linkages between general education and TVET; and
training for self-employment and the unorganized sector. The Task Force
recommended that the government should move away from being the main
provider of training and become a facilitator, standard setter, regulator and
coordinator (Fernando, 2011).

The Skills Development Project (SDP), implemented subsequent to this
report, introduced three major reforms to the TVET sector. These are: i)
establishment of a unified Qualification framework on national Competency
Standards, ii) conversion of certificate level TVET courses into Competency
Based Training Mode of Training and iii) establishment of career guidance
centers and Learning Resources Development Centre with a network of
Learning Resources Utilization Centers. Thus its findings led to major
changes in the TVET sector in terms of rationalization, recognition of
vocational training as a Ministerial function, and co-ordination of TVET
activities at the national level. These reforms commenced with the
establishment of Ministry of Skills Development, Vocational and Technical
Education in 2004 (at present Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skill
Development), and an executive order was issued under the TVE Act for
implementation of the National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) system. A
policy was made to develop one technical college in each province as a
College of Technology to award NVQ level 5 and 6 qualifications. Further, the
University of Vocational Technology (Univotec) was established in 2008 to
award NVQ level 7 degree qualifications. The Tertiary and Vocational
Education Commission (TVEC) Department of Technical Education and
Training (DTET), Vocational Training Authority (VTA) and National
Institute of Technical Education of Sri Lanka (NITESL) were taken under
this ministry (The Presidential Taskforce on Technical Education and
Vocational Training Reforms, 1997). According to the TVE Act No 20 -1990
and its Amendment Act No 50 -1999, TVEC has been given power to
coordinate all relevant institutions (National Education Commission, 2009).

The Presidential Task Force -1997 presented some policies, strategies and
action programs to strengthen the policy formulation and co-ordination
capacity of the TVEC. Accordingly, it was reconstituted as a statutory body

21

under the Amendment Act No 50in 1999 (Tertiary and Vocational Education
Commission, 2013). The other major strategies recommended by the Task
Force were to allow the private sector to be the main provider of
pre-employment and job-entry training, to improve the national skill
standards, testing and certification system, to re-define the role of training
agencies such as VTA, NYSC, DTET and NAITA in order to focus their
efforts on planning and delivery of training for self-employment, for special
groups and for the unorganized sector, to set up guidelines for the evaluation
of training institutions, to establish Training Advisory Boards consisting of
mainly the private sector representatives covering strategic economic sectors,
to inculcate value of work ethics at instate levels and to introduce a
competitive mechanism for the allocation of public funds for TEVT sector
(The Presidential Task Force on Technical Education and Vocational
Training Reforms, 1997).

Since 2001, a large number of policy documents have been published
highlighting the challenges facing the TVET sector, proposing further
reforms to and rationalization of public training institutions, introducing
competency standards and accreditation, and offering new financial
incentives and policy instruments for fostering demand led-training (Tang
and Chandrasiri, 2004).In 2004, MahindaChinthana Vision for the Future,
which has been considered as the present government‟s development policy
statement, emphasizes the need for expanding and improving quality and
relevance of vocational education and training facilities according to the
changing trends of national and international labor market requirements. It
outlines three policy objectives related to TVET. Those are: i) improving
quality and relevance of TVET programs, ii) increasing enrolments in TVET
institutions and iii) improving operational and managerial efficiency of
TVET institutions (Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission, 2013).
The 2005 - 10 Year Horizon National Development Plan of the present
government also emphasizes equity by ensuring greater access to vocational
training for rural youth and those disadvantaged and conflict affected areas.
Moreover, it addressed the mismatch between labor market supply and
demand; limited educational and career development avenues for youth and
the need to increase productivity and competitiveness and a flexible and
globally employable workforce (Ministry of Finance and Planning, 2005).

22

This plan ensures higher education and technical and vocational education
institutions to develop and offer internationally recognized and market
oriented skills required by emerging market conditions.
(www.treasuary.gov.lk/depts/fpd/.../policydeve-annualreport2011.pdf).Accordi
ngly, a national policy framework for the TVET has been developed in
partnership with local and foreign stakeholders in 2009 (www.tvec.gov.lk).

