Theories

Ann Roe’s Theory of Career Choice and
Personality Development
Ann Roe’s Theory focuses on the relationship between occupational choice and
personality.
In 1990 Roe and Lunnburg describe it as view of individual differences and their
relationship to vocational choice and behaviour. Roe liked Maslow’s hypothesis
about hierarchy of human needs. Her theory also predicts occupational selection
based on individual differences: Biological,Sociological, and Psychological.
Following Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Roe proposed seven needs:

1. Physiological
Needs
5. Need for Need
for information

2. Safety Needs
6. Need for beauty

3. Needs for
belongingness
7. Need for selfactualization

4. Need for
importance,
respect, selfesteem and
independence.

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Possible variations of need patterns include the following;
1) Needs satisfied routinely do not become unconscious motivators.
2) Needs which are minimally satisfied will, of lower order, prevent the
appearance of higher needs will become dominant motivators.
3) Needs which are satisfied, but only after some delay, will become
unconscious and motivator depending on the degree of satisfaction felt.
Another thing Roe proposed that the emotional climate in the
home that is the relationship between parent and child can be a
determining factor in the career choice development. They can be
on of the three types:
a. Emotional concentration on the child
- over protective (warm: indulgent) and over
demanding(cold: push
to achieve high standards)
b. Avoidance of the child
- rejection (cold: hostile, critical) or neglect(minimum of
care,
lack of affection)
c. Acceptance of the child
- express casually(indulgent, few rules mildly
affectionate)or
lovingly(warm, helpful, loving
attention)
Roe gave basic orientation that is toward or away from other
person which are related to early childhood experiences which in
turn related to occupational choice. She theorized that warm and
accepting parents, makes the person to want an occupation which
is oriented toward people and will fill the need for belongingness
and affection. A person who had cold and rejecting parents will
prefer to work alone.
Roe proposes occupational groups with examples:
1. Service(maids, firemen, barbers, police, nurses,
therapist)
2. Business(peddlers, buyers, salesmen, public
relations)
3. Organizations(typists, clerks, owners,
accountants, bankers)
4. Technology(laborers, mechanic, aviators,
engineers)
5. Outdoor(farmers, miners, forest rangers,
landscapers)
6. Science(technicians, pharmacists, scientists,
college faculty)
7. Service(maids, firemen, barbers, police, nurses,
therapist)
8. Service(maids, firemen, barbers, police, nurses,
therapist)

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Roe’s Theory also has six levels of occupations:
1
2
3
4
5

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

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Professional & Managerial 1
Independent responsibility
Professional & Managerial 2
Less Independence
Semiprofessional
Moderate responsibility for others
Skilled
Training is required.
Semiskilled
on -the-job training or s
Unskilled
Little special training is required. Individuals only
need to follow basic directions

Roe’s theory has not been validated but her work has
contributed to an understanding of the importance of the role of
occupation and lives of individuals. Her greatest achievement
according to Walsh and Osipo, 1983 may lie in the use of her two
way job classification and the concept of people versus ideas
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meaning that people either have an orientation toward people or an
orientation away from people.
This two ideas have changed the ways counsellors work with
clients. Roe’s theory has an intuitive appeal but it is difficult to test
since it would require a long term study of how children have
different parental types turn out in adulthood, assuming they could
be accurately assessed based on Roe’s typology.
Another problem is if a child two parents could have two
different parenting styles and not all children have two parents in
the home too. The parental behaviors are inconsistent, there are
many influences or occupational choice or parenting behaviour and
personality. Research has not demonstrated a direct link between
parent-child relationship and occupational choice.
She has adequately addressed the importance of sociodemographic variables in career choice.
Reflection:
As I read the context of Ann Roe’s Theory, I have learned that
the great factor that influence our personality is based on what we
acquire from the people in our home. Our parents are the people
who contributed a huge effect of what we are, our personality, and
most specially in our views in life.
Ann Roe emphasized that our childhood experiences is the basis in
developing our career interests, our goals and our decision to make
for our future career. Our experiences play a significant role in
shaping our career behavior. What we acquire from our relationship
with our parents and siblings contributes as to what we will become
as an individual. There are lots of factors that will affect us, whether
it will mold us to become a better person or to become a failure.
Having a good relationship with our family specially with our
parents will help us to have a positive outlook in life and will
eventually direct us to have a good career in the future. Childhood
socialization is also an important consideration when working with
at-risk individuals.
It's quite obvious that the environment in which we are raised can affect on how
we behave. When we grow up in an accepting home, with a warm family, we are
most likely not aggressive or defensive, but we are more interested in working with
people. Our personality depends on the orientation we get from the people that
surrounds us at home.
Ann Roe’s theory also emphasized that career choices gratify one's needs.
Children whose parents provide a warm, accepting, and protected environment
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choose person-oriented occupations. Children whose parents were cold or rejecting
choose technical or scientific careers. As we have observed, there are lots of people
who are so unfortunate to acquire a good career, that absolutely because their parents
never motivate them. They don’t have a proper guidance and nurturing from their
parents. I, myself have also experienced the same thing as to what my parents guided
me. My parents are not a perfect one, but they have taught me to be a value-centered
person. They are a warm, indulgent persons, they never neglected me. They let me do
things on my own but with their guidance and supervision. They accept what I can do
and what I cannot. Even though I have committed lots of mistakes from my
childhood years, they still there to guide me and protect me. From that experiences I
have gained from them, it then taught me to be wiser in choosing a career.
It's important for me to understand that my career choice is not made based on
any one factor. Being an educator, is my choice of career and that choices is subject
to many influences – individual, cultural, social, and environmental. All of that
influences in my decision to be a future educator is not a new situation for me
because I am somehow surrounded with people who are also in line with the same
field . There may also be multiple options, several "good-fits" for me, but I do only
have one choice and that is to become a teacher. I always keep in mind that as I walk
the path of that career in the near future,change, learning and experiencing new
things, and external factors change, such as the economy, you will continue to revise
and fine-tune your career choices.
Original theory posits that warm and accepting parents created people who enjoy
working with people but has since suggested that more important factors are involved
in determine career choice. When studies refuted Roe’s claim that different parentchild interactions result in different vocational choices.Roe modified
her theory. She theorized that while the early orientation of a child
is important to later major decisions, including occupational choice,
other variables not accounted for in her theory are also important
factors.
Roe’s model was the first to suggest that personality factors,
childhood events, parental influences, and psychological needs
could be significant in making career choices.Her work stimulated a
great deal of research about how and why people choose their
occupations.
Another thing also that I discovered that Roe’s classification of
occupations does not consider the homemaker-mother roles of
women. She fails to take into account part-time work, volunteer
activities/hobbies, women who stay home but assist their husbands
in their work, etc.It need to emphasize the importance of the
various roles played by women.

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John Holland’s Personality Theory

John Holland’s Theory can be said and trace back to his military experience
during World War II. In his work he hypothesize the people could be classified into
relatively small number types.
Holland is the Grandfather of careers advice. His matching theory of vocational
choice through his RIASEC codes has underpinned scores of career inventories after
him. He claimed that both people and work environments can be categorized and then
matched to each other. Holland’s theory aims to categories people according to what
type of work they are most interested in and then categories occupations under the
same scheme to measure their congruence.
Holland’s actual scheme was based around a six point hexagon which focuses on
six types of person and job which are Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social,
Enterprising and Conventional. This can be seen below;

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Realistic [R]: A realistic person prefers concrete tasks. He or she likes working alone
or with other realistic people.
People who are "independent, stable, persistent, genuine, practical, and thrifty,
no-nonsense, down-to-earth individuals, physical, athletic, or mechanical." They
prefer "things rather than ideas or people , being outdoors, using tools, operating
machines, interacting with animals, and working with their hands." They also value
the "natural, concrete, and tangible."Sample majors and careers include:
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Aerospace/Aeronautical Engineer (with Investigative)
Agriculture,
Anthropology/Paleontology (with Investigative)
Architect (with Artistic and Enterprising)
Astronomy (with Investigative)
Carpenter (with Conventional and Investigative)
Chef (with Enterprising and Artistic)
Chemistry/Chemist (with Investigative and Conventional)
Computer engineering/Computer science/Information technology/Computer
programmer (with Investigative and Conventional)
Dance (with Artistic)
Dentist (with Investigative and Social)
Engineer (with Investigative and Conventional)
Environmental science
Fashion design (with Artistic and Enterprising)
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Fine Artist, Including Painter, Sculptor and Illustrator (with Artistic)
Firefighter (with Social and Enterprising)
Graphic designer (with Artistic and Enterprising)
Law enforcement
Interior design(with Artistic)
Military science
Model (people) (with Artistic and Enterprising)
Musician (with Artistic and Enterprising)
Nurse (with Social, Conventional, and Investigative)
Park Naturalist (with Social and Artistic)
Personal trainer (with Enterprising and Social)
Photographer (with Artistic and Enterprising)
Physical therapy (with Social and Investigative)
Driver
Surgeon (with Investigative and Social)
Veterinarian (with Investigative and Social)
Web design/Web Development Specialist (with Artistic)
Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists(with Investigative)

Investigative [I]: Someone who is investigative likes to use his or her abstract or
analytical skills to figure things out. He or she is a “thinker” who strives to complete
tasks and often prefers to do so independently.
People who are "intellectual, introspective, inquisitive, curious, methodical,
rational, analytical, and logical." They prefer "tasks that are scholarly, scientific,
technical, or medical, and activities that involve thought, observation, investigation,
exploration, and discovery. They like to solve problems, perform experiments, and
conduct research.” Sample majors and careers include:
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Actuary(with Conventional and Enterprising)
Archivist/Librarian (with Social and Conventional)
Carpenter (with Conventional and Realistic)
Chemistry/Chemist (with Realistic and Conventional)
Computer engineering/Computer science/Information technology/Computer
programmer (with Realistic and Conventional)
Counselor (with Social and Artistic)
Dentist (with Realistic and Social)
Dietitian (with Social and Enterprising)
Economics (with Conventional and social)
Engineer (with Realistic and Conventional)
Finance (with Enterprising and Conventional)
Lawyer (with Enterprising and Social)
Mathematician (with realistic)
Nurse (with Realistic, Conventional, and Social)
Pharmacist (with Social and Conventional),
Physical therapy (with Social and Realistic)
Physician (Medical school/Medical research) (with Social)
Physics
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Professor (all fields)
Psychology/Psychologist (with Social and Artistic)
Surgeon (with Realistic and Social)
Technical writer (with Artistic and Conventional)
Veterinarian (with Realistic and Social)
Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists(with Realistic)

Artistic [A]: The artistic members of our society like to create things. They are
imaginative and usually extroverted.
People who "are creative, intuitive, sensitive, articulate, expressive, unstructured,
original, nonconforming, and innovative, who rely on feelings, imagination,
inspiration and…who are spontaneous and open-minded." They prefer to "work with
ideas, abstractions, and concepts." They also enjoy work that is "literary, verbal,
visual, and aesthetic" and excel in "art, music, dance, drawing, painting,
sculpting, drafting, writing, drama, communicating, design, fashion."Sample majors
and careers include:
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Architect (with Realistic and Enterprising)
Broadcast journalism (with Enterprising)
Clergy (with Social and Enterprising)
Chef (with Enterprising and Realistic)
Counselor (with Investigative and Social)
Dance (with Realistic)
Fashion design (with Realistic and Enterprising)
Fine Artist, Including Painter, Sculptor and Illustrator (with Realistic)
Graphic designer (with Enterprising and Realistic)
Interior design(with Realistic)
Model (people) (with Realistic and Enterprising)
Musician (with Enterprising and Realistic)
Park Naturalist (with Social and Realistic)
Psychology/Psychologist (with Social and Investigative); Art therapist/Dance
therapy/Drama therapy/Music therapy (with social)
Public relations (with Enterprising)
Photographer (with Realistic and Enterprising)
Teacher (with Social)
Technical writer (with Investigative and Conventional)
Trainer (business) (with Social and Conventional)

Social [S]: A social person prefers interacting with people. He or she tends to be
concerned with social problems and wants to help others.

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People who "are kind, generous, cooperative, patient, caring, helpful, empathetic,
tactful, and friendly." They prefer tasks that involve "socializing, helping others, and
teaching, teamwork, social interaction, relationship building and humanitarian,
educational, philanthropic, interpersonal, and service-oriented." Sample majors and
careers include:
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Archivist/Librarian (with Conventional and Investigative)
Clergy (with Artistic and Enterprising)
Community Organizer
Counselor (with Investigative and Artistic)
Customer service (with Conventional and Enterprising)
Dentist (with Investigative and Realistic)
Dietitian (with Investigative and Enterprising)
Economics (with Investigative and Conventional)
Education (Teacher/Counselor/Administration)
Educational administration (with Enterprising and Conventional)
Firefighter (with Realistic and Enterprising)
Fitness Trainer and Aerobics Teacher (with Enterprising and Realistic)
Human Resources (with Conventional and Enterprising)
Lawyer (with Investigative and Enterprising)
Nurse (with Realistic, Conventional, and Investigative)
Park Naturalist (with Realistic and Artistic)
Pharmacist (with Investigative and Conventional),
Physical therapy (with Realistic and Investigative)
Physician (Medical school/Medical research) (with Investigative)
Psychology/Psychologist (with Investigative and Artistic)
Social Advocate
Sociology
Social Work
Surgeon (with Realistic and Investigative)
Teacher (Early childhood education, Primary school, Secondary
school, Teaching English as a second language, Special Ed, and Substitute
teaching) (with Artistic)
Trainer (business) (with Artistic and Conventional)
Veterinarian (with Investigative and Realistic)

Enterprising [E]: Those who are enterprising lean toward leadership roles. They are
willing to take on challenges and are extroverted. They can be aggressive as well.
People who "are adventurous, ambitious, assertive, extroverted, energetic,
enthusiastic, confident, optimistic, dominant, persuasive, and motivational." They
prefer work that involves "leadership, business, politics, public speaking, being in
charge, taking risks, debating, and competing."Sample majors and careers include:
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Actuary(with Investigative and Conventional)
Architect (with Artistic and Realistic)
Business
Buyer

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Chef(with Realistic and Artistic)
Clergy (with Artistic and Social)
Customer service (with Conventional and Social)
Dietitian (with Social and Investigative)
Educational administration (with Social and Conventional)
Entrepreneur
Fashion design (with Artistic and Realistic)
Finance (with Conventional and Investigative)
Firefighter (with Social and Realistic)
Fitness Trainer and Aerobics Teacher (with Realistic and Social)
Fundraising,
Graphic designer (with Artistic and Realistic)
Human Resources (with Conventional and Social)
Broadcast journalism (with Artistic)
Lawyer (with Investigative and Social)
Management/Management Consultant
Market Research Analyst
Model (people) (with Artistic and Realistic)
Musician (with Artistic and Realistic)
Photographer (with Artistic and Realistic)
Public relations (with Enterprising)
Real Estate (with Conventional)

Conventional [C]: Someone who is conventional prefers structured tasks and
tending to details. He or she is often conservative.

People who are "conscientious and conservative, logical, efficient, orderly,
organized, thorough, and detail-oriented." They are individuals who "value precision
and accuracy." They excel in "practical tasks, quantitative measurements, and
structured environments" and who "follow the rules." They prefer work that involves
"accounting, statistics, mathematics, numerical activities, and office settings.Sample
majors and careers include:
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Accounting/Tax advisor
Actuary(with Investigative and Enterprising)
Archivist/Librarian (with Social and Investigative)
Carpenter (with Realistic and Investigative)
Chemistry/Chemist (with Investigative and Realistic)
Computer engineering/Computer science/Information technology/Computer
programmer (with Investigative and Realistic)
Customer service (with Enterprising and Social)
Economics (with Investigative and Social)
Educational administration (with Social and Enterprising)
Engineer (with Investigative and Realistic)
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Finance (with Enterprising and Investigative)
Human Resources (with Enterprising and Social)
Math teacher
Nurse (with Realistic, Social, and Investigative)
Pharmacist (with Social and Investigative),
Real Estate (with Enterprising)
Technical writer (with Artistic and Investigative)
Trainer (business) (with Social and Artistic)

Reflection:
In the Theory of Holland, I have learned that individuals are
attracted to a given career by their particular personalities and
numerous variables that constitute their backgrounds.Career choice
is an expression of, or extension of, personality into the world of
work. Comparison of self with the perception of an occupation is a
major determinant in career choice.
He proposed that personality types can be arranged in a coded
system following his modal-personal-orientation themes. In this
way, personality type can be arranged according to dominant
combinations. For example, a code of ASI would indicate that an
individual is very much like people in Artistic occupations, and
somewhat like those in Social and Investigative occupations.
A major criticism is that the SDS or Self- Directed Search limits
the career considerations for females. Most females tend to score
on three personality types like artistic, social, and conventional.
Holland suggested that females display a greater interest in
female-dominated occupations as a reaction to the contemporary
sexist society. Revisions of the VPI (Vocational Preference Inventory)
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and SDS have corrected items that may have exaggerated the
gender difference commonly found in interest profiles. Holland has
also failed to discuss the impact of environmental and economic
constraints on career development.
But still, Holland’s theory is the most influential model of
vocational choice making currently in existence.School counselors
need to be aware of the possible sex bias of some of the Holland
appraisal instruments. They should adjust for this bias in their
interpretations of resulting codes and emphasize the expanded
career choices for women and girls in contemporary society.
His research shows that personalities seek out and flourish in career
environments they fit and that jobs and career environments are classifiable by the
personalities that flourish in them. Holland also wrote of his theory that "the choice of
a vocation is an expression of personality. Furthermore, while Holland suggests that
people can be "categorized as one of six types, he also argues that "a six-category
scheme built on the assumption that there are only six kinds of people in the world is
unacceptable on the strength of common sense alone. But a six category scheme that
allows a simple ordering of a person's resemblance to each of the six models provides
the possibility of 720 different personality patterns.
If we are looking for a job or thinking about our career, we can use Holland’s
theory of career choice to help us find a better fit. I’m a fan of lenses to help me get a
better perspective or vantage point on my job personality. According to him, if we
can match our job to our personality type and our work environment , we can
improve our success and satisfaction.
From a job personality standpoint, the idea is that “birds of a feather, flock together,”
and that people with the same personality type tend to enjoy working with each
other. For example, Artistic people enjoy working with other Artistic people. So the
result is, when you’re in an environment that supports your job personality, you act
and feel more effective. The thing to remember is that job personality types are
really justlenses on behavior. Rather than assume you’re just one job personality
type, Holland suggests that you have interests with each of the 6 job personality
types, in descending order, effectively creating 720 different job personality patterns.
People are happiest when they are put in jobs that match their job personality.
Because the evidence indicates that employee satisfaction is highest and turnover
lowest when personality and occupation are in agreement. social individuals, for
instance, should be in social jobs, conventional people in conventional jobs, and so
forth.”
And yes it is interesting. It’s true that you usually can’t fit yourself into one category.
I know I can’t. Another thing is it’s possible for certain traits/personality
types/category in one person to evolve and become stronger than the others. I know it
sounds like we all have multiple personality disorder … but maybe we do,
figuratively!

