Writing Styles for College Students

Writing Styles for College Students
Learn how to write and format in APA Style, MLA Style and Chicago Manual of Style
published by http://www.LousyWriter.com


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Peter Gallagher is a retired university professor and
contributor for http://www.LousyWriter.com. He
wrote "Writing Styles for College Students" to
condense the most commonly asked questions about
APA style, Chicago style, and MLA style.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section 1: APA Style

Section 2: MLA Style
6 How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in APA Style
10 How to Cite Sources Inside APA Style Text
15 How to Create Footnotes and Headings in APA Style
22 What Pages Do I Need With My APA Style Paper?
28 Differences Between APA and MLA Styles of Writing
32 Writing Advice for APA Style
37 How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in MLA Style
41 How Do I Write in MLA Style?
45 How to Cite Non-Traditional Sources in MLA Style
50 How to Cite Sources Inside the Text in MLA Style
55 How to Cite Sources in MLA Style


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Section 2: Chicago Style

61 What Pages Do I Need With My MLA Style Paper?
65 How to Format a Paper in MLA Style
68 The Differences Between MLA Style and Chicago Style
74 How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in Chicago Style
77 How to Format a Paper in Chicago Style
81 What Pages Do I Need With My Chicago Style Paper?
84 How to Cite Sources Inside the Text in Chicago Style
91 How to Create a Bibliography in Chicago Style
97 How to Create Headings and Endnotes in Chicago Style
103 The Differences Between Chicago Style and APA Style of Writing
107 Writing Advice for Chicago Style


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Section 1:

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How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation
in APA Style

Writing that first thesis or dissertation can be a daunting task on its own.
Throw in a need for APA Style guidelines in the paper, and it can be
downright intimidating for the student who has never used APA Style in the
past.

However, following APA Style doesn't have to be a chore that takes all of
the enjoyment out of your writing. A large portion of following APA Style
involves common sense writing rules. Dozens of other APA resources can
help you with the rest. This set of articles will spell out many aspects of
using APA Style.

I. APA STYLE'S ORIGIATIO

APA is short for the American Psychological Association. The APA created
APA Style as a format for its members to follow as they wrote books and
journals for the APA to publish. The initial APA Style guidelines appeared
in a magazine article in 1929. The first formal APA Style book appeared in
1952.

The format quickly grew in popularity, expanding well beyond APA
members. Many educational institutions use APA Style as a guideline for
students writing a formal paper, such as a thesis or dissertation.



II. WHAT APA STYLE COVERS



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By using APA Style, the student has a comprehensive guideline for
formatting all aspects of the paper. For example, APA Style provides rules
for the type and size of font to be used, the margins on the paper, and use of
punctuation. APA Style also provides rules for citing references, presenting
figures or illustrations, and creating tables. Essentially, APA Style rules
cover every aspect of the paper that you will be writing.

The APA Style rules have evolved over the years, making subtle changes.
Sometimes, you may have an instructor who prefers an old rule and will ask
you to break away from the APA Style on that particular rule. Other
instructors allow for a few exceptions to APA Style, especially those that
make the paper easier to read, such as combining the abstract and title pages.

However, if you plan to submit your thesis or dissertation for publication,
you'll want to follow the APA Style precisely.

III. HOW TO START A APA STYLE PAPER

Using a word processor and a computer makes applying APA Style far
easier than it used to be with a typewriter. If you need to add a footnote or
insert a quotation at the last minute, it's easy to do with a word processing
program, such as MS-WORD.

When writing your paper using APA Style, you start with a title page that
contains the title, your name, and your school. The second page is the
abstract page, which contains a short description of your paper. The main
text begins on the third page. At the end, you'll list all of the sources you
used with your paper in the references section.

During your research, as you find sources to use in your paper, you will
want to make sure you have the APA Style guidelines handy, ensuring that
you collect all of the necessary information about each source. Different


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types of sources (such as books, reports, and papers) require different types
of documentation in APA Style, but the information you'll typically need
includes:

* Title of book or article or report
* Author name or names
* Date of publication or creation or retrieval
* Name of publication
* Publishing house or company
* Pages or chapters used as a source
* Short description of source's origination, if necessary, such as a Web
site or a conference

Obviously, some citations will not have every piece of information listed
above. When collecting information on your sources, a good rule of thumb
to follow is: Collect at least as much information as you'd need to tell
someone else how to find the exact piece of information you used as a
resource in your paper. Take your time to ensure you have all of the
information to properly cite the source.




IV. FIDIG MORE ASWERS

If you have specific questions regarding APA Style, the ultimate resource is
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, which
is available for about $40. The fifth edition is the current edition. You also
can visit the APAStyle (dot) org Web site for some tips and additional
information for using APA Style with your paper.



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For additional help, your instructor might have some tips or guidelines. Your
university library likely has dozens of books devoted to APA Style
guidelines. If all else fails, Google can provide dozens of Web sites that
provide tips for correctly applying APA Style rules in your paper.

With so many APA Style resources available, you can stop worrying about
APA Style and place all of your focus where it belongs: On the substance of
your thesis or dissertation.


continued


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APA Citations : How to Cite Sources
Inside APA Style Text

When writing an APA Style paper, it’s required that you properly cite any
sources you’ve used. Citing sources is important for a few reasons. First, it
allows instructors to check the accuracy of your research. Second, it gives
your readers the opportunity to find additional related information. Most
importantly, citing sources gives credit for the research and theories that
you’re citing to the people who've created them.

Citing sources in APA Style requires two processes. One citation is required
at the position in the main text where the cited material appears, called an in-
text citation. The other citation occurs at the end of the paper, in a list of all
cited works, called a reference list.

In this article, we’ll focus on materials you’ll need to cite within the main
text of the APA style paper.

I. Citing a Printed Work in APA style

Often times, the type of APA formatting used for an in-text citation of
printed material will depend on the structure of the sentence, as shown in
these examples.


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Citation example A. Include the names of the author within the sentence,
followed by the year of publication inside parentheses.

The study created by Johnson, Smith, & Jones (2003)
indicates that technological advancements spur economic
growth.

Citation example B. You can place the names of the authors inside the
parentheses with the year of publication, depending on your sentence
structure.

Some economists have indicated that technological
advancements spur economic growth (Johnson, Smith, &
Jones, 2003).



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II. Subsequent Listings

Once you have listed a printed source and its author(s) in your paper, you
sometimes can abbreviate with subsequent in-text citations of the same
work. As shown in these examples, the number of authors determines
whether an abbreviation is appropriate.

One or two authors. On subsequent references, list it as you did the first
time, with one or both authors’ names and the year of publication.

Additionally, the Johnson & Jones (2003) study indicates ...

Three or more authors. On subsequent references, you only need to list the
first author, followed by “et al.” before the year of publication.

Additionally, the Johnson et al. (2003) study indicates ...



continued


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III. Special Circumstances

With published works, figuring out the authors’ names and the year of
publication is a fairly easy process. With some sources, creating the proper
in-text APA citation can be a little more difficult.

For example, a Web page might not readily include an author’s name. If one
isn’t available, you can use an editor’s name, simply listing it as you listed
the author’s name in the examples shown earlier.

If no author’s name or editor’s name is available, just list the name of the
organization or institution that’s associated with the Web site, as shown in
the following example.

An economic organization’s study has indicated that
technological advancements spur economic growth
(Worldwide Economists Group, 2006).

You also can use the title of a Web page or publication with the in-text
citation, if no author is listed. Remember, with an in-text citation, you’re
simply trying to ensure that those who read your paper can easily find the
full listing of the source in the reference list at the end of the paper.

IV. Quotations

When quoting source material directly within your text, use the same in-text
citation formatting we’ve already described, along with a little additional
information.



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Short quotations. For any quotation less than 40 words in length, use
quotation marks around the quotation, followed by the page number of the
reference.

According to Johnson (2003), “Spending tax dollars on
technological advancements spurs growth in the local
economy” (p. 43).

Long quotations. Follow the same APA format for in-text citations,
including the page number(s), for a long quotation of more than 40 words.
However, you’ll want to create a special block of text for the long quotation
by indenting about one-half inch from the left margin for all lines of the
quotation. Return to the normal left margin after reaching the end of the
quotation block. Do not use quotation marks with this long quotation block,
and double space throughout the block.

V. More Information

Keep in mind that APA Style says that you should always use past tense or
present perfect tense when describing research that requires an in-text
citation.

Finally, if you have a particularly tricky source to cite within your text that
isn’t covered here, you can find the answer in the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association, which is the ultimate resource for
APA Style.



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How to Create Footnotes and
Headings in APA Style

Within the main text of your thesis or dissertation, you may need to organize
the text and information beyond the standard blocks of text. You have a
couple of options under APA Style. Footnotes give you the option of adding
information about an idea in your text without detracting from the text.
Headings allow you to organize the text into sections, similar to an outline.

1. APA Style Footnotes

APA Style recommends against using footnotes within the paper, because it
is difficult for a publishing company to reproduce the superscript numbers
used with footnotes. Footnotes are explanatory notes referenced from the
main text. If you need to use footnotes, place them at the end of the paper,
after the references list. (Some people call these types of citations
“endnotes.”) Footnotes should appear on a separate page with the word
“Footnotes” centered at the top of the page.

It’s worth noting that because APA Style allows for in-text citations, you’ll
rarely need footnotes, unless you need an in-depth explanation of an item
within the text. However, keep the footnote to a maximum of a few
sentences and do not discuss more than one idea per footnote. If you need a
more complex footnote, you’ll want to include the information as an
appendix page entry or incorporate it into the main text instead.

APA Style allows for two types of footnotes: Content and copyright
permission. A content footnote should include information that would be
distracting to include within the main text. It’s a good way to point the
reader toward additional information. A copyright permission footnote


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shows the reader that you have obtained permission to use a previously
published long quote (more than 500 words), table, or figure.

Both types of footnotes require the same type of formatting, as shown in the
following example.

Technological advancements tend to spark economic
growth worldwide.
1


On the footnote page, indent each footnote as a new paragraph and double
space throughout.

1
Johnson defines technological advancements in a variety
of ways ...



continued


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2. APA Style Headings

APA Style allows for you to use headings to better organize your paper. You
can think of using headings like creating an outline. You can use up to five
levels with headings, although the formatting becomes tricky if you go
deeper than three levels.

The headings formatting requirements include:

FIRST LEVEL. The first level headings should be centered above their
associated text blocks. Use both uppercase and lowercase words within the
heading.

SECOD LEVEL. Type the second level heading in all italics, flush left,
and with both uppercase and lowercase words.

THIRD LEVEL. The third level heading should look like a sentence at the
start of a paragraph, as it’s indented, all lowercase words (other than the first
word or proper nouns), and ends with a period. It is italicized, however, to
set it apart from the main text.



continued


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An example of the formatting for the first three levels of headings looks
this way:



First Level of Heading (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Second Level of Heading (flush left)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Third level of heading (indented). Main text should immediately
follow the third heading.



continued


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FOURTH LEVEL. If you need a fourth level heading, you have to rework
your previous headings. The second level becomes italicized and centered,
while the old second level and old third level become the new third and
fourth levels, respectively.




