Writing Styles for College Students
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Writing Styles for College Students
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Vist our website, www.StudyStudent.com, and learn how to write a dissertation, thesis paper, or term paper / research paper. We also provide expert advice on writing and formatting a paper in APA Style, MLA Style and Chicago Manual Style.
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Peter Gallagher is a retired university professor and contributor for http://www.LousyWriter.com. He wrote "Writing Styles for College Students" to condense the most commonly asked questions about APA style, Chicago style, and MLA style.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section 1: APA Style
6 10 15 22 28 32
How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in APA Style How to Cite Sources Inside APA Style Text How to Create Footnotes and Headings in APA Style What Pages Do I Need With My APA Style Paper? Differences Between APA and MLA Styles of Writing Writing Advice for APA Style
Section 2: MLA Style
37 41 45 50
How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in MLA Style How Do I Write in MLA Style? How to Cite Non-Traditional Sources in MLA Style How to Cite Sources Inside the Text in MLA Style
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55 61 65 68
How to Cite Sources in MLA Style What Pages Do I Need With My MLA Style Paper? How to Format a Paper in MLA Style The Differences Between MLA Style and Chicago Style
Section 2: Chicago Style
74 77 81 84
How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in Chicago Style How to Format a Paper in Chicago Style What Pages Do I Need With My Chicago Style Paper? How to Cite Sources Inside the Text in Chicago Style
91 How to Create a Bibliography in Chicago Style 97 How to Create Headings and Endnotes in Chicago Style 103 The Differences Between Chicago Style and APA Style of Writing 107 Writing Advice for Chicago Style
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Section 1:
A P A S ty l e
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How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in APA Style APA
Writing that first thesis or dissertation can be a daunting task on its own. Throw in a need for APA Style guidelines in the paper, and it can be downright intimidating for the student who has never used APA Style in the past. However, following APA Style doesn't have to be a chore that takes all of the enjoyment out of your writing. A large portion of following APA Style involves common sense writing rules. Dozens of other APA resources can help you with the rest. This set of articles will spell out many aspects of using APA Style. I. APA STYLE'S ORIGI ATIO APA is short for the American Psychological Association. The APA created APA Style as a format for its members to follow as they wrote books and journals for the APA to publish. The initial APA Style guidelines appeared in a magazine article in 1929. The first formal APA Style book appeared in 1952. The format quickly grew in popularity, expanding well beyond APA members. Many educational institutions use APA Style as a guideline for students writing a formal paper, such as a thesis or dissertation.
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II. WHAT APA STYLE COVERS By using APA Style, the student has a comprehensive guideline for formatting all aspects of the paper. For example, APA Style provides rules for the type and size of font to be used, the margins on the paper, and use of punctuation. APA Style also provides rules for citing references, presenting figures or illustrations, and creating tables. Essentially, APA Style rules cover every aspect of the paper that you will be writing. The APA Style rules have evolved over the years, making subtle changes. Sometimes, you may have an instructor who prefers an old rule and will ask you to break away from the APA Style on that particular rule. Other instructors allow for a few exceptions to APA Style, especially those that make the paper easier to read, such as combining the abstract and title pages. However, if you plan to submit your thesis or dissertation for publication, you'll want to follow the APA Style precisely. III. HOW TO START A APA STYLE PAPER Using a word processor and a computer makes applying APA Style far easier than it used to be with a typewriter. If you need to add a footnote or insert a quotation at the last minute, it's easy to do with a word processing program, such as MS-WORD. When writing your paper using APA Style, you start with a title page that contains the title, your name, and your school. The second page is the abstract page, which contains a short description of your paper. The main
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text begins on the third page. At the end, you'll list all of the sources you used with your paper in the references section. During your research, as you find sources to use in your paper, you will want to make sure you have the APA Style guidelines handy, ensuring that you collect all of the necessary information about each source. Different types of sources (such as books, reports, and papers) require different types of documentation in APA Style, but the information you'll typically need includes: * Title of book or article or report * Author name or names * Date of publication or creation or retrieval * Name of publication * Publishing house or company * Pages or chapters used as a source * Short description of source's origination, if necessary, such as a Web site or a conference Obviously, some citations will not have every piece of information listed above. When collecting information on your sources, a good rule of thumb to follow is: Collect at least as much information as you'd need to tell someone else how to find the exact piece of information you used as a resource in your paper. Take your time to ensure you have all of the information to properly cite the source.
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IV. FI DI G MORE A SWERS If you have specific questions regarding APA Style, the ultimate resource is The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, which is available for about $40. The fifth edition is the current edition. You also can visit the APAStyle (dot) org Web site for some tips and additional information for using APA Style with your paper. For additional help, your instructor might have some tips or guidelines. Your university library likely has dozens of books devoted to APA Style guidelines. If all else fails, Google can provide dozens of Web sites that provide tips for correctly applying APA Style rules in your paper. With so many APA Style resources available, you can stop worrying about APA Style and place all of your focus where it belongs: On the substance of your thesis or dissertation.
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APA Citations : How to Cite Sources Inside APA Style Text
When writing an APA Style paper, it’s required that you properly cite any sources you’ve used. Citing sources is important for a few reasons. First, it allows instructors to check the accuracy of your research. Second, it gives your readers the opportunity to find additional related information. Most importantly, citing sources gives credit for the research and theories that you’re citing to the people who've created them. Citing sources in APA Style requires two processes. One citation is required at the position in the main text where the cited material appears, called an intext citation. The other citation occurs at the end of the paper, in a list of all cited works, called a reference list. In this article, we’ll focus on materials you’ll need to cite within the main text of the APA style paper. I. Citing a Printed Work in APA style Often times, the type of APA formatting used for an in-text citation of printed material will depend on the structure of the sentence, as shown in these examples.
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Citation example A. Include the names of the author within the sentence, followed by the year of publication inside parentheses.
The study created by Johnson, Smith, & Jones (2003) indicates that technological advancements spur economic growth.
Citation example B. You can place the names of the authors inside the parentheses with the year of publication, depending on your sentence structure.
Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Johnson, Smith, & Jones, 2003).
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II. Subsequent Listings Once you have listed a printed source and its author(s) in your paper, you sometimes can abbreviate with subsequent in-text citations of the same work. As shown in these examples, the number of authors determines whether an abbreviation is appropriate. One or two authors. On subsequent references, list it as you did the first time, with one or both authors’ names and the year of publication.
Additionally, the Johnson & Jones (2003) study indicates ...
Three or more authors. On subsequent references, you only need to list the first author, followed by “et al.” before the year of publication.
Additionally, the Johnson et al. (2003) study indicates ...
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III. Special Circumstances With published works, figuring out the authors’ names and the year of publication is a fairly easy process. With some sources, creating the proper in-text APA citation can be a little more difficult. For example, a Web page might not readily include an author’s name. If one isn’t available, you can use an editor’s name, simply listing it as you listed the author’s name in the examples shown earlier. If no author’s name or editor’s name is available, just list the name of the organization or institution that’s associated with the Web site, as shown in the following example.
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An economic organization’s study has indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Worldwide Economists Group, 2006).
You also can use the title of a Web page or publication with the in-text citation, if no author is listed. Remember, with an in-text citation, you’re simply trying to ensure that those who read your paper can easily find the full listing of the source in the reference list at the end of the paper. IV. Quotations When quoting source material directly within your text, use the same in-text citation formatting we’ve already described, along with a little additional information.
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Short quotations. For any quotation less than 40 words in length, use quotation marks around the quotation, followed by the page number of the reference.
According to Johnson (2003), “Spending tax dollars on technological advancements spurs growth in the local economy” (p. 43).
Long quotations. Follow the same APA format for in-text citations, including the page number(s), for a long quotation of more than 40 words. However, you’ll want to create a special block of text for the long quotation by indenting about one-half inch from the left margin for all lines of the quotation. Return to the normal left margin after reaching the end of the quotation block. Do not use quotation marks with this long quotation block, and double space throughout the block. V. More Information Keep in mind that APA Style says that you should always use past tense or present perfect tense when describing research that requires an in-text citation. Finally, if you have a particularly tricky source to cite within your text that isn’t covered here, you can find the answer in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, which is the ultimate resource for APA Style.
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How to Create Footnotes and Headings in APA Style
Within the main text of your thesis or dissertation, you may need to organize the text and information beyond the standard blocks of text. You have a couple of options under APA Style. Footnotes give you the option of adding information about an idea in your text without detracting from the text. Headings allow you to organize the text into sections, similar to an outline. 1. APA Style Footnotes APA Style recommends against using footnotes within the paper, because it is difficult for a publishing company to reproduce the superscript numbers used with footnotes. Footnotes are explanatory notes referenced from the main text. If you need to use footnotes, place them at the end of the paper, after the references list. (Some people call these types of citations “endnotes.”) Footnotes should appear on a separate page with the word “Footnotes” centered at the top of the page. It’s worth noting that because APA Style allows for in-text citations, you’ll rarely need footnotes, unless you need an in-depth explanation of an item within the text. However, keep the footnote to a maximum of a few sentences and do not discuss more than one idea per footnote. If you need a more complex footnote, you’ll want to include the information as an appendix page entry or incorporate it into the main text instead. APA Style allows for two types of footnotes: Content and copyright permission. A content footnote should include information that would be
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distracting to include within the main text. It’s a good way to point the reader toward additional information. A copyright permission footnote shows the reader that you have obtained permission to use a previously published long quote (more than 500 words), table, or figure. Both types of footnotes require the same type of formatting, as shown in the following example.
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Technological advancements tend to spark economic growth worldwide.1
On the footnote page, indent each footnote as a new paragraph and double space throughout.
1
Johnson defines technological advancements in a variety of ways ...
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2. APA Style Headings APA Style allows for you to use headings to better organize your paper. You can think of using headings like creating an outline. You can use up to five levels with headings, although the formatting becomes tricky if you go deeper than three levels. The headings formatting requirements include: FIRST LEVEL. The first level headings should be centered above their associated text blocks. Use both uppercase and lowercase words within the heading. SECO D LEVEL. Type the second level heading in all italics, flush left, and with both uppercase and lowercase words. THIRD LEVEL. The third level heading should look like a sentence at the start of a paragraph, as it’s indented, all lowercase words (other than the first word or proper nouns), and ends with a period. It is italicized, however, to set it apart from the main text.
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An example of the formatting for the first three levels of headings looks this way:
First Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Second Level of Heading (flush left) Main text continues as normal (indented). Third level of heading (indented). Main text should immediately follow the third heading.
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FOURTH LEVEL. If you need a fourth level heading, you have to rework your previous headings. The second level becomes italicized and centered, while the old second level and old third level become the new third and fourth levels, respectively.
First Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Second Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Third Level of Heading (flush left) Main text continues as normal (indented). Fourth level of heading (indented). Main text should immediately follow the fourth heading.
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FIFTH LEVEL. Again, adding a fifth level requires reworking of the other levels, beginning with the first level, which now becomes a centered and all uppercase heading. Every other heading moves down one spot. The old first level heading becomes the new second level, and the others follow suit.
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FIRST LEVEL OF HEADING (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Second Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Third Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Fourth Level of Heading (flush left) Main text continues as normal (indented). Fifth level of heading (indented). Main text should immediately follow the fifth heading.
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Finally, keep in mind that very few APA Style papers will require more than two or three levels of headings. Typically, the only types of papers that need four or five levels of headings are those detailing complex scientific experiments.
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What Pages Do I Need With My APA Style Paper?