The National Human Resources and Employment Policy (NHREP), which
has been developed since 2005 as a state policy in human resources
development and employment promotion work also has emphasized the
reform of the TVET sector in Sri Lanka. It highlighted policy actions to
establish a program for vocational and technical education targeting
students who do not qualify at GCE O/L and A/L examinations; to add
vocational and training component to secondary school curricula, to
commence a technology stream at the GCE A/L, to grant NVQ qualifications
to school leavers acquiring competencies by direct entry to industry, to link
secondary education, TVET and higher education institutes, to promote
multi-skilled labor in training programs and to establish public-private
partnership in TEV training (Secretariat for Senior Ministers, 2012).

In 2000 a Skills Development Project (2000-1006) was initiated with the
support mainly by the Asian Development Bank (ADB). Its main objectives
were to improve the quality and relevance of skills training programs, to
build high quality workforce, to address the mismatch of skill in the labor
market of Sri Lanka, and to strengthen NGO and private sector
participation. The project supported 6 national vocational training institutes,
6 technical colleges, and 200 rural vocational training centers to develop
their facilities. Developing a policy framework for the institutionalization of
Competency Based Training also was assisted by the project. The second
project (2006-2011) supported by the ADB was initiated with the aim of
preparing and implementing a staff development plan
(http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/worldtvetdatabase1.php?ct=LKA).


A National Strategy on Technical and Vocational Education and Training
Provision for Vulnerable People (women heads of households, differently

23

abled, disadvantaged youth, poor, persons affected by conflicts –internally
displaced & ex-combatants and migrant workers) was formulated by the
TVEC in 2008. It included strategies to introduce livelihood and
entrepreneurship training courses relevant to needs of each vulnerable
group, to give special facilities and support, to recognize skills through prior
learning and to introduce career guidance and counseling (Tertiary and
Vocational Education Commission, 2008).

In 2009, the National Policy Framework for TVET obtained the approval of
the President of the country. This is regarded as the current key guiding
document for development of institutional policies of TVET institutions in
Sri Lanka (Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission, 2013). This
policy gave recommendations for new legislation mainly economic and
financial aspects; image, effectiveness and employability; human resource
management; linking different educational and vocational qualifications and
NVQ programs (National Education Commission, 2009).

In 2009, 2010 and 2011 three provincial policy plans were made for
Sabaragamuwa, Eastern and Southern provinces respectively with the
support of academics, trainers, industry and some other public organizations.
The implementation of the provincial plan is done by a steering committee of
the province and in all three provinces these committees have started
implementing their plans. The TVEC has taken actions to develop provincial
VET plans for Northern and North Western provinces in 2012. In 2011 three
new TVET plans on telecommunication, electrical and electronic industry
and hotel and tourism sector were made by the Sri Lankan government
(Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC), 2013). Moreover,
the National Competency Standards (NCS) are developed for occupations in
the labor market and training is delivered according to NCS‟s and national
curricula adopting Competency Based Training (CBT) methods.

In the 2013 Budget speech, the Sri Lankan Executive President mentioned
that it is necessary to ensure that avenues are created for 10% of children
entering schools each year to move into universities and 40% to enter
technical and vocational education. Further he emphasized that skills
education and university education should be re-oriented to ensure that all

24

graduates who pass out will be gainfully employed in the economy which
should be the priority in education reforms. Rs. 1600 (million) was allocated
to set up Technical colleges attached to the Univotec that will accommodate
over 50,000 A/L students who will be given new diplomas, that will cater to
the demands of the international market. Also he stated that recognizing
prospects for overseas employment for youths with technical skills, dedicated
vocational educational facilities in these colleges will be made available to all
prospective youth identified by the Foreign Employment Bureau. Another Rs.
350 (million) was allocated to expand the capacity of 5 Agriculture Training
Schools to be equipped with modern technology and research facilities to
increase the student intake from 400-1500 from 2013 for 2 year Diploma
programs (www.treasury.gov.lk/depts/...budgetspeech2013-eng.p.).

The Corporate plan for 2013 -2017 has been prepared by the TVEC and it
outlines 3 broad policy objectives related to the TVET sector as follows: i)
improving quality and relevance of TVET programs; ii) increasing
enrolments in TVET institutions and iii) improving operational and
managerial efficiency of TVET institutions. This plan has a 5 year
development horizon underpinned with a coherent Annual Implementation
Plan for each year prepared based on physical and financial targets based on
the government‟s budgetary allocations. The time horizon of this plan will be
extended as the activities progress and new activities introduced in line with
policies and objectives of the TVEC (Tertiary and Vocational Education
Commission (TVEC), 2013).