First Level of Heading (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Second Level of Heading (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Third Level of Heading (flush left)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Fourth level of heading (indented). Main text should immediately
follow the fourth heading.




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FIFTH LEVEL. Again, adding a fifth level requires reworking of the other
levels, beginning with the first level, which now becomes a centered and all
uppercase heading. Every other heading moves down one spot. The old first
level heading becomes the new second level, and the others follow suit.


FIRST LEVEL OF HEADING (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Second Level of Heading (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Third Level of Heading (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Fourth Level of Heading (flush left)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Fifth level of heading (indented). Main text should immediately
follow the fifth heading.




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Finally, keep in mind that very few APA Style papers will require more than
two or three levels of headings. Typically, the only types of papers that need
four or five levels of headings are those detailing complex scientific
experiments.


continued


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What Pages Do I Need With My APA
Style Paper?

When compiling your thesis or dissertation, the APA Style guidelines
specify certain types of pages, as well as formatting guidelines for those
pages. I have included the primary pages you'll need in your manuscript.
Always start each of these sections on a new page. Most of them will only
require one page.

* ABSTRACT. The second page in your APA style thesis should be the
abstract page, which contains a 100- to 150-word summary of your paper.
Do not include any of the main text on the abstract page. It will contain the
page header, which is a two- or three-word summary of the title, in the upper
right corner, just left of page number "2," as the abstract page is always the
second page. Do not indent the abstract and limit it to one paragraph. If you
use numbers in the abstract, type them as digits, rather than words, unless
the number starts a sentence.

* APPEDIX. Use the appendix, which is optional, to describe complex
equipment or to present unpublished tests. Each appendix in your APA
paper should appear on its own page, and use letters to differentiate each
appendix, such as "Appendix A" and "Appendix B." Some papers will not
use an appendix page. Any appendix pages belong at the end of the paper.

* AUTHOR OTE. In the author note page, which is optional, identify the
departmental affiliation for the author. You also can include disclaimers,
acknowledgements, and, if desired, contact information for the author. If you
received funding for this research, identify it on the author note page. Place
the author note page after the dedication page. With some instructors and
institutions, this page is called the acknowledgments page.



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* COPYRIGHT OTICE. A copyright notice is an optional page in your
APA paper; it signifies the paper is copyrighted material. Place a copyright
page immediately after the title page. It should include the copyright symbol,
the year of publication, the author's name, and "all rights reserved." Center
all of the copyright text on the page.

* DEDICATIO. A dedication page is an optional page similar to the
author note page, and it allows you to dedicate your paper to someone. Place
the dedication page after the copyright page. The dedication page does not
need to include the word "Dedication" at the top; simply list your dedication
in italics. Center it on the page.

* LIST OF TABLES AD LIST OF FIGURES. Only use a list of tables
or a list of figures page if you have at least five tables or five figures in your
APA paper. Both list pages should appear after the table of contents, with
the list of tables page ahead of the list of figures page. List each table or
figure with the appropriate title and page number, connected by a leader.
Right-align the page number and left-align the title of each table or figure.

* MAI TEXT. The main text always begins on page 3. Center the
complete title above the beginning of the main text.

* REFERECE LIST. Include your reference list after the main text page
and ahead of the appendix page. The reference list page should include all
works that you've cited in your paper, listed alphabetically. Rules for listing
references under APA Style are specific, depending on the type of work, and
you need to follow them closely. (We'll discuss them in another article.)

* TABLE OF COTETS. The table of contents page should appear after
the abstract page. It is an organized listing of the contents of the paper,
providing page numbers to the various sections and headings in the paper.
The reader can use the table of contents to jump to a particular section of the


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paper. When listing chapter headings in the table of contents, make sure they
exactly match the chapter headings in the text. Use a leader to connect the
chapter heading or section name (aligned on the left) with the page number
(aligned on the right). Type "Table of Contents" centered at the top of the
page.

* TITLE. The title page includes more than just the title. In the upper right
corner, include the page header and page number "1," as the title page is
always the first page. Then center the title on the page. If the title requires
more than one line, use double spacing. Include the author's name and the
author's educational institution or the author's home city and state.


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APA Format : How to Format a Paper
in APA Style

The APA Style rules for formatting a thesis or dissertation are specific,
ranging from the proper font size to the proper margins to the type of paper
you should use. Here are 14 formatting tips you should follow when creating
your paper.

Tip 1: ABBREVIATIOS. Try to avoid using abbreviations in your paper.
However, if you have an abbreviation that's commonly accepted in language
and appears in the dictionary, such as AIDS, you may use it.

Tip 2: ALIGMET. Always align the text flush left. Do not use the “full
justify” setting on your word processor, which spreads the text and aligns it
both left and right.

Tip 3: FOT. If using a word processor, stick with a serif font, such as
Times New Roman. Use text in a 10- or 12-point size.

Tip 4: HYPHEATIO. Do not break and hyphenate words at the end of a
line. Instead, leave one line a little short and place the entire word on the
next line, or go a couple of characters beyond the right margin to fit the
entire word on the line.

Tip 5: IDETIOS. Indent paragraphs within the main text of the paper
one-half inch, if using a computer word processor, or five to seven spaces, if
using a typewriter. However, do not indent in the following special
circumstances: The abstract, block quotations, figure captions, notes,
reference list entries, table titles, and titles or headings.



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Tip 6: MARGIS. Use 1-inch margins on all four sides of the paper: Top,
bottom, right, and left. Old rules called for some 1.5-inch margins, but those
rules no longer are valid.

Tip 7: PAGE UMBERIG. Number almost every page in the paper,
including the title page. Place the number in the upper-right corner of the
page, and use only Arabic numerals. Place the number “1” on the title page
and the number “2” on the abstract page. The main text should start on page
number “3”. Do not number pages that contain only figures or artwork.

Tip 8: PAPER TYPE. Use standard white, 20-pound bond paper that
measures 8.5-by-11 inches. If using a computer, use an inkjet or laser printer
to print the paper; if you must use a tractor-feed printer, be sure to remove
the pinhole borders from the edges of the paper.

Tip 9: PARETHESES. Try to limit parentheses to set apart elements that
are structurally independent, such as when listing a figure or illustration
related to a sentence. If you're enclosing a complete sentence in parentheses,
place the punctuation inside the parentheses. If you're enclosing only part of
a sentence inside parentheses, leave the punctuation outside the parentheses.

Tip 10: PUCTUATIO. In most instances, use one space after all typical
punctuation marks, such as periods, commas, colons, and semicolons. Three
exceptions exist to this rule. First, do not use a space after periods inside an
abbreviation, such as when using U.S. for United States. Second, do not use
a space after a colon in a ratio, such as 3:2. Third, some instructors prefer the
old rule of using two spaces after periods that end sentences. If you're using
Courier or another mono-space font, APA Style does allow two spaces
between sentences, although one is preferred.

Tip 11: SHORT TITLE. A Short Title, which is a two- or three-word
summary of the main title, should appear on every page in the top right


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corner, other than pages that contain only figures or artwork. The Short Title
should appear just to the left of the page number.

Tip 12: SLASH MARK. Avoid using slash marks in your paper. For
example, instead of writing “red and/or green,” write “red, green, or both.”

Tip 13: SPACIG. Use double spacing throughout the entire paper, unless
your instructor specifically requests single spacing in certain circumstances,
such as with block quotations.

Tip 14: TITLE. Center the title on the title page, using a mixture of
uppercase and lowercase letters. If the title is long enough to require a
second line, double space between the lines. After the title, the student's
name should appear, followed by the institution for which the paper is being
written. If you don't have an institution to include, you may substitute the
city and state of the author of the paper. Double space between every line on
the title page. The title page should contain the number "1" in the upper right
corner.

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The Differences Between APA and
MLA Styles of Writing

When writing a dissertation or thesis, your instructor probably will require
you to follow one of two popular style formats for your paper, APA Style or
MLA Style. Although both formats are similar, they do have subtle
differences that you'll need to know.

Generally, you select the style to follow based on the subject matter of the
paper you're writing. Each style treats the formatting of the paper a little
differently to meet the citation needs for the subject matter.

I. CHOOSIG YOUR STYLE

For the most part, your instructor will select the style of formatting that
you'll use for your paper. If you have a choice, however, you can follow
these suggestions for deciding which style to use.

APA Style.

Use APA Style for subjects related to the social sciences, such as business,
criminal justice, economics, law, and medical subjects, including nursing
and psychology. The American Psychological Association created the APA
Style, and you can visit apastyle (dot) org on the Internet to find more
information on APA Style. The Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association is the full listing of APA Style guidelines and
APA formatting rules.

MLA Style.



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Use MLA Style for subjects related to the humanities and liberal arts, such
as literature, mass communications, and media studies. The Modern
Language Association oversees the development of MLA Style, and you can
visit mla(dot)org on the Internet for more information. For undergraduate
students, use the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers
(sometimes shortened to MLA Handbook) as the guide to following MLA
Style. For graduate students and professionals, use the MLA Style Manual
and Guide to Scholarly Publishing (sometimes shortened to MLA Style
Manual) to find official rules and guidelines for MLA Style.

II. THE DIFFERECES

If you still are not sure which style you should use with your paper, here are
some formatting differences between APA Style and MLA Style. Choose the
style that will allow you to format your paper and deliver the information to
your readers in the most efficient manner.

Abstract.

This difference in this category is pretty obvious: APA Style requires an
abstract page, while MLA Style does not. An abstract is a short summary of
your paper.

In-text citations.

With both styles, use the last name of the author(s) in any in-text citation.
With APA Style, you also include the year of publication. With MLA Style,
you include the page number of the information you cited along with the
name of the author(s), but you do not include the year of publication. By
including the year of publication, APA Style gives the readers a chance to
decide how much relevancy to place on a particular source, based on its age.
With the subject matter used with MLA Style, however, the age of the


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sourced material usually isn't as vital to its relevancy, so MLA Style doesn't
list the year of publication.

With both styles, remember that the in-text citation is simply a method of
ensuring that your readers can easily find the full citation in the reference list
or works cited page at the end of the paper. You don't need extensive
information about the source for an in-text citation.

Page numbers.

With both styles, the page number appears in the upper right corner of each
page, but each style has different additional information. With APA Style,
you must include a running title to the left of the page number on each page.
A running title is a two- or three-word summary of the title of your paper.
With MLA Style, include the author's name to the left of the page number on
each page.

Reference list formatting.

With both APA Style and MLA Style, when listing each of your sources on
the reference list page (APA Style) or works cited page (MLA Style), use
the full last name of the author(s) in each entry. In APA Style, you also list
only the initials of the first and middle name of each author. In MLA Style,
you spell out the entire first and middle name of each author. (Middle name
information is optional.)