When compiling your thesis or dissertation, the APA Style guidelines specify certain types of pages, as well as formatting guidelines for those pages. I have included the primary pages you'll need in your manuscript. Always start each of these sections on a new page. Most of them will only require one page. * ABSTRACT. The second page in your APA style thesis should be the abstract page, which contains a 100- to 150-word summary of your paper. Do not include any of the main text on the abstract page. It will contain the page header, which is a two- or three-word summary of the title, in the upper right corner, just left of page number "2," as the abstract page is always the second page. Do not indent the abstract and limit it to one paragraph. If you use numbers in the abstract, type them as digits, rather than words, unless the number starts a sentence. * APPE DIX. Use the appendix, which is optional, to describe complex equipment or to present unpublished tests. Each appendix in your APA paper should appear on its own page, and use letters to differentiate each appendix, such as "Appendix A" and "Appendix B." Some papers will not use an appendix page. Any appendix pages belong at the end of the paper. * AUTHOR OTE. In the author note page, which is optional, identify the departmental affiliation for the author. You also can include disclaimers, acknowledgements, and, if desired, contact information for the author. If you received funding for this research, identify it on the author note page. Place
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the author note page after the dedication page. With some instructors and institutions, this page is called the acknowledgments page. * COPYRIGHT OTICE. A copyright notice is an optional page in your APA paper; it signifies the paper is copyrighted material. Place a copyright page immediately after the title page. It should include the copyright symbol, the year of publication, the author's name, and "all rights reserved." Center all of the copyright text on the page. * DEDICATIO . A dedication page is an optional page similar to the author note page, and it allows you to dedicate your paper to someone. Place the dedication page after the copyright page. The dedication page does not need to include the word "Dedication" at the top; simply list your dedication in italics. Center it on the page. * LIST OF TABLES A D LIST OF FIGURES. Only use a list of tables or a list of figures page if you have at least five tables or five figures in your APA paper. Both list pages should appear after the table of contents, with the list of tables page ahead of the list of figures page. List each table or figure with the appropriate title and page number, connected by a leader. Right-align the page number and left-align the title of each table or figure. * MAI TEXT. The main text always begins on page 3. Center the complete title above the beginning of the main text. * REFERE CE LIST. Include your reference list after the main text page and ahead of the appendix page. The reference list page should include all works that you've cited in your paper, listed alphabetically. Rules for listing
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references under APA Style are specific, depending on the type of work, and you need to follow them closely. (We'll discuss them in another article.) * TABLE OF CO TE TS. The table of contents page should appear after the abstract page. It is an organized listing of the contents of the paper, providing page numbers to the various sections and headings in the paper. The reader can use the table of contents to jump to a particular section of the paper. When listing chapter headings in the table of contents, make sure they exactly match the chapter headings in the text. Use a leader to connect the chapter heading or section name (aligned on the left) with the page number (aligned on the right). Type "Table of Contents" centered at the top of the page. * TITLE. The title page includes more than just the title. In the upper right corner, include the page header and page number "1," as the title page is always the first page. Then center the title on the page. If the title requires more than one line, use double spacing. Include the author's name and the author's educational institution or the author's home city and state.
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APA Format : How to Format a Paper in APA Style
The APA Style rules for formatting a thesis or dissertation are specific, ranging from the proper font size to the proper margins to the type of paper you should use. Here are 14 formatting tips you should follow when creating your paper. Tip 1: ABBREVIATIO S. Try to avoid using abbreviations in your paper. However, if you have an abbreviation that's commonly accepted in language and appears in the dictionary, such as AIDS, you may use it. Tip 2: ALIG ME T. Always align the text flush left. Do not use the “full justify” setting on your word processor, which spreads the text and aligns it both left and right. Tip 3: FO T. If using a word processor, stick with a serif font, such as Times New Roman. Use text in a 10- or 12-point size. Tip 4: HYPHE ATIO . Do not break and hyphenate words at the end of a line. Instead, leave one line a little short and place the entire word on the next line, or go a couple of characters beyond the right margin to fit the entire word on the line. Tip 5: I DE TIO S. Indent paragraphs within the main text of the paper one-half inch, if using a computer word processor, or five to seven spaces, if using a typewriter. However, do not indent in the following special
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circumstances: The abstract, block quotations, figure captions, notes, reference list entries, table titles, and titles or headings. Tip 6: MARGI S. Use 1-inch margins on all four sides of the paper: Top, bottom, right, and left. Old rules called for some 1.5-inch margins, but those rules no longer are valid. Tip 7: PAGE UMBERI G. Number almost every page in the paper, including the title page. Place the number in the upper-right corner of the page, and use only Arabic numerals. Place the number “1” on the title page and the number “2” on the abstract page. The main text should start on page number “3”. Do not number pages that contain only figures or artwork. Tip 8: PAPER TYPE. Use standard white, 20-pound bond paper that measures 8.5-by-11 inches. If using a computer, use an inkjet or laser printer to print the paper; if you must use a tractor-feed printer, be sure to remove the pinhole borders from the edges of the paper. Tip 9: PARE THESES. Try to limit parentheses to set apart elements that are structurally independent, such as when listing a figure or illustration related to a sentence. If you're enclosing a complete sentence in parentheses, place the punctuation inside the parentheses. If you're enclosing only part of a sentence inside parentheses, leave the punctuation outside the parentheses. Tip 10: PU CTUATIO . In most instances, use one space after all typical punctuation marks, such as periods, commas, colons, and semicolons. Three exceptions exist to this rule. First, do not use a space after periods inside an abbreviation, such as when using U.S. for United States. Second, do not use a space after a colon in a ratio, such as 3:2. Third, some instructors prefer the
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old rule of using two spaces after periods that end sentences. If you're using Courier or another mono-space font, APA Style does allow two spaces between sentences, although one is preferred. Tip 11: SHORT TITLE. A Short Title, which is a two- or three-word summary of the main title, should appear on every page in the top right corner, other than pages that contain only figures or artwork. The Short Title should appear just to the left of the page number. Tip 12: SLASH MARK. Avoid using slash marks in your paper. For example, instead of writing “red and/or green,” write “red, green, or both.” Tip 13: SPACI G. Use double spacing throughout the entire paper, unless your instructor specifically requests single spacing in certain circumstances, such as with block quotations. Tip 14: TITLE. Center the title on the title page, using a mixture of uppercase and lowercase letters. If the title is long enough to require a second line, double space between the lines. After the title, the student's name should appear, followed by the institution for which the paper is being written. If you don't have an institution to include, you may substitute the city and state of the author of the paper. Double space between every line on the title page. The title page should contain the number "1" in the upper right corner.
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The Differences Between APA and MLA Styles of Writing
When writing a dissertation or thesis, your instructor probably will require you to follow one of two popular style formats for your paper, APA Style or MLA Style. Although both formats are similar, they do have subtle differences that you'll need to know. Generally, you select the style to follow based on the subject matter of the paper you're writing. Each style treats the formatting of the paper a little differently to meet the citation needs for the subject matter. I. CHOOSI G YOUR STYLE For the most part, your instructor will select the style of formatting that you'll use for your paper. If you have a choice, however, you can follow these suggestions for deciding which style to use. APA Style. Use APA Style for subjects related to the social sciences, such as business, criminal justice, economics, law, and medical subjects, including nursing and psychology. The American Psychological Association created the APA Style, and you can visit apastyle (dot) org on the Internet to find more information on APA Style. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the full listing of APA Style guidelines and APA formatting rules.
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MLA Style. Use MLA Style for subjects related to the humanities and liberal arts, such as literature, mass communications, and media studies. The Modern Language Association oversees the development of MLA Style, and you can visit mla(dot)org on the Internet for more information. For undergraduate students, use the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (sometimes shortened to MLA Handbook) as the guide to following MLA Style. For graduate students and professionals, use the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing (sometimes shortened to MLA Style Manual) to find official rules and guidelines for MLA Style. II. THE DIFFERE CES If you still are not sure which style you should use with your paper, here are some formatting differences between APA Style and MLA Style. Choose the style that will allow you to format your paper and deliver the information to your readers in the most efficient manner. Abstract. This difference in this category is pretty obvious: APA Style requires an abstract page, while MLA Style does not. An abstract is a short summary of your paper. In-text citations. With both styles, use the last name of the author(s) in any in-text citation. With APA Style, you also include the year of publication. With MLA Style,
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you include the page number of the information you cited along with the name of the author(s), but you do not include the year of publication. By including the year of publication, APA Style gives the readers a chance to decide how much relevancy to place on a particular source, based on its age. With the subject matter used with MLA Style, however, the age of the sourced material usually isn't as vital to its relevancy, so MLA Style doesn't list the year of publication. With both styles, remember that the in-text citation is simply a method of ensuring that your readers can easily find the full citation in the reference list or works cited page at the end of the paper. You don't need extensive information about the source for an in-text citation. Page numbers. With both styles, the page number appears in the upper right corner of each page, but each style has different additional information. With APA Style, you must include a running title to the left of the page number on each page. A running title is a two- or three-word summary of the title of your paper. With MLA Style, include the author's name to the left of the page number on each page. Reference list formatting. With both APA Style and MLA Style, when listing each of your sources on the reference list page (APA Style) or works cited page (MLA Style), use the full last name of the author(s) in each entry. In APA Style, you also list only the initials of the first and middle name of each author. In MLA Style,
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you spell out the entire first and middle name of each author. (Middle name information is optional.) Title page. APA Style requires a title page, but MLA Style does not. If you choose to skip the title page with MLA Style, simply include your name, your instructor's name, your course, and the full date in the upper left-hand corner of the first page. Then center the title on the page, followed by your main text. You'll also find several subtle differences between APA Style and MLA Style in capitalization and punctuation rules. However, those differences are too numerous to list here, and they probably won't affect your decision on which style to use with your paper.
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Writing Advice for APA Style
Writing in APA Style can be an intimidating task, especially if you've never written a formal research paper previously. APA Style has many rules, guidelines, and formatting requirements for your paper that it can be overwhelming to think about all of the opportunities for mistakes. However, following APA Style is not as difficult as it sounds. As with almost any educational endeavor, hurrying unnecessarily will lead to mistakes, so take your time to ensure correct formatting. Following the APA Style tips listed here will help, too. ACTIVE VOICE. Try to avoid writing in passive voice. APA Style requires active voice, and some instructors will downgrade your paper if you use a lot of passive voice. With active voice, the subject of the sentence does something. With passive voice, the subject of the sentence has something done to it. Passive voice often uses the word "by." FOCUS O THE WRITI G. There's no question that following APA Style closely is an important part of creating a successful paper. However, the tight rules and guidelines that govern APA Style should not be your primary focus. Instead, focus on the content of your paper and focus on the writing. If the content of your paper is lacking, it won't matter to your instructor how closely your paper follows APA Style.
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LA GUAGE TIPS. When writing your APA Style paper, avoid using contractions: "Can't" should be "cannot," and "it's" should be "it is." Do not use slang language. Clear, concise language is best. Never write in the first person, either. PLAGIARISM PROBLEMS. Obviously, you don't want to plagiarize any part of your paper. To make sure you don't inadvertently commit plagiarism, cite all of your sources. If you're unsure whether to use an in-text citation for a source, you probably should use it. It's better to be safe than sorry when citing sources. PROOFREAD A FEW TIMES. You'd be surprised how often a simple mistake sneaks into formal papers because the author didn't take the time to proofread more than once. Proofreading should not be done as a last-minute item; it should be done a few times before the paper is completed. In fact, it's best to set the paper aside for a couple of days between proofreading sessions. If you can take a break from the paper for a couple of days, you'll be surprised how much better your proofreading sessions go with a fresh look at the paper, rather than a harried, last-minute look. PROOFREAD SOME MORE. Depending on the importance of the paper, you may want to hire someone to do some additional proofreading for you. Again, having a fresh look at the
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paper, this time from a different pair of eyes, will only help improve your paper. REFERE CE LIST. As you perform the research for your paper, it's important to keep the reference list in the back of your mind. When you pull information from sources, make sure that you collect extensive information about each source. Having a comprehensive list is good for two reasons. First, you must have the information for the reference list, so collecting it as you use each source will save you time when compiling the reference list later. Second, if you need to revisit a particular source to find more information for your paper, you'll have very few problems finding it again with a comprehensive source list. REPEATABLE RULES. Once you've mastered a few of the APA Style guidelines, you'll repeat them throughout your paper, making your job easier. This is especially true with citing sources, either inside the main text or on the references list page. Even though there are subtle, slight differences in formatting the citations, depending on the type of source, most the formatting is similar. YOUR I STRUCTOR K OWS BEST. Finally, if you encounter a dilemma where the instructions for your paper that your instructor provided contradict APA Style guidelines and rules, go with your instructor's preferences. Some APA Style rules are modifiable, giving your instructor some latitude. In addition, because APA Style rules
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have evolved over the years, you might have an instructor who prefers an old rule to a new rule. If you encounter a contradiction, just remember this: The last time I checked, the latest edition of the APA Style Manual had never graded a paper. Follow the desires of the person who will be grading the paper.
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Section 2:
M L A S ty l e
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How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in MLA Style
If you're a student in liberal arts or humanities, chances are good your professor will ask you to write a paper in MLA Style. Eventually, you might even create a thesis or dissertation using MLA Style. Writing in MLA Style is one of a few different writing styles you can use to format academic papers that require sources in an educational or professional setting. Although learning all the rules about MLA Style can seem overwhelming, it doesn't have to be. Many rules of MLA Style repeat themselves as you use them in your paper, meaning you don't have to learn hundreds of rules. As long as you learn the basic MLA Style guidelines, you can create a wellformatted MLA Style paper with great success. Here are some of my time-tested techniques to help you write that first MLA Style paper. If you run into a situation that I do not cover, then you can always call upon the many MLA Style resources on the Internet and in print that can handle those odd situations. I. THE ORIGI OF MLA STYLE The Modern Language Association of America oversees MLA Style, publishing the first edition of its MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing in 1985. The Modern Language Association (MLA) published the third edition of the MLA Style Manual in 2008.