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Frank Parsons Theory of Career Development

Frank Parsons is regarded as the founder of the vocational guidance movement.
He developed the talent-matching approach, which was later developed into the Trait
and Factor Theory of Occupational Choice. At the centre of Parsons' theory is the
concept of matching.
Trait-Factor Theory: The Trait-Factor theory of career development is
associated mostly strongly with vocational theorists Frank Parsons and E.G.
Williamson. Some of the basic assumptions that underlie this theory are:
1. Every person has a unique pattern of traits made up of their interests, values,
abilities and personality characteristics, these traits can be objectively identified
and profiled to represent an individual’s potential
2. Every occupation is made up of factors required for the successful performance
of that occupation. These factors can be objectively identified and represented
as an occupational profile
3. It is possible to identify a fit or match between individual traits and job factors
using a straight forward problem-solving/decision making process.

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4. The closer the match between personal traits and job factors the greater the
likelihood for successful job performance and satisfaction.
Franks Parson Trait and Factor Theory was developed in 1908. Parsons states that
occupational decision making occurs when people have achieved:
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an accurate understanding of their individual traits (aptitudes, interests,
personal abilities)
a knowledge of jobs and the labor market
rational and objective judgment about the relationship between their
individual traits, and the labor market

This three-part theory still governs most current practice.
The trait and factor theory operates under the premise that it is possible to measure
both individual talents and the attributes required in particular jobs. It also assumes
that people may be matched to an occupation that's a good fit. Parsons suggests that
when individuals are in jobs best suited to their abilities they perform best and their
productivity is highest.
In his book, 'Choosing a Vocation', Parsons maintains that personal counsel is
fundamental to the career search. In particular, he notes seven stages for a career
counsellor to work through with clients:
1. Personal data: create a statement of key facts about the person, remembering
to include every fact that has bearing on the vocational problem.
2. Self-analysis: a self-examination is done in private and under the instruction
of the counsellor. Every tendency and interest that might impact on the choice
of a life work should be recorded.
3. The client’s own choice and decision: this may show itself in the first two
stages. The counsellor must bear in mind that the choice of vocation should be
made by the client, with the counsellor acting as guide.
4. Counsellor’s analysis: the counsellor tests the client’s decision to see if it is in
line with the “main quest”.
5. Outlook on the vocational field: the counselor should be familiar with
industrial knowledge such as lists and classifications of industries and
vocations, in addition to locations of training and apprenticeships.
6. Induction and advice: a broad-minded attitude coupled with logical and clear
reasoning are critical at this stage.
7. General helpfulness: the counselor helps the client to fit into the chosen work,
and to reflect on the decision.
Much of Parsons’ work still guides career counseling today, though it is not without
criticism. Matching assumes a degree of stability within the labor market. However,
the reality is that the market’s volatility means individuals must be prepared to
change and adapt to their circumstances.
As already stated, when Parsons and other career counselors began helping young
people, they had very little resources available to them, e.g. testing methods, and so
relied solely on interviewing clients. They would ask the client about interests, and
how well the client performed with these (aptitude and achievement) and also about
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their values and personality. The counseling interview does continue to be a very
valuable method of gathering information, however, as trait and factor theory
evolved, more test methods were discovered.
Psychometric tests were developed to include intelligence and aptitude tests;
vocational tests; and personality inventories. All of these can be used by counselors
applying the trait and factor theory to their clients. But how effective is this as a
method to understand their career trajectory?
It can be argued that it is effective to a certain extent. The testing methods are an
efficient way of extracting information from the client and this information is already
very beneficially organized and so easier to use for reflection for both the interviewer
and the client.
However, it can also be argued that trait and factor theory focuses too much on
testing methods. Whilst the theory focuses on learning about client’s traits, i.e.
aptitudes, achievements, interests, values and personality, the theory merely focuses
on these traits and factors. It does not really focus on the applicability of the theory
as a career counseling approach. Therefore it can be argued that this approach to
career guidance theory is too scientific to provide a holistic vision of a person’s
career journey. Also the emphasis of this theory is on a one off matching session
with the client; so how can a person’s entire career trajectory be explained if the
counselor is only seeing them once?
It seems that although trait and factor theory is the oldest and most well known
theory of career development, it has many limitations. Perhaps other theories, such as
developmental theory, could explain a person’s career decisions more fully, as this
approach focuses on seeing the client on various occasions in their lifetime and
considers factors out with occupation, so gives a fuller account of their career
decisions.

Trait-factor theory has been around for a long time and is
still being used by many career practitioners in one form
or another. Many of the aptitude, personality and interest
tests and occupational information materials that emerged
from this approach have evolved and remain in use today.
(e.g., True Colors, General Aptitude Test Battery, DataPeople-Things Interest Test, Occupational profiles and the
ever expanding computer-based career guidance
programs.

Gold

Guardian

Blue

Idealist

Orange

Artisan

Green

Rational

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Reflection:
As I have learned about this theory, the basis of Parsons’ study on vocation was
the fact that society, economy, and science are constantly changing. Therefore,
approaches and interventions in career development should also continue to change.
Counselors must face the challenge of becoming versed in the various interventions
and determining the most profitable path for each client, unless the counselor
resembles the client and is uncertain of their vocational identity. It is imperative for
every career counselor – past, present, or future – to embrace change.
Many people, if not all, make career decisions based on their value systems. A
counselor must be able to guide a client so that the person is able to articulate his or
her values. When this occurs, the client will be able to evaluate clearly the decisions
or choices that need to be made. This will empower, enlighten, and engage them to
fulfill the steps required to ascertain the right career. The trait and factor theory
operates under the premise that it is possible to measure both individual talents and
the attributes required in particular jobs. It also assumes that people may be matched
to an occupation that's a good fit. Parsons suggests that when individuals are in jobs
best suited to their abilities they perform best and their productivity is highest. As i
have noticed, much of Parsons’ work still guides career counselling today, though it
is not without criticism. Matching assumes a degree of stability within the labour
market. However, the reality is that the market’s volatility means individuals must be
prepared to change and adapt to their circumstances.
In his theory, Parsons states that an individual has a degree of free will. Every person
according to his model has the capacity to act. Choosing a career plays a crucial part
in an individuals life .More often than not we come across people who are
unsuccessful or unhappy in their work life in spite of working hard.
They feel as if the work is a burden and they do it mechanically without any interest
and thus they are not enjoying it at all. It seems that they are not fit somehow for the
17

kind of work they are doing and that they are caught on the wrong foot. Most of these
miseries are due to wrong career choices that they have made due to a variety of
reasons. In our country career counseling is not very much in vogue and wherever it
is happening it is only limited to disbursing the information related to various career
options available. In these circumstances a student who has to take such a crucial
decision on which his future depends turns for advice to his parents, peers and
teachers who do their best to advise him based on their own perspectives and
prejudices. Young people become aware of the career opportunities and choices
around them as they become exposed to friends and people around them,parents'
occupations, role models, television programs, school programs and counselling,
church etc

Also the glamour of some the most popular professions or institutions attract him and
he ends up being lured by either of these. In this scenario which is completely bereft
of any scientific method making a right career choice is almost impossible. For
students like me, whose backgrounds don't provide a rich variety of role models and
opportunities, making this choice is even more critical. At this stage, the focus needs
to be on self-knowledge-such as recognizing their own personality and appreciating
what that means in terms of work. Experts in both psychology and career education
have spent years looking at personality differences in order to understand how human
beings achieve satisfaction in life and in career.
After reflecting on this piece, I would have to also say that I can relate to Frank
Parson’s Trait and Factor Theory. This theory states that in order to choose a career
path, a person must have an understanding of what their abilities consist of, what
their interests are, and what they are able to do. I believe that my experience with in
the the past employment gave me the opportunity to absorb the knowledge necessary
to grasp concepts and better understand what working environment would bring.
While reflecting on my past work experiences I strongly agree with Parson’s theory
because the main components of the jobs I held in the past are the same factors that I
looked for in the future. Parson’s theory also says that “Every occupation is made up
of factors required for the successful performance of that occupation. My past
experiences, which I reflected on in the analysis paper, show my desire for a teaching
profession and the opportunity to help the school I will be working with to improve
in any way possible. I just hope that future job experiences with the teaching field
have also given me the opportunity to gain knowledge about the area and encouraged
me to continue towards the world of educating the children.

18

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Social learning theory is the initial phase of Bandura's
research. He analyzed the foundations of human learning
and the willingness of children and adults to imitate
behavior observed in others, in particular, aggression.
He found that according to Social Learning theory, models are an important
source for learning new behaviors and for achieving behavioral change in
institutionalized settings.
Social learning theory posits that there are three regulatory systems that control
behavior.
 First, the antecedent inducements greatly influence the time and response of
behavior. The stimulus that occurs before the behavioral response must be
appropriate in relationship to social context and performers.
 Second, response feedback influences also serve an important function.
Following a response, the reinforcements, by experience or observation, will
greatly impact the occurrence of the behavior in the future.
 Third, the importance of cognitive functions in social learning. For example,
for aggressive behavior to occur some people become easily angered by the
sight or thought of individuals with whom they have had hostile encounters,
and this memory is acquired through the learning process.
Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of
aggression and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior
modification. It is also the theoretical foundation for the technique of behavior
modeling which is widely used in training programs. In recent years, Bandura has
focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts.
Example:
19

The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are
television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or
using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of
attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as
attention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commerical and
buy the product being advertised.
Principles:
1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and
rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding
modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply
observing.
2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes
they value.
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to
the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.
The concept of self efficacy is also the focal point of Albert Bandura’s social
cognitive theory. By means of the self system, individuals exercise control over their
thoughts, feelings, and actions. Among the beliefs with which an individual evaluates
the control over his/her actions and environment, self-efficacy beliefs are the most
influential predictor of human behavior. The level and strength of self-efficacy will
determine:




whether coping behavior will be initiated;
how much effort will result;
how long the effort will be sustained in the face of obstacles.

Self-Efficacy - the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of
action required to produce given attainments- is constructed on the basis of:
Four most influential sources where self-efficacy is derived:
 Personal Performance - Accomplishments-previous successes or failures
(most influential)
 Vicarious Experience - Watching others, modeling, mentoring
 Verbal Persuasion - Verbal encouragement or discouragement
 Physiological and Emotional Factors - Perceptions of stress reactions in the
body
Self-Efficacy plays the central role in the cognitive regulation of motivation,
because people regulate the level and distribution of effort they will expend in
accordance with the effects they are expecting from their actions.
It is important to understand the distinction between Self Esteem and Self
Efficacy.
20




Self esteem relates to a person’s sense of self worth.
Self efficacy relates to a person’s perception of their ability to reach a goal.

How Self Efficacy Affects Human Function
Choices regarding behavior-People will be more inclined to take on a task if
they believe they can succeed. People generally avoid tasks where their self efficacy
is low, but engage when it is high. Self efficacy significantly higher than ability can
lead to psychological damage. Significantly low self efficacy leads to an inability to
grow and expand skills. Optimum levels of self efficacy are a little above ability,
which encourages people to tackle challenging tasks and gain valuable experience.
Motivation- People with higher self efficacy in a task are likely to expend more
effort and persist longer than with low efficacy. On the other hand, low self efficacy
may provide an incentive to learn more and prepare better than a person with higher
self efficacy.
Thought Patterns and Responses- Low self efficacy can lead people to believe
tasks are harder than they actually are. This leads to poor planning and stress. A
person with higher self efficacy will attribute a failure to external factors, whereas a
person with lower self efficacy will attribute it to low ability. (Example: Math Test)
The Destiny Idea- Bandura successfully showed that people with differing selfefficacy perceive the world in fundamentally different ways. People with a high self
efficacy are generally of the opinion that they are in control of their own lives: that
their own actions and decisions shape their lives. On the other hand, people with low
self-efficacy may see their lives as somewhat out of their hands and with fate.
Self-beliefs about abilities play a central role in the career
decision-making process. People move toward those occupations
requiring capabilities they think they either have or can develop.
People move away from those occupations requiring capabilities they
think they do not possess or they cannot develop.
Personal goals also influence career behaviors in important ways. Personal goals
relate to one’s determination to engage in certain activities to produce a particular
outcome. Goals help to organize and guide behavior over long periods of time.
The relationship among goals, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations is complex
and occurs within the framework of:
Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Model of Causality – these factors are all affecting each
other simultaneously
 personal attributes,
 external environmental factors
 overt behavior
In essence, a person inputs (e.g. gender, race) interact with contextual factors (e.g.
21

culture, family geography) and learning experiences to influence self-efficacy beliefs
and outcome expectations. Self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations in turn
shape people’s interests, goals, actions, and eventually their attainments.
However, these are also influenced by contextual factors (e.g. job opportunities,
access to training opportunities, financial resources).
In this theory providing opportunities, experiences and significant adults to impact
self-efficacy in all children becomes vital. Strategic career development interventions
will positively impact young people in the context of this theory.
Reflection:
Social cognitive theory is premised on the notion that humans learn by observing
and reflecting upon the behaviors of role models. As such, the learner’s internal
mental state at the time of observation significantly shapes what is learned. What and
how much is learned depends on the degree to which the learner is attentive to the
events; learning is likely to be more focused when the role model behaves in
intriguing ways, or when there is a novel aspect to what is being observed.
Differences in internal states in turn mean that the same observation may prompt
rather different responses and lessons for different learners—or for the same learner
at different points time. Moreover, the mere fact that something is learned does not
necessarily mean that it will affect the learner’s behavior. For the learner’s behavior
to change, s/he must be sufficiently motivated to model the learned behavior, and to
practice that behavior to improve one’s own skills. Thus, social cognitive theory
provides a rather dynamic and multifaceted perspective on human behavior and
development. Bandura’s action-oriented, problem-solving framework is embraced
especially by those who view behavior as a changeable and redeemable quality over
which the individual can exercise great control, rather than as a predetermined and
largely inalterable entity.
Learning nowadays is very much different from what we normally went through
for the past decades. There are many aspects in learning which have evolved and
emerged to make learning more effective and meaningful to the learner. Learners’
role emerged from passively receiving information to actively participating in their
own learning. Teachers’ role from delivering direct instruction to facilitating one’s
learning. Learning theories evolved from behaviourism to social constructivism.
Learning environment has change from a traditional four wall classroom to virtual
online environment. Despite of the change, social and cultural dimensions has always
been a very crucial element to take into account to promote better learning in any
context at any period of time.
In my reflection, I would discuss on the social dimensions of learning. The social
learning theory, the learning approaches in line with this dimension and learning in
the social context will be deliberated. Besides, I would relate the topics with my own
experiences as a learner.r. Social learning theory as proposed by Albert Bandura
argued that people learn through observation, imitation and modelling. He proposed
that the internal mental processes play important role in learning. He opposed
behaviourism that learning must incur change in behaviour whereby he argued that
22

learning does not necessary lead to behavioural change. These three main ideas of
Bandura have great impact on the education field nowadays. In order for imitation,
observation and modelling to happen, there must be two or more people involved.
For example, children imitate family members, their peers and the teacher. This
participation leads to interaction in which each individual responses to cues or stimuli
according to a particular context. It is a dynamic process as participants need to
constantly adopt and adapt own knowledge to response in the particular learning
context....
This theory states that the way people behave is dependent on what they observe
others doing and the outcomes of others’ actions. I felt like this would be a good topic
to choose because I am very interested in the different types of learning. I find the
different theories associated with learning very interesting and also very applicable to
everyday life.
Understanding the social learning theory is highly relevant for today's classroom.
As a future educator, I will be teaching social skills. Teaching social skills begins
with teacher modeling. Whether we realize it or not, the students watch how the
teacher behave and will emulate us in many ways. If kids feel certain behaviors are
acceptable because we do them, then it is a certainty that many of them will too.
Watching actions performed either in a form of media of in real life then mimicking
the observed behavior.Behavioral, cognitive and environmental factors all influence
learning behavior.
Albert Bandura brought the social learning theory into the forefront of
education. The implications of his study are far-reaching for teacher.

23

Ginzberg’s Career Development Theory

Eli Ginzberg in 1951 studied the theories of vocations and concluded that the
occupational choice is a process of helping a person to develop and accept an
integrated and adequate picture of themselves and of their role in the world of work.
A central concept is that people develop through stages over their lifetime
The choice of career should be seen as a developmental process which already
starts before adolescence. He has divided the process of vocation choice into 3 stages.
These stages or levels are as follows:

1. Fantasy stage
2. Tentative choice stage
3. Realistic choice

Fantasy Stage:
He has said that the vocational development process starts right from the child's birth
and it goes on life-long. The study of vocational development is possible only from
the child's age of 7 years. The period of fantasy is the child's age of 11 years.

Tentative Choice Stage:
The age of tentative choices ranges from 11 to 17 years.
According to Ginzberg, the tentative choices stage can also be divided into 3 substages. These sub-stages are:

 Interest stage - at this stage, the child develops
its interests. Therefore, it is also known as the
interest stage.
 Capacity Stage - after the development of interest
stage, the child starts paying attention towards his
capacities.

24

 Value stage - after the capacity stage, the child
studies his values and analysis. Hence, it is known as
value stage.

Realistic Choice:
The age above 17 is known as the age of realistic choice. He has divided this stage
into 3 sub-stages. These sub-stages are:

 Exploration Stage - at this stage, the child explores
various vocations as first of all. Therefore it is
known as Exploration stage.
 Crystalisation Stage - this is the second stage
where the child decides about his likings, i.e., at
this stage the child, after exploring various
vocations, decides in which path he is to move.
 Specification Stage - this is the last stage where
the child adopts the specific group of occupation.
Therefore, this age is known as the specification
stage.
Thus, Eli Ginzberg has stated in his theory that the vocational choice is a process that
undergoes the above said 3 stages-Fantasy, Tentative and Realistic stage.
Ginzberg further published a restatement of the theory. This restatement quoted below
was based upon the series of research work on the theory. The restatement is quoted at
length here because of its significance in relations to the theorist's earlier position:
The reformation of our theory of occupational choice then follows in brief :
Occupational choice is a process that remains open as long as one makes
and expects to make decisions about his work and career. In many instances, it
is coterminous with his working life.
While the successive decisions that a young person makes
during the preparatory period will have a shaping influence on his later career, so
will the continuing changes that he undergoes in work and life.
People make decision about jobs and careers with an aim of optimizing
their satisfactions by finding the best possible fit between their priority needs
and desires and the opportunities and constraints that they confront in the world of work.
The fundamental theory is that occupational choice is a life-long process
of decision-making in which the individual seeks to find the optimal fit between
his career preparation and goals and the realities of the world of work.
25

While young people who grow up in adverse .circumstances have fewer
effective options through which to shape their lives and careers, all
people have some options and majority has a great many. Thus the critical issue
is whether or not they take advantage of the options.