Title page.

APA Style requires a title page, but MLA Style does not. If you choose to
skip the title page with MLA Style, simply include your name, your
instructor's name, your course, and the full date in the upper left-hand corner


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of the first page. Then center the title on the page, followed by your main
text.

You'll also find several subtle differences between APA Style and MLA
Style in capitalization and punctuation rules. However, those differences are
too numerous to list here, and they probably won't affect your decision on
which style to use with your paper.


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Writing Advice for APA Style

Writing in APA Style can be an intimidating task, especially if you've never
written a formal research paper previously. APA Style has many rules,
guidelines, and formatting requirements for your paper that it can be
overwhelming to think about all of the opportunities for mistakes.

However, following APA Style is not as difficult as it sounds. As with
almost any educational endeavor, hurrying unnecessarily will lead to
mistakes, so take your time to ensure correct formatting. Following the APA
Style tips listed here will help, too.

ACTIVE VOICE.

Try to avoid writing in passive voice. APA Style requires active voice, and
some instructors will downgrade your paper if you use a lot of passive voice.
With active voice, the subject of the sentence does something. With passive
voice, the subject of the sentence has something done to it. Passive voice
often uses the word "by."

FOCUS O THE WRITIG.

There's no question that following APA Style closely is an important part of
creating a successful paper. However, the tight rules and guidelines that
govern APA Style should not be your primary focus. Instead, focus on the
content of your paper and focus on the writing. If the content of your paper
is lacking, it won't matter to your instructor how closely your paper follows
APA Style.

LAGUAGE TIPS.



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When writing your APA Style paper, avoid using contractions: "Can't"
should be "cannot," and "it's" should be "it is." Do not use slang language.
Clear, concise language is best. Never write in the first person, either.

PLAGIARISM PROBLEMS.

Obviously, you don't want to plagiarize any part of your paper. To make
sure you don't inadvertently commit plagiarism, cite all of your sources. If
you're unsure whether to use an in-text citation for a source, you probably
should use it. It's better to be safe than sorry when citing sources.

PROOFREAD A FEW TIMES.

You'd be surprised how often a simple mistake sneaks into formal papers
because the author didn't take the time to proofread more than once.
Proofreading should not be done as a last-minute item; it should be done a
few times before the paper is completed. In fact, it's best to set the paper
aside for a couple of days between proofreading sessions. If you can take a
break from the paper for a couple of days, you'll be surprised how much
better your proofreading sessions go with a fresh look at the paper, rather
than a harried, last-minute look.

PROOFREAD SOME MORE.

Depending on the importance of the paper, you may want to hire someone to
do some additional proofreading for you. Again, having a fresh look at the
paper, this time from a different pair of eyes, will only help improve your
paper.

REFERECE LIST.



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As you perform the research for your paper, it's important to keep the
reference list in the back of your mind. When you pull information from
sources, make sure that you collect extensive information about each source.
Having a comprehensive list is good for two reasons. First, you must have
the information for the reference list, so collecting it as you use each source
will save you time when compiling the reference list later. Second, if you
need to revisit a particular source to find more information for your paper,
you'll have very few problems finding it again with a comprehensive source
list.

REPEATABLE RULES.

Once you've mastered a few of the APA Style guidelines, you'll repeat them
throughout your paper, making your job easier. This is especially true with
citing sources, either inside the main text or on the references list page. Even
though there are subtle, slight differences in formatting the citations,
depending on the type of source, most the formatting is similar.

YOUR ISTRUCTOR KOWS BEST.

Finally, if you encounter a dilemma where the instructions for your paper
that your instructor provided contradict APA Style guidelines and rules, go
with your instructor's preferences. Some APA Style rules are modifiable,
giving your instructor some latitude. In addition, because APA Style rules
have evolved over the years, you might have an instructor who prefers an
old rule to a new rule.

If you encounter a contradiction, just remember this: The last time I
checked, the latest edition of the APA Style Manual had never graded a
paper. Follow the desires of the person who will be grading the paper.



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Section 2:

M
MML
LLA
AA S
SSt
tty
yyl
lle
ee



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How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation
in MLA Style

If you're a student in liberal arts or humanities, chances are good your
professor will ask you to write a paper in MLA Style. Eventually, you might
even create a thesis or dissertation using MLA Style. Writing in MLA Style
is one of a few different writing styles you can use to format academic
papers that require sources in an educational or professional setting.

Although learning all the rules about MLA Style can seem overwhelming, it
doesn't have to be. Many rules of MLA Style repeat themselves as you use
them in your paper, meaning you don't have to learn hundreds of rules. As
long as you learn the basic MLA Style guidelines, you can create a well-
formatted MLA Style paper with great success.

Here are some of my time-tested techniques to help you write that first MLA
Style paper. If you run into a situation that I do not cover, then you can
always call upon the many MLA Style resources on the Internet and in print
that can handle those odd situations.

I. THE ORIGI OF MLA STYLE

The Modern Language Association of America oversees MLA Style,
publishing the first edition of its MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly
Publishing in 1985. The Modern Language Association (MLA) published
the third edition of the MLA Style Manual in 2008.

Headquartered in New York City, the MLA is an American professional
organization for scholars of literature and language, including professors and
graduate students. The MLA began in 1883 at Purdue University, essentially


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as a discussion group for literature and modern language. Today, several
regional associations make up the MLA.

II. WORKIG WITH MLA STYLE

By following the MLA Style, as outlined in the MLA Style Manual, students
receive advice on a variety of rules for creating and formatting a formal
MLA paper, including rules for:

* The size of the font
* The type of font
* The margins of the paper
* Citing references in the text
* Citing references at the end of the paper
* Presenting tables, figures, and illustrations

Rules for creating papers using MLA Style have undergone some changes
since the first MLA Style Manual appeared almost 25 years ago. In addition,
with the changes in the latest version of the MLA Style Manual, you may
have some instructors who prefer the "old" rules of MLA Style. Be sure your
instructors clearly define which version of MLA Style they'd like you to
follow.

Finally, some instructors might not require the strict formality of the MLA
Style Manual in a particular paper. Instead, they might ask you to follow the
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, which is a less formal
version of MLA Style. For the most part, the MLA Handbook is aimed at
undergraduate college students and high school students. Be sure you know
which reference guide for MLA Style your instructor wants you to use.

III. HOW TO START YOUR MLA STYLE PAPER


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A computer with word processing software, such as Microsoft Word or
Word Perfect, is the best method for writing your MLA Style paper. A word
processor is the easiest way to perform the formatting functions, indentions,
and italics text.

As you perform your research for your formal paper, it's important to track
your sources. You'll need to cite the sources you've used in your MLA Style
paper. MLA Style guidelines will dictate different formatting rules for
different types of sources. For most of your sources, you'll need to track the
title, author, date of publication, name of publication, and pages used as a
source, among other types of information. It's always better to have more
information than you'll need when citing a source than to not have enough
information.

IV. FIDIG MORE ASWERS ABOUT MLA STYLE

For additional questions about MLA Style, the MLA Style Manual is the
best source. This publication includes the rules and advice for formatting a
thesis or dissertation. It also includes information on submitting your work
for peer review and publication, on copyright laws, on fair use rules, and on
contracts.

Keep in mind that the MLA says the guidelines in the third edition of the
MLA Style Manual represent a "significant revision" to the documentation
style, so you'll want to make sure you have the latest information.

If your university library doesn't have the latest copy of the MLA Style
Manual, you can purchase a copy for about $33 from the MLA Web site.
Unfortunately, the MLA Web site doesn't offer many tips on using MLA
Style. When using other Web sites for information on MLA Style, be sure to
use the latest rules.


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How Do I Write in MLA Style?

Even though MLA Style lacks explicit rules about specific pages to include
in your paper and how to organize those pages, it does have many formatting
rules that you need to follow.

Following MLA Style shouldn't detract from the overall work of your paper,
however. It takes some work to achieve the proper MLA format, but it's
important to not allow the paper format to prevent you from focusing on
writing the paper. These tips will give you some additional help to follow
MLA Style with your paper.

TIP 1. DOUBLE-CHECK ALL CITATIOS.

With MLA Style, it's important to make sure you have properly listed all of
the in-text citations, making it easy for readers to find each citation in the
Works Cited list. Make sure you spell all authors' names correctly in the
Works Cited list, too, so you don't confuse readers about the author.

TIP 2. FOLLOW YOUR ISTRUCTOR'S ISTRUCTIOS.

You may have an instructor who gives you directions for composing the
thesis or dissertation that differ slightly from those in MLA Style. Follow
your instructor's guidelines in those instances.




TIP 3. GRAMMAR GUIDELIES.



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Papers that follow proper grammar are more likely to receive favorable
marks from an instructor. For example, always write in active voice, rather
than passive voice. In other words, make certain the subjects of your
sentences are doing something in the sentence, rather than the subjects
having something done to them. Avoid using contractions in your paper, if
possible. Do not use slang or jargon in your paper, unless you're writing
about a subject that requires such language. Do not write in the first person;
in other words, do not use the words "I" or "me" in any sentence. Try to
avoid making absolute statements, especially when you are describing an
opinion. Do not use numerous quotations just to fill a word count or page
count; make sure quotations add to your argument.

TIP 4. PROOFREADIG, A ECESSARY TASK.

For most people, proofreading is the least enjoyable task for compiling a
formal paper. However, it's a key task. You might have the most compelling
argument your instructor has ever seen, but inadvertently, allowing several
grammatical and spelling errors to appear in your paper will make it tough to
take your argument seriously. Proofread your paper at least a few times
before submitting it. If possible, take a few days off between proofreading
sessions. A fresh look at the paper after a break will help you catch a few
errors that you may have missed the first time around. Remember that,
although word processing software spell checkers are handy, they do not
catch every error, such as "to," "too," and "two." Proofreading is vital to
having a successful paper.



TIP 5. TAKE YOUR TIME.

During the writing phase or the proofreading phase, you need to leave plenty
of time to finish the paper. If you force yourself to hurry to meet a deadline,


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your writing will suffer, and you'll make mistakes. Start early on the paper,
set goals for finishing different aspects of it -- initial research, detailed
research, first draft, second draft, detailed proofreading, and final draft -- and
you'll have a much better finished paper.

TIP 6. WORKS CITED LIST.

Throughout the research process for your paper, it is important to track all of
the sources you use. For every idea or quote you use from one of your
sources, you will have to cite the idea in the paper and list the source in the
Works Cited list. Collect extensive information about each source, which
will allow you to cite each source properly in your paper. It's important to
give credit for any ideas you use from other people. Citing sources properly
will ensure you don’t inadvertently commit plagiarism. If you’re unsure
whether to use an in-text citation for a source, you probably should use it.
It’s better to be safe than sorry when citing sources.

TIP 7. FIAL TIP.