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Headquartered in New York City, the MLA is an American professional organization for scholars of literature and language, including professors and graduate students. The MLA began in 1883 at Purdue University, essentially as a discussion group for literature and modern language. Today, several regional associations make up the MLA. II. WORKI G WITH MLA STYLE By following the MLA Style, as outlined in the MLA Style Manual, students receive advice on a variety of rules for creating and formatting a formal MLA paper, including rules for: * * * * * * The size of the font The type of font The margins of the paper Citing references in the text Citing references at the end of the paper Presenting tables, figures, and illustrations
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Rules for creating papers using MLA Style have undergone some changes since the first MLA Style Manual appeared almost 25 years ago. In addition, with the changes in the latest version of the MLA Style Manual, you may have some instructors who prefer the "old" rules of MLA Style. Be sure your instructors clearly define which version of MLA Style they'd like you to follow. Finally, some instructors might not require the strict formality of the MLA Style Manual in a particular paper. Instead, they might ask you to follow the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, which is a less formal
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version of MLA Style. For the most part, the MLA Handbook is aimed at undergraduate college students and high school students. Be sure you know which reference guide for MLA Style your instructor wants you to use. III. HOW TO START YOUR MLA STYLE PAPER A computer with word processing software, such as Microsoft Word or Word Perfect, is the best method for writing your MLA Style paper. A word processor is the easiest way to perform the formatting functions, indentions, and italics text. As you perform your research for your formal paper, it's important to track your sources. You'll need to cite the sources you've used in your MLA Style paper. MLA Style guidelines will dictate different formatting rules for different types of sources. For most of your sources, you'll need to track the title, author, date of publication, name of publication, and pages used as a source, among other types of information. It's always better to have more information than you'll need when citing a source than to not have enough information. IV. FI DI G MORE A SWERS ABOUT MLA STYLE For additional questions about MLA Style, the MLA Style Manual is the best source. This publication includes the rules and advice for formatting a thesis or dissertation. It also includes information on submitting your work for peer review and publication, on copyright laws, on fair use rules, and on contracts.
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Keep in mind that the MLA says the guidelines in the third edition of the MLA Style Manual represent a "significant revision" to the documentation style, so you'll want to make sure you have the latest information. If your university library doesn't have the latest copy of the MLA Style Manual, you can purchase a copy for about $33 from the MLA Web site. Unfortunately, the MLA Web site doesn't offer many tips on using MLA Style. When using other Web sites for information on MLA Style, be sure to use the latest rules.
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Style? How Do I Write in MLA Style?
Even though MLA Style lacks explicit rules about specific pages to include in your paper and how to organize those pages, it does have many formatting rules that you need to follow. Following MLA Style shouldn't detract from the overall work of your paper, however. It takes some work to achieve the proper MLA format, but it's important to not allow the paper format to prevent you from focusing on writing the paper. These tips will give you some additional help to follow MLA Style with your paper. TIP 1. DOUBLE-CHECK ALL CITATIO S. With MLA Style, it's important to make sure you have properly listed all of the in-text citations, making it easy for readers to find each citation in the Works Cited list. Make sure you spell all authors' names correctly in the Works Cited list, too, so you don't confuse readers about the author. TIP 2. FOLLOW YOUR I STRUCTOR'S I STRUCTIO S. You may have an instructor who gives you directions for composing the thesis or dissertation that differ slightly from those in MLA Style. Follow your instructor's guidelines in those instances.
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TIP 3. GRAMMAR GUIDELI ES. Papers that follow proper grammar are more likely to receive favorable marks from an instructor. For example, always write in active voice, rather than passive voice. In other words, make certain the subjects of your sentences are doing something in the sentence, rather than the subjects having something done to them. Avoid using contractions in your paper, if possible. Do not use slang or jargon in your paper, unless you're writing about a subject that requires such language. Do not write in the first person; in other words, do not use the words "I" or "me" in any sentence. Try to avoid making absolute statements, especially when you are describing an opinion. Do not use numerous quotations just to fill a word count or page count; make sure quotations add to your argument. TIP 4. PROOFREADI G, A ECESSARY TASK. For most people, proofreading is the least enjoyable task for compiling a formal paper. However, it's a key task. You might have the most compelling argument your instructor has ever seen, but inadvertently, allowing several grammatical and spelling errors to appear in your paper will make it tough to take your argument seriously. Proofread your paper at least a few times before submitting it. If possible, take a few days off between proofreading sessions. A fresh look at the paper after a break will help you catch a few errors that you may have missed the first time around. Remember that, although word processing software spell checkers are handy, they do not catch every error, such as "to," "too," and "two." Proofreading is vital to having a successful paper.
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TIP 5. TAKE YOUR TIME. During the writing phase or the proofreading phase, you need to leave plenty of time to finish the paper. If you force yourself to hurry to meet a deadline, your writing will suffer, and you'll make mistakes. Start early on the paper, set goals for finishing different aspects of it -- initial research, detailed research, first draft, second draft, detailed proofreading, and final draft -- and you'll have a much better finished paper. TIP 6. WORKS CITED LIST. Throughout the research process for your paper, it is important to track all of the sources you use. For every idea or quote you use from one of your sources, you will have to cite the idea in the paper and list the source in the Works Cited list. Collect extensive information about each source, which will allow you to cite each source properly in your paper. It's important to give credit for any ideas you use from other people. Citing sources properly will ensure you don’t inadvertently commit plagiarism. If you’re unsure whether to use an in-text citation for a source, you probably should use it. It’s better to be safe than sorry when citing sources. TIP 7. FI AL TIP. If you ever are unsure about the formatting style you should follow when citing a particular source, turn to the MLA Style Manual. It has examples and explanations of every type of source that you'll ever encounter.
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However, be certain that you're using the latest edition of the MLA Style Manual. The changes in the latest edition are subtle, but there are enough of them that you don't want to make some silly formatting errors, just because you were using an old edition of the MLA Style Manual. If you have a difficult time finding the newest edition of the MLA Style Manual, check with your instructor. He or she might not care if you use the previous edition.
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NonHow to Cite Non-Traditional Sources in MLA Style
In some respects, writing a dissertation or thesis in MLA Style was easier two or three decades ago, at least when it came to compiling the Works Cited list. You might not have used a computer for writing or the Internet for locating more sources, but at least you didn't have to cite many nontraditional sources in a Works Cited page. When citing non-traditional sources in MLA Style, such as Web pages or electronic media, you need to follow specific rules, just as you do with traditional print media, such as books and scholarly journals. I have listed some of the more common instances below. When writing your MLA paper, if you encounter any situations not discussed below, you always can turn to the MLA Style Manual, which covers every potential source, both traditional and non-traditional. Just be certain to use the third edition of the MLA Style Manual, as the guidelines have changed for a few types of sources, such as Web sites.
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BROADCAST. When citing a TV or radio broadcast, start with the title of the episode or segment in quotation marks, if one is available, followed by the title of the program in italics. Then list the network, the local broadcast affiliate, the date of broadcast, the type of broadcast, and any additional information that would be helpful to the reader, such as if you took the ideas or quotes from a transcript. You may list the name of an author, director, or performer at the beginning of the listing on the Works Cited page, if that person was primarily responsible for the content of the entire broadcast. If the primary source was interviewed on a program, list those who conducted the interview, if available.
Smith, Xavier Z. Interview by Jeffrey T. Jones and Terry J. Thomas. "Economic Times In Africa." Financial Times Worldwide. ational Public Radio. KPBS, Omaha, 25 May 2007. Radio. "African Economic Struggles." ews Hour. PBS. WPBS, ew York, 2 Apr. 2006. Television. Transcript.
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ILLUSTRATIO S OR GRAPHIC OVELS. Unlike most printed books, using an illustration or graphic novel as a source for your paper may present some tough circumstances as far as compiling material for the Works Cited list. For example, many illustrated books have more than one "author." You might have a writer along with multiple illustrators, for example. When listing the source in the Works Cited page, first list the person who had the most influence on the source as you're using it. For example, if you're using the writer's idea in your paper, list the primary writer first before any illustrators or other writers.
* Smith, Xavier Z., writer. Understanding Technologies, an Illustrated Guide. Illus. Quincy X. Smith and Jon Q. Smith. Introd. Travis Johnson. ew York: State University Press, 2006. Print.
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WEB SITES. When citing Web sites, the third edition of the MLA Style Manual now allows writers to eliminate the URL, or Web address, if the reader of the paper can easily find the Web site through the other information listed when citing the source. The MLA says because URLs sometimes change, the URL isn't as valuable to finding the source later as is a good description of the source. MLA recommends including the URL if you think your readers will have a difficult time finding the source without the URL. You'll need to continue to include an author, article name, Web site name, date of creation of the article or Web page, and date when you accessed the Web site when citing a Web site, but the URL is now optional. If you decide to include a URL, list it inside angle brackets. Also, be sure to include the word Web as part of the listing, usually after the date of creation of the Web site. If no date is available, use n.d. in place of the date. Finally, use italics for the title if the article is independent, and use quotation marks if the article is part of a larger work, using italics for the name of the larger work.
* Smith, Xavier Z and Travis Johnson. African Economic Forecast, 2006. State University, 20 Dec. 2005. Web. 27 Jan. 2008. <http://www.stateu.edu/economics/smith2006.html>.
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As often occurs, if the Web site you're using has no author or editor listed, start with the title of the page or article that you're citing.
* "How Technology Affects Economies." Economic Development Worldwide. Economic Development Worldwide, n.d. Web. 27 Jan. 2008.
Finally, if you're using material that has appeared in more than one medium, such as a print version and a Web page, cite only the medium that you used primarily.
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Inside How to Cite Sources Inside the Text in MLA Style
When citing sources in an MLA Style thesis or dissertation, you'll need to follow two different formats. In-text citations are references to sources that you make within the main text of your paper. "Works Cited" is a separate page at the end of your paper where you list every reference source you used in the paper. In a formal paper, it's important to cite every source you use. You need to let your readers know that you've performed the proper research to support the position you've taken in the paper. Readers who want more information than what you've provided in your paper can use the cited sources. It's important to credit the researchers who provided the information in your paper. With this article, we'll focus on MLA rules for citing sources inside the text. I. BASIC RULES With MLA Style, an in-text citation is sometimes called a parenthetical citation. Essentially, any time you paraphrase another person's or source's ideas, or any time you use a direct quotation in your paper, you need to cite that source. By citing the source within the text, you give your readers a chance to find the source material themselves, should they want more information about a particular quote or idea.
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II. I -TEXT CITATIO S When creating an in-text citation, you want to give your readers an easy method for finding the source material. You only need enough information in the in-text citation to give the reader an easy method of finding the source in the Works Cited list at the end of your paper. Because the Works Cited list will be in alphabetical order, listed by the author's last name first, you only need to list the author's last name for your in-text citation. That should be enough information for your readers to find the source on the Works Cited page. Here are some examples for in-text citations, based on particular sources and circumstances. A) One source, author known. List the author of the source and the page number or numbers that you used in your reference. Place the source material inside parentheses immediately after the material you need to source. Do not separate the author's name and the page number with any punctuation.
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Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Johnson 16).
B) One source, author unknown. In addition to the page number, list a shortened title for the source, if you don't know the author's name. If the title is for a long work, list it in italics. If
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the title is for a short work, list it inside quotation marks. Again, use parentheses for the in-text citation.
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Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth ("2007 Economic Growth Report" 16).
C) Two or more sources, authors known. Follow the same rules as you used with one source, but you'll need to separate each source with a semicolon.
Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Johnson 16; Jones 37-38; Smith 2).
D) Multiple works, same author. If you have more than one source from the same author, just add a shortened title for the particular source you're using to the author's name in the in-text citation. Separate the author's name and the title with a comma.
Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Johnson, "2007 Economic Growth Report" 16).
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E) Multiple authors, same last name. You might end up with sources from two different authors who share the same last name. In that case, you may use the author's first initial, first and middle initials, first name and middle initial, or first and middle names. Use as much of the first and middle names as required so it's easy for your readers to find the source in the Works Cited list.
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Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (B. Johnson 16).
F) Indirect source. If you have a quote taken from an indirect source, include the phrase "qtd. in" with the in-text citation. List the actual source where you found the quote in the in-text citation and in the Works Cited list.