The Asian Development Bank‟s (ADB) country partnership strategy,
2012-2016 focuses on three pillars, namely, i. Inclusive and sustainable
economic growth, ii. Catalyzing private investment and, iii. enhancing the
effectiveness of public investment and human resource and knowledge
development. The ADB is supporting a human capital development
investment program by expanding and improving the quality of technical
and vocational institutes and related infrastructure (ADB, 2013).Thus the
TVET policies in Sri Lanka have been changing over the last three and a half
decades in a rapid manner. One policy objective, however, has remained
constant –government provision of pre-employment technical and vocational
training to address the problem of high youth unemployment. Over time,

25

however, other policy considerations have emerged with changes in the
macro-economic environment, including meeting the skill needs of industrial
restructuring and competitiveness in a global economy (Tan and Chandrasiri,
2004).

2.3 TVET Structure

The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development (MYASD) is
responsible for ensuring the country‟s tertiary education and vocational
training efforts meet the skills needs of the industry and the national
development programs. The Ministry encompasses 17 statutory bodies such
as the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC), University of
Vocational Technology (Univotec), Dept. of Technical Education and Training
(DTET), Vocational Training Authority (VTA) and National Apprenticeship
and Industrial Training Authority (NAITA), National Institute of Business
Management (NIBM), Skills Development Fund Ltd. (SDFL), Ceylon
German Technical Training Institute (CGTTI), National Youth Services
Council (NYSC), National Human resources Development Council (NHRDC),
National Youth Award Authority (NYAA), National Youth Corps (NYC),
National Youth Service Ltd.(NYS), International Centre for Training of
Rural Leaders (ICTRL), Sri Lanka Institute of Printers (SLIOP), National
Institute of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering (NIFNE), and the National
Youth Services Cooperative Ltd. (NYSCO) (National Education Commission,
2009).Line ministries lead implementation agencies in the form of
government departments (established by Acts of the Parliament), statutory
agencies (corporate bodies authorized by the cabinet through a general act)
and commissions (think-tank or regulatory bodies established by act of
parliaments) (Gajaweera, 2010).

The (TVEC) which was established under the Tertiary and Vocational
Education Act No. 20 of 1990 is the regulatory body or the national apex
agency of the MYASD. It supports the ministry to formulate policy, plan and
coordinate as well as set standards and regulate the TVET sector for
relevance and quality for training. The TVEC is empowered to advise the
Minister on the general policy related to the TVET, to ensure the policy
implementation, to co-ordinate the TVET system, to undertake research and

26

development activities, to submit financial and other relevant reports, to
establish and maintain labor market information system and quality
assurance system in TVET. The functions of the TVEC are: planning,
coordination and development of the tertiary and vocational education,
development of nationally recognized systems for the granting of vocational
education awards and certificates, and maintenance of academic training
and standards of all TVET institutions (Tertiary and Vocational Education
Commission, 2013).

The TEVC has established a Planning and Research Division which is
responsible for giving effect to the planning, co-ordination and development
of the TEVT education at all levels in keeping with human resource needs of
the economy. Its functions are: assisting the public, private and NGO sector
TVET institutions, prepare and update VET plans, prepare, co-ordinate and
implement provincial VET plans, review and update existing TVET policies
and develop new policies, implement relevant research, conduct monitoring
programs and review and update corporate plans and prepare annual plans
(Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission, 2011, on line - tvec.gov.lk).

The TVEC has established a Labor Market Information (LMI) system which
carries information on labor market statistics including occupations in
demand locally and internationally with the view of providing labor market
signals to relevant parties. This information is published and disseminated
through LMI website and Labor Market Information Bulletin issued
bi-annually. The TVEC has also established an Educational Management
Information System (EMIS) with the objective of providing relevant
information for planning and decision making. A Geographical Information
System (GIS) also has been established to geographical information about
TVET sector.