If you ever are unsure about the formatting style you should follow when
citing a particular source, turn to the MLA Style Manual. It has examples
and explanations of every type of source that you'll ever encounter.

However, be certain that you're using the latest edition of the MLA Style
Manual. The changes in the latest edition are subtle, but there are enough of
them that you don't want to make some silly formatting errors, just because
you were using an old edition of the MLA Style Manual. If you have a
difficult time finding the newest edition of the MLA Style Manual, check
with your instructor. He or she might not care if you use the previous
edition.



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How to Cite Non-Traditional Sources
in MLA Style

In some respects, writing a dissertation or thesis in MLA Style was easier
two or three decades ago, at least when it came to compiling the Works
Cited list. You might not have used a computer for writing or the Internet for
locating more sources, but at least you didn't have to cite many non-
traditional sources in a Works Cited page.

When citing non-traditional sources in MLA Style, such as Web pages or
electronic media, you need to follow specific rules, just as you do with
traditional print media, such as books and scholarly journals. I have listed
some of the more common instances below. When writing your MLA paper,
if you encounter any situations not discussed below, you always can turn to
the MLA Style Manual, which covers every potential source, both traditional
and non-traditional. Just be certain to use the third edition of the MLA Style
Manual, as the guidelines have changed for a few types of sources, such as
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BROADCAST. When citing a TV or radio broadcast, start with the title of
the episode or segment in quotation marks, if one is available, followed by
the title of the program in italics. Then list the network, the local broadcast
affiliate, the date of broadcast, the type of broadcast, and any additional
information that would be helpful to the reader, such as if you took the ideas
or quotes from a transcript. You may list the name of an author, director, or
performer at the beginning of the listing on the Works Cited page, if that
person was primarily responsible for the content of the entire broadcast. If
the primary source was interviewed on a program, list those who conducted
the interview, if available.

Smith, Xavier Z. Interview by Jeffrey T. Jones and
Terry J. Thomas. "Economic Times In Africa." Financial
Times Worldwide. ational Public Radio. KPBS, Omaha,
25 May 2007. Radio.

"African Economic Struggles." ews Hour. PBS.
WPBS, ew York, 2 Apr. 2006. Television. Transcript.


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ILLUSTRATIOS OR GRAPHIC OVELS. Unlike most printed books,
using an illustration or graphic novel as a source for your paper may present
some tough circumstances as far as compiling material for the Works Cited
list. For example, many illustrated books have more than one "author." You
might have a writer along with multiple illustrators, for example. When
listing the source in the Works Cited page, first list the person who had the
most influence on the source as you're using it. For example, if you're using
the writer's idea in your paper, list the primary writer first before any
illustrators or other writers.

* Smith, Xavier Z., writer. Understanding Technologies,
an Illustrated Guide. Illus. Quincy X. Smith and Jon Q.
Smith. Introd. Travis Johnson. ew York: State University
Press, 2006. Print.


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WEB SITES. When citing Web sites, the third edition of the MLA Style
Manual now allows writers to eliminate the URL, or Web address, if the
reader of the paper can easily find the Web site through the other
information listed when citing the source. The MLA says because URLs
sometimes change, the URL isn't as valuable to finding the source later as is
a good description of the source. MLA recommends including the URL if
you think your readers will have a difficult time finding the source without
the URL.

You'll need to continue to include an author, article name, Web site name,
date of creation of the article or Web page, and date when you accessed the
Web site when citing a Web site, but the URL is now optional. If you decide
to include a URL, list it inside angle brackets. Also, be sure to include the
word Web as part of the listing, usually after the date of creation of the Web
site. If no date is available, use n.d. in place of the date. Finally, use italics
for the title if the article is independent, and use quotation marks if the
article is part of a larger work, using italics for the name of the larger work.

* Smith, Xavier Z and Travis Johnson. African
Economic Forecast, 2006. State University, 20 Dec. 2005.
Web. 27 Jan. 2008.
<http://www.stateu.edu/economics/smith2006.html>.


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As often occurs, if the Web site you're using has no author or editor listed,
start with the title of the page or article that you're citing.

* "How Technology Affects Economies." Economic
Development Worldwide. Economic Development
Worldwide, n.d. Web. 27 Jan. 2008.

Finally, if you're using material that has appeared in more than one medium,
such as a print version and a Web page, cite only the medium that you used
primarily.


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How to Cite Sources Inside the Text
in MLA Style

When citing sources in an MLA Style thesis or dissertation, you'll need to
follow two different formats. In-text citations are references to sources that
you make within the main text of your paper. "Works Cited" is a separate
page at the end of your paper where you list every reference source you used
in the paper.

In a formal paper, it's important to cite every source you use. You need to let
your readers know that you've performed the proper research to support the
position you've taken in the paper. Readers who want more information than
what you've provided in your paper can use the cited sources. It's important
to credit the researchers who provided the information in your paper.

With this article, we'll focus on MLA rules for citing sources inside the text.

I. BASIC RULES

With MLA Style, an in-text citation is sometimes called a parenthetical
citation. Essentially, any time you paraphrase another person's or source's
ideas, or any time you use a direct quotation in your paper, you need to cite
that source.

By citing the source within the text, you give your readers a chance to find
the source material themselves, should they want more information about a
particular quote or idea.

II. I-TEXT CITATIOS



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When creating an in-text citation, you want to give your readers an easy
method for finding the source material. You only need enough information
in the in-text citation to give the reader an easy method of finding the source
in the Works Cited list at the end of your paper. Because the Works Cited
list will be in alphabetical order, listed by the author's last name first, you
only need to list the author's last name for your in-text citation. That should
be enough information for your readers to find the source on the Works
Cited page.

Here are some examples for in-text citations, based on particular sources and
circumstances.

A) One source, author known.

List the author of the source and the page number or numbers that you used
in your reference. Place the source material inside parentheses immediately
after the material you need to source. Do not separate the author's name and
the page number with any punctuation.

Some economists have indicated that technological
advancements spur economic growth (Johnson 16).

B) One source, author unknown.

In addition to the page number, list a shortened title for the source, if you
don't know the author's name. If the title is for a long work, list it in italics. If
the title is for a short work, list it inside quotation marks. Again, use
parentheses for the in-text citation.



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Some economists have indicated that technological
advancements spur economic growth ("2007 Economic
Growth Report" 16).

C) Two or more sources, authors known.

Follow the same rules as you used with one source, but you'll need to
separate each source with a semicolon.

Some economists have indicated that technological
advancements spur economic growth (Johnson 16; Jones
37-38; Smith 2).

D) Multiple works, same author.

If you have more than one source from the same author, just add a shortened
title for the particular source you're using to the author's name in the in-text
citation. Separate the author's name and the title with a comma.

Some economists have indicated that technological
advancements spur economic growth (Johnson, "2007
Economic Growth Report" 16).

E) Multiple authors, same last name.

You might end up with sources from two different authors who share the
same last name. In that case, you may use the author's first initial, first and
middle initials, first name and middle initial, or first and middle names. Use


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as much of the first and middle names as required so it's easy for your
readers to find the source in the Works Cited list.

Some economists have indicated that technological
advancements spur economic growth (B. Johnson 16).

F) Indirect source.

If you have a quote taken from an indirect source, include the phrase "qtd.
in" with the in-text citation. List the actual source where you found the quote
in the in-text citation and in the Works Cited list.

Jones has mentioned that "technological
advancements spur economic growth" (qtd. in Johnson 16).


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G) Other option.

If it makes more sense in your writing to list the author in the actual text,
you can simply list the page number inside the parentheses for the in-text
citation.

The economist Johnson has indicated that
technological advancements spur economic growth (16).

Although MLA Style allows you to use the author's name in the text of the
sentence you're citing, you are not allowed to use the page number or
numbers in the sentence. The page number should always appear in
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How to Cite Sources in MLA Style

The Works Cited page in MLA Style is important to your thesis or
dissertation because it gives readers a list of sources you used to reach your
conclusions. A well-researched paper will have high-quality sources. With
MLA Style, you list these sources on the Works Cited page(s) at the end of
the paper. MLA Style requires that you follow a specific format for listing
every source, based on the type of source.

To start the Works Cited page, type "Works Cited" centered at the top
margin. Then begin the first source immediately, double-spacing all text on
the page. Each source should have a hanging indention, meaning the first
line is flush left, and each subsequent line for the source should be indented
one-half inch.

You should alphabetize the entire Works Cited list by author's last name. If
the author's name is not known, use the title of the source in the alphabetized
list, ignoring "A," "An," or "The" on the front of the name of the title.

Here are some examples for listing various types of sources. The examples
here only list the information you need about each source. They do not
follow the hanging indention or double-spacing rules.

A) BOOK.

List the author's name, the title of the book in italics, the city of publication,
the publisher, and the year of publication. You are allowed to abbreviate the
name of certain publishers in MLA Style. The MLA Style Manual lists the
acceptable abbreviations. Specify the type of publication at the end of the
entry, denoting whether the book is a printed version or an electronic
version.


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Smith, Xavier Z. Working with a Fledgling Economy.
ew York: State University Press, 2006. Print.

B) DISSERTATIO OR THESIS.

If you make use of a dissertation or thesis as a source, you'll need to list the
author's name, the title (in quotation marks), the type of paper, and some
information about the publication. For example, many dissertations appear in
"Dissertation Abstracts International," usually abbreviated to DAI. DAI
requires some specific information, as you can see in the following example.

Jones, Thomas. "The Relationship Between Economic
Power and Technological Innovation." Diss. State
University, 2003. DAI 66.17 (2004): item DA4267399.
Print.

In MLA Style, you can abbreviate dissertation as "Diss", and master's thesis
as either "MA thesis" or "MS thesis".


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C) PUBLISHED ARTICLE.

List the author's last name, followed by the full first name and middle initial,
if the author commonly uses it. List the title of the article in quotation marks,
followed by the publication name (in italics), the issue or volume numbers,
the year of publication, and the page numbers for the full article. If you have
other information you think would be helpful for a reader, you may list it at
the end of the entry. In the following two examples, the first is for a
scholarly journal and the second is for a newspaper. Notice how the word
"Print" in the newspaper example differentiates between the print edition
and Internet edition of the newspaper.

Smith, Xavier Z. "Economic Growth in Africa."
Economics Quarterly 3 (2008): 332-3.

Johnson, Travis. "African Economic Viability." ew
York Financial ewspaper 13 Jun. 2008: B3. Print.


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D) MULTIPLE AUTHORS.

List the first author by last name, then first name, and subsequent authors by
first name, then last name.

Johnson, Travis, and Xavier Z. Smith. "Economic
Downturn in Africa." Economics Quarterly 4 (2008): 413-
21.

E) MULTIPLE WORKS, SAME AUTHOR.

After listing the first source with the author's full name, subsequent sources
from the same author don't require the author's name. Instead, substitute
three hyphens.