Jones has mentioned that "technological advancements spur economic growth" (qtd. in Johnson 16).
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G) Other option. If it makes more sense in your writing to list the author in the actual text, you can simply list the page number inside the parentheses for the in-text citation.
The economist Johnson has indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (16).
Although MLA Style allows you to use the author's name in the text of the sentence you're citing, you are not allowed to use the page number or numbers in the sentence. The page number should always appear in parentheses.
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How to Cite Sources in MLA Style
The Works Cited page in MLA Style is important to your thesis or dissertation because it gives readers a list of sources you used to reach your conclusions. A well-researched paper will have high-quality sources. With MLA Style, you list these sources on the Works Cited page(s) at the end of the paper. MLA Style requires that you follow a specific format for listing every source, based on the type of source. To start the Works Cited page, type "Works Cited" centered at the top margin. Then begin the first source immediately, double-spacing all text on the page. Each source should have a hanging indention, meaning the first line is flush left, and each subsequent line for the source should be indented one-half inch. You should alphabetize the entire Works Cited list by author's last name. If the author's name is not known, use the title of the source in the alphabetized list, ignoring "A," "An," or "The" on the front of the name of the title. Here are some examples for listing various types of sources. The examples here only list the information you need about each source. They do not follow the hanging indention or double-spacing rules. A) BOOK. List the author's name, the title of the book in italics, the city of publication, the publisher, and the year of publication. You are allowed to abbreviate the
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name of certain publishers in MLA Style. The MLA Style Manual lists the acceptable abbreviations. Specify the type of publication at the end of the entry, denoting whether the book is a printed version or an electronic version.
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Smith, Xavier Z. Working with a Fledgling Economy. ew York: State University Press, 2006. Print.
B) DISSERTATIO OR THESIS. If you make use of a dissertation or thesis as a source, you'll need to list the author's name, the title (in quotation marks), the type of paper, and some information about the publication. For example, many dissertations appear in "Dissertation Abstracts International," usually abbreviated to DAI. DAI requires some specific information, as you can see in the following example.
Jones, Thomas. "The Relationship Between Economic Power and Technological Innovation." Diss. State University, 2003. DAI 66.17 (2004): item DA4267399. Print.
In MLA Style, you can abbreviate dissertation as "Diss", and master's thesis as either "MA thesis" or "MS thesis".
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C) PUBLISHED ARTICLE. List the author's last name, followed by the full first name and middle initial, if the author commonly uses it. List the title of the article in quotation marks, followed by the publication name (in italics), the issue or volume numbers, the year of publication, and the page numbers for the full article. If you have other information you think would be helpful for a reader, you may list it at the end of the entry. In the following two examples, the first is for a scholarly journal and the second is for a newspaper. Notice how the word "Print" in the newspaper example differentiates between the print edition and Internet edition of the newspaper.
Smith, Xavier Z. "Economic Growth in Africa." Economics Quarterly 3 (2008): 332-3. Johnson, Travis. "African Economic Viability." ew York Financial ewspaper 13 Jun. 2008: B3. Print.
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D) MULTIPLE AUTHORS. List the first author by last name, then first name, and subsequent authors by first name, then last name.
Johnson, Travis, and Xavier Z. Smith. "Economic Downturn in Africa." Economics Quarterly 4 (2008): 41321.
E) MULTIPLE WORKS, SAME AUTHOR. After listing the first source with the author's full name, subsequent sources from the same author don't require the author's name. Instead, substitute three hyphens.
Johnson, Travis. "Africa's Economic Future." Economics Quarterly 2 (2008): 200-3. ---. "African Economic Viability." ew York Financial ewspaper 13 Jun. 2008: B3. Print.
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F) MULTIPLE WORKS, MULTIPLE AUTHORS. If the same author is involved in multiple sources, but some of those sources include multiple authors, you will have to list the full name in every source. If you have multiple works from the same group of authors, however, you can substitute the three hyphens for listings beyond the first listing. In this example, Johnson and Smith combined to write the second and third entries, meaning the three hyphens are appropriate for the third entry.
Johnson, Travis. "Africa's Economic Future." Economics Quarterly 2 (2008): 200-3. Johnson, Travis, and Smith, Xavier Z. "Economic Downturn in Africa." Economics Quarterly 4 (2008): 41321. ---. " urturing a Fledgling Economy." ew York Financial ewspaper 19 Jan. 2008: B1. Print.
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G) A O YMOUS AUTHOR. If you don't know the author, just skip that part of the listing and begin with the title.
"Economic Growth on the African Continent." Editorial. ew York Financial ewspaper 4 Feb. 2008: B7.
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What Pages Do I Need With My MLA Style Paper?
Unlike some other formal styles for writing scholarly papers, MLA Style does not specify a large number of specific pages that you must include in your paper. APA Style, for example, requires a title page, an abstract page, and a table of contents, among several other types of optional pages. MLA Style, however, does not even require a title page. I will discuss optional pages you can use in your MLA Style paper in this article, along with some methods you can use to format your paper in MLA Style. 1) TITLE PAGE. MLA Style makes a title page an optional choice for the writer. If you decide to use a title page, center the text. The title page may contain the title, author's name, mailing address, e-mail address, and contact telephone numbers. Some instructors will require you to include the name of the faculty advisor, the date of submission, and the members of the committee that will accept the work. With MLA Style, a separate title page is not numbered. If you're writing an extremely formal paper, such as a thesis or dissertation, you almost certainly should include a separate title page, unless your instructor specifies differently. If you include the title on the first page of the main text, you should number it, but this format is limited to a less formal paper. 2) APPROVAL PAGE. The approval page, which contains all signatures of approval from members of the thesis approval committee, is optional.
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3) ABSTRACT PAGE. The abstract page, which is a short summary of the purpose of the paper, is optional. 4) BIOGRAPHY PAGE. The biography page, which provides a short description of the author and his or her accomplishments, is optional. 5) DEDICATIO PAGE. The dedication page, which allows the author to dedicate the thesis to a person or multiple people who helped with the paper, is optional. 6) EPIGRAPH PAGE. The epigraph page, which may contain a poem or quotation, is optional. 7) TABLE OF CO TE TS PAGE. If the paper is long enough to have sections, you may include a table of contents page. 8) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIO S A D TABLES. This page, if applicable, lists all of the illustrations and tables you used in the paper, sorted by the pages on which they appear. 9) PREFACE. The preface, which is an optional page, may introduce the paper by discussing a related idea that doesn't quite fit within the parameters of the main text. 10) MAI TEXT. With the main text, simply select a readable font, usually Times New Roman at 12 points. Double space throughout the main text, and indent all paragraphs by one-half inch.
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MLA Style does not require headings, chapters, or any other method for breaking up the main text. MLA Style also does not prohibit any methods for breaking up the text, however. If your instructor doesn't specify a method for breaking up the text, you can use a few different optional methods. If you choose to use chapters, you can use the following methods for breaking up the text within the chapters. You can use an extra blank line to separate ideas. Just hit the Enter key an additional time after completing a paragraph. Keep in mind, though, that this method might be ineffective if the blank line occurs at the end of a printed page. Some writers combat this problem by typing three asterisks, centered on the page, in place of the blank line. Others actually type "[blank line]" flush left in place of the blank line. You may use headings to break up the text and organize similar ideas. MLA Style prefers using an Arabic number with each heading. You also should type each heading flush left with no extra blank lines before or after the heading. For example: 1. Economic Growth 2006 2. Economic Growth 2007 3. Economic Growth 2008 Finally, you may simply use an Arabic number to signify related ideas in the text. Just type "1" centered on a blank line before the first idea, "2" centered before the second idea, and so on.
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11) E D OTES. If you choose to list endnotes, you need to use a separate page immediately following the main text. An endnotes page is optional in MLA Style. 12) WORKS CITED. The Works Cited page in MLA Style is a list of all sources you referenced in the main text. The listing of all sources requires you to follow a specific set of rules. 13) GLOSSARY. The glossary page, which is a list of all confusing and unusual terms used in the text, along with definitions, is optional. 14) I DEX. If you choose to include an optional index page, it will list the various proper nouns and ideas that you've included throughout the main text, listed alphabetically and linked to the page numbers on which the items appear.
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How to Format a Paper in MLA Style
When formatting your paper in MLA Style, you'll need to follow a series of rules that outline all aspects of the creation of the paper. Most people think of MLA Style when trying to determine how to cite sources used as references in the paper. However, MLA Style includes rules for many aspects of formatting the paper beyond citing sources. Here are 15 formatting tips you should follow when creating your MLA paper. ALIG ME T. Align the text flush left. If your word processor, such as MS-Word, has a "full justify" setting, which spreads the text and aligns it both left and right, do not use it. Leave the text ragged on the right side. BI DI G. MLA Style calls for binding the pages with a simple paper clip or spring clip. Do not use a staple or other permanent binding system, unless your instructor requests it. E D OTES A D FOOT OTES. You may use endnotes or footnotes with MLA Style, but they should only be used to further explain a term or a complex idea, beyond what you're able to include in the main text. Endnotes and footnotes should not be used to cite sources. Save those for the "Works Cited" page. FO T. MLA Style calls for a 12-point font size, along with an easily readable font, such as Times New Roman.
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HEADI GS. In MLA Style, headings and subheads that break up the text are optional. Check with your instructor before using them. I DE TIO S. You'll need to indent the first line of any paragraph by onehalf inch from the left margin. If you aren't using word processing software, indent by five spaces. ITALICS. You should use italics for titles of longer works. MLA Style also allows use of italics within the body of the text for emphasis of a particular word or phrase, but use such items sparingly. MARGI S. All four sides of the MLA paper -- top, bottom, right, and left - require a margin of 1 inch. The only items that should appear outside the margins are the page numbers. PAGE UMBERI G. Place the page number in the upper right corner of every page. Use Arabic numerals for the page numbers. The page number should appear one-half inch from the top of the paper and even with the right margin (1 inch from the edge of the paper). If you choose to use an optional title page, you should not number it. If you choose not to create a separate title page, instead including the title and other relevant information on the first page of the main text, you must use "1" as the number of that page. PAPER TYPE. Use standard, 20-pound white paper that measures 8.5-by11 inches. PU CTUATIO . Follow all standard punctuation marks with just one space, including colons, commas, periods, and semicolons. Some instructors still prefer the old rule of using two spaces after periods that end sentences.
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MLA Style does allow some flexibility in punctuation when the instructor requests a change from the standard MLA Style. QUOTATIO BLOCKS. Whenever using a quotation that will be longer than four typed lines, set the entire quotation block apart by indenting it from the left margin 1 inch (or 10 spaces). Double-space within the quotation block. You do not need to use quotation marks with a quotation block. SPACI G. You'll need to double-space all of the text within the paper, except in rare special circumstances as directed by your instructor. All quotations, notes, and lists of works cited should be double-spaced. TITLE. MLA Style doesn't require a separate title page. You can include the information used for the title on the first page of the paper, and begin the paper's main text on the same page. All text should be double-spaced on the first page. You can place the page number in the upper right corner. In the upper left corner, flush left and beginning at the margins, include your name, the instructor's name, the course, and the date. Then center the text for the title, mixing uppercase and lowercase letters. If you choose to skip the separate title page, you can begin the main text immediately after the title text. U DERLI I G. With the third edition of the MLA Style Manual, the new guidelines have eliminated the use of underlining. Now italicize all published works, rather than using underlining.