The main TVET policy implementation agencies are the Dept. of Technical
Education and Training (DTET), The Vocational Training Authority (VTA)
and the National Apprenticeship and Industrial Training Authority (NAITA).
TVET is imparted through vocational training centers, polytechnics,
apprenticeships and training centers under various ministries and
departments. The Department of Technical Education and Training (DTET)

27

operates 38 Technical Colleges which offer technical and commerce related
courses at National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) levels 3, and 4, and some
tertiary courses throughout the country. Out of these 38, 9 Colleges have
been upgraded as Colleges of Technology to offer Diploma courses (NVQ –
level 5 & 6) in response to several labor market issues, particularly the
supply-demand gap for middle level technicians and technologists in
emerging industries (with Foreign Direct Investment –FDI) and the
unemployment of educated youth with the support of an Asian Development
Bank (ADB) project (National Education Commission, 2009).

The National Apprentice Board (NAB) established in 1971 was upgraded by
Part 11 of TVE Act No. 20 -1990 as National Apprenticeship and Industrial
Training Authority (NAITA). The NAITA functions as the leading agency in
providing apprenticeship training. It manages 3 national training institutes,
viz. Apprenticeship Technical Institution (AIT), Automobile Engineering
Training Institute (AETI) and Institute of Engineering Technology (IET). It
conducts island-wide training programs aimed at small, medium and large
scale enterprises in 75 (3- national and 25 district) training institutes.

There is a considerable number of other providers all regulated by the TVEC.
Although training is provided by Non- Governmental Organizations (NGO)
and private sector providers, the major providers are the government centers
spread across 11 ministries (ILO, 2010). The Vocational Training Authority
(VTA) established by Act No 12 -1995 has a special focus on training youth in
rural areas. The VTA offers NVQ level 3 & 4 level training through a
network of (261 centers) Rural Vocational Training Centers (RVTC), Special
Vocational Centers (SVTC), District Vocational Training Centers (DVTS) and
National Vocational Training Centers (NVT). The National Youth Service
Council (NYSC) established in 1970 under the National Youth Services
Council Act, undertakes the training of youth mainly in rural areas as a
subsidiary function. It has 43 centers, under the purview of the Ministry of
Youth Affairs and provides entrepreneurship development, life-skills and
livelihood-focused programs mainly for young persons. Sri Lanka Institute of
Advanced Technical Education (SLIATE) established by Act No.29 – 1995,
under the Ministry of Higher Education, provides training towards higher
national Diploma and Diploma level qualifications (National Policy on

28

Higher Education and Vocational Education, 2009). The National Institute of
Business Management (NIBM) has three schools, viz. School of Business
Management, Computer and Engineering. The School of Business
Management which is affiliated to 5 international universities has
commenced 12 graduate programs. It has planned to establish Asia‟s First
Green University in Homagama. The Skills Development Fund Ltd. (SDFL),
the Ceylon German Technical Training Institute (CGTTI), the National
Human Resources Development Council (NHRDC), the National Youth
Award Authority (NYAA), the National Youth Corps (NYC) and Provincial
Councils are also some of the main TVET providers. Thus Sri Lanka‟s TVET
system is characterized by a multitude of agencies including training
providers of public and private sectors, standards and curriculum
development agencies and a regulatory body (see Figure: 1 Technical and
Vocational Education and Training System of Sri Lanka –take from
corporate plan -2013 p.9). will add the chart


Figure 2: 1
TEVT System of Sri Lanka ( from page 4)






Source: Corporate Plan 2013- 2017


The National Institute of Teacher Education of Sri Lanka (NITESL) was
given the functions of training the teachers and developing the curriculum
of the TVET sector. In 2008, The University of Vocational Technology
(Univotec) was established under the Univotec Act (2007) and absorbed the
functions, staff and premises of the NITESL. The Univotec was established
with the purpose of providing education at degree level for those who come
through National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) system as well as those
who work in industry and wish to acquire degree level of education. The

29

NITESL was made a Faculty of the Univotec as per the provision of the
Univotec Act.

In 2007, the Technical Education Development Project (TEDP) the successor
to the Skills Development Project (SDP) came to put into effect that mainly
activities related to NVQ level 5 and above Diploma level courses and setting
up of the Univotec for award of NVQ 7 degree equivalent qualification. The
MYASD has planned to set up 20 University Colleges affiliated to the
Univotec to create alternate pathways up to the degree level for students
who are leaving formal education. The Government of Sri Lanka has already
allocated Rs 1.6 billion in the 2013 budget for this project. Another 5
University Colleges will be established in collaboration with the private
sector (interviews done with the executive staff of the TVEC on 05
th
Nov.
2013).

