The Classical Guitar
Content
The Classical Guitar: History and Repertoire The term, “Modern classical guitar,” is often used to distinguish it from previous guitar forms. It is an instrument that was perfected in the late 19th century by Spanish luthier, Antonio de Torres, hence the so often placed term, Spanish Guitar (Kozinn 1984, p.30). In this essay I will attempt to describe, briefly, the extensive history of the classical guitar, the great guitar virtuosos, as well as the non-guitarists, who composed for it, and the core repertoire for the instrument. History: How the guitar evolved to its present form The classical guitar can somewhat be traced as far back as 2000 B.C. Several guitar-like instruments such as the Chetarah and Nefer were created in ancient Mesopotamia (Kozinn 1984, p.8). The Romans carried the lute-like Pandoura and the Kithara to the far corners of their European Empire (Kozinn 1984, p.8). Although the Kithara has more in common with a harp, a guitar in its simplest form is a taut string that, when plucked, produces vibrations that are recognizable as a tone (Kozinn 1984, p.9). The Renaissance had three dominant guitar-like instruments; the Lute, the Vihuela, and the four course guitar. For nearly a thousand years the Lute was one of the most dominant instruments throughout Europe. It had many radical transformations in that time period, but the most common form was relatively compact with six courses (sets of doubled strings). The repertoire for the instrument is relatively rich, and a large portion of this music has been transcribed for modern guitar (Kozinn 1984, p.11). The Lute mostly served as an Above: A portrait of a man playing a lute
accompaniment instrument to a singer or another instrument, but serious compositions can be heard from composers such as John Dowland and J.S. Bach. While the Lute was popular throughout virtually all of Europe, the Vihuela was popular in Spain and Italy. The Vihuela differs from the Lute in that the six courses of strings were tuned in unison rather than the lower courses in octaves as was the Lute, the back was flat where the Lute’s was round, and the Vihuela has an inclined peg box to tune the strings opposed to the sharp angle of the Lute’s (Kozinn 1984, p.11). The tuning of the instrument was similar to the Lute’s G-c-f-a-d-g; in another sense, intervals of a fourth with a major third between the third and fourth strings (Grunfeld, 1969 p.69). The modern guitar can easily transcribe Vihuela repertoire by adding a capo on the third fret and lowering the third string by a half step. In France, the four course guitar was nearly as popular as the Lute in the midAbove: Early six string guitar models
16th century, but fell out of fashion toward
the beginning of the 1600’s (Kozinn 1984, p.14). The modern classical guitar can be said to be a direct decedent of the four course guitar. In the last quarter of the 17th century, it underwent changes that led closer to Antonio de Torres’s design. A fifth course was added to the instrument and the new tuning system, A-d-g-b-e, would become standard to this day. Finally, the five course guitar underwent even more changes in the early 19th century. The sixth string, E, was added and the course system was abolished leaving six single strings, EA-D-g-b-e (Kozinn 1984, p.23). This string system eliminated a number of problems that the
other four and five course guitars had – from finding a pair of gut strings good enough to be tuned in unison to each other, to tuning the instrument faster and more efficiently (Kozinn 1984, p.23). Torres’s design toward the end of the century was simply the icing on the cake in regards to the modern guitar’s design. Tablature Beginning in the Renaissance period we first start to see surviving literature in the form of tablature, a musical notation that shows fingerings in the form of numbers corresponding to frets rather than pitches, with the rhythm often notated above the staff. The lines of the staff correspond to the strings of the instrument. Between 1536 and 1576, seven books consisting of over 700 works for Vihuela were published in Spain (Kozinn 1984, p.12). Above: An example of tablature