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The Differences Between MLA Style and Chicago Style
You can choose from several writing and formatting styles when you write your dissertation or thesis, including MLA Style and Chicago Style, also called Turabian Style. Actually, you might not have the opportunity to choose the formatting style for your paper: Your instructor might choose for you. If your professor wants you to choose the style for your paper, you will want to follow a few guidelines. Most formal writing formats are similar, but you will notice many slight differences between styles. It's important to take some time to make sure you select the style that will best fit your paper's subject matter. Here are some of the differences between MLA Style and Chicago (Turabian) Style. I. SELECTI G A STYLE 1) MLA STYLE. Primarily, the Modern Language Association (MLA) designed MLA Style for subjects related to the humanities and liberal arts, such as literature, mass communications, and media studies. The MLA oversees the development of MLA Style, and you can visit the organization's website on the Internet for more information. For undergraduate students, use the "MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers" (sometimes shortened to MLA Handbook) as the guide to
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following MLA Style. For graduate students and professionals, use the "MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing" (sometimes shortened to MLA Style Manual) to find official rules and guidelines for MLA Style. Keep in mind that the latest version of the MLA Style Manual, the third version, was recently released. 2) CHICAGO (TURABIA ) STYLE. For the most part, Chicago (Turabian) Style is designed to be a general style that works well for all types of college students in all types of subjects. The University of Chicago Press has created the "Chicago Manual of Style," which provides guidelines for citing sources and formatting papers. The 15th edition is the latest edition. Kate Turabian, the dissertation secretary at the University of Chicago for 30-plus years, created "A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations," to give students and researchers additional guidelines. The sixth edition is the latest edition. The two styles are nearly identical, with only a few differences, and they're often combined to represent one style, as we've done here. Non-scholarly publications also will make use of Chicago (Turabian) Style in magazines and newspapers. If MLA Style just doesn't seem as though it will work for the subject matter in your paper, you can make use of Chicago (Turabian) Style as a fallback. (Keep in mind that APA Style is available, too, and it's primarily aimed at subjects related to psychology and social sciences.) II. THE DIFFERE CES If you still are unsure which style to use with your paper, one of the biggest differences between MLA Style and Chicago (Turabian) Style involves in-
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text citations. Chicago (Turabian) allows for footnotes and endnotes to cite sources, while MLA does not. With both styles, enclose the last name of the primary author in parentheses in any in-text citation. That's where the similarities stop, though. With MLA Style, you include the page number of the information you cited along with the name of the author, but you do not include the year of publication. Then include the full source citation in the Works Cited list at the end of the paper.
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Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Johnson 16).
With Chicago (Turabian) Style, you have two options. You can include an in-text citation inside parentheses that includes the name of author, along with the year of publication and the page numbers from which you took this particular quote or idea. With this option, you must include a full bibliography at the end of the paper.
Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Johnson 2007, 16).
You also can use full footnotes or endnotes within the text, thereby skipping the bibliography at the end. Both styles require superscript numbers within the text. Chicago Style (first example) does not require superscript numbers with the note, but Turabian Style does (second example).
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Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth.1 1. Thomas Johnson ...
1
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Thomas Johnson ...
Keep in mind that the in-text citations only serve to give readers a chance to find the complete information about the source in the Works Cited (MLA Style) or bibliography (Chicago and Turabian Styles) at the end of the paper. You'll also find some differences in the formatting of each footnote, endnote, or bibliography entry in Chicago (Turabian) Style versus the Works Cited page in MLA Style. However, those subtle differences are too numerous to list here. Refer to the books listed above to find specific rules for citing sources in a bibliography or Works Cited list.
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Section 3:
C h i c a g o S ty l e
( T u r a b ia n Sty l e )
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How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in Chicago Chicago (Turabian) Style
Although college students can use several formatting styles to create a thesis or dissertation, there's one style that works in almost every circumstance: Chicago Style (also sometimes called Chicago Turabian Style). For a general-assignment paper, Chicago Style works extremely well. Although Chicago Style will work for a thesis or dissertation as well, your instructor might want you to use another, more formal style that's designed specifically for a thesis in a certain area of study. MLA Style, for example, works well with areas of study in liberal arts, and APA Style works well with psychological areas of study. Think of Chicago (Turabian) Style as a flexible option for creating a thesis or dissertation that doesn't quite fit some of the other style options. Chicago Style requires following several rules for formatting the paper and for listing the sources you used to create the paper. As you look the rules and the large books devoted to Chicago Style, you might be intimidated. After all, if the book describing how to follow Chicago (Turabian) Style is 900 or more pages, how difficult is it for you to learn enough rules to formulate a decent paper? It's not as difficult as it seems. Following Chicago Style requires learning a few basic, common sense rules, and then applying slight variations of those rules throughout your paper.
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I. THE ORIGI ATIO OF CHICAGO STYLE The University of Chicago Press oversees the guidelines and rules for Chicago (Turabian) Style. The main publication devoted to Chicago Style is "The Chicago Manual of Style," which sometimes is abbreviated to CMS or CMOS. The University of Chicago Press created the first Chicago Style Manual in 1906, and the 15th edition appeared in 2003. The Chicago Style Manual provides advice and guidelines for all aspects of writing; it is not limited to creating formal papers. You'll find tips and rules on grammar, correct usage of abbreviations, and proper punctuation in the Chicago Style Manual. Beyond the printed edition of the Chicago Style Manual, you can visit chicagomanualofstyle(dot)org on the Internet for more information, including a "Quick Guide" to Chicago (Turabian) Style. The Chicago Style Manual is available at the Web site for $55 in a print version and $60 in an electronic version. You also can access the entire Chicago Style Manual through the Web site with an annual $30 subscription fee. As part of the Chicago Style is "A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations," written by Kate L. Turabian. Turabian served as the dissertation secretary at the University of Chicago for almost 30 years, and she created the Turabian Manual as a complement to the Chicago Style Manual. The Turabian Manual was designed to give students a list of rules and guidelines to follow for various writing projects. The first Turabian Manual was a pamphlet Turabian created in the 1930s describing the correct style for formatting a dissertation. The Turabian manual is now in its sixth edition, which was printed in 1996. Turabian died in 1987.
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Turabian Style and Chicago Style are almost identical, which is why they're often referred to in combination. Turabian Style allows for use of footnotes for citing sources, which separates it from many styles of writing formal papers. Papers that use Chicago (Turabian) Style typically are less formal papers not designed for publication. However, Chicago (Turabian) Style is flexible enough to work with almost any type of paper, including a thesis or dissertation. II. HOW TO START YOUR CHICAGO (TURABIA ) STYLE PAPER With any formal paper, including a Chicago Style paper, research is the key to create a strong paper. While performing research, track your sources. With every quotation or idea that you use from a source, you must tell your readers about the source. The type of information you'll need from a source varies, depending on the publication, but most citations of sources require at least the author's name, article title, publication name, publication date, and pages that generated the idea or quotation. When it's time to write your paper, using a computer with word processing software (such as Microsoft Word or WordPerfect) works well for following the formatting requirements for Chicago (Turabian) Style. For more in-depth items that I did not cover here, you may want to access one of the many books or Internet sites devoted to Chicago (Turabian) Style.
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How to Format a Paper in Chicago (Turabian) Style
The basic guidelines for creating a thesis, dissertation or formal paper using Chicago (Turabian) Style are straightforward. Most of them use common sense rules and formatting options. Use some of the guidelines listed here to format your thesis or dissertation using Chicago (Turabian) Style. A) ABBREVIATIO S. Abbreviations appear more regularly in formal papers now versus a few decades ago. If you choose to use abbreviations, stick with common ones. However, do not use abbreviations for expressions of dimensions, such as "miles." When using abbreviations that contain two periods, such as "U.S.", do not add a space after the first period. B) ALIG ME T. Chicago (Turabian) Style requires left justification of all text (minus indentions), but it allows for either ragged right or full justification of text. If you choose full justification, Chicago (Turabian) Style requires you to ensure that the spacing between words is minimal and that hyphens used to break words at the end of a line are used correctly and sparingly. Your word processing software should enable you to follow these two rules for full justification, unless you have numerous extremely large words in your paper. C) CAPITALIZATIO . Beyond typical sentences, Chicago (Turabian) Style allows for two types of capitalization. Headline-style capitalization calls for capitalizing all words, other than articles, certain prepositions, and conjunctions. Sentence-style capitalization calls for capitalizing only the first word, a word after a colon, and proper nouns.
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D) CORRECTI G FLUID. You may use a white correcting fluid to cover black specks and stray spots on the final paper. E) DATE. Chicago (Turabian) Style allows for two date formats: 31 March 2008 (day month year) or March 31, 2008 (month day, year). Just be certain that you select one format and stick with it throughout your paper. F) FO T. If using a word processor, stick with a serif font, such as Times New Roman. Use text in a 10- or 12-point size. A computer-generated font is preferred to a typewriter because the computer can create italicized text more easily than a typewriter. G) HYPHE ATIO . With Chicago (Turabian) Style, you may break words with a hyphen at the end of a line in your main text, but you should not hyphenate words at the end of two consecutive lines. H) I DE TIO S. Indent paragraphs within the main text of the paper onehalf inch or five to eight spaces. Chicago (Turabian) Style does not require a specific indention measurement, but it does require that writers use the same amount of indention throughout the paper. I) MARGI S. For all four sides of the paper, use a 1-inch margin. However, if the paper will be bound on the left, a wider margin is allowed on the left side. J) UMBERS. Spell out and use words for all numbers through 100 in Chicago (Turabian) Style. For numbers larger than 100, use numerals. Exceptions include: Spell out all numbers that start a sentence, use numerals
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for all percentages and decimal numbers, and use numerals for all numbers within a series of amounts. K) PAGE UMBERI G. Number almost every page in the paper with Arabic numerals, other than the pages that lead into the main text, such as the copyright, dedication, and table of contents pages. All of these pages, which Chicago (Turabian) Style calls "display" pages, should be numbered with lowercase roman numerals. Do not number the title page, but count the title page among the display pages. The next page should be blank or the copyright page, and it is not numbered, either. The page following the blank/copyright page should be numbered "iii" in roman numerals, centered at the bottom of the page. At the beginning of the main text, switch from roman numerals to Arabic numbers and place the number "1" in the upperright corner of the page. If, however, a page contains a chapter heading or another type of main heading, you can center the Arabic numeral at the bottom of the page. Number all blank pages and any other pages; the pagination should run consecutively. Place all page numbers at least threequarters of an inch from the edge of the paper.
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L) PAPER TYPE. Use standard white, 20-pound bond paper that measures 8.5-by-11 inches. If using a computer, use an inkjet or laser printer to print the paper. M) SPACI G. Use double-spacing throughout the paper's main text. However, block quotation, endnotes, footnotes, headings, and captions may be single-spaced, according to Chicago (Turabian) Style. ) TITLE. Center all text on the title page, both horizontally and vertically. All text should be uppercase and double-spaced, too.
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What Pages Do I Need With My Chicago (Turabian) Style Paper?
If you are writing a thesis or dissertation or any formal paper using Chicago (Turabian) Style, you have several options for deciding which pages to include in your paper. Some pages are required, while others are optional for your thesis or dissertation. I have listed the page descriptions (below) in the order in which they should appear in your Chicago (Turabian) Style paper. Always start each of these sections on a new page. Most of them will only require one page. A) TITLE. On the title page, which is required, all text must be doublespaced using uppercase characters. Center the text both horizontally and vertically. Begin with the name of the educational institution, followed by the title. Next, list the committee to which you're submitting the dissertation or thesis, along with the department or college for which you're submitting it. Then include the word "BY" on a separate line, followed by the author's name. Finally, place the city and state where you wrote the paper, along with the month and year of graduation. Place extra horizontal lines between each section on the title page, allowing you to center it vertically on the paper. Keep in mind that the title page is the first of the "display" pages in Chicago (Turabian) Style, but you do not number it. B) COPYRIGHT PAGE OR BLA K PAGE. This page is immediately after the title page, and you need to either include a copyright notice or leave the page blank. The blank (or mostly blank) page prevents characters on the first main text page from bleeding through the title page. For the copyright,
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near the bottom of the page, type "Copyright," the copyright symbol, the year the paper was written, and the name of the author. On the next line, indent and type, "All rights reserved" with no punctuation marks. Do not number this page, either, but you do count it in your pagination. The next display page will be "iii" in roman numerals. C) DEDICATIO . A dedication page is an optional page. Simply type "To" followed by the name of the person(s) to which you want to dedicate the paper. D) EPIGRAPH PAGE. The epigraph page, which may contain a poem or quotation, is optional. E) TABLE OF CO TE TS. The table of contents is an optional page, and it should be numbered as part of the display pages. It is an organized listing of the contents of the paper, providing page numbers to the various sections and headings in the paper. The reader can use the table of contents to jump to a particular section of the paper. When listing chapter headings in the table of contents, make sure they exactly match the chapter headings in the text. Use a leader to connect the chapter heading or section name (aligned on the left) with the page number (aligned on the right). Type "CONTENTS" or "TABLE OF CONTENTS" centered at the top of the page. F) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIO S A D LIST OF TABLES. These optional pages are part of the display pages, and you should only use them if you have illustrations and tables in your paper. List each illustration or table with the appropriate title and page number, connected by a leader. Right-align the page number and left-align the title of each table or figure.