Reflection:
Eli Ginzberg has stated in his
theory
that
the
vocational
choice is a Occupational Choice.
He emphasized that occupational
choice
is
not
a
one-time
decision. Rather, it is a
developmental process occurring
over several stages and substages of a person's life.
This
examines
a
specific
theoretical approach to the study
of
career
development.
Specifically, the author expounds
upon the work done by Eli Ginzberg
in the late 1940s. In his theory,
Ginzberg proposes that adolescents
develop through a tentative stage
of career development. This paper
describes the nature of the
tentative stage, its usefulness as
26

a theory, and its application in
the real world.
The study of human development is complex and demanding discipline. It
requires researchers to develop theoretical frameworks that are capable of accounting
for a myriad of environmental, social, cultural, economic, and even genetic factors.
This is no easy task. Therefore, the creation of a theoretical approach to development,
in any specific regard, is important if that theory can stand up to critical scrutiny. This
importance is evident when we consider the study of how career choices are made by
growing individuals through the eyes of a developmental psychologist. The purpose
of this study is to examine one specific element of Eli Ginzberg's theory on career
choice. He and his research associates developed this theory and published their
findings in 1949. Ginzberg approached the question of how individuals choose
careers for themselves by isolating the developmental process that leads up to the
actual decision.
Ginzberg’s work had weaknesses, one of which was the failure to take into
account the very significant existing body of information about educational and
vocational development.It is also arguing that occupa- 15 Effective Career Guidance
tional preferences and competencies, individual’s life situations (and hence their selfconcepts) all change with time and experience. He also developed the concept of
vocational maturity, which may or may not correspond to chronological age. His
student, Super (1957) extended Ginzberg’s three life stages to five, with slightly
different substages. He also developed the concept of vocational maturity, which may
or may not correspond to chronological age.
A time perspective was always centrally important to the career development
process: It has always seemed important to maintain three time perspectives: the past,
from which one has come; the present, in which one currently functions; and the
future, toward which one is moving. All three are of indisputable importance, for the
past shapes the present and the present is the basis for the future. But if I were forced
to declare a preference in orientation to time, it would be for the future - even after
more than fifty years of work experience.
It emphasised the importance the different roles that individuals
played at different stages of their life (specifically child, student,
leisurite, citizen, worker, spouse, homemaker, parent, pensioner)
and the concept of life space (i.e. four major life theatres: home,
community, education, work).
It should be developed over a fifty year period, with the lifecareer rainbow representing a significant advance. It must
emphasised the importance the different roles that individuals
played at different stages of their life (specifically child, student,
leisurite, citizen, worker, spouse, homemaker, parent, pensioner)
and the concept of life space (i.e. four major life theatres: home,
community, education, work).

27

Super then, used the concept of `roles’ to describe the many
aspects of careers throughout an individual’s lifespan. Some key
ideas include: the number of roles an individual plays will vary; all
roles are not `played’ by everyone; each role has differing
importance at different times for individuals (e.g student); and
success in one role tends to facilitate success in others (& vice
versa). The development of his ideas about self-concept and
vocational adjustment resulted in a redefinition of vocational
guidance as: the process of helping a person to develop an
integrated and adequate picture of himself and of his role in the
world of work, to test this concept against reality and to convert it
into a reality, with satisfaction to himself and benefits to society.

Super’s
Developmental SelfConcept Theory
Vocational development is the process of developing and implementing a selfconcept. As the self-concept becomes more realistic and stable, so does vocational
choice and behavior. People choose occupations that permit them to express their
self-concepts. Work satisfaction is related to the degree that they’ve been able to
28

implement their self-concepts.
Career Maturity - Similarity between one’s actual vocational behavior and what is
expected for that stage of development. Career maturity includes readiness to cope
with developmental tasks at a given stage. It is both affective and cognitive.
Most career education programs have been affected by Super’s ideas. They provide
gradual exposure to self-concepts and work concepts in curriculum that represents
Super’s ideas of career development/vocational maturity. (National Career
Development Guideline Standards)
Stages
Growth (Birth to mid teens) - Major developmental tasks are to develop a selfconcept and to move from play to work orientation.
Sub stages


Fantasy (4-10 years old) - needs dominate career fantasies and little reality
orientation.



Interest (11-12 years old) - identifies likes/dislikes as basis for career choices



Capacity (13-14 years old) - more reality incorporated; can relate own skills
to specific requirements of jobs. (Vocationalizing the self concept)

Exploration (Mid teens through early 20’s) - major tasks are to develop a realistic
self-concept and implement a vocational preference though role tryouts and
exploration; there is a gradual narrowing of choices leading to implementation of a
preference. Preferences become CHOICES when acted upon.
Sub Stages


Tentative (15-17 years old) - tentative choices incorporating needs, interests,
abilities are tried out in fantasy, coursework, part time work, volunteer,
shadowing.
o May identify field and level of work at this sub stage.



Crystallization of Preference (18-21 years old) - General preference is
converted into specific choice. Reality dominates as one enters the job market
or training after high school. Choosing a college major or field of training.



Specifying a Vocational Preference (early 20’s) - trial/little commitment; first
job is tried out as life’s work but the implemented choice is provisional and
person may cycle back through crystallizing and specifying if not appropriate.

Establishment (mid 20’s through mid 40’s) - major tasks are to find secure niche in
one’s field and advance within it.

Sub Stages


Trial and Stabilization (25-30 years old) -

process of settling down, if
29

unsatisfactory may make 1-2 more changes before the right job is found.


Advancement (30-40 years old) - efforts directed at securing one’s position,
acquiring seniority, developing skills, demonstrating superior performance,
resume building actions.

Maintenance (40’s through early 60’s) - Major task is to preserve one’s gains and
develop non-occupational roles for things one always wanted to do; Little new
ground is broken, one continues established work patterns. One faces competition
from younger workers. Could be a plateau.
Disengagement or Decline (Late 60’s through retirement) - Tasks are deceleration
of the career, gradual disengagement from world of work and retirement. One is
challenged to find other sources of satisfaction. May shift to part time to suit
declining capacities.
Development Tasks

Crystallization

Forming a general vocational goal

Specification

Move from tentative to specific preference

Implementation

Complete training, enter employment

Stabilization

Confirm choice through work experience

Consolidation

Advance in career

30

Implications of Super’s Theory for Career Counseling


Identify the career development stage and set goals for mastery of the tasks
unique to each stage.



Help student clarify self-concept because any task that enhances selfknowledge will increase vocational maturity. Then help them relate their selfknowledge to occupational information.



Expose students to a wider range of careers because occupational options
narrow over time. Consider lifestyle implications and consider the vocational
and avocational relevance of subjects studied in school.



Direct work experiences are vital. Try on roles in real worlds of work.

Reflection:
One of Donald Super’s greatest contributions to career development has been his
emphasis on the importance of the development of self-concept. According to Super,
31

self-concept changes over time, and develops as a result of experience. As such,
career development is lifelong.Findings suggested that self-concepts and concepts of
occupational preferences do have a role in career development, though there were
some indications that the theory is more applicable to more able youngsters and to
those high in self-esteem, than to others. Agreement between ideal-self-concepts and
occupational preference concepts was significantly greater than that between actualself-concepts and occupational preference concepts.
Super was not satisfied of the theory of Eli, so he developed the theories and
work of colleague Eli Ginzberg – he thought that Ginzberg’s work had weaknesses,
which he wanted to address. Super extended Ginzberg’s life and career development
stages from three to five, and included different substages.
Super argues that occupational preferences and competencies, along with an
individual’s life situations, all change with time and experience. Super developed the
concept of vocational maturity, which may or may not correspond to chronological
age: people cycle through each of these stages when they go through career
transitions.Super states that in making a vocational choice individuals are expressing
their self-concept, or understanding of self, which evolves over time. People seek
career satisfaction through work roles in which they can express themselves and
further implement and develop their self-concept.Specifically, we will be looking
at Super's stages of occupational development, which is a developmental model
emphasizing personal growth and experiences, interacting occupational preferences,
and competencies. Donald Super crafted this stage theory to explain the changes that
occur to someone over a lifetime and how that interacts with one's occupational
choices. Many other theories look at just personality and occupation, but this one
combines one's developing experiences also into it.
A developmental model is something that describes changes over time. This is
typically tied to aging groupings. Super's stages first start at age 0 to 14 and the
second is 15 to 24. With each stage, there are different things happening: sometimes
they can only happen inside one age category, and other times they can happen
whenever the person reaches that stage.
What makes Super's stages so unique is that it is one of the few that looks at and
attempts to explain personal growth and experiences over a lifetime interacting with
occupational preferences. Many models attempt to look solely at personality and how
that plays into what you chose to do for work. But not Super's; it looks at the whole
person, from the time you're very young until you're really old.
So, upon reading it all, I could say that aside from the work of Eli Ginzberg,
there still more to add to enlighten our personal career development. Super then
emphasized the importance of self-concept “the picture we have of who we are”, in
which I know it is really an important part of knowing our very own personality. That
influences our career choices over the lifespan. Ideally, we are able to implement our
self-concept in our career roles in the future.
In my case, growing up in a fairly sheltered existence with 4 younger siblings, I
have the opportunity to serve as leader or role model to them. Living as the eldest
among my siblings, I was able to mentor them and motivate them to have a better
32

wellness habits. While doing so, I began to realize my potential to motivate and
inspire them, which is an element of my self-concept further until I went through
with my education and started spending away from my family and get married.
So, as per mentioned in the review of Super’s theory, “the formation of selfconcept begins when children distinguish that they are separate from their parents,
siblings and other people/objectives in their lives. Until then, I realized the potential
and importance of those experiences more consciously.
Since that point, my key purpose in life has been to motivate and inspire people
to self-actualize, discover their own self, and share their uniqueness with the world.
According to Super’s theory, the extent to which I am bale to realize these various
aspects of my self-concept, the more satisfaction I will gain in life. In other words,if I
can help people self-actualize in a creative way using the various qualities that I have,
there is good chance that I will be pleased with my career life someday.

Dawis Theory of
Work Adjustment
Theory of Work Adjustment
This is sometimes referred to as the Person–Environment Correspondence.
Theory. It was originally developed by René Dawis, George England and Lloyd
33

Lofquist from the University of Minnesota in 1964.
 Work adjustments is a result of the interaction between
person(P) and his/her work environment (E) ·
 The degree to which the requirements (interactions) of the P
and the E are met is called correspondence ·
 The process of achieving and maintaining correspondence is
work adjustment, indicated by the satisfaction of P with the
E, and by satisfaction of the work environment with the
individual (individuals satisfactoriness) ·
 Tenure is the result of satisfaction, it is the principal indicator
of work adjustment ·
 Four typical response styles of P and E Celerity – quickness
of response Pace – intensity of response Rhythm – pattern of
response Endurance – persistence of response
The more closely a person’s abilities (skills, knowledge, experience, attitude,
behaviors, etc.) correspond with the requirements of the role or the organization, the
more likely it is that they will perform the job well and be perceived as satisfactory
by the employer.
Similarly, the more closely the reinforcers (rewards) of the role or organization
correspond to the values that a person seeks to satisfy through their work, the more
likely it is that the person will perceive the job as satisfying. They list six key values
that individuals seek to satisfy:
• Achievement — conditions that encourage accomplishment and progress
• Comfort — conditions that encourage lack of stress
• Status — conditions that provide recognition and prestige
• Altruism — conditions that foster harmony and service to others
• Safety — conditions that establish predictability and stability
•Autonomy — conditions that increase personal control and initiative
The degrees of satisfaction and satisfactoriness are seen as predictors of the
likelihood that someone will stay in a job, be successful at it and receive
advancement.
The theory acknowledges that the correspondence between person and environment
may not be perfect — perhaps because the person chose the wrong career or the
employer chose the wrong candidate. Even a good correspondence may change over
time. The person’s skills might develop so that they outgrow their role or their
priorities may change because of non-work commitments. The nature of the job or
the nature of the rewards an employer is able to offer may also change. The flexibility
34

of a person or an environment will determine the extent to which they can tolerate
any lack of correspondence between abilities and requirements and/or values and
reinforcers. Flexibility will vary from individual to individual and from environment
to environment. Internal factors, such as personality or organizational culture, will
influence the level of flexibility, as will external factors, such as the availability of
alternative options. When the lack of correspondence is so great that flexibility is no
longer viable, some form of adjustment often takes place.
• Active adjustment by the individual involves them trying to change their working
environment. They may seek to change the content of the job, and therefore its
behaviour requirements, to better reflect their abilities. Alternatively, they may try to
alter the reinforcements of the job by seeking to gain different rewards, e.g. better
working conditions or greater variety or responsibility. Active adjustment by the
environment may involve trying to change the person’s
abilities through training or trying to change their values or expectations in some
way.
• Reactive adjustment may involve the individual trying to change their behaviors to
better suit the environment or by changing their personal priorities or work values.
Similarly, the environment may change the responsibilities of a role to better suit the
natural strengths of the individual or change the rewards to attempt to increase job
satisfaction.
Persistence is defined as the extent to which individuals or environments will keep
trying to adjust before giving up. When no further adjustment is possible, something
more dramatic happens — the person leaves the job or they are fired.

Reflection:
The Theory of Work Adjustment is all about working a job successfully
once you've chosen an occupation. Lofquist say that knowing how to meet our
physical, social, and psychological needs in a job is just as important as the act of
choosing a career.
This theory implies that people and their environments interact. This
interaction happens because both have needs that have to be satisfied and this often
through each other. For people to satisfy the needs of their environments, they will
need the right behaviors, flexibility, skills, attitudes, experiences, knowledge and
other tools. Satisfaction levels may fluctuate and for environments to satisfy people,
they need to provide the right rewards, autonomy, job content, ethics, tools,
equipment, etc. For both environment and people to satisfy the other, they need to
fulfill each other's requirements as much as possible though it is said that the perfect
35

match does not exist and that people and environments evolve and change due to
evolving skills, knowledge and factors affecting the environment. For the employer
to perceive the employee as satisfactory, there needs to be a skill set match with the
job and the organization. The more the employee's requirements are met, the more
the satisfaction he will perceive and therefore feel competent and committed.
According to Dawis, Work Adjustment is: “A continuous and dynamic
process by which a worker seeks to achieve and maintain correspondence with a
work environment.”
In simple terms: a worker’s satisfaction (ie. being satisfied with one's work)
and the employer’s satisfaction with the individual's performance.
For a work environment to be successful, the environment and the
individual must meet each other's requirements. Today, the theory is mainly used in
vocational psychology, and the basic tenants are fairly simple:
A work environment requires that certain tasks be performed, and an
individual brings skills to perform these tasks. In exchange, the individual requires
compensation for work performance and certain preferred conditions, such as a safe
and comfortable place to work.
Satisfaction and satisfactoriness result in tenure, the principal indicator of
work adjustment. Tenure can be predicted from the correspondence of an individual's
work personality with the work environment.
Dawis claim that everyone has different values they are seeking to satisfy
through work, and the more closely the organization or role satisfies those values, the
more likely the person is to perceive the job as satisfying.
So, it is also important thing to know that Individuals must be flexible if
they aren't finding correspondence with their environment. Someone who is more
flexible will have better work tenure.
Dawis also say that "Active adjustment by the individual involves them
trying to change their working environment. They may seek to change the content of
the job, and therefore its behaviour requirements, to better reflect their abilities.
Alternatively, they may try to alter the reinforcements of the job by seeking to gain
different rewards, e.g. better working conditions or greater variety or responsibility.
Active adjustment by the environment may involve trying to change the person’s
abilities through training or trying to change their values or expectations in some
way. Reactive adjustment may involve the individual trying to change their
behaviours to better suit the environment or by changing their personal priorities or
work values. Similarly, the environment may change the responsibilities of a role to
better suit the natural strengths of the individual or change the rewards to attempt to
increase job satisfaction."

36

Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and
Compromise
The theory of circumscription and compromise focuses on how young people
gradually come to recognize and deal with, or fail to deal with, the array of
vocational choices their society provides.
Goals:
 To

clarify

and

implement

a

vision

of

a

satisfying

career

 To encourage realism in career choice without placing limits on options
Key Concepts of the Theory of Circumscription And Compromise:


Perceived Accessibility of an Occupation = Obstacles or opportunities in the
social or economic environment that affect one’s chances of getting into a
particular occupation.



Occupational Alternatives = Career preferences that have been altered by
one’s sense of how realistic their choices are. They can be derived from a
combination
of
self
compatibility
and
accessibility.



Social Space- Zone of Acceptable Alternatives = Range of alternate career
choices that an individual views as acceptable. It’s a reflection of where the
37

individual


sees

him/herself

as

fitting

into

society.

Occupational Aspiration = The single occupation named as one’s best
alternative at any given time.

Four Developmental Cognitive Processes:
1-Cognitive Growth
2-Self-Creation

3-Circumscription

cognitive map of occupations and
the self-concept
Consistencies in behaviors, beliefs, feelings,
and self-insight help one gain a fuller view of
self. Our self concept is formed based on what
we would Like to be and what we fear to be.

Career choice begins by eliminating options that
conflict
with self-concept. From an early age,
people begin to
rule out career options that
they see as socially
unacceptable for
themselves. This is often done
without even
knowing much about the jobs that are eliminated.
4- Compromise

When one chooses a more accessible
career option instead of a preferred career.