The Ministry of Education has also launched non-formal vocational
education programs which allow school drop-outs and adults who have not
completed their school education to engage in self-employment activities. In
addition, Departments such as agriculture, rural development, health,
construction, telecommunication, transport, textiles & garments, labor,
science & technology and industry and Samurdhi Authority also provide
training in different areas. Private sector establishments in the industry
provide industry-specific TVET courses for their own workers as well as
outsiders in different occupations. As recorded at the end of 2012 Sep. there
were 337 - government, 766 - Statutory Boards, 1,051 – private and 267 –
NGO TVET institutions registered under the TVEC. Thus the number of
total registered TVET institute is 2,421 (Tertiary and Vocational education
Commission (TVEC), 2013) and the number has been increasing rapidly. For
example in 2013 there were 164 public, private, NGO and religious
institution based registered computer training centers only in the Western
province. However, both private and public TVET institutes are required to
register under the TVEC Act No 20, 1990. Thus, TVET in Sri Lanka is
fragmented by separate administrative arrangements, that operates at
many levels and areas, and incorporates different delivery systems.



30






Figure _ 2:2 (take from corporate plan)
Institutional Development of TVET Sector -2011 & 2012

Source: Corporate Plan 2013-2017

2.4 Subject and Courses

By Sep. 2012, a total of 1,148 TVET courses have been accredited by the
TVEC. There are more than 150 craft training courses operating under 22
vocational fields. Draughtsman-ship (civil), quantity surveying computer
application, computer graphic designer, web designer, scientific plumbing
techniques, domestic electrical installation, Leema creation program
(woodwork), motor mechanism, auto electric technology, auto air condition
and Auto CAD etc. are the major courses. National curricular, teaching and
learning guides are designed centrally and made available through TVEC‟s
Central Learning Resource Centre. The TVET general courses are taught in
all College of Technology, Technical Colleges, institutes, NAITA centers, VTA
Centers, and Youth Council centers etc. but courses up to the degree level is
offered at the Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL) and the Univotec, as
well as at diploma level at 37 Technical Colleges, Sri Lanka Institute of
Advanced Technical Education (SLIATE) and the Sri Lanka School of
Agriculture (SLSA). Several government ministries, departments, and TVET
centers offer variety of training programs targeting different groups such as
unemployed youth, rural women, school leavers, unskilled and semi-skilled
workers and differently abled persons. Different training delivery methods,
such as formal, institutional, apprenticeship, in-plant and on-the-job are
designed to cater to the varying educational attainments and learning
abilities of the target groups.

Table 2: 10
Number of TVET Courses Accredited by the TVEC – Sep. 2012

31


Category No of Courses accredited
VTA 488
NAITA 64
DTET 182
NYSC

60

Private and NGO

348

Youth Corps

05

Sri Lanka Institute
of Printing

01

Total

1,148


Source: Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission, 2013: 21

Courses vary in duration from two days (16 hours) to several weeks in the
case of part time livelihood programs and from six months to one or two to
three years in the case of full time vocational programs, depending on the
levels of skill to be attained (The Presidential Task Report on Technical
Education and Vocational Training Reforms, 1997).All courses require a
practical component but for short term part time courses it is around 8 hours.
But courses last between one and three years and include a work placement
of between six months and one year. NAITA is mandated through the TVE
Act No. 20 -1990 to arrange apprenticeship training and it has made several
hundreds of partnerships with various enterprises. Mainly they provide
“on-site-training- for the TVE trainees ((National Education Commission,
2009). Qualifications to apply for courses also vary according to the nature of
the study course. For example, the required qualification for the course in
Gardening is Grade 8 passed and for Computer or Information Technology it
is GCE O/L passed with 6 subjects including language, mathematics, science
and English (http://www.tvec.gov.lk) and (http://www.naita.gov.lk). The

32

average age of the TVET students is between 17-30 years.

Though a few courses are offered free (such as carpentry and gardening or
short term- one week courses) fees for other courses vary from Rs.2000.00 to
Rs. 50,000.00.