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G) PREFACE. The preface is another optional display page. The author can list the motivation for the project and acknowledgements. H) LIST OF ABBREVIATIO S OR GLOSSARY. If you have a lot of odd abbreviations or terms in your paper, you can list them on one of these optional pages. I) ABSTRACT. Use an abstract page to briefly summarize the contents of the thesis or dissertation. It's an optional display page. J) MAI TEXT. Begin numbering the main text with Arabic numerals, and you should no longer use the lowercase roman numerals from the display pages. Each Arabic page number should appear in the upper right corner of each page. If you have a chapter heading or another type of main heading at the top of a page, you may center the page number at the bottom of the page. K) APPE DIX. Use the optional appendix page(s) for material that doesn't quite fit into the main text, such as complex tables or technical notes. You may have more than one appendix. Each appendix should deal with a different idea or topic. Number them either with letters or numbers, such as "Appendix A" and "B" and "C," for example. L) BIBLIOGRAPHY OR REFERE CE LIST. Include your bibliography after the final main text page or appendix page on a new page. The reference list page should include all works that you’ve cited in your paper, listed alphabetically. (We’ll discuss citing references in another article.) Make sure you continue the Arabic page numbering throughout the bibliography pages.
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How to Cite Sources Inside the Text in Chicago (Turabian) Style
Any time you write a formal paper, such as a thesis or dissertation, it's important that you properly cite any sources that you use. Any time you use an idea that was introduced in another place -- whether it's a book, a Web site, or another scholarly paper -- you must give credit to the original author, by citing the source. If you use a quotation from another source, you also must list the source in your paper. It's important to list the sources you use so whoever reads your paper can find more information, should they need it. A comprehensive source list also shows your instructor and other readers that you've performed the necessary research to develop the position you've taken in the paper. Citing sources in Chicago (Turabian) Style requires two processes. One citation is required at the position in the main text where the cited material appears, where you have three options: 1) In-text citations, 2) footnotes, or 3) endnotes. The other citation occurs at the end of the paper, in a list of all cited works, called a reference list or a bibliography. If you use endnotes, the bibliography is not required, although most formal pages include one. In this article, we'll focus on in-text citations, which Chicago (Turabian) Style sometimes calls parenthetical references, within the main text of the paper. Other articles in this series will handle the other types of references.
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I) AUTHOR-DATE You can use a couple of different types of parenthetical references within the text, depending on the structure of the sentence, as shown in these examples. AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE A). Include the name of the author within the sentence, followed by the year of publication inside parentheses.
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The Jones study (2003) indicates that technological advancements spur economic growth.
AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE B). You can place the name of the authors inside the parentheses with the year of publication, depending on your sentence structure. Use no punctuation within the parentheses.
Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth (Jones 2003).
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AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE C). If you don't have a date of publication, use "n.d." in place of the date.
Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth (Jones n.d.).
AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE D). With multiple authors, use commas and the word "and" inside the parentheses. If the cited work has more than three authors, use "et al." after the primary author.
Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth (Jones, Johnson, and Smith 2003). Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth (Jones et al. 2003).
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AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE E). If you have multiple sources from the same author or sources from multiple authors with the same last name, you'll have to list part of the title of the work or the organization of the author along with the author. You also can add "a" and "b" to the year of publication, should you have two sources from the same author published in the same year.
Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth (Jones Economic Growth Study, 2003). Other economic studies show that investing in technological research will benefit the economy, too (Jones Technology and the Economy, 2003).
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AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE F). If you need to cite a source with no author, list a shortened version of the title or the organization that created the source. Use the same formatting as with the author.
Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth (State University 2003).
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II. FOOT OTES OR E D OTES If you decide to use footnotes or endnotes instead of the author-date style, you'll need to use numbers within the main text to link the material you want to source with the footnote or endnote. Use an Arabic number with each source, either in superscript, in parentheses, or in brackets. Use the Arabic numbers in sequential order.
Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth. [1] Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth. (1) Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth.1
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List each footnote at the bottom of the page where the source is cited. Separate the main text from the footnote(s) with a vertical line, called a separator. Endnotes go at the end of all of the pages of the main text. Indent each footnote or endnote and use single-spacing, with a blank space between each footnote or endnote. After listing the source once in an endnote or footnote, you can use an abbreviated version of the author's name and title of the work upon subsequent listings. Use a superscript number or a number with a period to introduce the footnote.
1. Jones, Xavier. ...
1
Jones, Xavier. ...
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How to Create a Bibliography in Chicago (Turabian) Style
With Chicago (Turabian) Style, the bibliography page is where you list all of the sources you used to create your paper. You need to follow a variety of formatting rules when listing the sources. The type of source that you're listing determines the formatting configuration that you'll use, but there are a few formatting rules that work for every listing. A) ALPHABETIZI G. When creating the alphabetical list of the bibliography, sort the list of sources based on the last name of the author. When sorting the list, ignore any spaces in the last name. If you have more than one source from an author, sort them by either the dates in which they were created or by placing the titles of the sources in alphabetical order. Just be certain that once you've chosen a sorting preference for multiple sources from one author, you stick with it. B) AUTHORS. List the author's last name, followed by the first name and middle name, if the author commonly uses it. If you have more than one author for a source, list each one individually. The first author should be listed by last name, then first name. Subsequent authors should be listed by first name, then last name. When listing more than one author, separate them by commas, with the word “and” ahead of the final author in the list. C) CAPITALIZATIO . Use headline-style capitalization with all titles in your bibliography.
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D) I DE TIO . After the first line of each source, indent each subsequent line about one-half inch, creating a hanging indention for each source. E) SPACI G. You may single-space each entry in the bibliography, leaving a blank space between entries. I. BIBLIOGRAPHY EXAMPLES Here are some examples for listing various sources in Chicago (Turabian) Style. (These examples do not follow the indention rules.) ARTICLES. When using a newspaper or a magazine as a source, list the author, title of the article (in quotations), name of the periodical (in italics), date of publication, and page numbers used.
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Johnson, Thomas J. "Governments Invest in Technology." ew York Times, 29 ovember 2007, B1.
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A journal article requires slightly different formatting. Be sure to include the issue number and the issue date ahead of the page number(s).
Johnson, Thomas J. "The Economic Impact of Technology." Journal of Economic Growth 6 (June 2005): 110-2.
BOOKS. Include the author's name, the book title (italicized), the publisher's location and name, and the date of publication. Do not use the page numbers used as a source in the bibliography.
Johnson, Thomas J. and Xavier Quincy Smith. Economic Growth in Africa. ew York: Jones Brothers Publishers, 2003.
GOVER ME T DOCUME T. Because such a document usually doesn't include an author, list the governmental division in the alphabetical list and italicize the title.
U.S. Department of the Treasury. Economic Growth Forecast, 2006-2010. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 2005.
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I TER ET SITE. List the author's name, if known; title of the online article or Web page (in quotations); Web site name; date of publication, if known; Internet address; and date of retrieval (in parentheses).
Johnson, Thomas J. "Determining Technology's Role in Economic Growth." Economic Growth, August 20, 2006, http://www.economicgrowth.com/johnson/techrole.html (accessed July 20, 2007).
SCHOLARLY WORK. If using a thesis or dissertation as a source, list the author's name, the title (in quotations), the type of paper, the educational institution, and the year of publication.
Jones, Steven. "Hydrogen Bonding and Water Molecules." Ph.D. diss., State University, 2000.
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II. ODD SITUATIO S Same author, multiple sources. If you end up with several sources from the same author, you may skip repeating the author's name. Instead, use a solid horizontal line to replace the author's name. The horizontal line should be noticeably longer than the hanging indention of the source, probably threequarters inch to one inch in length. If you have an additional source that lists multiple authors, you will have to enter the original author's name again. The only time you may use the horizontal line is when all of the authors are the same as the previous work in the list. In the four examples below, the first two have the same single author, and the last two have the same pair of authors.
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Johnson, Thomas J. "Governments Invest in Technology." ew York Times, 29 ovember 2007, B1. _________. "The Economic Impact of Technology." Journal of Economic Growth 6 (June 2005): 110-2. Johnson, Thomas J. and Xavier Quincy Smith. Economic Growth in Africa. ew York: Jones Brothers Publishers, 2003. _________. Economic Decline in Africa. ew York: Jones Brothers Publishers, 2006.
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III. ADDITIO AL I FORMATIO . Finally, for additional information on formatting sources in a reference list, look at either The Chicago Manual of Style or Turabian's A Manual for Writers. Both books cover a large number of situations for listing sources within a bibliography. The chicagomanualofstyle(dot)org Web site also has a large number of helpful resources.
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How to Create Headings and Endnotes in Chicago (Turabian) Style
Chicago (Turabian) Style provides the writer with a few different options for breaking up the blocks of text in the main text area of the thesis or dissertation. You may use headings or chapters, depending on the type of paper you're creating and on how you need to organize the information. I) HEADI GS You may use headings to better organize your Chicago (Turabian) Style paper. The organization of headings is a little bit like an outline, with varying levels of headings and subheadings that aid in organization. You don't number each heading in Chicago (Turabian) Style as you do with an outline, but you can use up to five different levels of headings and subheadings with Chicago (Turabian) Style. The headings formatting requirements include: FIRST LEVEL. The first level headings should be centered above their associated text blocks. Use headline-style capitalization, and you may use either bold, italics, or underline characters. SECO D LEVEL. Type the second level heading centered in headlinestyle capitalization in standard text. Do not use any italics, bold, or underline characters.
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THIRD LEVEL. The third level heading is left-aligned, using headlinestyle capitalization. You may use bold, italics, or underline characters with the third-level heading. FOURTH LEVEL. For the fourth level of heading, switch to sentence-style capitalization. Left-align the text, and do not use any bold, italics, or underline characters. FIFTH LEVEL. With the fifth level of heading, you will indent the heading, using it like a lead-in sentence to a paragraph, complete with a period at the end of the heading. The fifth-level heading should consist of italics, bold, or underline characters. Use sentence-style capitalization with the fifth-level heading.
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An example of the formatting for all five levels of headings looks this way.
First Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Second Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Third Level of Heading (left-align) Main text continues as normal (indented). Fourth level of heading (left-align) Main text continues as normal (indented). Fifth level of heading. (indented) Main text follows immediately ...
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With the first four levels of headings, you should leave a blank line before and after the heading to give it more emphasis. If you use fewer than five levels of headings, you may select any of the heading levels to use, as long as you remain true to the order of the headings. For example, you may use the first and third heading levels, in that order, when you have a two-heading configuration. You may use the second, third, and fifth heading levels, in that order, when you have a three-heading configuration. However, you may not use the fourth, first, and fifth heading levels, in that order, for a threeheading configuration. Three final rules regarding headings: First, if you are centering the heading and it is more than 48 characters, then you should split the heading into two or more separate lines. The lines should be single-spaced. List them in an inverted pyramid, as shown below. Investments in Technology in Africa Will Spur Economic Growth Second, the left-aligned headings should be divided into multiple lines, if the heading will occupy a line stretching across more than half the page. Singlespace all of these lines, and try to divide them evenly. Investments in Technology on African Continent Will Spur Unprecedented Economic Growth Third, never end a page with a subhead; carry it over to the next page.
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II) CHAPTERS If you have a thesis or dissertation that makes use of numerous different ideas and is long enough to need a more complex organizational structure, Chicago (Turabian) Style allows for the use of chapters. Begin each chapter on a new page. Chapter titles typically are listed in two pieces: The word "CHAPTER" and the number of the chapter as one piece, followed by a more descriptive title of a few words, which gives the reader an idea of the broad topic that will be discussed in the chapter. CHAPTER O E ECO OMIC FORECASTS I AFRICA
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When creating chapters, you can omit the "CHAPTER" and simply list the number designation. Always list chapters in numerical order and do not skip numbers. You also may select one of three ways to list the chapter numbers: Spell out the word representing the number, use an Arabic numeral, or use a roman numeral. SEVE CHAPTER SEVE CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER VII Rather than using headings to discuss subtopics within a chapter, you may divide chapters into parts. Each part should only contain the word "PART" and the number of the part. As with chapters, always list parts in numerical order and do not skip numbers. If you used Arabic numerals for numbering each chapter, you should use roman numerals for each part, and vice versa, as shown below. CHAPTER I PART 1 PART 2 CHAPTER II
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The Differences Between Chicago (Turabian) Style and APA Style of Writing
A formal paper, such as a dissertation or a thesis, requires you to follow several formatting rules. The rules provide a structure for the paper, giving instructors the ability to work through the paper's ideas and to judge the validity of your arguments. Such rules also give you a standard, acceptable method for citing the sources that you've used to create your paper, and thereby avoiding inadvertently plagiarizing some material. Determining which set of formatting rules, or styles, to follow is a decision you and your instructor will need to make. A few different popular formats exist, including MLA Style, chiefly used for the humanities and liberal arts, along with APA Style and Chicago (Turabian) Style. Generally, you select the style to follow based on the subject matter of the paper you’re writing. Each style treats the formatting of the paper a little differently to meet the citation needs for the subject matter. In this article, we'll compare APA Style and Chicago (Turabian) Style. I. CHOOSI G YOUR STYLE If your instructor doesn't select the style that you’ll use for your paper, pick a style based on these suggestions. CHICAGO (TURABIAN) STYLE. For the most part, Chicago (Turabian) Style works well as an all-encompassing style for all types of subject matter. The University of Chicago Press has created The Chicago Manual of Style,
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which provides the guidelines for citing sources and formatting papers. The 15th edition is the latest edition. Visit chicagomanualofstyle.org on the Web for more information. Kate Turabian, the dissertation secretary at the University of Chicago for 30 years, created A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, giving students and researchers additional guidelines. The sixth edition is the latest edition. The two styles are nearly identical, with only a few differences, and they're often combined to represent one style, as we've done here. Non-scholarly publications also will make use of Chicago (Turabian) Style in magazines and newspapers. APA STYLE. Subjects related to the social sciences, such as business, criminal justice, economics, law, and medical subjects, including nursing and psychology, work best with APA Style. The American Psychological Association created the APA Style, and you can visit apastyle.org on the Internet to find more information on APA Style. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the full listing of APA Style guidelines and formatting rules. II. THE DIFFERE CES Quite a few formatting differences exist between Chicago (Turabian) Style and APA Style, including those listed here. Choose the style that will allow you to format your paper and deliver the information to your readers in the most efficient manner. I -TEXT CITATIO S. Most of the differences between Chicago (Turabian) and APA Styles involve in-text citations. Both styles include the last name of the author and a page number in parentheses for the in-text
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citation. APA Style also includes the year of publication of the source, but Chicago (Turabian) Style does not.