Johnson, Travis. "Africa's Economic Future."
Economics Quarterly 2 (2008): 200-3.

---. "African Economic Viability." ew York Financial
ewspaper 13 Jun. 2008: B3. Print.


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F) MULTIPLE WORKS, MULTIPLE AUTHORS.

If the same author is involved in multiple sources, but some of those sources
include multiple authors, you will have to list the full name in every source.
If you have multiple works from the same group of authors, however, you
can substitute the three hyphens for listings beyond the first listing. In this
example, Johnson and Smith combined to write the second and third entries,
meaning the three hyphens are appropriate for the third entry.

Johnson, Travis. "Africa's Economic Future."
Economics Quarterly 2 (2008): 200-3.

Johnson, Travis, and Smith, Xavier Z. "Economic
Downturn in Africa." Economics Quarterly 4 (2008): 413-
21.

---. "urturing a Fledgling Economy." ew York
Financial ewspaper 19 Jan. 2008: B1. Print.


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G) AOYMOUS AUTHOR.

If you don't know the author, just skip that part of the listing and begin with
the title.

"Economic Growth on the African Continent."
Editorial. ew York Financial ewspaper 4 Feb. 2008: B7.


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What Pages Do I Need With My MLA
Style Paper?

Unlike some other formal styles for writing scholarly papers, MLA Style
does not specify a large number of specific pages that you must include in
your paper. APA Style, for example, requires a title page, an abstract page,
and a table of contents, among several other types of optional pages. MLA
Style, however, does not even require a title page.

I will discuss optional pages you can use in your MLA Style paper in this
article, along with some methods you can use to format your paper in MLA
Style.

1) TITLE PAGE. MLA Style makes a title page an optional choice for the
writer. If you decide to use a title page, center the text. The title page may
contain the title, author's name, mailing address, e-mail address, and contact
telephone numbers. Some instructors will require you to include the name of
the faculty advisor, the date of submission, and the members of the
committee that will accept the work. With MLA Style, a separate title page
is not numbered. If you're writing an extremely formal paper, such as a
thesis or dissertation, you almost certainly should include a separate title
page, unless your instructor specifies differently. If you include the title on
the first page of the main text, you should number it, but this format is
limited to a less formal paper.

2) APPROVAL PAGE. The approval page, which contains all signatures of
approval from members of the thesis approval committee, is optional.

3) ABSTRACT PAGE. The abstract page, which is a short summary of the
purpose of the paper, is optional.


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4) BIOGRAPHY PAGE. The biography page, which provides a short
description of the author and his or her accomplishments, is optional.

5) DEDICATIO PAGE. The dedication page, which allows the author to
dedicate the thesis to a person or multiple people who helped with the paper,
is optional.

6) EPIGRAPH PAGE. The epigraph page, which may contain a poem or
quotation, is optional.

7) TABLE OF COTETS PAGE. If the paper is long enough to have
sections, you may include a table of contents page.

8) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOS AD TABLES. This page, if applicable,
lists all of the illustrations and tables you used in the paper, sorted by the
pages on which they appear.

9) PREFACE. The preface, which is an optional page, may introduce the
paper by discussing a related idea that doesn't quite fit within the parameters
of the main text.

10) MAI TEXT. With the main text, simply select a readable font, usually
Times New Roman at 12 points. Double space throughout the main text, and
indent all paragraphs by one-half inch.

MLA Style does not require headings, chapters, or any other method for
breaking up the main text. MLA Style also does not prohibit any methods
for breaking up the text, however. If your instructor doesn't specify a method
for breaking up the text, you can use a few different optional methods. If you


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choose to use chapters, you can use the following methods for breaking up
the text within the chapters.

You can use an extra blank line to separate ideas. Just hit the Enter key an
additional time after completing a paragraph. Keep in mind, though, that this
method might be ineffective if the blank line occurs at the end of a printed
page. Some writers combat this problem by typing three asterisks, centered
on the page, in place of the blank line. Others actually type "[blank line]"
flush left in place of the blank line.

You may use headings to break up the text and organize similar ideas. MLA
Style prefers using an Arabic number with each heading. You also should
type each heading flush left with no extra blank lines before or after the
heading. For example:

1. Economic Growth 2006

2. Economic Growth 2007

3. Economic Growth 2008

Finally, you may simply use an Arabic number to signify related ideas in the
text. Just type "1" centered on a blank line before the first idea, "2" centered
before the second idea, and so on.

11) EDOTES. If you choose to list endnotes, you need to use a separate
page immediately following the main text. An endnotes page is optional in
MLA Style.



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12) WORKS CITED. The Works Cited page in MLA Style is a list of all
sources you referenced in the main text. The listing of all sources requires
you to follow a specific set of rules.

13) GLOSSARY. The glossary page, which is a list of all confusing and
unusual terms used in the text, along with definitions, is optional.

14) IDEX. If you choose to include an optional index page, it will list the
various proper nouns and ideas that you've included throughout the main
text, listed alphabetically and linked to the page numbers on which the items
appear.


continued


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How to Format a Paper in MLA Style

When formatting your paper in MLA Style, you'll need to follow a series of
rules that outline all aspects of the creation of the paper. Most people think
of MLA Style when trying to determine how to cite sources used as
references in the paper. However, MLA Style includes rules for many
aspects of formatting the paper beyond citing sources. Here are 15
formatting tips you should follow when creating your MLA paper.

ALIGMET. Align the text flush left. If your word processor, such as
MS-Word, has a "full justify" setting, which spreads the text and aligns it
both left and right, do not use it. Leave the text ragged on the right side.

BIDIG. MLA Style calls for binding the pages with a simple paper clip
or spring clip. Do not use a staple or other permanent binding system, unless
your instructor requests it.

EDOTES AD FOOTOTES. You may use endnotes or footnotes
with MLA Style, but they should only be used to further explain a term or a
complex idea, beyond what you're able to include in the main text. Endnotes
and footnotes should not be used to cite sources. Save those for the "Works
Cited" page.

FOT. MLA Style calls for a 12-point font size, along with an easily
readable font, such as Times New Roman.

HEADIGS. In MLA Style, headings and subheads that break up the text
are optional. Check with your instructor before using them.



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IDETIOS. You'll need to indent the first line of any paragraph by one-
half inch from the left margin. If you aren't using word processing software,
indent by five spaces.

ITALICS. You should use italics for titles of longer works. MLA Style also
allows use of italics within the body of the text for emphasis of a particular
word or phrase, but use such items sparingly.

MARGIS. All four sides of the MLA paper -- top, bottom, right, and left -
- require a margin of 1 inch. The only items that should appear outside the
margins are the page numbers.

PAGE UMBERIG. Place the page number in the upper right corner of
every page. Use Arabic numerals for the page numbers. The page number
should appear one-half inch from the top of the paper and even with the right
margin (1 inch from the edge of the paper). If you choose to use an optional
title page, you should not number it. If you choose not to create a separate
title page, instead including the title and other relevant information on the
first page of the main text, you must use "1" as the number of that page.

PAPER TYPE. Use standard, 20-pound white paper that measures 8.5-by-
11 inches.

PUCTUATIO. Follow all standard punctuation marks with just one
space, including colons, commas, periods, and semicolons. Some instructors
still prefer the old rule of using two spaces after periods that end sentences.
MLA Style does allow some flexibility in punctuation when the instructor
requests a change from the standard MLA Style.

QUOTATIO BLOCKS. Whenever using a quotation that will be longer
than four typed lines, set the entire quotation block apart by indenting it
from the left margin 1 inch (or 10 spaces). Double-space within the


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quotation block. You do not need to use quotation marks with a quotation
block.

SPACIG. You'll need to double-space all of the text within the paper,
except in rare special circumstances as directed by your instructor. All
quotations, notes, and lists of works cited should be double-spaced.

TITLE. MLA Style doesn't require a separate title page. You can include
the information used for the title on the first page of the paper, and begin the
paper's main text on the same page. All text should be double-spaced on the
first page. You can place the page number in the upper right corner. In the
upper left corner, flush left and beginning at the margins, include your name,
the instructor's name, the course, and the date. Then center the text for the
title, mixing uppercase and lowercase letters. If you choose to skip the
separate title page, you can begin the main text immediately after the title
text.

UDERLIIG. With the third edition of the MLA Style Manual, the new
guidelines have eliminated the use of underlining. Now italicize all
published works, rather than using underlining.



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The Differences Between MLA Style
and Chicago Style

You can choose from several writing and formatting styles when you write
your dissertation or thesis, including MLA Style and Chicago Style, also
called Turabian Style. Actually, you might not have the opportunity to
choose the formatting style for your paper: Your instructor might choose for
you.

If your professor wants you to choose the style for your paper, you will want
to follow a few guidelines. Most formal writing formats are similar, but you
will notice many slight differences between styles. It's important to take
some time to make sure you select the style that will best fit your paper's
subject matter.

Here are some of the differences between MLA Style and Chicago
(Turabian) Style.

I. SELECTIG A STYLE

1) MLA STYLE. Primarily, the Modern Language Association (MLA)
designed MLA Style for subjects related to the humanities and liberal arts,
such as literature, mass communications, and media studies. The MLA
oversees the development of MLA Style, and you can visit the organization's
website on the Internet for more information.

For undergraduate students, use the "MLA Handbook for Writers of
Research Papers" (sometimes shortened to MLA Handbook) as the guide to
following MLA Style. For graduate students and professionals, use the
"MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing" (sometimes


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shortened to MLA Style Manual) to find official rules and guidelines for
MLA Style. Keep in mind that the latest version of the MLA Style Manual,
the third version, was recently released.

2) CHICAGO (TURABIA) STYLE. For the most part, Chicago
(Turabian) Style is designed to be a general style that works well for all
types of college students in all types of subjects.

The University of Chicago Press has created the "Chicago Manual of Style,"
which provides guidelines for citing sources and formatting papers. The 15th
edition is the latest edition. Kate Turabian, the dissertation secretary at the
University of Chicago for 30-plus years, created "A Manual for Writers of
Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations," to give students and researchers
additional guidelines. The sixth edition is the latest edition. The two styles
are nearly identical, with only a few differences, and they're often combined
to represent one style, as we've done here. Non-scholarly publications also
will make use of Chicago (Turabian) Style in magazines and newspapers.

If MLA Style just doesn't seem as though it will work for the subject matter
in your paper, you can make use of Chicago (Turabian) Style as a fallback.
(Keep in mind that APA Style is available, too, and it's primarily aimed at
subjects related to psychology and social sciences.)

II. THE DIFFERECES

If you still are unsure which style to use with your paper, one of the biggest
differences between MLA Style and Chicago (Turabian) Style involves in-
text citations. Chicago (Turabian) allows for footnotes and endnotes to cite
sources, while MLA does not.

With both styles, enclose the last name of the primary author in parentheses
in any in-text citation. That's where the similarities stop, though.