Chronologically, these seven books are: Luis Milan’s El
Maestro (1536); Luis de Narvaez’s Los seys libros de Delphin de Musica (1538); Alonso Mudarrs’s Tres Libros de musica en cifras para vihuela (1546); Enrique de Valderrabano’s Silva de sirenas (1547); Diego Pisador’s Libro de musica de vihuela (1552); Miguel de Fuenllana’s Orphenica Lyra (1554); and Estaban Daza’s El Parnasso (1576) (Kozinn 1984, p.13). The Lute also had its fair share of publications, especially in England, where surviving pieces outnumber keyboard pieces 4 to 1 (Wright 2003, p. 180). England’s most famous composer for lute was undoubtedly John Dowland. Dowland published four collections of lute Ayres between the years of 1579 and 1612 (Wright 2003, p 221). Notable composers for the four course guitar include the French men Guillaume Morlaye, Adrien Le Roy, and Guillaume Morlaye who published multiple works between the years of 1551 and 1555 (Kozinn 1984, p.16). For nearly 165 years, guitar literature would be published in
tablature notation until 1714, when Santiago de Murcia’s Resumen de acompanar la parte con la guitarra was that last collection of works for guitar to be published as tablature. The Golden Age of Guitar As the guitar took on the features of six single strings and its modern tuning system, it ceased from being a mere accompaniment instrument, as it had been from the second half of the 18th century, to a virtuoso instrument capable of giving more popular instruments, such as the violin and piano, a run for their money. The Spanish guitar virtuoso tradition can be said to have started with Miguel Garcia, a monk who became interested in the guitar around the end of the 18th century (Kozinn 1984, p.23). Garcia himself played the guitar parts for some of the quintets composed by the cello virtuoso, Luigi Boccherini (Kozinn 1984, p.23). His students included Ferandiere, Moretti, whose work on part writing possibilities influenced Fernando Sor, and Dioniso Aguado. The leading guitarists of the “expressionist” school were the Spaniards Fernando Sor and Dioniso Aguado, and the Italians Ferdinando Carulli, Matteo Carcassi, and Mauro Guliani (Grunfeld, 1969 p.174). All of these composers, with the exception of Guiliani, were based in the center of guitar activity, Paris, France. Fernando Sor is considered one of, if not, the greatest guitarist of the Romantic era (Grunfeld, 1969 p.174). Aside from his guitar output, Sor also composed Operas, Symphonies, Ballets, and even a Violin Concerto. Sor’s crowning achievement as a composer is his Methode pour la guitar, which was composed in Paris in 1830. Easily the most remarkable book on guitar ever written, it represents Above: A portrait of Fer- the achievement of forty years of experience (Grunfeld, 1969 nando Sor
p.182). Sor’s composition style is considered to be of the classical taste acquired by Mozart and Haydn. Some of Sor’s more popular works include his two full-scale Sonatas, Op. 22 and 25, and the frequently played theme and variations from Mozart’s Magic Flute, the Introduction and Variations, Op. 9 (Kozinn 1984, p.28). During his 1820’s stay in France, Sor received a visit from the most brilliant guitarist in Spain at the time, Dionisio Aguado, with the express purpose of getting to know him (Grunfeld, 1969 p.187). The two musicians instantly hit it off. In fact Sor, composed Los Dos Amigos to celebrate their new found friendship. “I shall never be able to play like you,” Sor is quoted in saying, to which Aguado replied, “But I shall never be able to compose like you, or express such profound feelings” (Grunfeld, 1969 p.187). Unlike Sor, Aguado is best known for his guitar technique and reputation as a brilliant virtuoso. Most of his compositions consist of pieces intended to improve his student’s techniques. Aguado and Sor were in close collaboration with each other, but they did not agree with each other when it came to right hand technique. Aguado preferred the use of nails for the sake of clairity, while Sor recommended