Stages of Development:
1. Orientation to Size and Power (ages 3-5)
Children begin to understand the
concept of being an adult. They view occupations as adult roles.
2. Orientation to sex roles (ages 6-8)
Gender self-image emerges
3. Orientation to social valuation (ages 9-13)
An individual better understands
social class and ability and how that determines social behavior and expectations.
4. Orientation to internal, unique self (around age 14)
A person becomes more
attuned to internal feelings. Personal interests, values, and competencies become
more clear in which an individual can begin to decide what field of work they
would like.
Interventions Techniques:






Written exercises to enhance personal reflection
Provide individualized interpretation and freed back
Provide practical information about world of work
Encourage opportunities to observe role models who are successful in their career
Attention to building social support for choices

Interventions Goals:
38

1. Optimize Learning = Encouragement to explore and gather information about self.
It’s important for the counselor to reduce the complexity of this task to meet the
client’s needs.
2. Optimize Experience = Exposure to a wide variety of occupations and promote
awareness of the active role the client can take in shaping their experience.
3. Optimize Self-Insight = Encourage clients to take into account what they already
know about themselves. Encouragement to think of making the choice of an
occupation within the broader context of other factors (i.e., other life roles that come
with career role)
4. Optimize Self-Investment = Compromise may occur because of perceived
inaccessibility or unrealism. The counselor should support and encourage new
options as well as determine next steps and possible challenges one might encounter
in pursuing the career of choice.
Applications to Counseling:
Gottfredson challenges us as counselors to find necessity in fairly weighing a client
or student's abilities (Cochran, Wang, Stevenson, Johnson, & Crews, 2011).
Three confrontations with reality (Cochran et al., 2011):
1) Exploration of aspirations
2) Narrow list to a couple of options, begin assessing for ability
3) Make a plan B
Aspirations do not necessarily predict what career one will attain. A study of 1,394
white males found that participants were more likely to change their aspiration to
match their career rather than change careers to match aspirations in order to reach
aspiration-career congruence (Gottfredson, 1981).
Multicultural Considerations:
Prescod & Daire, 2013:
Identity as a young, unwed mother with little to no resources negatively impacts one's
self-concept.
Combined Gottfredson's theory of self-concept with the DSM-IV's Outline For
Cultural Formation model:
1) self & culture: young black mother
2) self & culture concept of career paths
3) self in cultural context
4) cultural dynamics in the therapeutic relationship
5) overall assessment for career planning with a culturally sensitive emphasis
Ivers, Milsome, & Newsome, 2012:
39

Application of "premature circumscription" and "early compromise (Ivers et al. 2012,
p. 233) in counseling Latino youth facing language barriers and racial discrimination
in schools.
Counselors should:
1) Assess for circumscription
2) Provide one-on-one assistance in formulating life goals
3) Offer information for goal attainment

Reflection:
In her theory, Gottfredson seeks to answer “Where do interests, abilities, and
other determinants of vocational choice come from?” Essentially, why do we choose
to do what we do?
The proposed answer lies in first understanding how we develop our selfconcept. We then consider how we eliminate occupational alternatives that conflict
with this self-concept through a process called circumscription.
We are complex creatures, made up of personalities, strengths, interests, skills,
talents, and beliefs. This identity is defined by our genetic make-up, our environment
and surrounding culture and relationships, and our experiences. But to what extent
are we truly in control of defining who we are?
Gottfredson cites research that indicates our self-concept is culturally
contingent and experience dependent. On the one hand, our interests, attitudes, and
particular skills are strongly influenced by shared environments. On the other hand,
we remain active agents of our own creation within the constraints of our genetic
inheritance.
Our genetic compass urges, not commands, us in some directions rather than
others. Our genetic inclination competes with culture, operating like a gyroscope
guiding us towards one path over another. Our path is constrained by choices
available in our culture and past choices we have made. For example, nothing in my
genetic make-up or cultural environment would lead me to be a reggae singer and my
past career choices preclude me from an easy transition into engineering.
This is not to say we are powerless to our genetic make-up and cultural
influences. We become who we are through experience, and come to know ourselves
through engaging with the world. Through these experiences, we find ways to reflect,
reinforce, and better resonate with our personal tendencies.
We often hear of people who begin to redefine who they are one small
experience at a time, creating a new self-image that is the sum of these new

40

experiences. These redefining moments can come at different stages in our lives as
our genetic makeup changes as we age.
In the classic debate of nature versus nurture, nature trumps in defining our selfconcept. Socialisation theory, which proposes we are defined largely by our
environment, has proven to be false. The older we get, the more our self-concept
aligns with our genetic pre-disposition. We also become more familiar with who we
are and adapt at working within our environment to suit who we are.
Our genetics, environment and experiences frame a circumscription (limiting or
restriction) process where we eliminate occupational alternatives that conflict with
our self-concept.
I considered this in my recent research into gender inequality. One of the contributing
factors in the gender inequality debate is the fact that 60% of primary carers in
Australia are female and over half of women with children under the age of two are
not employed in the workforce. Another factor is that all but two of the top nine
industries by earning potential are male-dominated.
When I raise these statistics to my female friends, a response I get back is “Yes,
but what if I want to stay home with the children?” or “I want to work in my femaledominated industry”. I do not disagree with their preference, but ask why do you
want it? Is it really your choice, or is it what you have chosen based on cultural
influences?
So with the four stages of circumscription by which we eliminate occupations we
deem unacceptable, compromise is the process by which we relinquish our most
preferred alternatives for less compatible but more accessible ones. Within the roles
we have short-listed based on perceived effort, prestige and gender, we select those
positions within our social space based on what is available. We then define what is
“good enough” and what is not “good enough”. If our desired role is not available,
we compromise on prestige rather than adjusting across gender roles.

41

William Glasser Choice Theory

Figurehead & Roots:
William Glasser Theory Development
 Control Theory
 Reality Therapy--1965
 Reality Therapy: A New Approach to Psychiatry
 Choice Theory--1990s
 Choice Theory: A New Psychology of Personal Freedom
 Counseling with Choice Theory: The New Reality Therapy (2001)
Major Premise :
People are responsible for their own choices, decisions, goals, and the general
degree of happiness in their lives. An internal control psychology, it explains why
and how we make the choices that determine the course of our lives.
Choice Theory and Human Nature:






Phenomenological
People have freedom to make choices
People must take responsibility for choices
Behavior should be considered in its totality
The capacity to change is in ourselves (we are only victims if we choose to
be)

Key concepts of Choice Theory:
 we ever do is behave (good or bad)
 We are externally motivated by the world around us.
 If we are sad, unhappy, or depressed, it is because we choose to feel and
behave that way.
 We are not victims of our past unless we choose to be.
 We are constantly seeking to live in our “quality world.”
Choice Theory Basic Concepts:
42

 Quality World (People, Things, and Beliefs)
 Relationships
 Existing
 Desired
 Material Goods
 Systems of Belief
 Religious
 Political
 Personal
 The quality world is our personal Shangri-la --- the ideal of what we want our life
to be. It fulfills our most basic needs by placing the actual people we want to
love in our quality world.
 People who come to counseling either have no one in their quality world or are
experiencing conflict between their quality world and their “real” world.
 Total Behavior
 Acting
 Thinking
 Feeling
 Physiology
 We can control acting and thinking.
 Feeling and physiology will follow.
 We choose our behaviors.
 The only behavior an individual can control is his or her own.
 The Language of Choice Theory
 Headaching
 Angering
 Depressing – most common choice
 Restrains anger of frustrating relationships
 Asking for help without begging
 Avoidance of responsibility through self-chosen mental illness
 Control/Choice Theory – Five Needs
 Survival (Work)
 Love and Belonging
 Power (Self-Determination or Autonomy)
 Freedom
 Fun (Leisure)
 When these needs are not met…
 Psychological problems result
 When an individual is unable to fulfill a basic need, he or she will often
choose a symptom behavior as a way to cope.

43

Basic Concepts of Choice Theory: 10 Axioms
1.
2.
3.

The only person whose behavior we can control is our own.
 External Control—When individuals try to control others, it is at the expense
of an effective working relationship.
All we can get from other people is information. How we deal with that
information is our choice or their choice.
All long-lasting psychological problems are relationship problems .

Axioms of Choice Theory (cont.)
4.
5.

The problem relationship is always part of our present lives.
What happened in the past that was painful has a great deal to do with what we
are today, but revisiting this painful past contributes little, if anything to what
we need to do now --- improve an important relationship.
6. We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the pictures in our Quality World.
7. All we do is behave
8. All behavior is Total Behavior and is made up of four components: acting,
thinking, feeling and physiology.
9. All Total Behavior is chosen, but we only have direct control over the acting and
thinking components. We can only control our feeling and physiology indirectly
through how we choose to act and think.
10. All Total Behavior is designated by verbs and named by the part that is the most
recognizable.
Therapeutic Frame of Reference
 Focus is on the present.
 Avoid discussing the past because most human difficulties are believed to be
rooted in current relationship problems.
Role of Therapist
 Responsible for establishing a counseling environment in which client can
embrace change.
 Work as a collaborator with the client
 Help the client to understand how she/he is doing
 Role expectation—must define who you are as a counselor
 Very conversational & interactive
 This can lead to boundary issues if counselor does not adhere to strict
professional conduct—onus of responsibility lies with counselor

Effective therapists:
Qualities:
-Congruence
-Energy
-Empathy

Characteristics:
-Ability to reframe
-Ability to communicate hope
-Ability to define a problem in
solvable terms
44

-Having a positive view of human nature
-Belief in the potential for change
-Being culturally sensitive

-Ability to use metaphors
-Being ethical
-Being culturally sensitive

Therapeutic Objective:
 To help an individual to determine whether his or her current actions and
decisions will lead them to the goals or success he or she wants for himself
or herself.
 Teaching process—Seeks to teach clients better ways to meet their needs.
 To help clients understand & take responsibility for the choices they make.
 To help clients strengthen their relationships through personal change in a
safe environment.
Function of Symptoms
 Symptoms and complaints are viewed as creative ways individuals choose to
deal with current relationship problems.
External Control
 “ coercing, controlling, relationship-destroying psychology (used when)
having difficulty getting along with someone else”
 1 st False Belief – We are made to behave.
 2 nd False Belief – You can control someone.
 3 rd False Belief – We know what’s right for all.
Seven Deadly Habits of External Control :
Deadly
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Criticizing – most deadly
Blaming
Complaining
Nagging
Threatening
Punishing
Rewarding to control

Alternatives to the Seven
Habits
Supporting
Encouraging
Listening
Accepting
Trusting
Respecting
Negotiating Differences

Contributions of Glasser’s Work
 Short-term focus
 Deals with conscious behavioral problems
 Client responsible for self-evaluation as well as commitment; pressure off
counselor!
 Change is measurable and overt
 Counselor is encouraging and empathetic; confrontive, yet gentle

45

Reflection:
Choice involves mentally making a decision: judging the merits of
multiple options and selecting one or more of them. One can make a choice between
imagined options ("what would I do if ...?") or between real options followed by the
corresponding action. For example, a traveller might choose a route for a journey
based on the preference of arriving at a given destination as soon as possible. The
preferred (and therefore chosen) route can then follow from information such as the
length of each of the possible routes, traffic conditions, etc. If the arrival at a choice
includes more complex motivators, cognition, instinct and feeling can become more
intertwined.
Simple choices might include what to eat for dinner or what to wear on a
Saturday morning - choices that have relatively low-impact on the
chooser's life overall. More complex choices might involve (for example) what
candidate to vote for in an election, what profession to pursue, a life partner, etc choices based on multiple influences and having larger ramifications.
Most people[quantify] regard having choices as a good thing, though a severely
limited or artificially restricted choice can lead to discomfort with choosing, and
possibly an unsatisfactory outcome. In contrast, a choice with excessively numerous
options may lead to confusion, regret of the alternatives not taken, and indifference in
an unstructured existence and the illusion that choosing an object or a course leads
necessarily to control of that object or course can cause psychological problems
As I read this theory, I have learned that Choice Theory emphasized the existence
of a "Quality World." The phrase "Quality World" represents a person's "perfect"
world, as it relates to people, possessions, beliefs, etc. Starting from birth and
continuing throughout our lives, we place the people who are important to us, things
we prize, and systems of belief (religion, cultural values, and icons, etc.) within the
framework of our "Quality World." Glasser also posits a "Comparing Place" in which
we compare and contrast our perceptions against our Quality World perspective. We
behave to achieve as best we can a real world experience consistent with our Quality
World.
Behavior ("Total Behavior" in Glasser's terms) is made up of these four
components: acting, thinking, feeling, and physiology. Glasser suggests that we have
considerable control or choice over the first two of these, and little ability to directly
choose the latter two. As these four components are closely intertwined, the choices
we make in our thinking and acting greatly affect our feeling and physiology.
The source of much unhappiness is the failing or failed relationships with those
who are important to us: spouses, parents, children, friends and colleagues. The
symptoms of unhappiness are widely variable and are often seen as mental illness.
Glasser believed that "pleasure" and "happiness" are related but are far from
46

synonymous. Sex, for example, is a "pleasure" but may well be divorced from a
"satisfactory relationship" which is a precondition for lasting "happiness" in life.
Hence the intense focus on the improvement of relationships in counseling with
Choice Theory—the "new Reality Therapy".
Choice Theory also propose that most mental illness is, in fact, an expression of
unhappiness and that we are able to learn how to choose alternate behaviors that will
result in greater satisfaction. Reality Therapy is the Choice Theory-based counseling
process focused on helping clients to learn to make those self-optimizing choices.
William Glasser’s Choice Theory is the theory that we all choose how to behave
at any time, and that we cannot control anyone’s behavior but our own. Glasser also
believed in the vitality of classroom meetings that are held for communication and
solving problems. In the classroom it will be important for teachers to “help students
envision a quality existence in school and plan the choices that lead to it. For
example, Jade is an 18-year-old high school senior and plans on attending college to
become a computer programmer. Glasser suggests that Jade should be learning as
much as he can about computers instead of reading Plato. This concept is called
quality curriculum, which consists of topics students find useful and enjoyable.
Under Glasser’s strategy, the teacher would hold discussions with students when
introducing new topics and ask them to identify what they would like to explore in
depth. As part of the process, students need to explain why the material is valuable in
life.

The Generation Template Theory of Alexa
A. Abrenica

47

 It is very important that one is able to choose what is related to his/ her
abilities, competencies, interests and Personality so that one can meet the
demands of the job, thereby, is more or less assured of a satisfying work life.
.
 Socialization, positive experience and availability of successful models in
one family are important ingredients in choosing a career. .
 The child is able to develop mental schemata by observing parents career of
occupation. .
 Self efficacy will be formed if there is the presence
1.

When one joins the work force he/she spends most of his /her waking hours on
the job. It thus the very important that one is able to choose what is related to
his/ her abilities, competence, interest and personality so that one can meet the
demand of the job. Thereby, be more or less assured of a satisfying work life.

2.

Socialization positive experience, and availability of successful models in one`s
are important ingredients in choosing a career.

3.

Socialization is important in introducing the child to the ways of living in one`s
culture.

4.

Parents is the first agent of socialization. The child imitates what they do and say
and this process of acquiring knowledge about the culture is well-ingrained in
the mind of a child.

5. The cultural stamp continues to influence behavior even with adults who may be
in a different environment.
6.

The career or occupation of the parents or other significant individuals are well
observed at close range, thus, the child is able to develop mental schemata that
are well imprinted in the mind, allowing for greater appreciation, understanding
and imitation of actions or behaviors.

7.

Positive experiences with imitation, manifested in play activities imprint the
schemata further and eventually lead the way to choosing similar career
options.

8.

The presence of successful models and positive experiences with the activities
of the role model enable an individual to do self-evaluation and increase one`s
self-confidence that such activities are within one`s competencies. Self-efficacy
is thus formed.

9.

These cognitive processes lead to the inclusion of similar career options, even if
not the same career choices, regardless of what career path one takes.
48

10. Circuitous career pathing can be explained by lack of sufficient career
information, lack of knowledge about oneself and one`s immediate
environment. In other words, lack of career guidance.
11. Counselors can employ the following steps:
11.1.
Asses client`s abilities and competencies
11.2.
Collect information about client`s personality
11.3.
Surface information about immediate family environments and consider
these in broadening CAREER CHOICES
11.4.

Provide information about career requirements and opportunities

11.5.

Integrate the data so that choices can be narrowed down.

Reflection:
In this theory, I can say that when one joins the work force he spends most of his
waking hours on the JOB.
Socialization, positive experience, and availability of successful models in one’s
family are important INGREDIENTS in choosing a career.
SOCIALIZATION is important in introducing the child to the ways of living one’s
49

culture.
PARENTS are the first agents of socialization.
The CULTURAL STAMP continues to influence behavior. The CAREER of the
parents or other significant individuals are well observed at close range.
POSITIVE EXPERIENCES with the imitation imprint the schemata further and lead
the way to choosing similar career options.
The presence of SUCCESSFUL MODELS and positive experiences enable an
individual to do self-evaluation and increase one’s self-confidence.
These COGNITIVE PROCESSES lead to the inclusion of similar career options.
Circuitous career pathing can be explained by lack of CAREER GUIDANCE.
Assess client’s abilities and competencies. Collect information about the client’s
personality.
Surface information about immediate family environments in broadening career
choices. Provide information about career requirements and opportunities
Integrate the data so that choices can be narrowed down.

John Krumboltz -Social Learning Theory of
Career Choice
He developed a theory of career decision making and
development based on social learning. Career decisions are the
product of an uncountable number of learning experiences made
possible by encounters with the people, institutions and events in a
person's particular environment. In other words people choose their
careers based on what they have learned. Krumboltz proposed that:
• The four main factors that influence career choice are
genetic influences, environmental conditions and events, learning
50

experiences and task approach skills (e.g., self-observation, goal
setting and information seeking).
• The consequences of these factors and most particularly
learning experiences lead people to develop beliefs about the
nature of careers and their role in life (self-observational
generalizations). These beliefs, whether realistic or not, influence
career choices and work related behaviour.
• Learning experiences, especially observational learning
stemming from significant role models (e.g., parents, teachers,
heroes), have a powerful influence on career decisions, making
some occupations more attractive than others.
• Positive modelling, reward and reinforcement will likely lead to the
development of appropriate career planning skills and career behaviour.
 Primary role of counselors is to help clients learn to create more satisfying
lives for themselves
 Research found that all found their current occupation as a result of a series
of unplanned events
 Counsellor’s job- get the clients actively engaged in tasks that help them
learn how to generate unplanned career opportunities.
Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC): John Krumboltz



Four factors: genetic endowments and special abilities, environmental
conditions and events, learning experiences, task approach skills
Emphasis on learning experiences throughout the life span
Career counselors are professionals who promote client learning

Happenstance – John Krumboltz (Planned Happenstance is an amendment to LTCC)
o Unplanned events are opportunities for learning
o Open-mindedness displaces indecision
 Happenstance – term refers to maintaining an exploratory attitude while
encountering unexpected events 
 “Indecision” is an unavoidable yet acceptable condition, but should be
labelled as “open-mindedness”
 The
pace of 21st century and the uncertainties in our lives make it
impossible to have a specific plan laid out in advance 
 CDP could take on the role of “encourager of exploration”
Application of John Krumboltz Learning Theory
51

Action Steps 1.
1.
2.
3.

Finding out client’s concerns
Actively listening to their experiences, thoughts, and feelings
Brainstorm some ideas about next possible actions that the clients could
take
o Building a resume, moving to another town, asking friends for advice
o Taking a night school course, Creating a portfolio
4. Ask to pick one task client would be willing to do and ask for a dateline
5. Build on what client’s learned and repeat the process to determine the next
action step
6. Provide continuous support for client’s active exploration
* Focus on learning process and how it affects vocational choice and change
Development Theory
 Development Theory focuses on how careers unfold over the life span
 Believes that the factors that contributed to growth and maturity are complex
and multifaceted 
Assumptions 
Life can be divided into a specific number of age-related stages. Each stage
has a list of specific tasks that should be accomplished during that stage.
 If the tasks of a given stage are accomplished, an individual is
developmentally on schedule or mature, and is, therefore more likely to
accomplish the tasks of the next life stage. 
 If the tasks of a given stage are not accomplished during the appropriate
time, however, the individual is developmentally off schedule and may have
difficulty in the life stages that follow.