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With MLA Style, you include the page number of the information you cited
along with the name of the author, but you do not include the year of
publication. Then include the full source citation in the Works Cited list at
the end of the paper.

Some economists have indicated that technological
advancements spur economic growth (Johnson 16).

With Chicago (Turabian) Style, you have two options. You can include an
in-text citation inside parentheses that includes the name of author, along
with the year of publication and the page numbers from which you took this
particular quote or idea. With this option, you must include a full
bibliography at the end of the paper.

Some economists have indicated that technological
advancements spur economic growth (Johnson 2007, 16).

You also can use full footnotes or endnotes within the text, thereby skipping
the bibliography at the end. Both styles require superscript numbers within
the text. Chicago Style (first example) does not require superscript numbers
with the note, but Turabian Style does (second example).

Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur
economic growth.
1


1. Thomas Johnson ...

1
Thomas Johnson ...



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Keep in mind that the in-text citations only serve to give readers a chance to
find the complete information about the source in the Works Cited (MLA
Style) or bibliography (Chicago and Turabian Styles) at the end of the paper.

You'll also find some differences in the formatting of each footnote,
endnote, or bibliography entry in Chicago (Turabian) Style versus the Works
Cited page in MLA Style. However, those subtle differences are too
numerous to list here. Refer to the books listed above to find specific rules
for citing sources in a bibliography or Works Cited list.


continued


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How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation
in Chicago (Turabian) Style

Although college students can use several formatting styles to create a thesis
or dissertation, there's one style that works in almost every circumstance:
Chicago Style (also sometimes called Chicago Turabian Style). For a
general-assignment paper, Chicago Style works extremely well. Although
Chicago Style will work for a thesis or dissertation as well, your instructor
might want you to use another, more formal style that's designed specifically
for a thesis in a certain area of study. MLA Style, for example, works well
with areas of study in liberal arts, and APA Style works well with
psychological areas of study. Think of Chicago (Turabian) Style as a flexible
option for creating a thesis or dissertation that doesn't quite fit some of the
other style options.

Chicago Style requires following several rules for formatting the paper and
for listing the sources you used to create the paper. As you look the rules and
the large books devoted to Chicago Style, you might be intimidated. After
all, if the book describing how to follow Chicago (Turabian) Style is 900 or
more pages, how difficult is it for you to learn enough rules to formulate a
decent paper? It's not as difficult as it seems. Following Chicago Style
requires learning a few basic, common sense rules, and then applying slight
variations of those rules throughout your paper.




I. THE ORIGIATIO OF CHICAGO STYLE



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The University of Chicago Press oversees the guidelines and rules for
Chicago (Turabian) Style. The main publication devoted to Chicago Style is
"The Chicago Manual of Style," which sometimes is abbreviated to CMS or
CMOS. The University of Chicago Press created the first Chicago Style
Manual in 1906, and the 15th edition appeared in 2003.

The Chicago Style Manual provides advice and guidelines for all aspects of
writing; it is not limited to creating formal papers. You'll find tips and rules
on grammar, correct usage of abbreviations, and proper punctuation in the
Chicago Style Manual. Beyond the printed edition of the Chicago Style
Manual, you can visit chicagomanualofstyle(dot)org on the Internet for more
information, including a "Quick Guide" to Chicago (Turabian) Style. The
Chicago Style Manual is available at the Web site for $55 in a print version
and $60 in an electronic version. You also can access the entire Chicago
Style Manual through the Web site with an annual $30 subscription fee.

As part of the Chicago Style is "A Manual for Writers of Term Papers,
Theses, and Dissertations," written by Kate L. Turabian. Turabian served as
the dissertation secretary at the University of Chicago for almost 30 years,
and she created the Turabian Manual as a complement to the Chicago Style
Manual. The Turabian Manual was designed to give students a list of rules
and guidelines to follow for various writing projects. The first Turabian
Manual was a pamphlet Turabian created in the 1930s describing the correct
style for formatting a dissertation. The Turabian manual is now in its sixth
edition, which was printed in 1996. Turabian died in 1987.

Turabian Style and Chicago Style are almost identical, which is why they're
often referred to in combination. Turabian Style allows for use of footnotes
for citing sources, which separates it from many styles of writing formal
papers. Papers that use Chicago (Turabian) Style typically are less formal
papers not designed for publication. However, Chicago (Turabian) Style is


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flexible enough to work with almost any type of paper, including a thesis or
dissertation.

II. HOW TO START YOUR CHICAGO (TURABIA) STYLE
PAPER

With any formal paper, including a Chicago Style paper, research is the key
to create a strong paper. While performing research, track your sources.
With every quotation or idea that you use from a source, you must tell your
readers about the source. The type of information you'll need from a source
varies, depending on the publication, but most citations of sources require at
least the author's name, article title, publication name, publication date, and
pages that generated the idea or quotation.

When it's time to write your paper, using a computer with word processing
software (such as Microsoft Word or WordPerfect) works well for following
the formatting requirements for Chicago (Turabian) Style.

For more in-depth items that I did not cover here, you may want to access
one of the many books or Internet sites devoted to Chicago (Turabian) Style.


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How to Format a Paper in Chicago
(Turabian) Style

The basic guidelines for creating a thesis, dissertation or formal paper using
Chicago (Turabian) Style are straightforward. Most of them use common
sense rules and formatting options. Use some of the guidelines listed here to
format your thesis or dissertation using Chicago (Turabian) Style.

A) ABBREVIATIOS. Abbreviations appear more regularly in formal
papers now versus a few decades ago. If you choose to use abbreviations,
stick with common ones. However, do not use abbreviations for expressions
of dimensions, such as "miles." When using abbreviations that contain two
periods, such as "U.S.", do not add a space after the first period.

B) ALIGMET. Chicago (Turabian) Style requires left justification of all
text (minus indentions), but it allows for either ragged right or full
justification of text. If you choose full justification, Chicago (Turabian)
Style requires you to ensure that the spacing between words is minimal and
that hyphens used to break words at the end of a line are used correctly and
sparingly. Your word processing software should enable you to follow these
two rules for full justification, unless you have numerous extremely large
words in your paper.

C) CAPITALIZATIO. Beyond typical sentences, Chicago (Turabian)
Style allows for two types of capitalization. Headline-style capitalization
calls for capitalizing all words, other than articles, certain prepositions, and
conjunctions. Sentence-style capitalization calls for capitalizing only the first
word, a word after a colon, and proper nouns.



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D) CORRECTIG FLUID. You may use a white correcting fluid to cover
black specks and stray spots on the final paper.

E) DATE. Chicago (Turabian) Style allows for two date formats: 31 March
2008 (day month year) or March 31, 2008 (month day, year). Just be certain
that you select one format and stick with it throughout your paper.

F) FOT. If using a word processor, stick with a serif font, such as Times
New Roman. Use text in a 10- or 12-point size. A computer-generated font
is preferred to a typewriter because the computer can create italicized text
more easily than a typewriter.

G) HYPHEATIO. With Chicago (Turabian) Style, you may break
words with a hyphen at the end of a line in your main text, but you should
not hyphenate words at the end of two consecutive lines.

H) IDETIOS. Indent paragraphs within the main text of the paper one-
half inch or five to eight spaces. Chicago (Turabian) Style does not require a
specific indention measurement, but it does require that writers use the same
amount of indention throughout the paper.

I) MARGIS. For all four sides of the paper, use a 1-inch margin.
However, if the paper will be bound on the left, a wider margin is allowed
on the left side.

J) UMBERS. Spell out and use words for all numbers through 100 in
Chicago (Turabian) Style. For numbers larger than 100, use numerals.
Exceptions include: Spell out all numbers that start a sentence, use numerals
for all percentages and decimal numbers, and use numerals for all numbers
within a series of amounts.



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K) PAGE UMBERIG. Number almost every page in the paper with
Arabic numerals, other than the pages that lead into the main text, such as
the copyright, dedication, and table of contents pages. All of these pages,
which Chicago (Turabian) Style calls "display" pages, should be numbered
with lowercase roman numerals. Do not number the title page, but count the
title page among the display pages. The next page should be blank or the
copyright page, and it is not numbered, either. The page following the
blank/copyright page should be numbered "iii" in roman numerals, centered
at the bottom of the page. At the beginning of the main text, switch from
roman numerals to Arabic numbers and place the number "1" in the upper-
right corner of the page. If, however, a page contains a chapter heading or
another type of main heading, you can center the Arabic numeral at the
bottom of the page. Number all blank pages and any other pages; the
pagination should run consecutively. Place all page numbers at least three-
quarters of an inch from the edge of the paper.


continued


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L) PAPER TYPE. Use standard white, 20-pound bond paper that measures
8.5-by-11 inches. If using a computer, use an inkjet or laser printer to print
the paper.

M) SPACIG. Use double-spacing throughout the paper's main text.
However, block quotation, endnotes, footnotes, headings, and captions may
be single-spaced, according to Chicago (Turabian) Style.

) TITLE. Center all text on the title page, both horizontally and vertically.
All text should be uppercase and double-spaced, too.


continued


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What Pages Do I Need With My
Chicago (Turabian) Style Paper?

If you are writing a thesis or dissertation or any formal paper using Chicago
(Turabian) Style, you have several options for deciding which pages to
include in your paper. Some pages are required, while others are optional for
your thesis or dissertation. I have listed the page descriptions (below) in the
order in which they should appear in your Chicago (Turabian) Style paper.
Always start each of these sections on a new page. Most of them will only
require one page.

A) TITLE. On the title page, which is required, all text must be double-
spaced using uppercase characters. Center the text both horizontally and
vertically. Begin with the name of the educational institution, followed by
the title. Next, list the committee to which you're submitting the dissertation
or thesis, along with the department or college for which you're submitting
it. Then include the word "BY" on a separate line, followed by the author's
name. Finally, place the city and state where you wrote the paper, along with
the month and year of graduation. Place extra horizontal lines between each
section on the title page, allowing you to center it vertically on the paper.
Keep in mind that the title page is the first of the "display" pages in Chicago
(Turabian) Style, but you do not number it.

B) COPYRIGHT PAGE OR BLAK PAGE. This page is immediately
after the title page, and you need to either include a copyright notice or leave
the page blank. The blank (or mostly blank) page prevents characters on the
first main text page from bleeding through the title page. For the copyright,
near the bottom of the page, type "Copyright," the copyright symbol, the
year the paper was written, and the name of the author. On the next line,
indent and type, "All rights reserved" with no punctuation marks. Do not


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number this page, either, but you do count it in your pagination. The next
display page will be "iii" in roman numerals.

C) DEDICATIO. A dedication page is an optional page. Simply type
"To" followed by the name of the person(s) to which you want to dedicate
the paper.

D) EPIGRAPH PAGE. The epigraph page, which may contain a poem or
quotation, is optional.