the use of the flesh of the fingertips for a mellower and more powerful tone (Heck, 2011). In 1843, Aguado composed his New Guitar Method, in which we see the seeds of what is now standard technique (Kozinn 1984, p.23). Like most of the romantic virtuosos, Aguado thought of the guitar first in terms of tone color, and how it compared in that respect to the nobility of the symphony orchestra (Grunfeld, 1969 p.194). The Italian school of guitar also shared the same concept of the guitar as a miniature orchestra. Around the same time, two guitarists, Ferdinando Carulli and Matteo Carcassi, made notable careers in Paris. Carulli composed a large repertoire of works for guitar, issued in over 330 opus numbers, including a few concertos, one of which is a double concerto for flute and
guitar. The second movement of that particular concerto boasts a gorgeous theme and variations. He wrote a popular Method that is still being reprinted to this day (Grunfeld, 1969 p.194). His successor and rival, Matteo Carcassi, expanded on Carulli's technique with a Complete Method for the guitar, which became the most widely used study guide of the 19th century (Grunfeld, 1969 p.194). Perhaps the greatest guitarist of the Italian school was
Below: A portrait of Mauro Giuliani
Mauro Giuliani. Unlike, the other guitarists who had success in Paris, Giuliani gained stardom in Vienna, among the cities greatest composers, such as Beethoven and Schubert. Giuliani arrived in Vienna in 1806 and immediately established a career as a virtuoso soloist (Kozinn 1984, p.29) Under, unpleasant legal circumstances, he left Vienna in 1819 and relocated to Rome, where he would play recitals on his own, as well as his daughter Emilia's, recitals until his death in 1829 (Kozinn 1984, p.29). Like Sor, Giuliani left a treasure-trove of works that exploit the guitar's harmonic and melodic resources within a well crafted late-Classic/early Romantic style (Kozinn 1984, p.29). Single movement works such as the Gran Sonata Eroica, Op. 150, and the Grand Overture, Op.61 demands technicality of the highest degree and strives for an almost orchestral sound; while the more expressive, three movement Sonata, Op. 15, contrasts quick, light spirited outer-movements with a gorgeously tuneful slow movement. (Kozinn 1984, p.29) The crowning achievement of Giuliani's works are his four concertos for guitar. Unfortunately, the fourth one is remains lost.
The guitar's decline and a new resurrection During the late 19th century, the guitar would once again see a period of dormancy. Unable to keep pace with the musical fashion of orchestral and keyboard sound, the guitar simply could not compete (Kozinn 1984, p.32). However, in Spain the guitar remained it's national instrument, and it was there it underwent a series of structural improvements by Antonio Torres. Soon, the guitar would be ready to burst fourth from its Iberic cocoon and claim its place both in the concert hall, and as an increasingly significant voice of the 20th century (Kozinn 1984, p.32). Along with Antonio Torres, the concert guitarist Francisco Tarrega helped to resurrect the instrument. Francisco Tarrega kept the virtuoso tradition alive long enough to inspire a generation of players that would turn his devotion to the guitar into an international crusade (Kozinn 1984, p.32). Of his eighty compositions, many are rarely played beyond the student level due to the shortness of the composition. However, works such as Capricho arabe, Danza mora, Gran Jota, and the magnificent tremolo study, Recuerdos de la Alhambra, remain some of the Above: A photo of Francisco Tarrega
most dazzling works of the Romantic guitar literature (Kozinn
1984, p.33). Tarrega also transcribed a some 150 works by a diverse group of composers such as Bach, Beethoven, Wagner, and Tchaikovsky. His legacy was carried on by his students; Emilio Pujol, Miguel Llobet, Maria Rita Brondi, Pepita Roca, and Daniel Fortea. Llobet would take the next step of expanding the guitars repertoire by asking non-guitarists composers to write for the instrument (Kozinn 1984, p.33).