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Chicago (Turabian) Style also allows the use of footnotes, rather than in-text citations, to cite your sources. With a footnote, you link the material that needs to be sourced with the source information, usually through superscript Arabic numerals. A footnote lists far more information about each source than does an in-text citation. Footnotes appear only on the page that contains the information that you need to cite. When using footnotes, you don't necessarily have to include a bibliography, although most people use both. An in-text citation, meanwhile, provides only a little basic information about the source. Readers use the in-text citation to find the full source information in the bibliography or reference list. With Chicago (Turabian) Style, you may use either footnotes or in-text citations. APA Style only allows in-text citations. PAGE UMBERS. With both styles, the page number appears in the upper right corner of each page. With APA Style, you must include a running title to the left of the page number on each page. A running title is a two- or three-word summary of the title of your paper. With Chicago (Turabian) Style, you only list the page number. If a chapter heading appears on the page in Chicago (Turabian) Style, you should list the page number along the bottom of the page, instead of in the upper right corner. REFERE CE LIST FORMATTI G. With both styles, when listing each of your sources on the reference list page or in a bibliography, use the full last name of the author(s) in each entry. In APA Style, you also list only the
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initials of the first and middle name of each author. In Chicago (Turabian) Style, you spell out the entire first and middle name of each author. (The middle name information is optional.)
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Writing Advice for Chicago (Turabian) Style
If you follow information and instructions from publications and Internet resources devoted to Chicago (Turabian) Style, then writing a formal paper isn't as difficult as it sounds. Following all the rules can be tricky, but it's not impossible. Follow the tips listed here, and your Chicago (Turabian) Style thesis or dissertation will be a success. A) BIBLIOGRAPHY. As you perform the research for your paper, keep the bibliography in the back of your mind. For every idea or quote you use from one of your sources, you will have to cite the idea in the paper and list the source in the bibliography. Even if you choose to use footnotes with your Chicago (Turabian) Style paper, you probably will want to create a bibliography. When you pull information from sources, make sure you collect extensive information about each source for the bibliography. Having a comprehensive list will help if you need to revisit a source to find more information for your paper. B) CITATIO S CHECKED A D RE-CHECKED. Be sure you have properly listed all of the citations in your paper, whether you chose to use intext citations, footnotes, or endnotes. Although formatting every citation correctly can be difficult, it helps your instructor when he reads your paper. In addition, other readers must be able to find each citation in the bibliography, so it's important to cite everything correctly. Make sure you spell all authors' names correctly, too. Citing sources properly will ensure you don't inadvertently commit plagiarism. If you're unsure whether to use an in-text citation for a source, you probably should use it. It's better to be safe than sorry when citing sources.
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C) EXTER AL SOURCES. If you are unsure about the formatting style for a particular page in your paper or for citing a source, turn to either the Chicago Style Manual or the Turabian Manual for Writers. Both books have hundreds of examples for formatting formal papers. Keep in mind, however, that neither book has been updated in recent years. The latest version of the Chicago Style Manual, the 15th edition, was published in 2003. The Turabian Manual's sixth edition was published in 1996, meaning it doesn't contain much information on citing Internet sources, for example. D) FOLLOW YOUR I STRUCTOR'S I STRUCTIO S. You may have an instructor who gives you directions for composing the thesis or dissertation that differ slightly from those in Chicago (Turabian) Style. Follow your instructor's guidelines in those instances. Chicago (Turabian) Style contains many optional pages and areas where the writer has some latitude to make changes. If you are unsure how you should handle a particular aspect of your paper's formatting, check with your instructor. E) GRAMMAR GUIDELI ES. Papers that follow proper grammar are more likely to receive favorable marks from an instructor. For example, always write in active voice, rather than passive voice. The Chicago Style Manual contains quite a few grammar-related resources. F) PROOFREAD A FEW TIMES. Proofreading should not be done as a last-minute item; you should proofread a few times before you finish the paper. In fact, it's best to set the paper aside for a couple of days between proofreading sessions. If you can take a break from the paper for a couple of days, you'll be surprised how much better your proofreading sessions go with a fresh look at the paper. Depending on the importance of the paper, you may want to hire someone to do some additional proofreading for you.
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Keep in mind that word processing software spell checkers (such as Microsoft Word and Wordperfect) are very handy, but they do not catch every error.
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G) TAKE YOUR TIME. As with most tasks, those who take their time usually achieve a better result than those who rush through the project. Hurrying unnecessarily with your Chicago (Turabian) Style paper will lead to mistakes, so take your time to ensure correct formatting. If you are forced to hurry because of an impending deadline, your writing will suffer, and you'll make mistakes in formatting. Start early on the paper, set goals for finishing different aspects of it, such as completing the research or completing the first draft, and you'll have a much better finished product. H) THE WRITI G MATTERS. Following the Chicago (Turabian) Style rules closely are an important part of creating a successful paper. However, such rules should not overwhelm your work. Instead, focus on the content of your paper and focus on the writing. If the content of your paper is lacking, it won't matter to your instructor how closely your paper follows Chicago (Turabian) Style.
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Vist our website, www.StudyStudent.com, and learn how to write a dissertation, thesis paper, or term paper / research paper. We also provide expert advice on writing and formatting a paper in APA Style, MLA Style and Chicago Manual Style.
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Peter Gallagher is a retired university professor and contributor for http://www.LousyWriter.com. He wrote "Writing Styles for College Students" to condense the most commonly asked questions about APA style, Chicago style, and MLA style.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section 1: APA Style
6 10 15 22 28 32
How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in APA Style How to Cite Sources Inside APA Style Text How to Create Footnotes and Headings in APA Style What Pages Do I Need With My APA Style Paper? Differences Between APA and MLA Styles of Writing Writing Advice for APA Style
Section 2: MLA Style
37 41 45 50
How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in MLA Style How Do I Write in MLA Style? How to Cite Non-Traditional Sources in MLA Style How to Cite Sources Inside the Text in MLA Style
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55 61 65 68
How to Cite Sources in MLA Style What Pages Do I Need With My MLA Style Paper? How to Format a Paper in MLA Style The Differences Between MLA Style and Chicago Style
Section 2: Chicago Style
74 77 81 84
How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in Chicago Style How to Format a Paper in Chicago Style What Pages Do I Need With My Chicago Style Paper? How to Cite Sources Inside the Text in Chicago Style
91 How to Create a Bibliography in Chicago Style 97 How to Create Headings and Endnotes in Chicago Style 103 The Differences Between Chicago Style and APA Style of Writing 107 Writing Advice for Chicago Style
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Section 1:
A P A S ty l e
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How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in APA Style APA
Writing that first thesis or dissertation can be a daunting task on its own. Throw in a need for APA Style guidelines in the paper, and it can be downright intimidating for the student who has never used APA Style in the past. However, following APA Style doesn't have to be a chore that takes all of the enjoyment out of your writing. A large portion of following APA Style involves common sense writing rules. Dozens of other APA resources can help you with the rest. This set of articles will spell out many aspects of using APA Style. I. APA STYLE'S ORIGI ATIO APA is short for the American Psychological Association. The APA created APA Style as a format for its members to follow as they wrote books and journals for the APA to publish. The initial APA Style guidelines appeared in a magazine article in 1929. The first formal APA Style book appeared in 1952. The format quickly grew in popularity, expanding well beyond APA members. Many educational institutions use APA Style as a guideline for students writing a formal paper, such as a thesis or dissertation.
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II. WHAT APA STYLE COVERS By using APA Style, the student has a comprehensive guideline for formatting all aspects of the paper. For example, APA Style provides rules for the type and size of font to be used, the margins on the paper, and use of punctuation. APA Style also provides rules for citing references, presenting figures or illustrations, and creating tables. Essentially, APA Style rules cover every aspect of the paper that you will be writing. The APA Style rules have evolved over the years, making subtle changes. Sometimes, you may have an instructor who prefers an old rule and will ask you to break away from the APA Style on that particular rule. Other instructors allow for a few exceptions to APA Style, especially those that make the paper easier to read, such as combining the abstract and title pages. However, if you plan to submit your thesis or dissertation for publication, you'll want to follow the APA Style precisely. III. HOW TO START A APA STYLE PAPER Using a word processor and a computer makes applying APA Style far easier than it used to be with a typewriter. If you need to add a footnote or insert a quotation at the last minute, it's easy to do with a word processing program, such as MS-WORD. When writing your paper using APA Style, you start with a title page that contains the title, your name, and your school. The second page is the abstract page, which contains a short description of your paper. The main
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text begins on the third page. At the end, you'll list all of the sources you used with your paper in the references section. During your research, as you find sources to use in your paper, you will want to make sure you have the APA Style guidelines handy, ensuring that you collect all of the necessary information about each source. Different types of sources (such as books, reports, and papers) require different types of documentation in APA Style, but the information you'll typically need includes: * Title of book or article or report * Author name or names * Date of publication or creation or retrieval * Name of publication * Publishing house or company * Pages or chapters used as a source * Short description of source's origination, if necessary, such as a Web site or a conference Obviously, some citations will not have every piece of information listed above. When collecting information on your sources, a good rule of thumb to follow is: Collect at least as much information as you'd need to tell someone else how to find the exact piece of information you used as a resource in your paper. Take your time to ensure you have all of the information to properly cite the source.
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IV. FI DI G MORE A SWERS If you have specific questions regarding APA Style, the ultimate resource is The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, which is available for about $40. The fifth edition is the current edition. You also can visit the APAStyle (dot) org Web site for some tips and additional information for using APA Style with your paper. For additional help, your instructor might have some tips or guidelines. Your university library likely has dozens of books devoted to APA Style guidelines. If all else fails, Google can provide dozens of Web sites that provide tips for correctly applying APA Style rules in your paper. With so many APA Style resources available, you can stop worrying about APA Style and place all of your focus where it belongs: On the substance of your thesis or dissertation.
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APA Citations : How to Cite Sources Inside APA Style Text
When writing an APA Style paper, it’s required that you properly cite any sources you’ve used. Citing sources is important for a few reasons. First, it allows instructors to check the accuracy of your research. Second, it gives your readers the opportunity to find additional related information. Most importantly, citing sources gives credit for the research and theories that you’re citing to the people who've created them. Citing sources in APA Style requires two processes. One citation is required at the position in the main text where the cited material appears, called an intext citation. The other citation occurs at the end of the paper, in a list of all cited works, called a reference list. In this article, we’ll focus on materials you’ll need to cite within the main text of the APA style paper. I. Citing a Printed Work in APA style Often times, the type of APA formatting used for an in-text citation of printed material will depend on the structure of the sentence, as shown in these examples.
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Citation example A. Include the names of the author within the sentence, followed by the year of publication inside parentheses.
The study created by Johnson, Smith, & Jones (2003) indicates that technological advancements spur economic growth.
Citation example B. You can place the names of the authors inside the parentheses with the year of publication, depending on your sentence structure.
Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Johnson, Smith, & Jones, 2003).