E) TABLE OF COTETS. The table of contents is an optional page, and
it should be numbered as part of the display pages. It is an organized listing
of the contents of the paper, providing page numbers to the various sections
and headings in the paper. The reader can use the table of contents to jump
to a particular section of the paper. When listing chapter headings in the
table of contents, make sure they exactly match the chapter headings in the
text. Use a leader to connect the chapter heading or section name (aligned on
the left) with the page number (aligned on the right). Type "CONTENTS" or
"TABLE OF CONTENTS" centered at the top of the page.

F) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOS AD LIST OF TABLES. These optional
pages are part of the display pages, and you should only use them if you
have illustrations and tables in your paper. List each illustration or table with
the appropriate title and page number, connected by a leader. Right-align the
page number and left-align the title of each table or figure.

G) PREFACE. The preface is another optional display page. The author can
list the motivation for the project and acknowledgements.

H) LIST OF ABBREVIATIOS OR GLOSSARY. If you have a lot of
odd abbreviations or terms in your paper, you can list them on one of these
optional pages.


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I) ABSTRACT. Use an abstract page to briefly summarize the contents of
the thesis or dissertation. It's an optional display page.

J) MAI TEXT. Begin numbering the main text with Arabic numerals, and
you should no longer use the lowercase roman numerals from the display
pages. Each Arabic page number should appear in the upper right corner of
each page. If you have a chapter heading or another type of main heading at
the top of a page, you may center the page number at the bottom of the page.

K) APPEDIX. Use the optional appendix page(s) for material that doesn't
quite fit into the main text, such as complex tables or technical notes. You
may have more than one appendix. Each appendix should deal with a
different idea or topic. Number them either with letters or numbers, such as
"Appendix A" and "B" and "C," for example.

L) BIBLIOGRAPHY OR REFERECE LIST. Include your bibliography
after the final main text page or appendix page on a new page. The reference
list page should include all works that you’ve cited in your paper, listed
alphabetically. (We’ll discuss citing references in another article.) Make sure
you continue the Arabic page numbering throughout the bibliography pages.



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How to Cite Sources Inside the Text
in Chicago (Turabian) Style

Any time you write a formal paper, such as a thesis or dissertation, it's
important that you properly cite any sources that you use. Any time you use
an idea that was introduced in another place -- whether it's a book, a Web
site, or another scholarly paper -- you must give credit to the original author,
by citing the source. If you use a quotation from another source, you also
must list the source in your paper. It's important to list the sources you use so
whoever reads your paper can find more information, should they need it. A
comprehensive source list also shows your instructor and other readers that
you've performed the necessary research to develop the position you've
taken in the paper.

Citing sources in Chicago (Turabian) Style requires two processes. One
citation is required at the position in the main text where the cited material
appears, where you have three options: 1) In-text citations, 2) footnotes, or
3) endnotes. The other citation occurs at the end of the paper, in a list of all
cited works, called a reference list or a bibliography. If you use endnotes, the
bibliography is not required, although most formal pages include one.

In this article, we'll focus on in-text citations, which Chicago (Turabian)
Style sometimes calls parenthetical references, within the main text of the
paper. Other articles in this series will handle the other types of references.



I) AUTHOR-DATE



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You can use a couple of different types of parenthetical references within the
text, depending on the structure of the sentence, as shown in these examples.

AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE A).

Include the name of the author within the sentence, followed by the year of
publication inside parentheses.

The Jones study (2003) indicates that technological
advancements spur economic growth.

AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE B).

You can place the name of the authors inside the parentheses with the year
of publication, depending on your sentence structure. Use no punctuation
within the parentheses.

Some economic studies indicate that technological
advancements spur economic growth (Jones 2003).


continued


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AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE C).

If you don't have a date of publication, use "n.d." in place of the date.

Some economic studies indicate that technological
advancements spur economic growth (Jones n.d.).

AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE D).

With multiple authors, use commas and the word "and" inside the
parentheses. If the cited work has more than three authors, use "et al." after
the primary author.

Some economic studies indicate that technological
advancements spur economic growth (Jones, Johnson, and
Smith 2003).

Some economic studies indicate that technological
advancements spur economic growth (Jones et al. 2003).


continued


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AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE E).

If you have multiple sources from the same author or sources from multiple
authors with the same last name, you'll have to list part of the title of the
work or the organization of the author along with the author. You also can
add "a" and "b" to the year of publication, should you have two sources from
the same author published in the same year.

Some economic studies indicate that technological
advancements spur economic growth (Jones Economic
Growth Study, 2003).

Other economic studies show that investing in
technological research will benefit the economy, too (Jones
Technology and the Economy, 2003).


continued


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AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE F).

If you need to cite a source with no author, list a shortened version of the
title or the organization that created the source. Use the same formatting as
with the author.

Some economic studies indicate that technological
advancements spur economic growth (State University
2003).


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II. FOOTOTES OR EDOTES

If you decide to use footnotes or endnotes instead of the author-date style,
you'll need to use numbers within the main text to link the material you want
to source with the footnote or endnote. Use an Arabic number with each
source, either in superscript, in parentheses, or in brackets. Use the Arabic
numbers in sequential order.

Some economic studies indicate that technological
advancements spur economic growth. [1]

Some economic studies indicate that technological
advancements spur economic growth. (1)

Some economic studies indicate that technological
advancements spur economic growth.
1



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List each footnote at the bottom of the page where the source is cited.
Separate the main text from the footnote(s) with a vertical line, called a
separator. Endnotes go at the end of all of the pages of the main text. Indent
each footnote or endnote and use single-spacing, with a blank space between
each footnote or endnote. After listing the source once in an endnote or
footnote, you can use an abbreviated version of the author's name and title of
the work upon subsequent listings. Use a superscript number or a number
with a period to introduce the footnote.

1. Jones, Xavier. ...


1
Jones, Xavier. ...



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How to Create a Bibliography in
Chicago (Turabian) Style


With Chicago (Turabian) Style, the bibliography page is where you list all of
the sources you used to create your paper. You need to follow a variety of
formatting rules when listing the sources. The type of source that you're
listing determines the formatting configuration that you'll use, but there are a
few formatting rules that work for every listing.

A) ALPHABETIZIG. When creating the alphabetical list of the
bibliography, sort the list of sources based on the last name of the author.
When sorting the list, ignore any spaces in the last name. If you have more
than one source from an author, sort them by either the dates in which they
were created or by placing the titles of the sources in alphabetical order. Just
be certain that once you've chosen a sorting preference for multiple sources
from one author, you stick with it.

B) AUTHORS. List the author's last name, followed by the first name and
middle name, if the author commonly uses it. If you have more than one
author for a source, list each one individually. The first author should be
listed by last name, then first name. Subsequent authors should be listed by
first name, then last name. When listing more than one author, separate them
by commas, with the word “and” ahead of the final author in the list.

C) CAPITALIZATIO. Use headline-style capitalization with all titles in
your bibliography.

D) IDETIO. After the first line of each source, indent each subsequent
line about one-half inch, creating a hanging indention for each source.


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E) SPACIG. You may single-space each entry in the bibliography, leaving
a blank space between entries.

I. BIBLIOGRAPHY EXAMPLES

Here are some examples for listing various sources in Chicago (Turabian)
Style. (These examples do not follow the indention rules.)

ARTICLES. When using a newspaper or a magazine as a source, list the
author, title of the article (in quotations), name of the periodical (in italics),
date of publication, and page numbers used.

Johnson, Thomas J. "Governments Invest in
Technology." ew York Times, 29 ovember 2007, B1.


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A journal article requires slightly different formatting. Be sure to include the
issue number and the issue date ahead of the page number(s).

Johnson, Thomas J. "The Economic Impact of
Technology." Journal of Economic Growth 6 (June 2005):
110-2.

BOOKS. Include the author's name, the book title (italicized), the
publisher's location and name, and the date of publication. Do not use the
page numbers used as a source in the bibliography.

Johnson, Thomas J. and Xavier Quincy Smith.
Economic Growth in Africa. ew York: Jones Brothers
Publishers, 2003.

GOVERMET DOCUMET. Because such a document usually doesn't
include an author, list the governmental division in the alphabetical list and
italicize the title.

U.S. Department of the Treasury. Economic Growth
Forecast, 2006-2010. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 2005.


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ITERET SITE. List the author's name, if known; title of the online
article or Web page (in quotations); Web site name; date of publication, if
known; Internet address; and date of retrieval (in parentheses).

Johnson, Thomas J. "Determining Technology's Role
in Economic Growth." Economic Growth, August 20, 2006,
http://www.economicgrowth.com/johnson/techrole.html
(accessed July 20, 2007).

SCHOLARLY WORK. If using a thesis or dissertation as a source, list the
author's name, the title (in quotations), the type of paper, the educational
institution, and the year of publication.

Jones, Steven. "Hydrogen Bonding and Water
Molecules." Ph.D. diss., State University, 2000.


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II. ODD SITUATIOS

Same author, multiple sources. If you end up with several sources from the
same author, you may skip repeating the author's name. Instead, use a solid
horizontal line to replace the author's name. The horizontal line should be
noticeably longer than the hanging indention of the source, probably three-
quarters inch to one inch in length. If you have an additional source that lists
multiple authors, you will have to enter the original author's name again. The
only time you may use the horizontal line is when all of the authors are the
same as the previous work in the list. In the four examples below, the first
two have the same single author, and the last two have the same pair of
authors.

Johnson, Thomas J. "Governments Invest in
Technology." ew York Times, 29 ovember 2007, B1.

_________. "The Economic Impact of Technology."
Journal of Economic Growth 6 (June 2005): 110-2.

Johnson, Thomas J. and Xavier Quincy Smith.
Economic Growth in Africa. ew York: Jones Brothers
Publishers, 2003.

_________. Economic Decline in Africa. ew York:
Jones Brothers Publishers, 2006.


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III. ADDITIOAL IFORMATIO.

Finally, for additional information on formatting sources in a reference list,
look at either The Chicago Manual of Style or Turabian's A Manual for
Writers. Both books cover a large number of situations for listing sources
within a bibliography. The chicagomanualofstyle(dot)org Web site also has
a large number of helpful resources.


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How to Create Headings and
Endnotes in Chicago (Turabian) Style

Chicago (Turabian) Style provides the writer with a few different options for
breaking up the blocks of text in the main text area of the thesis or
dissertation. You may use headings or chapters, depending on the type of
paper you're creating and on how you need to organize the information.

I) HEADIGS

You may use headings to better organize your Chicago (Turabian) Style
paper. The organization of headings is a little bit like an outline, with
varying levels of headings and subheadings that aid in organization. You
don't number each heading in Chicago (Turabian) Style as you do with an
outline, but you can use up to five different levels of headings and
subheadings with Chicago (Turabian) Style.

The headings formatting requirements include:

FIRST LEVEL. The first level headings should be centered above their
associated text blocks. Use headline-style capitalization, and you may use
either bold, italics, or underline characters.