Krumboltz saw his theory as
 a way of explaining the origin of career choice and
 a guide to how career practitioners might tackle career related problems.
The practitioner starts with understanding how a client came to their career
related view of themselves and the world and what is limiting or problematic about
this view. Once this has been established, the practitioner and client identify what
career relevant learning experiences, modeling or skill building will help them
reframe their view. Using Krumboltz’s approach a practitioner plays a major role in
dealing with all career problems, not just occupational selection.

52

Reflection:
John Krumboltz’s theory of career looks to challenge conventional views around
indecision. In traditional theories of career which focus on planning and strategy
(think John Holland or Watts DOTS model) indecision is viewed as a bad thing as it
stops you moving towards your goal. Central to this traditional view is the belief that
the future is predictable or to some sense controllable. Indecision must therefore be
“wrong” as it stops you from taking control of the future. Krumboltz counters this
claiming that indecision is a sensible response to the complex and changing world in
which we live.
Krumboltz claims that complexity radically reduces the usefulness of career
planning in a traditional sense and instead we must consider how we can utilise ideas
around luck and happenstance. Krumboltz claims that external factors, chance events
53

and the unexpected dominate our lives and our careers. We are often unprepared for
the unexpected because we expect to be able to plan and control everything.
Krumboltz states that job of the careers advisor is to help clients recognise chance as
a key factor in their careers and to help them become “lucky”, people who are
prepared for and have positive response to the unexpected.
His theory has some obvious strong points and a criticism which I would like to
raise. Firstly the movement away from prediction is very helpful. Life doesn’t always
go as planned and planning is overly relied upon tool still in careers work. Krumboltz
helpfully point out the limits of this and points to a powerful and useful alternative.
This can often be freeing for clients and re-positions people away from needing a
“right” answer and instead towards what they could do.
Secondly I find Krumboltz helpful in how he focuses on attitudes. More rational
approaches tend to focus on more objective information, “have you made a
decision?”, “do you have a plan to get there?” Krumboltz is helpful in looking at a set
of attitudes and approaches that can make a big difference in someone’s career.
Krumboltz opens up an extra dimension often overlooked with work with clients.
I do have one slightly criticism of Krumboltz which is not so much a criticism of
his theory but of how I see some people putting it into practice. I have heard people
give the impression that what people need to do is engage in career, take a flexible
approach, step out and do some experience without any planning at all. I just feel that
this complete rejection of planning is not helpful. Sometimes planning is necessary.
Take some careers for example, things like medicine, law and teaching have quite
structured routes than need to be planned to get to, strategy is an important part of
success in these areas. Other areas like film and politics require a great sense of focus
and planning to be successful in. Though change always needs to be considered some
careers are very hard to access without a sense of focus and strategy.

I frequently encounter people struggling with a career decision they believe they
have to get “right” or disaster is surely imminent. “What if I take this job and I hate
it?” they might say. But this idea of right and wrong in your career path is a fallacy.
There are only choices, and with every choice comes an opportunity.There is no right
and wrong; there are only choices, and with every choice comes an opportunity.
Deciding to join a committee could give you an opportunity to network. Deciding
to apply for another position with your current company could give you an
opportunity to advance faster than staying in your current role.
For example, let’s say you’re trying to decide if you should apply for a new
position. With a limited mindset, you might think, “I’m interested in this new
position, but I have security where I am. I can apply for that job or I can stay where I
know I have a steady paycheck and am on track for a raise next year.” When you
substitute “and,” it sounds like this: “I’m interested in this new position, and I like the
security of my current position.” From this shift, you realize you’d need to ask some
pointed questions about salary and prepare to negotiate if you pursue the new
position. Suddenly, considering the role doesn’t have to mean sacrificing stability.

54

This simple change in the way you think and talk about your options strips away
limitations and opens your eyes to new possibilities.

Robert J. Havighurst Developmental Task
Theory

Although many theorists are responsible for contributing to the Developmental
Tasks Theory, it was Robert J. Havighurst who elaborated on this theory in the most
systematic and extensive manner.
Havighurst’s main assertion is that development is continuous throughout the
entire lifespan, occurring in stages, where the individual moves from one stage to the
next by means of successful resolution of problems or performance of developmental
tasks. These tasks are those that are typically encountered by most people in the
culture where the individual belongs. If the person successfully accomplishes and
masters the developmental task, he feels pride and satisfaction, and consequently
earns his community or society’s approval. This success provides a sound foundation
which allows the individual to accomplish tasks to be encountered at later stages.
Conversely, if the individual is not successful at accomplishing a task, he is unhappy
and is not accorded the desired approval by society, resulting in the subsequent
experience of difficulty when faced with succeeding developmental tasks. This theory
presents the individual as an active learner who continually interacts with a similarly
active social environment.

55

Havighurst proposed a bio psychosocial model of development, wherein the
developmental tasks at each stage are influenced by the individual’s biology
(physiological maturation and genetic makeup), his psychology (personal values and
goals) and sociology (specific culture to which the individual belongs).
Some developmental tasks evolve out of the biological character of humans and
are therefore faced similarly by all individuals from any culture. An example of this
is learning how to walk for infants. Being a skill that depends on maturation and
genetically determined factors, the mechanics involved in learning how to walk are
virtually the same and occur at generally the same time for children from all cultures.
Other tasks that stem from biological mechanisms include learning to talk,
exercising control over bodily functions, learning skills typically utilized in children’s
games, and coping with physiological changes related to aging, to name a few.
Havighurst stressed the importance of sensitive periods which he considered to be the
ideal teachable moments during which an individual demonstrates maturation at a
level that is most conducive to learning and successfully performing the
developmental tasks.
Psychological factors that emerge from the individual’s maturing personality and
psyche are embodied in personal values and goals. These values and goals are
another source of some developmental tasks such as establishing one’s self-concept,
developing relationships with peers of both sexes and adjusting to retirement or to the
loss of a spouse.
There are other tasks, however, that arise from the unique cultural standards of a
given society and as such, may be observed in different forms in varying societies or,
alternatively, may be observed is some cultures but not in others. One such task
would be preparing oneself for an occupation. An individual who belongs to an
agricultural community, for instance, might make the preparations for an occupation
such as becoming a farmer at an early age, possibly in middle childhood or in
adolescence. A member of an industrialized society, on the other hand, requires
longer and more specialized preparation for an occupation, thus, embarking on this
developmental task sometime during early adulthood. Other culturally-based tasks
include achieving gender-appropriate roles and becoming a responsible citizen.
An enumeration of developmental tasks, therefore, will differ across cultures.
Nevertheless, Havighurst did propose a list of common critical developmental tasks,
categorized into six stages of development which offers a rough picture of what these
specific developmental tasks are. Below is a partial list of Havighurst’s
developmental tasks.
Infancy and Early Childhood – birth to 5 years
Learning to walk
Learning to control bodily wastes
Learning to talk
Learning to form relationships with family members
Middle Childhood – 6 – 12 years








Learning physical skills for playing games
Developing school-related skills such as reading , writing, and counting
56

Developing conscience and values
Attaining independence
Adolescence – 13 – 17 years



Establishing emotional independence from parents
Equipping self with skills needed for productive occupation
Achieving gender-based social role
Establishing mature relationships with peers of both sexes
Early Adulthood – 18 – 35 years





Choosing a partner
Establishing a family
Managing a home
Establishing a career
Middle Age – 36 – 60 years










Maintaining economic standard of living
Performing civic and social responsibilities
Relating to spouse as a person
Adjusting to physiological changes

Later Maturity – over 60 years





Adjusting to deteriorating health and physical strength
Adjusting to retirement
Meeting social and civil obligations
Adjusting to death or loss of spouse

The assertions and principles presented by Havighurst are quite easily
understandable and clear. The applications of the theory extend to the field of
education and have asserted influence over educators and psychologists worldwide.
Although the theory has its roots in the 1930s, it continues to stimulate the insights of
contemporary psychologists, prompting the publication of new manuscripts and
books based on the concepts of the developmental task theory.
Over the years, the reception and interpretation of Havighurst’s theory of
developmental tasks have evolved with the upsurge of new findings. Nevertheless,
this theory has remained robust in its testimony that development is continuous
throughout the entire lifespan.

57

Reflection:
In Robert Havighurst theory, he shows that the term “developmental task” refers
to tasks which arise in a social context during an individual lifetime. The concept of
developmental -tasks has become an important theoritical approach in educational
science and in theories of growth and development but not in social work and social
pedagogy.
It is part of basic task of family education hat children learn to embed their
physical desires such as eating, sleeping, drinking, playing within a time structure.
Just like a family situation, in which the family and the boy could not cope with the
task in a case where he has no older sister who is role model to him and that the
mother, sue to her daily worries and stress, does not have the necessary tolerance of
frustration to manage the boy’s demands. She might, in order to avoid stress, provide
the boy with sweets in advance. It may also be that this family has a chaotic time
structure in which the demands of each person are, if possible, satisfied on an ad hoc
basis. We would then-or at the latest when the boy starts with school - have a social
pedagogical problem. The mother would then perhaps ask for some help at an
Education Advisory Center or Counselling Center.
So according to Havighurst theory of developmental task, an individual has to and
wants to solve in a particular life-period. A developmental task is the midway
between an individual need and a social demand. It assumes an active learner
interacting with an active social environment. This task is fruitful in many ways. The
idea of concept is that children and young people want to solve problems themselves.
It is the concept of physical and psychical maturation process as well as socially
influenced development and education are being taken into consideration.
The developmental task concept assumes that social and educational arrangements
impede or support the corresponding tasks. There are different type of tasks. One
distinguishes individual or group specific developmental-tasks general, cross-cultural
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developmental-tasks. Learning how to use theses patterns to postpone basic needs
could be an example of a general developmental-task. Besides this, there are
developmental-tasks which can only be solved under certain social circumstances.
Here we might be thinking about specific standards of everyday behavior. A
successful socialization
Depends on whether one can successfully cope with the general developmentaltasks.
The everyday gestures of a way of life in which the growing individual is being
integrated. Children are confronted with gaining new abilities, new learning tasks. As
i have described it, learning how to adapt and use patterns to desire is integrated in
the pedagogical social setting inside of the family. Parents are the mediators, but
sometimes they tend not to cope with general developmental-tasks and thus get into
social difficulties. For some reasons, it might be that the child themselves who has a
problem or the parents. The growing child for instance, may not cope with the tasks
set due to his physical of psychical constitution and needs support by a pedagogical
setting. Thus, we can see the case in which there are children who have mental pr
physical handicapped. The fact that children are not able to deal with certain
developmental tasks is not necessarily something originating in themselves. It can
also be generated in the pedagogical environments in which they have been growing
up. Social difficulties occur when a pedagogical surrounding, like family, does not
sufficiently support the abilities of the individual, it may transmit activities which are
socially unacceptable or exceed the capabilities of the child. It is then that we face a
social-structural problem and youth welfare services have to act.
As what i have known, there are social-pedagogical organisations have been
supporting families to solve developmental-tasks-not only since the introduction of
the children’s and youth welfare acts at the beginning of the 19 th century. They have,
infact, been supporting them much longer. This suggests the importance of social
workers knowing the developmental-tasks with which children and young people
struggle.

59

Duane Brown- Values Based, Holistic Model of
Career and Life-Role Choices and Satisfaction
D. Brown formulated a model of career development based on the importance of
values in career decision making.
*His values-based model draws upon the work of Rokeach (1973) Super (1953,1990)
and Beck (1987).
***Rokeach beleived that values are beliefs containing cognitive, affective, and
behavioral dimensions.
***Brown pointed out that values serve as standards by which people evaluate their
own actions and the actions of others.
Value-based Career Decision Making – Brown’s Approach
 Learning about one’s values is critically important to one’s feeling of
satisfaction on the job

 Believes that values guide decision making, provide standards by which
judge our actions and those of others, and help us to determine how our
needs are met .
 Values are solidified in the early adult years and tend to remain stable over
time; however, age, experience and traumatic life events can modify them 
 Good decision making will be difficult or impossible if one is not yet able to
identify one’s values

Basically, values direct our behavior in specific directions and toward particular
goals. I like the theory because it includes our cultural and work values. Brown
theorized that values are shaped by genetics and environment--as a result of genetic
and environmental influences, specific values become more important than others. As
values become crystallized and prioritized, people use them to guide and explain their
60

behavior. Thus, "Values orient individuals to those aspects of their environment that
may provide desired outcomes" (Brown and Crace, 1996, p.216)

The Values Based Model of Career Choice is based on 7 propositions as stated by
Brown and Crace (1996)
1.

Values with high priorities are the most important determinants of choices
made,providing that the individuals have more than one alternative
available that will satisfy their values.

2.

The values included in the values system are acquired from society, and
each person develops a small number of values.

3. Culture, sex, and socioeconomic status influence opportunities and social
interaction, and thus considerable variation in the values of subgroups in
U.S. society can be expected.
4.

Making choices that coincide with values is essential to satisfaction.

5.

The result of role interaction is life satisfaction, which differs from the sum
of the marital, job, leisure, and other role satisfaction indices taken
separately.

6.

High-functioning people have well-developed and prioritized values.

7. Success in any role depends on the abilities and the aptitudes required to
perform the functions of that role. (pp. 212-220).
When clients have crystallized and prioritized their values, they then focus
on career decision making. To help facilitate the clarity in values Brown
uses the "why" technique of challenging his clients to understand
why they are making specific statements. He will also use a values
sorting list by Niles (2000).


61

Reflection:
I have learned that values are widely viewed as central to the selection of, and
subsequent satisfaction with, life roles. It is are cognized representations of needs
that, when developed, provide standards for behavior, orient people to desired end
states , and form the basis for goal setting. Values are the major factor in motivation
because they form the basis for attributing worth to situations and objects
A subset of values "represent these perspectives as applied to work settings,
which suggests that not all values should be classified as work values. Values
determine the way needs are met in the family, at work, and in the community. As
individuals develop values, they store them in their memories as interrelated
hierarchically arranged entities that a dynamically reorganized depending on
environmental circumstances. Values function to ensure that biological needs are met
and to facilitate human interaction.
Values are tied to the normative structure of the social institutions (e.g. family,
school) where they were acquired, which is one feature that distinguishes them from
needs. Moreover, unlike needs, which can be situational and transitory, values
transcend objects and situations. For example, altruism, a widely held value among
school counselors, will influence counselors' functioning in many situations and with
various objects. Interests may also become cognized representations of needs, may
provide a guide to action, and may allow people to compare themselves with others.
But interests cannot be viewed as internalized standards against which people may
judge their own actions or their attainment of idealized end states or goals.
Additionally, each person develops a relatively small number of values but may
develop dozens of interests
Values with high priorities are the most important determinants of choices made,
providing that the individuals have more than one alternative available that will
satisfy their values. If this is not the case, people will make choices on the basis of
the option that least conflicts with their values.
Fundamental to this model is the understanding that each person develops a
relatively small number of values 'as a result of the interaction between inherited
characteristics and experience.
Cultural background, gender, and socioeconomic status influence opportunities
and social interaction and thus there is a variation of values both within and between
subgroups of society. Life-role salience and values must be viewed within specific
developmental and cultural contexts. In diverse settings, and with different groups,
there are sex differences related to the relative importance of life roles and values.

62

Brown’s Values-Based, Holistic Theory offers a more recently
conceived theory of career choice and development that centers on
values. His theory, similar to others, values are conceptualized as
having behavioral, affective, and cognitive components that guide
behavior. Both personal and work values are considered in the
application of Brown’s theory. The main premise of Brown’s ValuesBased, Holistic theory is that individuals make career choices based
on their values with the expectation that they will achieve
satisfaction. Moreover, Brown’s theory assumes that individuals are
motivated by expected outcomes, such as job satisfaction. Like
Super’s theory, Brown suggests that life roles influence career
choice and development. Specifically, life satisfaction is dependent
upon fulfilling values related to 7 multiple life roles. Therefore, the
fulfillment of work values that are central to one’s role as a worker
is related to that individual’s overall life satisfaction.
Brown’s theory includes discussion of the importance of the role of worker
compared to other life roles. As Brown notes, the more importance placed on a role,
the more influence values related to that role can have on the individual’s satisfaction.
As such, there is support for the influence of work values on career decision making
processes, the relation between work values and job satisfaction , and the relation
between participating in important life roles and life satisfaction.

63

Mark Savickas - Career Construction Theory

“Careers do not unfold, they
are constructed”
Provides a way of thinking about how an individual choose and use work.
Three perspectives on vocational behavior:
1.
2.
3.

individual differences psychology
Developmental psychology
narrative psychology

Changes made to Super’s theory
Maintenance stage replaced with management stage .
Reframing and unpacking 14 propositions and adding two.
Proposition 14: career adaptability – psychological construct
Proposition 16: conversations, exercises and activities
Particularly appropriate for use in multicultural society
Rationale:
Q: how can individuals negotiate a lifetime of job changes without losing their sense
of self and social identity?
To responds to the needs of today’s mobile workers who may feel fragmented and
confused.
Career = selling services and skills to a series of employers, rather than lifetime
commitment to one employer.
- focus on how individuals use their vocational personality to adapt to a sequence of
job changes, while remaining faithful to oneself and recognizable by others.
Focus on the meaning that structures an individual’s career as it plays out across a
64

number of different jobs. People construct their careers in the context that they live
in.
 Builds on Super’s earlier conception of thematic extrapolation.
 Underlying premise- self-reflection on one’s career behaviour ( objective and
subjective career)
 Epistemological
 Contextualist world view
Particularly
appropriate

for

use

in

multicultural

society.

In recent decades South African career practitioners and researchers have been slow
to embrace this.
South African research: Most of this career research has been confined to thesisdriven research. 21 of the reported studies represented student theses.
Over two thirds of this research focused on the concept of career maturity.
Implicitly Accepted the validity of Super’s theory.
But – Whatson and Steak questions: The indiscriminate and possibly descriptive use
of super’s theoryRelevance of super’s developmental stages, constructs of selfconcept development and career maturity – questioned against the context of
normative history graded (e.g. apartheid) and non normative factors (e.g. depressed
economic conditions).
Role salience- questioned in relation to the cultural meanings attached to various life
roles,
in
particular
the
meaning
attached
to
the
work
role
Validation of Super’s theory have mainly been a by product of psychometric design.
Recent studies: explored the validity of Super’s career development dimension of
childhood.
Mcmahon and watson :information sought was not reflective of Super’s sub stages of
interests and capacities. Construct of career maturity maintained it’s meaning on a
sample of socially deprived coloured students and the childhood career
developmental scale Watson, Foxcroft,Mcmahon: Support- study occupational
aspirations and gender stereotypes .
Evaluation of Super’s Theory Critique from a south african perspective:
Langley: need to consider the socioeconomic, sociopolitical and familial factors that
are
prominent
influences
in
the
South
African
context.
More holistic use of the construct of career adaptability and the application of life
themes and career storytelling.
Solomon : lack of research and assessment of Super’s propositions and the lack of
theoretical development of the self concept since super’s original monograph.
Career maturity – do not accommodate different cultural contexts. Normative
65

developmental trends of career maturity among ethnic minority groups have not been
established
Brown: failure to account adequately for the career development of persons from
lower socio-economic groups.
Osipow and Fitzgerald: In recent years relatively few new empirical tests of the
theory have been conducted. Positive evaluations far out weigh the critique
Well ordered and systematic formulation of career development.
Considerable potential for practice and research.
Five decades of research have supported Super’s description of self concept and
career development. Some argue that it remains relevant to the new millennium and
for diverse countries and cultures. Call’s for further modification – adapt the
knowledge to changing realities.
CONCLUSION
Super’s aim: theory made up of loosely unified theoretical segments.
Since his death- effort to cement the different aspects of his theory.
Savickas- adapting his global constructs to our local contexts and our changing
circumstances. (future goal). South African career practitioners and researchers need
to become more involved, we should all become more career adaptable.