The quest of giving the guitar its permanent place in the spot light fell not to the disciples of Tarrega, but to the self taught guitarist from Andalusia, Andres Segovia. Known primarily as a performer and recording artist, Segovia revolutionized the popularity of the guitar in the early 20th century. After his 1916 debut at the Ateneo in Madrid, he began playing a rapidly expanding repertoire of original guitar music and his own transcriptions ranging from Bach to Albeniz (Grunfeld, 1969 p.292). Above: A photograph of Andres Segovia
The pinnacle of Segovia's transcriptions is
unquestionably J.S. Bach's Chaconne from the Second Partita for Violin Solo, BWV 1004 (Kozinn 1984, p.35). The core of the “Segovia-inspired literature” was mostly produced by the six composers Joaquin Turina, Moreno Torroba, Manuel Ponce, Maria Castelnuovo, Alexandre Tansman, and Heitor Villa-Lobos (Kozinn 1984, p.36). Ponce was considered by Segovia to be the best composer for the instrument. Notable compositions by Ponce include the Twelve Preludes, Valse, the Twenty Variations and Fugue on Folias de Espana, and his versatile sonatas the Sonata Romantica, and the Sonata Clasica (Kozinn 1984, p.36). As Segovia gained success, other guitarists began to emerge. The Paraguayan born guitarist, Agustin Pio Barrios, had success as a recording artist, performer, and composer. Some works include Sueno en la floresta, the tremolo study, El ultimo canto, and La Cathedral (Kozinn 1984, p.37). Alirio Diaz was a student of Segovia and developed a technique in which precision and directness replaced Romantic gestures (Kozinn 1984, p.37). Other emerging guitarists include Narciso Yepes, Alexandre Lagoya, and his wife Ida Presti. Lagoya and Presti were a duo famous for a method of playing trills and ornaments on two strings rather than on one
(Kozinn 1984, p.40). This is technique is known as “Cross-stringing” and has become standard among young players. Conclusion There is a large number of concert guitarists today keeping the guitar in the limelight. John williams is regarded as one of the best performing guitarists in the world today and has recorded countless hours of music for the instrument. Julian Bream is an amazing guitarist that has had success in renewing interest in the Renaissance lute. The Cuban guitarist, conductor, composer Leo Brouwer is much like a modern day Sor. He is an accomplished guitarist, a composer for the instrument, and a composer in other diverse genres outside of the guitar. The classical guitar has a rich history, full of wonder and mystery. There is no telling what the future holds for it. Classical music in general has struggled to compete with modern popular music, with the classical guitar often being used as a mere flavor. Perhaps it will have to undergo even more modification, or will require a new revival from an inspiring guitarist to regain it's former glory. As long as we have guitarists like John Williams and Julian Bream championing it's long history of repertoire, we can be assured the classical guitar will not go away. Work Cited Grunfeld, Frederic V. The Art and Times of the Guitar. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1969. Print Heck, Thomas F. "Aguado, Dionisio." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. 22 Dec. 2011 <http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/00319>. Kozinn, Allan, Pete Welding, Dan Forte, and Gene Santoro. The Guitar: The History, the Music, the Players. New York: Willioam Morrow and Company, 1984. Print
accompaniment instrument to a singer or another instrument, but serious compositions can be heard from composers such as John Dowland and J.S. Bach. While the Lute was popular throughout virtually all of Europe, the Vihuela was popular in Spain and Italy. The Vihuela differs from the Lute in that the six courses of strings were tuned in unison rather than the lower courses in octaves as was the Lute, the back was flat where the Lute’s was round, and the Vihuela has an inclined peg box to tune the strings opposed to the sharp angle of the Lute’s (Kozinn 1984, p.11). The tuning of the instrument was similar to the Lute’s G-c-f-a-d-g; in another sense, intervals of a fourth with a major third between the third and fourth strings (Grunfeld, 1969 p.69). The modern guitar can easily transcribe Vihuela repertoire by adding a capo on the third fret and lowering the third string by a half step. In France, the four course guitar was nearly as popular as the Lute in the midAbove: Early six string guitar models
16th century, but fell out of fashion toward