Generally the theoretical and practical component of training is offered at a
TVET institution and institutional training is given in a public or private
institution as on-the-job training. Trade apprenticeships have been
formalized through the NAITA which provides industrial placements for a
large number of youths seeking training. Though apprenticeships were
limited mainly to the government institutions, recently there are signs that
leading local firms with international reputations such as Coca-Cola, and
Holcim cement etc. are considering TVET trainees as interns (Gajaweera,
2010).

According to the NVQ certificates issued in 2012 the highest number of
students have obtained certificates for computer application assistants, the
second highest was the Electrician and the third was for the course on
Beautician. An increasing number of students have followed the courses
offered by the private/NGO sector (Table 2: 11).

Table 2: 11
NVQ Certificates Issued by Training Provider only
for Five Highest Subjects -2012
Sector DTET NAITA VTA NYSC PVT/NGO Total
Computer
applicant
384 724 1,076 57 768 3,009
Electrician 96 388 953 51 409 1,897
Beautician 425 780 123 554 1,882
Automobile
Mechanic
103 848 218 31 310 1,205
Welder 21 305 604 16 185 1,131


Source: http;//www.tvec.gov.lk/lmi/labor_market_vocationa_training_htm

33


There was no path way from vocational and tertiary education to university
level until the establishment of the Univotec which ensures an academic
track for those with vocational qualifications. The general objective of the
Univotec is to provide progressive upward movement to students in the
TVET sector. It offers degrees at three faculties: Faculty of Training
Technology providing pedagogical training, Faculty of Industrial Technology
and Faculty of Vocational Technology. At present 9 degree programs, 5
Diploma programs and a training course for assessors are offered by the
Univotec. The students are mainly teachers of Colleges of Technology and
other public and private TVET institutes, who have been released on a full –
pay basis from their current positions to attend the degree courses in the
Univotec.

Due to some special projects supported by the World Bank, GTZ, JICA,
British Council, ILO, and ADB since 1990‟s,around 18 VET plans for key
industry sectors (Information and Communication Technology,
Telecommunication, Hotel and Tourism and Electrical & Electronic sector
etc.) have been developed and some curricular revisions were done. The
introduction of new teacher training programs, making changes to the
administration and management of the TVEC and NVQ system have also
been initiated. Further new learning materials, such as modules, equipment,
training of assessors and accreditors and development of physical facilities
have also been provided to the TVET sector (Tertiary and Vocational
Education Commission, 2013).

2.5 National Vocational Qualification Framework (NVQF)

The TVE Act No. 20 -1990 has mandated TVEC to set up a nationally and
internationally recognized system to award qualifications on TVET for those
who seek certificates for employment and other purposes. In order to fulfill
this objective and to support the efforts in enhancing the development of an
internationally competitive work force the TVEC has set up the NVQF in
2005. It is a nationally and internationally recognized vocational
certification system which unifies the national system covering all agencies
providing vocational and tertiary level education and training (Tertiary and

34

Vocational Education Commission, 2009). The NVQF followed initial
proposals of the 1990‟s, as a part of attempts to deal with youth
unemployment, the mismatch between education institutions and the labor
market, and limited career development opportunities for youth. Sri Lanka
previously had a National Skills Standards and Trade Testing system, which
was largely focused on the construction sector and was limited to four grades,
the highest of which was tradesmen category. In this system TEV training
was delivered through different providers and curriculum design, training
processes and assessment varied from institution to institution. It is believed
that this was a major reason for the gap between training output and the
demand in industry (International Labor Organization, 2010).

The NVQF has three key features, viz. assurance of quality training and
education; industry based vocational training and equal accessibility and
uniformity. This is a national competency standard set in consultation with
the industry, national quality standards for teaching and assessment using a
competency based approach and certification of learners and workers (Asian
Development Bank, 2011). Competency based training remains as the mode
of delivery of vocational training that is leading to offer qualification under
the NVQF. This framework attempts to bring coherence through a single set
of standards and curricula, as well as a single set of agencies overseeing the
TVE training (Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training, 2009). Training
institutions are expected to establish and maintain a Quality Management
System (QMS) in consultation with the TVEC that ensures smooth
functioning of the organization (Tertiary and Vocational Education
Commission, 2013). The objectives of the NVQF is to increase the relevance
and quality of skills development and vocational and technical education and
training through: greater alignment to national development goals, stronger
responsiveness to industry and training needs, convenient and flexible
access for potential trainees, proactive education and training strategies,
improved international linkages and recognition for the TVET sector and its
products, collaboration between training agencies and enhanced quality,
relevance, effectiveness, efficiency and transparency or training delivery.
The key agencies of implementing NVQF are TVEC, NITESL, NAITA, DTET,
VTA and Univotec. Though the Sri Lankan NVQF is based on the Australian
and New Zealand systems it has been adapted according to the local needs

35

(Gajaweera, 2010).