Reflection:
I have learned that career construction theory has emerged as a
complimentary tool to help conceptualize how people impose meaning on their
66

vocational behavior. It compliments the traditional trait-and-factor approach and
challenges that there are normative and predictable stages of career development. In
this comprehensive theory, Savickas incorporated Super's innovative ideas with a
constructivist perspective to help counselors comprehend clients' career problems.
Career construction theory views the client from three perspectives: individual
differences in traits, developmental tasks and coping strategies, and psychodynamic
motivations. Using these three perspectives, counselors can examine what people
prefer to do, how individuals cope with vocational developmental tasks,occupational
transitions and work traumas, and why individuals choose to fit work into their lives
in specific ways. These perspectives enable counselors to explore how individuals
construct their careers to help them cope with feeling fragmented and confused,
without losing their sense of self and social identity, as they encounter evolving
economic and work life changes in an unsettled economy. Career construction theory,
therefore, postulates that regardless of one's socioeconomic status and reason for
taking a job or position, work can become meaningful for most people.
Career construction theory helps counselors uncover clients' unique
approaches to meaning making, purpose, and life direction. The theory is based in
constructivism, which focuses on "meaning making and the constructing of the social
and psychological worlds through individual, cognitive processes.Thus, a central
question that has emerged from constructivist career counseling is: how can
individuals negotiate a lifetime of job changes and transitions without losing their
sense of self and social identity? Such a change in central tenets prompted a
reexamination and transformation of vocational psychology's core concepts, leading
to two distinct camps: objectivism and constructivism. As for me, although a traitfactor approach is, and will remain useful from a theoretical, research, and applied
point of view, this theory of career construction contended that integrating a
constructivist approach with objective career assessment and counselling methods
fosters a more holistic and process oriented approach to working with clients.
Individuals in the knowledge societies at the beginning of the 21st century
must realize that career problems are only a piece of much broader concerns about
how to live a life in a postmodern world shaped by a global economy and supported
by information technology. For instance, the issue of how to balance work–family
activities and interactions is becoming salient in people’s reflections about their
competencies and aspirations. Managing interactions between different life domains
has become a paramount concern for the many peripheral workers whose
employment is contingent, free-lance, temporary, external, part-time, and casual. A
major consequence of the interconnectedness between the different life domains is
that we can no longer speak con- fidently of ‘‘career development” nor of
‘‘vocational guidance.” Rather, we should envision ‘‘life trajectories” in which
individuals progressively design and build their own lives, including their work
careers. Not only adolescents will encounter the big question: What am I going to
make of my life? This question is at issue for everyone as they negotiate a series of
major transitions in their lives occasioned by changes in health, employment, and
intimate relationships. Such ethical considerations in constructing and building one’s
own life are not new. At the beginning of the generation, these considerations were
probably present in the reflections of young people pondering their occupational
choices. Yet in our current society, ethical considerations are of a much higher
psychological priority. First, individuals nowadays are forced to reflect on what
67

matters most to them, because as Giddens (1991, pp. 33–34) noted: ‘‘the individual
feels bereft and alone in a world in which she or he lacks the psychological supports
and the sense of security provided by more traditional settings.” This loss of bearings
necessitates reflection on one’s life orientation. Second, people are increasingly
aware of the new risks associated with our current way of life. Given these two
phenomena, it seems crucial that career specialists try to construct contextualized
models. Individuals engaged in the personal project of life building can use these
models to understand and cope with their unique contexts.
The new relationship between the worker and the work world creates the need
to develop and apply new systems of personal promotion. Specifically, vocational
interventions should assist individuals to reflect about their ‘‘key goods” as being
relative to the context in which they live. The objective of such reflection is to
resolve problems that may arise as individuals build their lives, by matching their
needs to those of the contexts, in particular the context of work activities.

Tiedeman's Career Development Theory

David V. Tiedeman (1919-2004) designed the blueprint for equipping and
building career construction theory. After making significant contributions to the
statistical analysis of occupational behavior, he shifted to a constructivist
epistemology for comprehending careers as the imposition of direction on vocational
behavior. The cornerstones of his theoretical edifice unite the concepts that career
emerges from self-organization, purposeful action bridges discontinuity, and
decisions evolve through differentiation and integration. His counseling methods help
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clients reorganize self to better pursue purpose at work and in leisure. Tiedeman's
model and methods remain instructive and inspiring to the contemporary theory and
practice of career construction.
Basic to Tiedeman's approach to career development and decision making is
the assumption that one is responsible for one's own behavior because one has the
capacity for choice and lives in a world which is not deterministic. Tiedeman, a
cognitive-developmental theorist, views continuity of development as internal or
psychological while discontinuity has a sociological or environmental basis caused
by the nature of the structure of society.
In Tiedeman's theory, an instrumental cause behind one's behavior is the
experience or anticipation of discontinuity and discomfort which precipitates
purposeful action and decision making. Effective resolution of life's discontinuities
leads to increased control over one's behavior, or a "sense of agency", and the
eventual expression of one's identity through a personally-determined career.
In the process of making a decision, an individual progresses through seven
sequential stages:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

Exploration
crystallization,
choice,
clarification,
induction,
reformation, and
Integration.

Decision-making styles may be: planning, intuitive, impulsive, agonizing, delaying,
paralytic, fatalistic, and compliant. Planning is viewed as the most effective style
with intuitive sometimes being effective.

Another classification, reflecting various degrees of personal responsibility and
individual utilization of rational planning strategies, are:
(1) planning,
(2) intuitive, and
(3) dependent. (EA)
David Tiedeman



Stresses the importance of ego identity and self-development
A decision making paradigm that parallels Erickson’s psychosocial stages

The Tiedeman and O'Har a (1963) model is comprised of two phases:

69

 anticipation phase - refers to the stages prior to action, and includes four
stages:
1. Exploration - during the exploration stage, people investigate
possible educational, occupational, and personal alternatives.
2. Crystallization - crystallization begins as individuals attempt to
organize, evaluate, and synthesize information about themselves
and the world of work. Thoughts begin to stabilize and distinctions
between the alternatives occur.
3. Choice - as crystallization takes place, a choice or a decision
follows. The degree of clarity, complexity, and freedom available
affect the level of motivation and the certainty of carrying through.
4. clarification -during clarification, the client begins to formulate a
plan for carrying out his or her choice.
5.
 accommodation phase - reflects the stages individuals encounter after beginning
to implement a decision and is comprised of three stages:
1. Induction - during the induction stage, they are receptive to learning
from others to ensure their behaviour meets the standards of the
environment. After successfully moving through the induction
stage, people become less receptive to learning and more assertive.
2. Reformation - in the reformation stage, they begin to influence their
environment.
3. Integration -in the final stage, people experience an integration or a
synthesis of their goals with the goals of others in the environment.
The outcome is a sense of equilibrium and a coherent sense of
purpose. He do not believe individuals need to go through all steps
in order; instead, they suggest that some steps may occur
simultaneously and that decisions may be reversed.

Tiedeman and O'Har a (1963) believe that the process of career development
occurs through a continual process of differentiation and reintegration.
"Differentiating is a matter of separating experiences; integrating is a matter of
structuring them into a mor e comprehensive whole. Hierarchical structuring is what
happens when a new and more comprehensive whole is formed from the continuous
separating and merging that go on daily and momentarily with each of us " (MillerTiedeman & Tiedeman, 1990, p. 312). The process of occupational change, and
change in general, permits opportunities for differentiation and reintegration.
Tiedeman's ideas continued to evolve as he began writing with Miller-Tiedeman
in the late 1970s. Together they developed the notion of 'LifeCareer' to reflect the
idea that life is career and career is life (Miller-Tiedeman, 1988). They went on to
suggest that a key task for individuals is to separate personal realities from common
realities. Personal realities are defined as acts, thoughts, behaviours, or directions that
people feel are right for them. Common realities are what society tells people to do.
Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman (1990) state that their theory does not predict the
behaviour of individuals; instead, it".. . is a value-functioning model that allows a
person to put his or her own decision-making activity into perspective for himself or
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herself (personal reality)" (p. 321). They postulate that an awareness of decision
making is related to career advancement. Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman (1990) also
believe that the language 23 people use to describe their careers mirrors their beliefs
about themselves. "Comprehension of the 'lightness' of one's personal reality arises
from the evolution of consistency in one's words and actions" (Miller-Tiedeman &
Tiedeman, 1990, p, 321).

Reflection:
In this theory, I traced three of Tiedeman's most profound truths: career emerges
from self-organization, purposeful action bridges discontinuity, and decisions evolve
through differentiation and integration. Before doing so, I describe the prehistory of
Tiedeman's constructivist model of careers, namely, his contributions to the normal
science of vocational psychology as represented by the individual differences
tradition of personality types and the developmental tradition of vocational tasks.
Some theorist described normal science as the routine work of individuals conducting
programmatic research within an established model. This methodical work slowly
elaborates the theoretical model by making incremental additions. The work does not
challenge the underlying assumptions of the model, as Tiedeman would eventually
do, but I am getting ahead of the story of his beginning as a positivist and becoming a
constructivist.
Tiedeman had enough of "good techniques" and the statistical analysis of
complex human choices, so he began to address "good problems." His answers to
these good questions provoked a fundamental advance in career theory and practice.
Tiedeman's responses initiated a conceptual change in vocational psychology, not an
addition to its normal science. He applied a new paradigm to comprehend the
psychosocial construction of careers. In so doing, his theory restored to individuals
the preponderant role in shaping their own careers as active agents in their own
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development. In the 1970s, this work accelerated when Tiedeman began to use
constructivist and quantum physics ideas introduced to him by his most influential
collaborator, they discusses their long and productive collaboration in another article
in this special section of The Career Development Quarterly. Tiedeman wanted
graduate students to learn as much about the process of careering as they did about
the content of personality types and vocational development tasks. He did credit
Super with taking a huge step forward in positioning the person as an agent in
vocational development. Nevertheless, Tiedeman wanted to position career, not
vocation, as the central issue in vocational psychology. He wanted vocational
psychology to concentrate on the individual's cultivation of personal structure, what
he called career, not the structure of developmental tasks.
I agree when he said,cultivation of personal structure implies that the self is a
construction and that the individual is a self-organizing system. Self-organization
creates a globally coherent pattern from initially independent components such as
interest, abilities, needs, and values. The self-organization becomes increasingly
complex as the whole intermittently reorganizes its parts. Adaptation may be
conceptualized as the fit between a self-organized system and its environment. A
stable configuration of the whole, by definition, fits its environment. When the
environment changes, requiring further adaptation, the person adjusts to these
changes while keeping self-organization intact as much as possible. Thus, the self
intermittently rearranges into a more ordered and complex pattern, each pattern
attaining a temporary equilibrium before encountering the need for further selforganization. As the self stabilizes in a coherent whole, new properties may emerge.
These emergent properties belong to the whole and cannot be reduced to the elements
that compose it. Tiedeman conceptualized career as a quality that emerges at more
complex and better integrated levels of consciousness. Once emerged, career through
downward causation directs and regulates lower level components of vocational
behavior. Thus, Tiedeman led vocational psychology, or at least its constructivist
branch, to the seminal insight that career, as an emergent property of a selforganizing system, imposes direction on vocational behavior. As Tiedeman (1964)
succinctly concluded, "career is guided thought that lends direction to a person's
vocational behavior”.
Today, we more readily understand that career is constructed linguistically as
we talk it into existence and verbally organize it. For Tiedeman, self-concept meant
process, not state. Thus, he conceptualized self-concept as a systematizing that
enables a person to symbolize experience into less complex and more workable
forms. To indicate this process, Tiedeman often used the term self-conceptualizing to
denote the process of giving meaning to self-in-experience. He wanted individuals to
learn that conceptions of self are just that--concepts for ordering experience and
anticipating the future. He also wanted counselors to help clients become aware of
how they systematize their experiences into a self and to become conscious of their
own consciousness. In an early formulation of his process theory of self and career,
he included the terms career consciousness and career constructionism. Even today,
some psychologists find it difficult to linguistically explain and operationally define
the meaning of career consciousness and construction.
In his writing about the "cultivation of career", Tiedeman explained two
meanings of career. He reiterated the traditional view of career as a sequence of
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occupational positions. Then, he redefined career as the person's development of
cognitive structures that exercise initiative at work and fulfill desires. This second
definition of career moves it to the interior of a person. The logical positivist
conception of career comes from the position of an external observer of vocational
behavior who can see the progression of occupational positions recorded on an
individual's curriculum vitae. Tiedeman's social constructionist model views career
from a subjective perspective, emphasizing the continuity that the actor
autobiographically imposes on the sequence of occupational positions.

Career Information Processing Perspective:
Peterson, Sampson and Reardon

The Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) Approach to Career
Development and Services is a theory of career problem solving and decision
making that was developed through the joint efforts of a group of researchers at
the Florida State University Career Center's Center for the Study of Technology in
Counseling and Career Development.
CIP theory asserts that the major components involved in determining career
decision-making and problem-solving effectiveness are the content and process of
career decisions. The importance of the content and process in career decision
making can be described by using a metaphor of a recipe. To make a good dish
(decision) one must have all necessary ingredients (content), and know how to follow
cooking instructions (process).
In terms of career problem solving and decision making, the CONTENT includes
everything one must KNOW to make an effective decision, including knowledge
about oneself (values, interests, skills, employment preferences), knowledge about
options; knowledge about decision-making skills—and knowledge about the
thoughts, emotions, and metacognitions (self-talk, self-awareness, monitoring and
control) that are involved. Each of these areas are categorized into domains of
information processing, which include the Knowledge Domain (self-knowledge and
options knowledge), the Decision-Making Skills Domain, and the Executive
Processing Domain (thoughts, emotions, and metacognitions). An analogy of a
computer can be used to describe how these domains interact to determine decision73

making effectiveness. The Knowledge Domain is similar to the files of information
stored on a computer, the Decision Making Skills domain is similar to a computer's
hardware and software that make use of the files in a meaningful way, and the
Executive Processing Domain can be likened to a computer's brain or motherboard
that dictates the computer's overall functionality. These domains are depicted through
a diagram of a pyramid.
The process involves everything one must do to make an effective decision,
including: defining the gap between where one is and where one wants to be, gaining
a better understanding of oneself and one's options, expanding and narrowing a list of
options, valuing and prioritizing remaining options resulting in a first choice,
executing the choice by developing a plan of action for implementation, and
reflecting back upon the choice. This process can be broken down into five stages
(Communication, Analysis, Synthesis,Valuing, Execution) which form the CASVE
decision-making cycle that one continually navigates throughout their career
development.
Practical application of CIP theory[4] has evolved since 1971 into a cost-effective,
self-directed approach to career service delivery currently in use at the FSU Career
Centerand in many other settings both nationally and globally. The CIP approach is
intended to translate theory into practice to help individuals make appropriate current
career choices, and learn improved problem-solving and decision-making skills
needed for future choices. The CIP approach to career-service delivery includes a
number of key elements that can be incorporated by any career center or careerservice program as long as certain assumptions are met (multiple staff members,
variety of available resources, etc.).
The key elements of the CIP approach are broken down into a seven-step service
delivery model:
1. Screen individuals for career decision-making readiness before delivering services.






Increases the likelihood that the services delivered are congruent with
individual needs
Allows staff to serve more individuals with brief interventions
Allows more time to deliver intensive interventions to assist individuals with
extensive needs
Helps to understand why individuals are seeking career assistance and judge
their decision-making readiness
If no concrete request for information is made and a potential problems is
indicated (indecision, confusion, or disabling emotions), then more
comprehensive screening is likely needed

2. Match level of staff assistance to identified individual needs


Individuals who have a high level of readiness for decision making are
referred to self-help career services, where they select, locate, sequence, and
use needed resources with little assistance from staff

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




Individuals who have a moderate level of readiness for decision making are
referred to brief staff-assisted services, where the staff member and client
collaboratively plan the use of resources and services necessary to solve the
career problem
Individuals who have a low level of readiness for decision making are ideally
referred to individual case-managed services
The resulting net effect of the CIP approach is to limit expensive services (in
terms of staff resources) to individuals with more extensive needs

3. Use career theory to help individuals understand and manage career decision
making



Helps the practitioner decide how much and what type of assistance
individuals need to solve career problems
Helps individuals understand the content and process of career decision
making to create a cognitive framework which helps reduce ambiguity,
manage information, and provide clear criteria for self-monitoring of
progress.