SECOD LEVEL. Type the second level heading centered in headline-
style capitalization in standard text. Do not use any italics, bold, or underline
characters.

THIRD LEVEL. The third level heading is left-aligned, using headline-
style capitalization. You may use bold, italics, or underline characters with
the third-level heading.


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FOURTH LEVEL. For the fourth level of heading, switch to sentence-style
capitalization. Left-align the text, and do not use any bold, italics, or
underline characters.

FIFTH LEVEL. With the fifth level of heading, you will indent the
heading, using it like a lead-in sentence to a paragraph, complete with a
period at the end of the heading. The fifth-level heading should consist of
italics, bold, or underline characters. Use sentence-style capitalization with
the fifth-level heading.


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An example of the formatting for all five levels of headings looks this
way.


First Level of Heading (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Second Level of Heading (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Third Level of Heading (left-align)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Fourth level of heading (left-align)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Fifth level of heading. (indented) Main text follows immediately ...



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With the first four levels of headings, you should leave a blank line before
and after the heading to give it more emphasis. If you use fewer than five
levels of headings, you may select any of the heading levels to use, as long
as you remain true to the order of the headings. For example, you may use
the first and third heading levels, in that order, when you have a two-heading
configuration. You may use the second, third, and fifth heading levels, in
that order, when you have a three-heading configuration. However, you may
not use the fourth, first, and fifth heading levels, in that order, for a three-
heading configuration.

Three final rules regarding headings: First, if you are centering the
heading and it is more than 48 characters, then you should split the heading
into two or more separate lines. The lines should be single-spaced. List them
in an inverted pyramid, as shown below.

Investments in Technology in Africa
Will Spur Economic Growth

Second, the left-aligned headings should be divided into multiple lines, if the
heading will occupy a line stretching across more than half the page. Single-
space all of these lines, and try to divide them evenly.

Investments in Technology on African Continent
Will Spur Unprecedented Economic Growth

Third, never end a page with a subhead; carry it over to the next page.


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II) CHAPTERS

If you have a thesis or dissertation that makes use of numerous different
ideas and is long enough to need a more complex organizational structure,
Chicago (Turabian) Style allows for the use of chapters.

Begin each chapter on a new page. Chapter titles typically are listed in two
pieces: The word "CHAPTER" and the number of the chapter as one piece,
followed by a more descriptive title of a few words, which gives the reader
an idea of the broad topic that will be discussed in the chapter.

CHAPTER OE

ECOOMIC FORECASTS I AFRICA



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When creating chapters, you can omit the "CHAPTER" and simply list the
number designation. Always list chapters in numerical order and do not skip
numbers. You also may select one of three ways to list the chapter numbers:
Spell out the word representing the number, use an Arabic numeral, or use a
roman numeral.
SEVE

CHAPTER SEVE

CHAPTER 7

CHAPTER VII

Rather than using headings to discuss subtopics within a chapter, you may
divide chapters into parts. Each part should only contain the word "PART"
and the number of the part. As with chapters, always list parts in numerical
order and do not skip numbers. If you used Arabic numerals for numbering
each chapter, you should use roman numerals for each part, and vice versa,
as shown below.

CHAPTER I

PART 1

PART 2

CHAPTER II



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The Differences Between Chicago
(Turabian) Style and APA Style of
Writing

A formal paper, such as a dissertation or a thesis, requires you to follow
several formatting rules. The rules provide a structure for the paper, giving
instructors the ability to work through the paper's ideas and to judge the
validity of your arguments. Such rules also give you a standard, acceptable
method for citing the sources that you've used to create your paper, and
thereby avoiding inadvertently plagiarizing some material. Determining
which set of formatting rules, or styles, to follow is a decision you and your
instructor will need to make. A few different popular formats exist,
including MLA Style, chiefly used for the humanities and liberal arts, along
with APA Style and Chicago (Turabian) Style.

Generally, you select the style to follow based on the subject matter of the
paper you’re writing. Each style treats the formatting of the paper a little
differently to meet the citation needs for the subject matter. In this article,
we'll compare APA Style and Chicago (Turabian) Style.

I. CHOOSIG YOUR STYLE

If your instructor doesn't select the style that you’ll use for your paper, pick
a style based on these suggestions.

CHICAGO (TURABIAN) STYLE. For the most part, Chicago (Turabian)
Style works well as an all-encompassing style for all types of subject matter.
The University of Chicago Press has created The Chicago Manual of Style,
which provides the guidelines for citing sources and formatting papers. The
15th edition is the latest edition. Visit chicagomanualofstyle.org on the Web


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for more information. Kate Turabian, the dissertation secretary at the
University of Chicago for 30 years, created A Manual for Writers of Term
Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, giving students and researchers
additional guidelines. The sixth edition is the latest edition. The two styles
are nearly identical, with only a few differences, and they're often combined
to represent one style, as we've done here. Non-scholarly publications also
will make use of Chicago (Turabian) Style in magazines and newspapers.

APA STYLE. Subjects related to the social sciences, such as business,
criminal justice, economics, law, and medical subjects, including nursing
and psychology, work best with APA Style. The American Psychological
Association created the APA Style, and you can visit apastyle.org on the
Internet to find more information on APA Style. The Publication Manual of
the American Psychological Association is the full listing of APA Style
guidelines and formatting rules.

II. THE DIFFERECES

Quite a few formatting differences exist between Chicago (Turabian) Style
and APA Style, including those listed here. Choose the style that will allow
you to format your paper and deliver the information to your readers in the
most efficient manner.

I-TEXT CITATIOS. Most of the differences between Chicago
(Turabian) and APA Styles involve in-text citations. Both styles include the
last name of the author and a page number in parentheses for the in-text
citation. APA Style also includes the year of publication of the source, but
Chicago (Turabian) Style does not.

Chicago (Turabian) Style also allows the use of footnotes, rather than in-text
citations, to cite your sources. With a footnote, you link the material that
needs to be sourced with the source information, usually through superscript


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Arabic numerals. A footnote lists far more information about each source
than does an in-text citation. Footnotes appear only on the page that contains
the information that you need to cite. When using footnotes, you don't
necessarily have to include a bibliography, although most people use both.

An in-text citation, meanwhile, provides only a little basic information about
the source. Readers use the in-text citation to find the full source information
in the bibliography or reference list.

With Chicago (Turabian) Style, you may use either footnotes or in-text
citations. APA Style only allows in-text citations.

PAGE UMBERS. With both styles, the page number appears in the upper
right corner of each page. With APA Style, you must include a running title
to the left of the page number on each page. A running title is a two- or
three-word summary of the title of your paper. With Chicago (Turabian)
Style, you only list the page number. If a chapter heading appears on the
page in Chicago (Turabian) Style, you should list the page number along the
bottom of the page, instead of in the upper right corner.

REFERECE LIST FORMATTIG. With both styles, when listing each
of your sources on the reference list page or in a bibliography, use the full
last name of the author(s) in each entry. In APA Style, you also list only the
initials of the first and middle name of each author. In Chicago (Turabian)
Style, you spell out the entire first and middle name of each author. (The
middle name information is optional.)


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Writing Advice for Chicago (Turabian)
Style

If you follow information and instructions from publications and Internet
resources devoted to Chicago (Turabian) Style, then writing a formal paper
isn't as difficult as it sounds. Following all the rules can be tricky, but it's not
impossible. Follow the tips listed here, and your Chicago (Turabian) Style
thesis or dissertation will be a success.

A) BIBLIOGRAPHY. As you perform the research for your paper, keep
the bibliography in the back of your mind. For every idea or quote you use
from one of your sources, you will have to cite the idea in the paper and list
the source in the bibliography. Even if you choose to use footnotes with your
Chicago (Turabian) Style paper, you probably will want to create a
bibliography. When you pull information from sources, make sure you
collect extensive information about each source for the bibliography. Having
a comprehensive list will help if you need to revisit a source to find more
information for your paper.

B) CITATIOS CHECKED AD RE-CHECKED. Be sure you have
properly listed all of the citations in your paper, whether you chose to use in-
text citations, footnotes, or endnotes. Although formatting every citation
correctly can be difficult, it helps your instructor when he reads your paper.
In addition, other readers must be able to find each citation in the
bibliography, so it's important to cite everything correctly. Make sure you
spell all authors' names correctly, too. Citing sources properly will ensure
you don't inadvertently commit plagiarism. If you're unsure whether to use
an in-text citation for a source, you probably should use it. It's better to be
safe than sorry when citing sources.



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C) EXTERAL SOURCES. If you are unsure about the formatting style
for a particular page in your paper or for citing a source, turn to either the
Chicago Style Manual or the Turabian Manual for Writers. Both books have
hundreds of examples for formatting formal papers. Keep in mind, however,
that neither book has been updated in recent years. The latest version of the
Chicago Style Manual, the 15th edition, was published in 2003. The
Turabian Manual's sixth edition was published in 1996, meaning it doesn't
contain much information on citing Internet sources, for example.

D) FOLLOW YOUR ISTRUCTOR'S ISTRUCTIOS. You may
have an instructor who gives you directions for composing the thesis or
dissertation that differ slightly from those in Chicago (Turabian) Style.
Follow your instructor's guidelines in those instances. Chicago (Turabian)
Style contains many optional pages and areas where the writer has some
latitude to make changes. If you are unsure how you should handle a
particular aspect of your paper's formatting, check with your instructor.

E) GRAMMAR GUIDELIES. Papers that follow proper grammar are
more likely to receive favorable marks from an instructor. For example,
always write in active voice, rather than passive voice. The Chicago Style
Manual contains quite a few grammar-related resources.

F) PROOFREAD A FEW TIMES. Proofreading should not be done as a
last-minute item; you should proofread a few times before you finish the
paper. In fact, it's best to set the paper aside for a couple of days between
proofreading sessions. If you can take a break from the paper for a couple of
days, you'll be surprised how much better your proofreading sessions go
with a fresh look at the paper. Depending on the importance of the paper,
you may want to hire someone to do some additional proofreading for you.
Keep in mind that word processing software spell checkers (such as
Microsoft Word and Wordperfect) are very handy, but they do not catch
every error.


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G) TAKE YOUR TIME. As with most tasks, those who take their time
usually achieve a better result than those who rush through the project.
Hurrying unnecessarily with your Chicago (Turabian) Style paper will lead
to mistakes, so take your time to ensure correct formatting. If you are forced
to hurry because of an impending deadline, your writing will suffer, and
you'll make mistakes in formatting. Start early on the paper, set goals for
finishing different aspects of it, such as completing the research or
completing the first draft, and you'll have a much better finished product.

H) THE WRITIG MATTERS. Following the Chicago (Turabian) Style
rules closely are an important part of creating a successful paper. However,
such rules should not overwhelm your work. Instead, focus on the content of
your paper and focus on the writing. If the content of your paper is lacking,
it won't matter to your instructor how closely your paper follows Chicago
(Turabian) Style.

the end