The NVQF consists of 7 levels, with different levels of courses such as
certificates, diplomas and degree at each level which follows a single track
up to level 6. Certifications of 1-6 levels are carried out by institutions
accredited by the TVEC. Level 7 is carried out by the Univotec which has
degree level (9 degree programs) tracks in three Faculties. National
Certificate for level 1 recognizes the acquisition of a core of entry level skills.
Levels 2, 3 and 4 recognize the increasing levels of competencies. Level 4
qualification awards for full national craftsmanship. Level 5 & 6 is a
National Diploma and it recognizes the increasing levels of competencies
ranging from technical level to management level. Level 7 is a Bachelors‟
Degree. The certifications of these levels are carried out by the institutions
accredited by the TVEC and they are nationally recognized (Education Guide
Sri Lanka, 2009-2010). The NVQF recognizes competencies acquired through
informal learning such as work place and life experiences, self- study,
informal and formal uncertified learning, in-service training, distance
education, community–based learning and overseas training or experiences.
Competencies are assessed through Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)
against NVQF before candidates are awarded a National Vocational
Qualification certificate at the appropriate level (National Education
Commission, 2009).

Table 2:12
National Vocational Qualifications Framework – Seven Levels

Level No Qualification Generalized description
Level 1 National Certificate Entry level competency
Level, 2; 3 and 4 National Certificate Increasing levels of
competencies –Level 4 –full
craftsmanship/workmanship
Level 5 and 6 National Diploma Increasing level of
competencies of technicians-
supervision and process
management
Level 7 Bachelor‟s Degree Vocational/technological

36

competencies at degree level
Source: http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/worldtvetdatabase1.php?ct=LKA

The NCS have centrally-developed curricula which contain specified
learning outcomes. Teacher and Learner guides are also centrally developed
and assessment procedures are specified. About 90% of the public sector
TVET institutions implement the NVQF and some private institutes have
also been registered and accredited to provide NVQF courses. The NVQF
includes specifications for testing and certification, through the TVEC and
other associated government agencies (ILO, 2010). Competency standard
units can be acquired individually or progressively and lead towards a full
award. The NVQF encourages flexible skills acquisition both on and off the
job and also recognizes prior learning policies and processes. These are
established to allow knowledge and skills acquired informally to be assessed,
and competencies recognized towards national vocational qualifications
(Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training, 2009).The NVQF also plays a
role in managing resource allocation to TVET institutions.

Up to 2012, the NVQF has reviewed and updated 131 (Level 1 to 4 - 114 and
level 5 & 6 - 17) National Competency Standards (NCS) for more than 45
qualifications, based on 63 skill standards (Tertiary and Vocational
Education Commission (TVEC), 2013). NAITA which plays a key role in
implementing NVQF is responsible for the development of NCS, curriculum
validation and development of assessment resources. It also implements
Competency Based Training (CBT), conducting CBT assessment including
recognition of prior learning and industrial placement of trainees.

In the area of quality assurance, a total of 800 TVET courses in the public
sector and 348 in the private and NGO sector were accredited for award of
NVQ to those who completed courses successfully. A total of 16,573 NVQ
certificates in 2011 and 67,810 in 2012 were issued by the TVEC (Tertiary
and Vocational Education Commission, 2013). Assessor training is done by
the Univotec and selection is carried out by the TVEC. The NVQ division of
the TVEC coordinates and manages the overall NVQ development and
implementation operations.