4. Use print and online career resources within all levels of service delivery




Provides individuals with self-help access to resources that meet identified
learning needs
Resources should be used to augment brief staff-assisted and individual casemanaged services
The effectiveness of a career resource room is dependent on having a
classification schema and index for organizing and identifying resources, and
a comfortable physical space to use resources

5. Use career resources that are appropriate for diverse individual learners







Resources available in the career resource room should be appropriate for the
inherent diversity in individuals’ verbal aptitude, motivation, and learning
styles
In terms of verbal aptitude, it is particularly important for resources to be
available in a wide range of readability
In terms of motivation and learning style, traditional text-based resources
need to be supplemented with video and interactive computer-based resources
that may be more reinforcing for some learners
Care also needs to be taken that individuals’ physical disabilities do not
prevent them from accessing resources in career resource rooms, and web
sites should be accessible through text readers for persons with visual
disabilities

6. Use staff teamwork in delivering services to individuals


Clients being served with brief staff-assisted services work with a variety of
different staff members to solve a career problem.
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




Continuity in service delivery resides in the collaboratively developed
Individualized Learning Plan (ILP)
Benefits to the individual include not being restricted to the available
appointment times of any one practitioner, and being able to decide how
quickly they will use available resources and services
Staff members must be able to quickly establish helping relationships, clarify
client progress in completing the ILP, and subsequently revise the ILP if new
needs emerge

7. Provide common staff training for delivering resources and services





Common training experiences among staff are needed to reduce the likelihood
of inconsistent or disjointed service delivery when multiple staff serve one
individual
All staff must be familiar with the theoretical basis of service delivery to help
clients understand and manage the career decision-making process
Staff must be competent in the use of career assessment, intervention
planning, information, and instructional resources

Reflection:
In this theory, I have come up of the reality which I take into words such as
“Give people a fish and they eat for a day, but teach them how to fish and they eat for
a lifetime”. I adapted this quote from Lao Tzu.. The goal means that individuals learn
how to be skillful career problem solvers and decision makers throughout their lives.
We cannot avoid the fact that we can encounter various problems in running our
career. Career problem solving is a rational process within a social-emotional context
(i.e., social constructivism). Career problems are ill-defined and that the capacity for
career problem solving can be learned. The learning of career problem solving skills
can be generalized to other career problems and even to life problems. So the role of
CIP theory in career problem solving are to put form and structure on an ambiguous
task, integrate vital components of information processing, make career problem
solving an orderly, systematic, reproducible process for novice career problem
solvers, and provide a framework for the development of a facilitative learning
environment.
The career development process is generally thought of as a comprehensive
system that includes not only the choice process, but also the implementation of that
choice through acquiring or demonstrating the necessary skills and training, seeking
employment, and adjusting to employment. However, the literature in the career
development field generally tends to reflect a spilt between theories describing how
individuals make choices or develop their career paths and the strategies designed to
help them locate suitable employment.
The CIP approach to counseling as developed by Sampson et al. (2004) is based
on two core concepts: (1) the pyramid of information-processing domains, and (2) the
CASVE cycle of decision making. This approach focuses on the holistic nature of
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careers, the process of choosing a career path and the generalizability of the decisionmaking process to areas beyond occupations (Bullock-Yowell et al., 2011). The
CASVE cycle refers to a decision-making process that involves five steps to make up
the acronym, which are communication, analysis, synthesis, valuing and execution.
The first step is communication, which entails identifying what decision needs to be
made or “identifying the gap” between where one is and where he or she wants to be
following implementation of a decision (Sampson et al., 2004). The following step,
analysis, involves one identifying his or her own value as an employee and what he
or she wants to receive from a career or job (Sampson et al., 2004). Following this,
during synthesis, one elaborates and crystallizes the occupational options available
depending on the self-knowledge gained. After identifying top choices, the next step
is valuing, in which the individual engages a cost-and-benefit analysis of the options
available, and using the self-knowledge gained during analysis, ranks the options that
have been identified . The final stage of the CASVE cycle is execution, in which the
decider puts his or her action plan into place and carries out the choice or decision
made through the process. As I understand this approach,there are many aspects that
can affect every individual dealing with their work. Emotions and cognitions can
influence career problem solving and decision making. Effective problem solving
requires both gaining knowledge and thinking about the knowledge gained. What is
known about the self and the environment is constantly interacting and evolving, and
organization of this information occurs in complex ways. Career problem solving and
career decision making are skills that can be improved through learning and practice.
CIP-focused career counseling uses cognitive behavioral-based techniques such as
cognitive restructuring, behavioral activation, and homework to facilitate the basic
aims of the counseling process.
The CIP approach aims to assist people in making appropriate career choices
through education and practice of problem-solving and decision-making skills . As
the world of work continues to evolve, even for those this new generation, teaching
disabled us how to approach this new world is extremely relevant to helping us
further adapt to this dynamic environment. Career counseling in general has this goal
of assisting clients in recognizing and resolving issues, and the CIP approach
provides a standardized outline to address the need.

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Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT): Lent,
Brown and Hackett











Derived from Bandura’s General Social Cognitive Theory
SCCT subscribes to Bandura’s model of causality (Triadic
reciprocal)
Three central variables: self-efficacy, outcome expectations,
personal goals
Additional key terms: personal agency and career beliefs
The Towards Working Life (TWL) intervention (one week
intensive workshop)

3 “building blocks” of career development
Self efficacy
Outcome expectations
Personal Goals
3 Building Blocks

 Self efficacy- beliefs about our abilities to succeed
-Primary sources of self efficacy
 Personal performance and accomplishments
 Vicarious learning
 Social persuasion
 Physiological and affective states
 Outcome expectations- beliefs about the outcome of performing particular
behaviors
 Personal goals- the determination to engage in a particular activity or to effect a
particular outcome
Key Constructs:
 Interest Development Model
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







-We are attracted to activities that we feel we are competent
and successful at
Attitudes and Values
-attitudes and values are tied to self efficacy and outcome
expectations
Gender and Race/ethnicity
-Shape experiences, which influence self efficacy and outcome
expectations
Choice Model: model for the career choice process
-Establishing a goal
-Taking action to achieve the goal
-Attain a level of performance that determines the direction of
future career behavior
Performance Model
-concerned with quality and persistence of behavior

Empirical Support:
 Qualitative research on self efficacy has had some consistent,
general findings:
-It’s predictive
-It has a causal relationship with other variables
-Gender differences are very influential
Social Cognitive Career Theory:
 Brown, S. and Lent, R. (1996). A social cognitive framework for
career choice counseling. The Career Development Quarterly,
44, 355-367
 Major Tenets
-Some people eliminate possible occupations due to faulty self
efficacy beliefs or outcome expectations
-The greater the perceived barriers to an occupation, the less
likely individuals are to pursue those careers
-Modifying faulty self efficacy and outcome expectations can
help individuals acquire new successful experiences and open
their eyes to new career occupations
 Counseling Strategies (Brown & Lent, 1996)
-1. Identify Foreclosed Occupational Options
 Help clients construct the broadest possible array of
occupational possibilities, even those they may have
eliminated as possibilities, or those that are of lower
interest
 Administer assessments (look for interest and aptitude
match)
-2. Analyze Barrier Perceptions

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 Examine barriers, the likelihood the barriers will be
encountered, and develop a plan to overcome the
barriers
-3. Modify self efficacy beliefs
 Help clients develop new performance experiences to
enhance self efficacy related to occupations
 Reanalyze
past
experiences
and
examine
the
development of faulty self efficacy and/or outcome
expectations

Reflection:
As I understand the article, Social Cognitive Career Theory is one of the recent
approaches to understand career development processes. It is intended to offer a
unifying framework for bringing together common pieces, or elements, identified 35
by previous career theories such as trait-factor, developmental and work adjustment
and “arranging them into a novel rendering of how people (1) develop vocational
interests, (2) make (and remake) occupational choices and, (3) achieve varying levels
of career success and stability”
CCT is derived primarily from Bandura‟s (1986) general social cognitive theory
which emphasizes the interactions among people, their behavior, and environments.
More specifically, the theory based on two extensions of Bandura‟s theory, which
are Krumboltz and colleagues‟ social learning theory of career decision-making and
career decision-making self-efficacy theory. SCCT recognizes the importance of
interests, abilities, and values in the career development process as trait-factor
theories. In addition, similar to developmental theories, SCCT is interested in how
people deal with particular developmental milestones (e.g., career choice) and
obstacles (e.g., prematurely eliminated options) which have an important impact on
their career futures. In general, trait-factor, developmental and social cognitive
approaches are concerned with the prediction and understanding of career
development.
Although Social Cognitive Career Theory shares certain features and goals with
the trait-factor and developmental approaches, it differs in many ways. Unlike the
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trait-factor theories, SCCT emphasizes dynamic and situation-specific aspects of both
people and their environments. In contrast to developmental theories, SCCT does not
consider the 36 specified ages and stages of career developmental tasks rather, it is
concerned with particular theoretical elements which support effective career
behaviors. The theory is predominantly concerned with the roles of three social
cognitive mechanisms related to career development: self-efficacy beliefs, outcome
expectations, and personal goals. Self-efficacy beliefs refer to “people‟s judgments
of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain
designated types of performances”. These beliefs are viewed as the most important
determinants of thought and action in Bandura‟s (1986) theory.
SCCT is closely linked to Taylor and Betz‟s application of the self-efficacy
beliefs which have been found to be predictive of academic and career–related choice
and performance indices. These beliefs about personal capabilities can be changed
and responded to environmental conditions. Four informational sources or types of
learning experience may be influence on self-efficacy beliefs: personal performance
accomplishments, vicarious learning, social persuasion, and physiological and
affective states. As stated by Lent (2005), “the impact of these four informational
sources on self-efficacy depends on a variety of factors, such as how individuals
attends and interprets them” (p. 104). 37 Another important component in SCCT is
outcome expectations “refer to beliefs about the consequences or outcomes of
performing particular behaviors”. “Outcome expectations involve imagined
consequences of performing particular behaviors such as if I do this, what will
happen?” According to Bandura (1986), both self-efficacy and outcome expectations
play an important role to determine the behaviors, however, self-efficacy is seen as
more influential determinant of behavior. People develop outcome expectations about
different academic and career path from a variety of direct and vicarious learning
experiences and secondhand information they obtain about different career fields.
Social cognitive theory suggests that goals have an important role in the self
regulation of behavior. Accordingly, personal goals are defined as “an individual‟s
intention to engage in a particular activity or to produce a particular outcome,
addressing questions such as, how much and how well do I want to do this?”. SCCT
differentiates choice-content goals (the type of activity or career the individual
wishes to pursue) and performance goals (the level or quality of performance the
individual plans to achieve within a chosen endeavor). By setting personal goals,
people organize, direct, and sustain their own behavior, over long periods of time
even in the absence of external reinforcement. Such goals can be broadly
conceptualized as career plans, decisions, aspirations, and expressed choices.
Therefore, social cognitive theory, people‟s choice and performance goals are
extremely affected by their self-efficacy and outcome expectations.

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Chaos Theory: Robert Pryor & Jim Bright

The Chaos Theory of Careers (CTC) characterises individuals as complex systems
subject to the influence of complex influences and chance events. However, over
time patterns emerge in our behaviour that are self-similar but also subject to change.
Career trajectories/histories/stories are examples of such complex fractal patterns.
Our careers are subject to chance events far more frequently than just about any
theory other than CTC and Happenstance Learning Theory would suggest.
Our careers are subject to non linear change — sometimes small steps have profound
outcomes, and sometimes changing everything changes nothing.
Our careers are unpredictable, with most people expressing a degree of
surprise/delight or disappointment at where they ended up.
Our careers are subject to continual change. Sometimes we experience slow shift
(Bright, 2008) that results in us drifting off course without realizing it, and sometimes
our careers have dramatic (fast shift) changes which completely turn our world
upside down.
We (and therefore our careers) take shape and exhibit self-similar patterns,
trajectories, traits, narratives, preoccupations over time.
We (and therefore our careers) are too complex to be easily captured and put into
simple boxes, interest or personality codes. Even much vaunted narrative is an oversimplification.

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Constructivism proposes that we are pattern makers; we can find connections and
structure in almost any stimuli. CTC has at it’s heart the idea of emergent patterns. In
seeking to understand these exceedingly complex and ever changing patterns we all
will construct meaning from our experiences of these patterns and the constructions
that we place on our experience of reality (Pryor & Bright, 2003). In contrast with
several recent theories, we contend that there is more to reality than just constructions
of it (See Pryor & Bright, 2007).
In summary, CTC and any counselling process based upon it will have to take into
account the following concepts:








Change — e.g. Bright (2008), Jepson & Chouduri (2001)
Chance — e.g. Chen (2005), Krumboltz & Levin (2006); Bright et al (2005),
Bright, Pryor & Harpham (2005)
Complexity — Patton & McMahon (2006); Lent, Brown & Hacket (1996);
Bright et al (2005)
Fractal patterns — Bright & Pryor (2010); Bright & Pryor (2005); Bloch
(2005); Savickas et al (2009)
Emergence — Pryor & Bright (2004); Bright & Pryor (2010); Morrowitz
(2003)
Attractors — Pryor & Bright (2007); Bright & Pryor (2005)
Constructivism — Savickas (1997); Savickas et al (2009)

CTC Counselling – A step by step guide
What follows is simply an illustration of what I might do with my clients. I do not
want to encourage a cook-book approach to counselling, as I vary my approach
radically from client to client, day to day.
I am not going to bother with the basics like rapport building, etc. I will assume you
already know about the critical importance of this element.
My typical sessions last 3-4 hours, with a 1 hour follow up a week or so later. For
those of you lucky to get 20 minutes, please do read on, there are still effective things
you can do in that time frame. I have indicated some ways of saving time for each
step.
Step 1: Managing expectations.
I like to use the question: ‘If everything goes well for you in this how will things be
different for you at the end?’ While this might look suspiciously like goal-setting,
what I really want to do is to deal with any unrealistic expectations. The most
obvious one being: ‘I want you to tell me what I should do.’
I may get out some cards at this stage to assist the process – for instance Signposts
cards – a series of colourful images containing trigger phrases such as ‘Standing in
uncertainty’, ‘Returning home’, etc., that can reveal true needs.

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Step 2: Assisting clients to understand the chaos in their
lives
I use questions similar to those on our Exploring Reality Chaos Checklist (Register
here to try it for freehttp://www.jimbright.com/tests/ or check out similar
questions on this post).
This is important because often my clients come to me because they are looking for a
certain plan and believe their failures to date have been largely a matter of choosing
the wrong plan. They believe the solution is simply to apply the correct plan. I want
to dispel this idea and normalise their experiences.
Step 3: Discussion of failures
Often this initial discussion leads into discussions of failures at work and sometimes,
more generally, in life. This doesn’t have to be depressing. Sharing stories of career
fiascos can put failure into the context of uncertainty — showing that it is inevitable
— and within the context of learning — which can’t happen without it. What I am
doing here is gently trying to introduce to the client the ideas of change, chance and
uncertainty.
Step 4: Patterning.
There are several different ways of achieving this that I use. The most common
techniques I use are:





Savickas’ Career Style/Story Questions (Savickas, 1997)
Amundson’s Metaphor, Pattern Identification, Careerscope/Career Crossroads &
Drawing Techniques (Amundson, 2009), Bright & Pryor Circles of Influence
(2004).
Career Collages (e.g. Adams, 2003; Pryor & Bright, 2010)needed up version.

Step 5: Client Patterning the patterning
I ask the clients to describe the repeating pattern (fractal) that they see emerging
from these exercises. What are the key themes to emerge? What are the matters of
concern and how do they relate to the stated objectives outlined in step 1? It is
common here for clients to appreciate that what they claimed they expected to do in
our sessions is now less important than working with the emergent patterns that are
newly aware of.
Step 6: Counsellor Patterning the patterns – gently
In an ideal world clients will spontaneously see links and patterns from these
exercises, but most fall short of a rich description (I am sure if I saw them for more
sessions this would be less of an issue). So at this stage I might gently probe along a
few lines of enquiry that have come to me as a result of the patterns I can see. I do
not put my ‘cards on the table’ because I want the client to own their interpretation.
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However I might encourage further exploration with phrases such as: ‘Can you see
anything else in that story?’ or ‘Is there another way in which that story/image is
important to you?’ I might also encourage the clients to make links between different
stories or different images in a collage that they have yet to identify which probes
such as ‘How are these two similar?’ etc.
Step 7: Identifying the Attractors
Throughout steps 4-6 I strive to listen for the characteristic cornerstones of Chaos:
change, chance, complexity, emergent patterns and evidence of self-limited thinking
associated with an over-reliance on the closed-system attractors Point, Pendulum and
Torus. (See the comments on the earlier post or visit The Factory Blog for more
information on attractors.)
So, I will be listening for evidence of an undue attachment to goal-setting (Point
Attractor thinking). In CTC goal setting is not necessarily to be welcomed in all
situations, because it may serve to narrow down options, or it can lock people into
predictable forms of behaviour that are confounded by a changeable situation. Point
attractor thinking may also be in evidence when clients obsess about one particular
factor (such as money) to the exclusion of almost everything else.
Step 8: Considering the converging qualities of the client
with assessment
Once I feel I have a good sense of the emerging qualities of the client, I want to not
only try to confirm these using radically different methods — what Newell and
Simon (1972) call converging operations, but also to get a sense of how the client fits
into the rest of the world. For these reasons I give them some psychometric tests to
complete..
The LRI measures: Flexibility, Optimism, Strategy, Curiosity, Risk, Persistence,
Efficacy and Luckiness. The CPI measures: Continual Change, Need for Control,
Small steps (non linearity), Radical change (phase shift), Pattern making
(emergence), Driver Goals (Point Attractor), Driver Roles (Pendulum Attractor),
Driver Routine (Torus Attractor), Driver Change (Strange Attractor), Bigger Picture
(Purpose and Spirituality).
Step 9:

Report writing

The focus of this article is on counselling so I am not going into any detail about the
client reports that I write. However they are handwritten and reflect the copious
notes I’ve taken during the interview and they synthesise the patterns to have
emerged there with those revealed by the testing. The document serves as a record of
what went on and I try as much as possible to reflect the client’s thinking in this
report rather than me ‘diagnosing’.
Step 10:- Follow-up discussion
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I start the follow up session by asking the client to reflect on what happened in the
first session. I also want to know how their thinking or indeed circumstances have
changed from the first meeting. It is very common for clients to have reflected quite
deeply between sessions and some even instigate courses of action before the second
session! Occasionally this is a concern as it might reflect a desire to jump to the first
or easiest course of action, which may have been one of the underlying issues with
the client in the first place.
Reflection:
I heard this kind of theory just now, and as I read it, I learned that Chaos Theory
is a mathematical theory that was developed, among other applications, for use in
meteorology. From it arose the term “butterfly effect”—maybe you’ve seen the
movie by the same name—which describes the phenomenon of small changes
producing drastic results over time.
Robert Pryor and Jim Bright have combined chaos and careers in their new
book The Chaos Theory of Careers: A New Perspective on Working in the TwentyFirst Century. So how do the two mix? And more importantly, what does it mean for
me as a student and a future educator? Maybe we’ve been given the idea that our
career path is predictable and measurable. Some theories of career development state
that it’s just a matter of measuring all the relevant factors (i.e., your interests, skills,
personality traits, and the qualities of different occupations and work environments)
and coming up with a good match.But we all know life’s not like that. In fact, there
are more unpredictable factors in our lives than predictable ones. We can never know
for sure what’s going to change and impact our life’s trajectory suddenly and
unexpectedly. We can therefore describe life as non-linear—it doesn’t unfold in a
neat and tidy straight line.
For example of an analogy explaining Chaos Theory goes something like this:
Imagine you drop a ping-pong ball in a closed, empty room.You can easily determine
and measure all the factors that will influence the ball’s trajectory and its final resting
spot. This can be thought of as a linear system—it’s very predictable and measurable.
Now, instead of standing in an empty room, you’re running on a treadmill in the gym.
There are people walking around, fans keeping the air circulating, windows open, etc.
What happens now when you drop the ping-pong ball? Suddenly it’s much harder to
predict where the ball will end up, because there are so many dynamic factors in our
non-linear system. A small change in any of those factors could lead to a large change
in where the ball ends up (if it stops at all). It doesn’t make sense to apply static ideas
to a dynamic, shifting and constantly changing world of work. However, we don’t
like uncertainty. We want to know. But maybe it’s not that important to know. Maybe
what’s more important is having the courage to drop that ball in the first place, and
the flexibility to allow it to follow the path that it will, accepting the fact that much of
it is outside your direct control.
So what can you do in the face of chaos, when nothing is certain and everything is
possible? According to this theory: First is to reframe indecision as openmindedness. Being indecisive fosters a passive attitude, like you’re waiting for
something to fall into your lap. Open-mindedness encourages intentional exploration
and a more proactive attitude.Second, be curious. What have you been missing out
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on? Being curious about new things, even if they seem scary, is the first step toward
opening new doors that lead to future career possibilities. Third, look for clues. There
are all kinds of connections we don’t see in the present that seem easily explainable
when we recall them later. Create your own luck! By trying new things, you increase
the chance that positive unpredictable events will happen. When something feels
right, go for it. Fourth, take lots of small actions. Focus your energy on small things
you can do now or in the near future, like volunteering, participating in clubs and
groups, or talking to people working in fields you’re curious about. And Fifth is to
take stock. Things seem chaotic and unpredictable when you look at them up close,
but patterns often emerge as you look at the bigger picture. Chaos theorists call
this self-similarity, but it’s easier to think of it as stopping to look at the bigger
picture from time to time. Knowing where you’re coming from makes this process
much easier, and taking time to reflect on the patterns emerging in your life will give
you as great an idea as you’ll ever get of your strengths.