the beginning of the 1600’s (Kozinn 1984, p.14). The modern classical guitar can be said to be a direct decedent of the four course guitar. In the last quarter of the 17th century, it underwent changes that led closer to Antonio de Torres’s design. A fifth course was added to the instrument and the new tuning system, A-d-g-b-e, would become standard to this day. Finally, the five course guitar underwent even more changes in the early 19th century. The sixth string, E, was added and the course system was abolished leaving six single strings, EA-D-g-b-e (Kozinn 1984, p.23). This string system eliminated a number of problems that the
other four and five course guitars had – from finding a pair of gut strings good enough to be tuned in unison to each other, to tuning the instrument faster and more efficiently (Kozinn 1984, p.23). Torres’s design toward the end of the century was simply the icing on the cake in regards to the modern guitar’s design. Tablature Beginning in the Renaissance period we first start to see surviving literature in the form of tablature, a musical notation that shows fingerings in the form of numbers corresponding to frets rather than pitches, with the rhythm often notated above the staff. The lines of the staff correspond to the strings of the instrument. Between 1536 and 1576, seven books consisting of over 700 works for Vihuela were published in Spain (Kozinn 1984, p.12). Above: An example of tablature
Chronologically, these seven books are: Luis Milan’s El
Maestro (1536); Luis de Narvaez’s Los seys libros de Delphin de Musica (1538); Alonso Mudarrs’s Tres Libros de musica en cifras para vihuela (1546); Enrique de Valderrabano’s Silva de sirenas (1547); Diego Pisador’s Libro de musica de vihuela (1552); Miguel de Fuenllana’s Orphenica Lyra (1554); and Estaban Daza’s El Parnasso (1576) (Kozinn 1984, p.13). The Lute also had its fair share of publications, especially in England, where surviving pieces outnumber keyboard pieces 4 to 1 (Wright 2003, p. 180). England’s most famous composer for lute was undoubtedly John Dowland. Dowland published four collections of lute Ayres between the years of 1579 and 1612 (Wright 2003, p 221). Notable composers for the four course guitar include the French men Guillaume Morlaye, Adrien Le Roy, and Guillaume Morlaye who published multiple works between the years of 1551 and 1555 (Kozinn 1984, p.16). For nearly 165 years, guitar literature would be published in
tablature notation until 1714, when Santiago de Murcia’s Resumen de acompanar la parte con la guitarra was that last collection of works for guitar to be published as tablature. The Golden Age of Guitar As the guitar took on the features of six single strings and its modern tuning system, it ceased from being a mere accompaniment instrument, as it had been from the second half of the 18th century, to a virtuoso instrument capable of giving more popular instruments, such as the violin and piano, a run for their money. The Spanish guitar virtuoso tradition can be said to have started with Miguel Garcia, a monk who became interested in the guitar around the end of the 18th century (Kozinn 1984, p.23). Garcia himself played the guitar parts for some of the quintets composed by the cello virtuoso, Luigi Boccherini (Kozinn 1984, p.23). His students included Ferandiere, Moretti, whose work on part writing possibilities influenced Fernando Sor, and Dioniso Aguado. The leading guitarists of the “expressionist” school were the Spaniards Fernando Sor and Dioniso Aguado, and the Italians Ferdinando Carulli, Matteo Carcassi, and Mauro Guliani (Grunfeld, 1969 p.174). All of these composers, with the exception of Guiliani, were based in the center of guitar activity, Paris, France. Fernando Sor is considered one of, if not, the greatest guitarist of the Romantic era (Grunfeld, 1969 p.174). Aside from his guitar output, Sor also composed Operas, Symphonies, Ballets, and even a Violin Concerto. Sor’s crowning achievement as a composer is his Methode pour la guitar, which was composed in Paris in 1830. Easily the most remarkable book on guitar ever written, it represents Above: A portrait of Fer- the achievement of forty years of experience (Grunfeld, 1969 nando Sor