37

Before 2005, curriculum design, delivery and assessment were largely an
ad-hoc process leading to disparities in quality and relevance to industry
across multiple sites. According to some studies, the NVQ system has
improved the delivery of vocational training, primarily due to the
specification of curricular learning outcomes tagged to NVQ competency
standards; the provision of structured curricular materials with teacher and
learner guides; improved assessment procedures linked to outcomes;
provision of equipment to meet the standards and technological environment
set out in the standards, and ultimately, the training of trainers in both
methodology and core technical knowledge. Mainly due to the ADB project
support and international expertise, TVEC and NITESL‟s capacity and
allocation of funds by the Sri Lankan Treasury to vocational training centers
for NVQ-accredited courses and for equipping the centers, the NVQF
appears to be well established (Gajaweera, 2010).

2. 6 Students and Staff

In 2012 there were 111,487 registered students of the public TVET students
institutions and the highest number of the students (25,840) were registered
in the training centers of the VTA. The second highest number (20,227) was
registered at the NAITA centers
(statistics.gov.lk/education/schools_iniversity.pdf). However, only 86,847
students successfully completed the courses and 24,640 (22.1%) students
dropped out from the courses. Table 2: 12 shows that the male student
registration has been higher than the female numbers and the total
registration of students has been increasing slowly. Except the year 2011, the
drop-out rates of total students also has been decreasing
(http://www.tvec.gov.lk/lmi/labor_market-vocational-training.htm). The
highest number of students dropped out was 8,553 (2012) from NAITA
training centers (statistics.gov.lk/education/schools_university.pdf). The
major training institutes that supply the more conventional skills of the
labor market, namely the DTET, VTA and NAITA account for nearly 85% of
the training provided by the state sector (The Presidential Task Force on
Technical Education Vocational Training Reforms, 1997). In 2012, intake of
Colleges of Technology for National Diploma (NVQ level 5 & 6) was 145,
National Certificates - 3,307, National Craft Certificate 1,140 and for short

38

courses, mainly intended for self-employment 1,992. In Technical Colleges
the total intake for the National Diploma was 86, National Certificate - 5,741,
National Craft Certificate 1,975 and for short courses 4,511 in 2012 (Central
Bank of Sri Lanka, 2013).

Table 2:13
Students Registration, completion of Courses &drop-out rates - Public
TVET Sector -2007& 2012

Year Total
registered
Male Female Total
completed
Male Female Drop out
Total & rates
2007 60,198 37,118 23,080 30,495 19,170 11,325 29,703(49.3%)
2008 93,322 54,843 38,479 66,487 37,734 28,753 26835 (28.8%)
2009 87,774 50,919 36,914 64,373 370,46 27,327 23,401(26.7%)
2010 83,156 490,42 34,104 64,221 37,163 27,058 18,935(22.8%)
2011 97,924 56,177 41,747 58,460 33,544 24,916 39,464(40.3%)
2012 111,487 64,282 47,205 86,847 48,315 38,532 24,640(22.1%)

Source: http://www.tvec.gov.lk/lmi/labor_market-vocational-training.htm

The academic staff of the public TVET institutions consists of 3 categories
namely permanent -1191, contract -721, and visiting -1339 amounting to a
total of 3251 persons. The Univotec offers short term teacher training
programs and a degree in Bachelor of Education in Technology for resource
persons of the TVET sector. As of January 2012, there were 382 training
centers that are governed by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills
Development (UNESCO-UNIVOC web page).

2.7 Financing
A large number of courses offered by the public TEVT institutions are free of
charge. Some students who are from poor families get a daily travel
allowance (Rs.50.00). However for courses such as computer, beautician and
hair dressing and cookery etc. related to income generating, a fee is charged
and it is between Rs. 2000 – 50,000 for the full course.

The 2012 recurrent expenditure for TVET sector was approximately Rs.

39

(million) 3230, and capital expenditure was around (million) Rs. 1118. This is
around 3% of the total budget allocation for education. For the same year
fees and other income was around Rs. 935 million.
(statstics.gov.lk/education/schools_universities.pdf). Since recurrent cost for
staff salaries and other administrative functions are very high the Sri
Lankan TEVT sector has limited resources to improve the quality of the
programs and upgrading the laboratories and other facilities.

The above description illustrates that the Sri Lankan TVET policies have
been revised mainly after the 1990s, and the multi layered structure has
been reorganized recently to a certain extent. Establishing a University of
Technical and Vocational Education and Training can be considered as a
major recent achievement. Though still the responsibility of TVET lies on
several ministries and departments, major responsibility has been given to a
single Ministry.


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