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Sunny Hansen's
Integrative Life
Planning
Integrative Life Planning Model Integrative Life Planning Model
 Created by Sunny Hansen in the 1990's
 Based on adult career development
 The 4 Assumptions Career Development Task
 What is ILP?
1.Integrative
2.Life
3. Planning
The Four Assumptions
1.

Changes in the nature of knowledge support the addition of new ways
of knowledge to career development theory, research, and practice.

2.

Career professionals need to help students, clients, and employees
develop skills of integrative thinking - seeing connections in their lives
and in their local and global communities.

3.

Broader kinds of self-knowledge (beyond interest, abilities, and values)
and societal knowledge (beyond occupational and educational
information) are critical to an expanded view of career, including
multiple roles, identities, and critical life tasks in diverse cultures.

4.

Career counseling needs to focus on career professionals as change
agents, helping clients to achieve more holistic lives and become
advocates and agents for positive societal change through the choices
they have and decisions they make.
Career Development Task 1
"finding work that needs doing in changing global contexts"
 Encourage clients to better the world in addition to bettering themselves
 Contribute to a goal of a more socially just world by working to
preserve the environment, understand and celebrate diversity, advocate
for human rights, and explore spirituality
Career Development Task 2
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"Weaving our lives into a meaningful whole"
 Holistic

and

 Emphasis

contextual

on

a

career

view

of

career

choice

being

planning

very

personal

 Career is intertwined with every other part of life and other aspects should
be taken into account when choosing a career
Career Development Task 3
"Connecting Family and Work"
 Emphasizes life-role integration and negotiation of roles and relationships
 Highlights the need to examine gender-role expectations and stereotypes
 Envisions men and women as partners in home and the workplace
 Values

self-sufficiency

and

connectedness

Career Development Task 4
"Valuing pluralism and inclusivity"
It is important for individuals to celebrate diversity and multiculturalism
Let's get eclectic!
This recognizes the importance of difference.
Career Development Task 5
"Managing Personal Transitions and Organizational Change"
 The

ability

to

cope

is

essential

to

effective

transitions.

 Tolerating ambiguity, developing personal flexibility, accessing selfawareness, and using social supports enable smooth life transitions.
 Incorporating rational and logical decision-making skills with intuitive
orientations that value a perspective that is both open and accepting is
important.
Career Development Task 6
"Exploring spirituality and life purpose"
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 Could

be

considered

religion

but

not

necessarily

 Embraces purpose, meaning, connectedness, and a sense of community
 Career choice is one that are expressions of one's gifts and talents
"what does this mean in and
for my life?"
"What do I want to mean to
others through my work?

" Spiritual approaches Common Themes:
 Careers should be viewed holistically
 All life experiences provide opportunities for learning
 Attitude of flexibility and openness fosters development
 It also provides opportunity for learning and growth
 Change should be celebrated
 Interventions
engage
the
client
in
and draw upon subjective assessment activities .

career

counseling

Reflection:
As for my reflection on this theory, I have a realization that all of us
encountered different situations in our lives. We have wondered if it is possible to
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integrate the many, often conflicting elements of your life.
The world (of work) known to us today is vastly different from the one our
parents and their parents knew. In the course of the previous century, it was common
practice to leave school, be trained in a certain discipline, find a job, and retire in the
same company forty years later.
Work was seen to be the domain of just that: work. There was no time or space
for one’s family, your spirituality, or any other related issue to be brought to the
office. It was as if we lived two separate lives! Towards the end of the 20th century,
a new paradigm started to evolve and this has given rise to an approach known as
“Integrative Life Planning”. This approach is relating the societal context to the
individual, families, to education, and work. It is seen as a lifelong process where we
will be busy identifying our primary needs, roles, and goals and integrating them
within ourselves, our work, our family, and the bigger community. This model is
based on interaction, is relation oriented, and is aimed at helping us achieve greater
meaning, wholeness, satisfaction, and a sense of community in our lives.
Finally, this new approach is providing a model through which we can shape the
direction of our own lives, assist others to become empowered, to manage change
and to contribute to the larger society. By adopting this approach, it becomes possible
to develop a big picture perspective – we no longer only live for ourselves, but start
doing things, which will benefit our community and bigger society.
Now, how do the above aspects take shape in the lives of people?
Firstly, there needs to be a move towards integrative thinking. Start by looking at
the manner in which learning material is presented: one can no longer get by through
linear thinking - you need to think of how various issues could be integrated to take it
to the “next level”. We are also encouraged to think about the big picture: the
necessity to demonstrate holistic thinking as opposed to traditional reductionist
thinking where less is more. More often than not, complex challenges (problems)
require complex solutions. One would also need to demonstrate a new kind of selfknowledge, as you need to see where and how you fit into 21st century society.
Implementing the process of “Integrative Life Planning” requires hard work, and
this is usually structured in terms of six critical tasks for career development and
changing life patterns. In following postings, these tasks will be presented in a
slightly less abstract manner and some guidelines will be provided as to how these
can be implemented.

HOPPOCK'S CAREER
DEVELOPMENT THEORY
DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Robert Hoppock
(1901-1995)
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born in Lambertville, NJ December 24, 1901
Married to Margaret Emily Thornton
Bachelor of Science degree in 1923
Master of Arts in Educational Psychology from Teachers College of
Columbia University in 1932
 Doctor of Philosophy in Educational
 Research
from
Columbia
in
1935





Robert Hoppock
(1901-1995)
 Professor Emeritus of Counselor Education at New York University in Vista
 A specialist in methods of teaching occupations, his publications included
Occupational Information, Group Counseling, Job Satisfaction and more
than 300 articles in educational, industrial and professional journals.
Robert Hoppock
(1901-1995)
 He received the first eminent career award for enduring contributions to the
noblest principles of vocational guidance from the National Vocational
Guidance Association in 1967
Robert Hoppock
(1901-1995)


Dr. Beck's Adviser and Mentor Beck at New York University

Robert Hoppock's Theory
 stressed the function of the job in satisfying personal needs, but his theory
has attained wide popularity also because of his efforts to integrated ideas
from a number of other theories.
 Vocation development begins with the first awareness that a job can help
meet one’s needs and continues as the person is better able to
anticipate
how potentially satisfying a particular career could be as
compared
with
others.
 Once a person becomes aware of other jobs that could satisfy personal
needs, then occupational choices are subject to change.
Robert Hoppock's Theory
The degree of job satisfaction can be determined by assessing the different between
what a person want from job (emotionally, financially, and so forth) and what she or
he actually has attained.

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10 BASIC POSTULATE OF HOPPOCK’S THEORY
1. Everyone has needs:
 basic physical needs
 Higher-order psychological needs such as:
 self-esteem
 Respect
 self-actualization
2. People tend to gravitate toward occupations that serve their perceived needs.
3. Individuals do not necessarily have to have a clear intellectual awareness of their
needs for those needs to affect occupational choices.
4. Life experiences help to develop a pattern of individual occupational preference
and, as such, suggest a developmental perspective on vocational choice.
5. Given the great diversity of occupational choices, the individual must develop
effective decision-making skills based on solid self-awareness and a rich
informational base.
6. Self-understanding is the basis on which occupational choice rests.
7. Understanding the self is only half of the occupational choice process.
8. When a person’s needs are met by a job, then he or she experiences job
satisfaction.
9. Individuals can delay need satisfaction if they perceive their job as having the
potential to satisfy their needs in the future.
10. If the balance between needs and satisfaction is unfavorable, then a worker will
change job if another position appears to offer the potential to meet needs more fully.
THE COUNSELORS ROLE
1. Stimulate the client’s self-awareness of interest and needs, including the
clarification of values.
2. Promote insight into that which gives life personal meaning.
3.Provide accurate and complete occupational information.
4. Help match the client’s perceived strengths and weaknesses with occupations
likely to provide maximum need satisfaction.
IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELORS
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1. The counselor should always remember that the needs of the client may differ from
the needs of the counselor.
2. The counselor should operate within the framework of the client’s needs.
3. The counselor should provide every possible opportunity for the client to identify
and to express his or her own needs.
4. The counselor should be alert in noticing and remembering the needs that the client
reveals.
5. The counselor should help the client gather information about occupations that
may meet his or her needs.
6. The counselor should help the client to anticipate how well any contemplated
occupation will meet the client’s needs.
7. The counselor should stay with the client through the process of placement in order
to provide the further counseling that will be needed if the desired job is not
available.
8. The counselor should follow-up with the client some months after placement in
order to see how well the job is meeting the needs that the clients thought it would
meet.

Reflection:
Career choice is one of the most important decisions in the life
of an individual. It has far-reaching implications on the individual’s
future in terms of lifestyle, status, income, security and job
satisfaction. Although personal philosophy, achievement and selfimage are important factors in this decision, the external
environment is also very influential in characterizing career and
shaping aspirations. The values an individual holds, the successes
and failures he experiences, the social class in which he has
developed and his interests, strengths and capacities are only some
of the factors which could affect his selection of a career. Hoppock
was of the opinion that a career is chosen to meet certain needs. Based on this,
occupations are chosen in the belief that they would best meet the most dominant
needs of the individual. Needs may be perceived as intellectual or vaguely felt
attractions which draws the person in certain directions. In either case, Hoppock
believes that needs may influence choices.
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Hoppock postulated that career development begins when a person becomes
aware that an occupation can assist in meeting his/her needs. This awareness grows
and his/her occupational choice improves as the person develops the ability to
anticipate how well a prospective occupation will meet those identified needs. Career
choice depends on the knowledge of the self, knowledge of occupations and the
ability to think clearly. Job satisfaction depends upon the extent to which the job
meets the needs that have been identified.
So for us to understand the role of occupation in the life of the individual
demands a prior understanding of that particular individual and his needs. He suggest
that an individual chooses more effectively if he knows his abilities; that fulfillment
of his needs are crucial in job satisfaction and that occupational choice reflects one’s
personality and needs. This stresses the influence of psychological, social and
economic factors in occupational choice. The individual chooses an occupation
which best meets his strongest needs ranging from social, psychological to economic.
This choice improves once he is able to predict how well a prospective occupation
can satisfy his needs. Job satisfaction depends on the extent to which an individual’s
occupational needs meet those needs that he considered most important. Thus, an
individual’s need is one of the determining factors in career choice. Other factors
include important people in our lives, parents, admired works, working experiences
and peer influence. The occupation makes possible the playing of a role appropriate
to the self-concepts since every occupation requires a characteristic pattern of
abilities, interest and personality traits with tolerance wide enough to allow a variety
of occupations for each individual and a variety of individuals in each occupation.
The selection of an occupation constitutes an implementation of the self-concept
construct, requiring a person to recognize himself as a distinctive individual and to be
aware of the similarities between himself and others. Thus, knowledge of self is
crucial in making an adequate and wise choice; suggesting that career choice is
developmental in nature; and not an event, which occurs at a particular point in time.
Career choice can also be influenced by interest; as students often indicate that
they would like an ‘interesting’ job. Interests are, of course, very personal; to the
extent that two people may be interested in the same activity for quite different
reasons. Such features as mental stimulation, sense of achievement, excitement and
using one’s abilities are central to the description of a career that is interesting. Some
effects of interests on career choice are that an interest may be significant in itself and
therefore be vital to career choice. It can also point to jobs where similar satisfactions
can be derived. Indeed, occupations can be grouped together where they have
common interest elements, though one does not need to satisfy all of one’s interests
in a job; since some will be achieved through external activities. An individual’s
skills and interests are, however, only a part of the picture when making choices
about what to do in future. Other factors influencing choice include one’s values and
temperament. An individual’s scale of value is usually based on his belief and
attitudes about what he considers as important in life. Thus, if one’s values match
closely those of his work or colleagues’, one is likely to feel a sense of pride in the
chosen career and therefore be happy to devote time and energy to it.

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Contextual Learning Theory: Weinbaum and Rogers

Contextual learning refers to the type of learning that has also
been called experiential learning, real-world education, active
learning, and learner-centered instruction. Unlike traditional school
learning, which is based on the principles of individual learning in a
manner that is independent of tools and dependent on symbols.
Contextual learning is characterized by the following features:
1) socially shared,
2) thinking shaped by/engaged with tools,
3) learning engaged with objects and events,
4) and situation-specific learning.

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The practical benefits of contextual learning has been
documented in case studies of contextual learning in school-based
vocational education, the workplace, and the community, as well as
in studies of contextual learning as "cognitive apprentices!."
Among the main contextual learning-related issues facing
teachers are the following: rethinking the areas of curriculum,
instruction, and assessment; providing students with hands-on
experiences in which they can learn about and participate in the
workplace, providing adequate staff development for teachers and
employers involved in contextual learning programs, and
reorganizing school periods and providing the administrative
support required to plan and deliver contextual learning programs.
The School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 offers a chance to
bring together partnerships of employers, educators, and others to
build an effective school-to-work system that prepares young
people for either high-quality jobs or further education and training.
The new systems must include the following basic program
elements:
• work-based learning that provides a planned program of job
training or experiences, paid work experience, workplace
mentoring, and instruction in general workplace competencies
• school-based learning that provides career exploration and
counseling, instruction in a career major, and a program of study
that is based on high academic and occupational skill standards
-connecting activities that bring schools, students, and employers
together toconnect the worlds of school and work by matching
students with work-based learning opportunities and by training
teachers, mentors, and counselors
The challenge is to build and implement a new system that
moves beyond business as usual for students who are not on the
college path. Their transition process from school to work must
become the coordinated responsibility of school, family, business,
community, and government. No single institution can or should
take sole responsibility for or be expected to provide all of the
approaches to educating, training, guiding, preparing, and
supporting our young people.
Within the federal government, a major theme of current
education policy is the goal of building bridges between education
and employment. The Clinton Administration's School-to- Work
Opportunities Act of 1994 proposes three strategies: school- based
learning, work-based learning, and activities to connect school and
workplace.

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The act defines work-based learning, as follows:
• a planned program of job training and experiences, including
skills to be mastered at progressively higher levels, that are relevant to a
student's career major
and lead to the award of a skill certificate
• paid work experience
• workplace mentoring
« instruction in general workplace competencies
« broad instruction in a variety of elements of an industry
Contextual Learning — From Theory to Practice
Across the country, schools, classes, and multischool
systems are adopting the principles of contextual learning. The
result is an array of practices that are not always easy to label as
one thing or another. Some of these practices imply major changes
in school organization; others do not. A radical school restructuring
is obviously involved when a school reorganizes its curriculum
around occupational clusters and abolishes traditional academic
departments. A much less sweeping change occurs when an
academic teacher visits a vocational classroom to incorporate
material into the curriculum.
The cases selected below are neither exhaustive nor unique.
Rather, they illustrate
ways that the philosophy and principles of contextual learning are
reshaping education in the United States. The discussion of workbased education efforts is divided into four sections: school-based
vocational education, workplace-based education, communitybased education, and classroom-based cognitive apprenticeship
approaches.
 Contextual Learning in School-Based Vocational Education
Curricular and pedagogical reforms of school-based vocational
programs, in part
encouraged and funded by the Perkins Act Amendments, have
produced a variety of approaches, some of which integrate
contextual learning practices and beliefs.
 Contextual Learning in the WorkpIace
Most work-based educational programs are associated with schoolto-work transition or vocational programs. .Usually, they are part
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of a broader reform of curriculum and pedagogy.
 Contextual Learning in the Community
A different model for taking education into the community is
youth community
service. This movement has gained many
advocates in the past decade, in part in hopes of responding to the
alienation many young people feel toward a society that no longer
offers them meaningful roles. Community service offers a sense of
accomplishment, a chance to work with others, and opportunities to
explore the world of work. Less often emphasized by proponents
is the powerful connection between community service and the
principles of contextual learning.

Reflection:
As we approach the twenty-first century, a large segment of our
nation's young people are having a harder and harder time moving
from school to work with any reasonable prospect for long-term
productive employment. The lack of a comprehensive and effective
school-to-work transition system not only frustrates many students
but also has substantial costs to business and to our economy as a
whole. A skill-deficient work force hampers our nation's economic
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growth, productivity, and ability to compete in an international
economy. New modes of information and technology have forced a
restructuring of the home, the school, and the workplace. As a
result, there is a critical need to create systems that effectively
serve the interests and potential of young people who are not
planning to enter college directly after high school. These students
need to leave school with the diverse skills, knowledge, abilities,
and attitudes necessary for a rapidly changing world of work;
community, social, family, and adult responsibilities; and lifelong
learning.
Learning-in-context is so obvious a notion that the lay person
might tend to dismiss its importance. Anyone who has ever endured
the first day in a new job, played a pickup game of basketball,
maneuvered with an arm in a cast, or repaired a car engine has
experienced learning-in-context: that fruitful, if often frustrating,
confrontation between a human mind's knowledge and skills and a
new set of cognitive, social, physical, or mechanical demands.
Yet, education as distinguished from learning, is usually
identified by the lay person and educator alike with the traditional
classroom environment of lectures and books, rather than with reallife contexts like the workplace or the community- or the basketball
court. Many employers dissatisfied with their young employees
advocate workplace experiences for students — internships,
mentorships, apprenticeships — believing that these experiences
might teach the job skills and/or work attitudes that will produce
better employees. Critics of current vocational programs in the
schools, similarly concerned between many of these programs and
the actual human resource needs of the different countries
economy, argue that workplace experiences are an essential
element of effective vocational preparation.
The workplace, however, is only one context. In our national
haste to integrate workplace and schooling, it is important that we
not lose sight of a broader vision of earning. To make each one of
our schools an embryonic community life, active with types of
occupations that reflect the life of the larger society and permeated
throughout with the spirit of art, history, and science. When the
school introduces and trains each child of society into membership
within such a little community, saturating him with the spirit of
service and providing him with the instruments of effective selfdirection which shall have the deepest and best guaranty of a larger
society which is worthy, lovely, and harmonious.

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