p.182). Sor’s composition style is considered to be of the classical taste acquired by Mozart and Haydn. Some of Sor’s more popular works include his two full-scale Sonatas, Op. 22 and 25, and the frequently played theme and variations from Mozart’s Magic Flute, the Introduction and Variations, Op. 9 (Kozinn 1984, p.28). During his 1820’s stay in France, Sor received a visit from the most brilliant guitarist in Spain at the time, Dionisio Aguado, with the express purpose of getting to know him (Grunfeld, 1969 p.187). The two musicians instantly hit it off. In fact Sor, composed Los Dos Amigos to celebrate their new found friendship. “I shall never be able to play like you,” Sor is quoted in saying, to which Aguado replied, “But I shall never be able to compose like you, or express such profound feelings” (Grunfeld, 1969 p.187). Unlike Sor, Aguado is best known for his guitar technique and reputation as a brilliant virtuoso. Most of his compositions consist of pieces intended to improve his student’s techniques. Aguado and Sor were in close collaboration with each other, but they did not agree with each other when it came to right hand technique. Aguado preferred the use of nails for the sake of clairity, while Sor recommended the use of the flesh of the fingertips for a mellower and more powerful tone (Heck, 2011). In 1843, Aguado composed his New Guitar Method, in which we see the seeds of what is now standard technique (Kozinn 1984, p.23). Like most of the romantic virtuosos, Aguado thought of the guitar first in terms of tone color, and how it compared in that respect to the nobility of the symphony orchestra (Grunfeld, 1969 p.194). The Italian school of guitar also shared the same concept of the guitar as a miniature orchestra. Around the same time, two guitarists, Ferdinando Carulli and Matteo Carcassi, made notable careers in Paris. Carulli composed a large repertoire of works for guitar, issued in over 330 opus numbers, including a few concertos, one of which is a double concerto for flute and
guitar. The second movement of that particular concerto boasts a gorgeous theme and variations. He wrote a popular Method that is still being reprinted to this day (Grunfeld, 1969 p.194). His successor and rival, Matteo Carcassi, expanded on Carulli's technique with a Complete Method for the guitar, which became the most widely used study guide of the 19th century (Grunfeld, 1969 p.194). Perhaps the greatest guitarist of the Italian school was
Below: A portrait of Mauro Giuliani
Mauro Giuliani. Unlike, the other guitarists who had success in Paris, Giuliani gained stardom in Vienna, among the cities greatest composers, such as Beethoven and Schubert. Giuliani arrived in Vienna in 1806 and immediately established a career as a virtuoso soloist (Kozinn 1984, p.29) Under, unpleasant legal circumstances, he left Vienna in 1819 and relocated to Rome, where he would play recitals on his own, as well as his daughter Emilia's, recitals until his death in 1829 (Kozinn 1984, p.29). Like Sor, Giuliani left a treasure-trove of works that exploit the guitar's harmonic and melodic resources within a well crafted late-Classic/early Romantic style (Kozinn 1984, p.29). Single movement works such as the Gran Sonata Eroica, Op. 150, and the Grand Overture, Op.61 demands technicality of the highest degree and strives for an almost orchestral sound; while the more expressive, three movement Sonata, Op. 15, contrasts quick, light spirited outer-movements with a gorgeously tuneful slow movement. (Kozinn 1984, p.29) The crowning achievement of Giuliani's works are his four concertos for guitar. Unfortunately, the fourth one is remains lost.
The guitar's decline and a new resurrection During the late 19th century, the guitar would once again see a period of dormancy. Unable to keep pace with the musical fashion of orchestral and keyboard sound, the guitar simply could not compete (Kozinn 1984, p.32). However, in Spain the guitar remained it's national instrument, and it was there it underwent a series of structural improvements by Antonio Torres. Soon, the guitar would be ready to burst fourth from its Iberic cocoon and claim its place both in the concert hall, and as an increasingly significant voice of the 20th century (Kozinn 1984, p.32). Along with Antonio Torres, the concert guitarist Francisco Tarrega helped to resurrect the instrument. Francisco Tarrega kept the virtuoso tradition alive long enough to inspire a generation of players that would turn his devotion to the guitar into an international crusade (Kozinn 1984, p.32). Of his eighty compositions, many are rarely played beyond the student level due to the shortness of the composition. However, works such as Capricho arabe, Danza mora, Gran Jota, and the magnificent tremolo study, Recuerdos de la Alhambra, remain some of the Above: A photo of Francisco Tarrega
most dazzling works of the Romantic guitar literature (Kozinn
1984, p.33). Tarrega also transcribed a some 150 works by a diverse group of composers such as Bach, Beethoven, Wagner, and Tchaikovsky. His legacy was carried on by his students; Emilio Pujol, Miguel Llobet, Maria Rita Brondi, Pepita Roca, and Daniel Fortea. Llobet would take the next step of expanding the guitars repertoire by asking non-guitarists composers to write for the instrument (Kozinn 1984, p.33).
The quest of giving the guitar its permanent place in the spot light fell not to the disciples of Tarrega, but to the self taught guitarist from Andalusia, Andres Segovia. Known primarily as a performer and recording artist, Segovia revolutionized the popularity of the guitar in the early 20th century. After his 1916 debut at the Ateneo in Madrid, he began playing a rapidly expanding repertoire of original guitar music and his own transcriptions ranging from Bach to Albeniz (Grunfeld, 1969 p.292). Above: A photograph of Andres Segovia
The pinnacle of Segovia's transcriptions is
unquestionably J.S. Bach's Chaconne from the Second Partita for Violin Solo, BWV 1004 (Kozinn 1984, p.35). The core of the “Segovia-inspired literature” was mostly produced by the six composers Joaquin Turina, Moreno Torroba, Manuel Ponce, Maria Castelnuovo, Alexandre Tansman, and Heitor Villa-Lobos (Kozinn 1984, p.36). Ponce was considered by Segovia to be the best composer for the instrument. Notable compositions by Ponce include the Twelve Preludes, Valse, the Twenty Variations and Fugue on Folias de Espana, and his versatile sonatas the Sonata Romantica, and the Sonata Clasica (Kozinn 1984, p.36). As Segovia gained success, other guitarists began to emerge. The Paraguayan born guitarist, Agustin Pio Barrios, had success as a recording artist, performer, and composer. Some works include Sueno en la floresta, the tremolo study, El ultimo canto, and La Cathedral (Kozinn 1984, p.37). Alirio Diaz was a student of Segovia and developed a technique in which precision and directness replaced Romantic gestures (Kozinn 1984, p.37). Other emerging guitarists include Narciso Yepes, Alexandre Lagoya, and his wife Ida Presti. Lagoya and Presti were a duo famous for a method of playing trills and ornaments on two strings rather than on one
(Kozinn 1984, p.40). This is technique is known as “Cross-stringing” and has become standard among young players. Conclusion There is a large number of concert guitarists today keeping the guitar in the limelight. John williams is regarded as one of the best performing guitarists in the world today and has recorded countless hours of music for the instrument. Julian Bream is an amazing guitarist that has had success in renewing interest in the Renaissance lute. The Cuban guitarist, conductor, composer Leo Brouwer is much like a modern day Sor. He is an accomplished guitarist, a composer for the instrument, and a composer in other diverse genres outside of the guitar. The classical guitar has a rich history, full of wonder and mystery. There is no telling what the future holds for it. Classical music in general has struggled to compete with modern popular music, with the classical guitar often being used as a mere flavor. Perhaps it will have to undergo even more modification, or will require a new revival from an inspiring guitarist to regain it's former glory. As long as we have guitarists like John Williams and Julian Bream championing it's long history of repertoire, we can be assured the classical guitar will not go away. Work Cited Grunfeld, Frederic V. The Art and Times of the Guitar. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1969. Print Heck, Thomas F. "Aguado, Dionisio." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. 22 Dec. 2011 <http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/00319>. Kozinn, Allan, Pete Welding, Dan Forte, and Gene Santoro. The Guitar: The History, the Music, the Players. New York: Willioam Morrow and Company, 1984. Print