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II. Subsequent Listings Once you have listed a printed source and its author(s) in your paper, you sometimes can abbreviate with subsequent in-text citations of the same work. As shown in these examples, the number of authors determines whether an abbreviation is appropriate. One or two authors. On subsequent references, list it as you did the first time, with one or both authors’ names and the year of publication.
Additionally, the Johnson & Jones (2003) study indicates ...
Three or more authors. On subsequent references, you only need to list the first author, followed by “et al.” before the year of publication.
Additionally, the Johnson et al. (2003) study indicates ...
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III. Special Circumstances With published works, figuring out the authors’ names and the year of publication is a fairly easy process. With some sources, creating the proper in-text APA citation can be a little more difficult. For example, a Web page might not readily include an author’s name. If one isn’t available, you can use an editor’s name, simply listing it as you listed the author’s name in the examples shown earlier. If no author’s name or editor’s name is available, just list the name of the organization or institution that’s associated with the Web site, as shown in the following example.
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An economic organization’s study has indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Worldwide Economists Group, 2006).
You also can use the title of a Web page or publication with the in-text citation, if no author is listed. Remember, with an in-text citation, you’re simply trying to ensure that those who read your paper can easily find the full listing of the source in the reference list at the end of the paper. IV. Quotations When quoting source material directly within your text, use the same in-text citation formatting we’ve already described, along with a little additional information.
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Short quotations. For any quotation less than 40 words in length, use quotation marks around the quotation, followed by the page number of the reference.
According to Johnson (2003), “Spending tax dollars on technological advancements spurs growth in the local economy” (p. 43).
Long quotations. Follow the same APA format for in-text citations, including the page number(s), for a long quotation of more than 40 words. However, you’ll want to create a special block of text for the long quotation by indenting about one-half inch from the left margin for all lines of the quotation. Return to the normal left margin after reaching the end of the quotation block. Do not use quotation marks with this long quotation block, and double space throughout the block. V. More Information Keep in mind that APA Style says that you should always use past tense or present perfect tense when describing research that requires an in-text citation. Finally, if you have a particularly tricky source to cite within your text that isn’t covered here, you can find the answer in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, which is the ultimate resource for APA Style.
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How to Create Footnotes and Headings in APA Style
Within the main text of your thesis or dissertation, you may need to organize the text and information beyond the standard blocks of text. You have a couple of options under APA Style. Footnotes give you the option of adding information about an idea in your text without detracting from the text. Headings allow you to organize the text into sections, similar to an outline. 1. APA Style Footnotes APA Style recommends against using footnotes within the paper, because it is difficult for a publishing company to reproduce the superscript numbers used with footnotes. Footnotes are explanatory notes referenced from the main text. If you need to use footnotes, place them at the end of the paper, after the references list. (Some people call these types of citations “endnotes.”) Footnotes should appear on a separate page with the word “Footnotes” centered at the top of the page. It’s worth noting that because APA Style allows for in-text citations, you’ll rarely need footnotes, unless you need an in-depth explanation of an item within the text. However, keep the footnote to a maximum of a few sentences and do not discuss more than one idea per footnote. If you need a more complex footnote, you’ll want to include the information as an appendix page entry or incorporate it into the main text instead. APA Style allows for two types of footnotes: Content and copyright permission. A content footnote should include information that would be
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distracting to include within the main text. It’s a good way to point the reader toward additional information. A copyright permission footnote shows the reader that you have obtained permission to use a previously published long quote (more than 500 words), table, or figure. Both types of footnotes require the same type of formatting, as shown in the following example.
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Technological advancements tend to spark economic growth worldwide.1
On the footnote page, indent each footnote as a new paragraph and double space throughout.
1
Johnson defines technological advancements in a variety of ways ...
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2. APA Style Headings APA Style allows for you to use headings to better organize your paper. You can think of using headings like creating an outline. You can use up to five levels with headings, although the formatting becomes tricky if you go deeper than three levels. The headings formatting requirements include: FIRST LEVEL. The first level headings should be centered above their associated text blocks. Use both uppercase and lowercase words within the heading. SECO D LEVEL. Type the second level heading in all italics, flush left, and with both uppercase and lowercase words. THIRD LEVEL. The third level heading should look like a sentence at the start of a paragraph, as it’s indented, all lowercase words (other than the first word or proper nouns), and ends with a period. It is italicized, however, to set it apart from the main text.
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An example of the formatting for the first three levels of headings looks this way:
First Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Second Level of Heading (flush left) Main text continues as normal (indented). Third level of heading (indented). Main text should immediately follow the third heading.
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FOURTH LEVEL. If you need a fourth level heading, you have to rework your previous headings. The second level becomes italicized and centered, while the old second level and old third level become the new third and fourth levels, respectively.
First Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Second Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Third Level of Heading (flush left) Main text continues as normal (indented). Fourth level of heading (indented). Main text should immediately follow the fourth heading.
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FIFTH LEVEL. Again, adding a fifth level requires reworking of the other levels, beginning with the first level, which now becomes a centered and all uppercase heading. Every other heading moves down one spot. The old first level heading becomes the new second level, and the others follow suit.
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FIRST LEVEL OF HEADING (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Second Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Third Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Fourth Level of Heading (flush left) Main text continues as normal (indented). Fifth level of heading (indented). Main text should immediately follow the fifth heading.
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Finally, keep in mind that very few APA Style papers will require more than two or three levels of headings. Typically, the only types of papers that need four or five levels of headings are those detailing complex scientific experiments.
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What Pages Do I Need With My APA Style Paper?
When compiling your thesis or dissertation, the APA Style guidelines specify certain types of pages, as well as formatting guidelines for those pages. I have included the primary pages you'll need in your manuscript. Always start each of these sections on a new page. Most of them will only require one page. * ABSTRACT. The second page in your APA style thesis should be the abstract page, which contains a 100- to 150-word summary of your paper. Do not include any of the main text on the abstract page. It will contain the page header, which is a two- or three-word summary of the title, in the upper right corner, just left of page number "2," as the abstract page is always the second page. Do not indent the abstract and limit it to one paragraph. If you use numbers in the abstract, type them as digits, rather than words, unless the number starts a sentence. * APPE DIX. Use the appendix, which is optional, to describe complex equipment or to present unpublished tests. Each appendix in your APA paper should appear on its own page, and use letters to differentiate each appendix, such as "Appendix A" and "Appendix B." Some papers will not use an appendix page. Any appendix pages belong at the end of the paper. * AUTHOR OTE. In the author note page, which is optional, identify the departmental affiliation for the author. You also can include disclaimers, acknowledgements, and, if desired, contact information for the author. If you received funding for this research, identify it on the author note page. Place
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the author note page after the dedication page. With some instructors and institutions, this page is called the acknowledgments page. * COPYRIGHT OTICE. A copyright notice is an optional page in your APA paper; it signifies the paper is copyrighted material. Place a copyright page immediately after the title page. It should include the copyright symbol, the year of publication, the author's name, and "all rights reserved." Center all of the copyright text on the page. * DEDICATIO . A dedication page is an optional page similar to the author note page, and it allows you to dedicate your paper to someone. Place the dedication page after the copyright page. The dedication page does not need to include the word "Dedication" at the top; simply list your dedication in italics. Center it on the page. * LIST OF TABLES A D LIST OF FIGURES. Only use a list of tables or a list of figures page if you have at least five tables or five figures in your APA paper. Both list pages should appear after the table of contents, with the list of tables page ahead of the list of figures page. List each table or figure with the appropriate title and page number, connected by a leader. Right-align the page number and left-align the title of each table or figure. * MAI TEXT. The main text always begins on page 3. Center the complete title above the beginning of the main text. * REFERE CE LIST. Include your reference list after the main text page and ahead of the appendix page. The reference list page should include all works that you've cited in your paper, listed alphabetically. Rules for listing
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references under APA Style are specific, depending on the type of work, and you need to follow them closely. (We'll discuss them in another article.) * TABLE OF CO TE TS. The table of contents page should appear after the abstract page. It is an organized listing of the contents of the paper, providing page numbers to the various sections and headings in the paper. The reader can use the table of contents to jump to a particular section of the paper. When listing chapter headings in the table of contents, make sure they exactly match the chapter headings in the text. Use a leader to connect the chapter heading or section name (aligned on the left) with the page number (aligned on the right). Type "Table of Contents" centered at the top of the page. * TITLE. The title page includes more than just the title. In the upper right corner, include the page header and page number "1," as the title page is always the first page. Then center the title on the page. If the title requires more than one line, use double spacing. Include the author's name and the author's educational institution or the author's home city and state.
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APA Format : How to Format a Paper in APA Style
The APA Style rules for formatting a thesis or dissertation are specific, ranging from the proper font size to the proper margins to the type of paper you should use. Here are 14 formatting tips you should follow when creating your paper. Tip 1: ABBREVIATIO S. Try to avoid using abbreviations in your paper. However, if you have an abbreviation that's commonly accepted in language and appears in the dictionary, such as AIDS, you may use it. Tip 2: ALIG ME T. Always align the text flush left. Do not use the “full justify” setting on your word processor, which spreads the text and aligns it both left and right. Tip 3: FO T. If using a word processor, stick with a serif font, such as Times New Roman. Use text in a 10- or 12-point size. Tip 4: HYPHE ATIO . Do not break and hyphenate words at the end of a line. Instead, leave one line a little short and place the entire word on the next line, or go a couple of characters beyond the right margin to fit the entire word on the line. Tip 5: I DE TIO S. Indent paragraphs within the main text of the paper one-half inch, if using a computer word processor, or five to seven spaces, if using a typewriter. However, do not indent in the following special
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circumstances: The abstract, block quotations, figure captions, notes, reference list entries, table titles, and titles or headings. Tip 6: MARGI S. Use 1-inch margins on all four sides of the paper: Top, bottom, right, and left. Old rules called for some 1.5-inch margins, but those rules no longer are valid. Tip 7: PAGE UMBERI G. Number almost every page in the paper, including the title page. Place the number in the upper-right corner of the page, and use only Arabic numerals. Place the number “1” on the title page and the number “2” on the abstract page. The main text should start on page number “3”. Do not number pages that contain only figures or artwork. Tip 8: PAPER TYPE. Use standard white, 20-pound bond paper that measures 8.5-by-11 inches. If using a computer, use an inkjet or laser printer to print the paper; if you must use a tractor-feed printer, be sure to remove the pinhole borders from the edges of the paper. Tip 9: PARE THESES. Try to limit parentheses to set apart elements that are structurally independent, such as when listing a figure or illustration related to a sentence. If you're enclosing a complete sentence in parentheses, place the punctuation inside the parentheses. If you're enclosing only part of a sentence inside parentheses, leave the punctuation outside the parentheses. Tip 10: PU CTUATIO . In most instances, use one space after all typical punctuation marks, such as periods, commas, colons, and semicolons. Three exceptions exist to this rule. First, do not use a space after periods inside an abbreviation, such as when using U.S. for United States. Second, do not use a space after a colon in a ratio, such as 3:2. Third, some instructors prefer the
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old rule of using two spaces after periods that end sentences. If you're using Courier or another mono-space font, APA Style does allow two spaces between sentences, although one is preferred. Tip 11: SHORT TITLE. A Short Title, which is a two- or three-word summary of the main title, should appear on every page in the top right corner, other than pages that contain only figures or artwork. The Short Title should appear just to the left of the page number. Tip 12: SLASH MARK. Avoid using slash marks in your paper. For example, instead of writing “red and/or green,” write “red, green, or both.” Tip 13: SPACI G. Use double spacing throughout the entire paper, unless your instructor specifically requests single spacing in certain circumstances, such as with block quotations. Tip 14: TITLE. Center the title on the title page, using a mixture of uppercase and lowercase letters. If the title is long enough to require a second line, double space between the lines. After the title, the student's name should appear, followed by the institution for which the paper is being written. If you don't have an institution to include, you may substitute the city and state of the author of the paper. Double space between every line on the title page. The title page should contain the number "1" in the upper right corner.
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The Differences Between APA and MLA Styles of Writing
When writing a dissertation or thesis, your instructor probably will require you to follow one of two popular style formats for your paper, APA Style or MLA Style. Although both formats are similar, they do have subtle differences that you'll need to know. Generally, you select the style to follow based on the subject matter of the paper you're writing. Each style treats the formatting of the paper a little differently to meet the citation needs for the subject matter. I. CHOOSI G YOUR STYLE For the most part, your instructor will select the style of formatting that you'll use for your paper. If you have a choice, however, you can follow these suggestions for deciding which style to use. APA Style. Use APA Style for subjects related to the social sciences, such as business, criminal justice, economics, law, and medical subjects, including nursing and psychology. The American Psychological Association created the APA Style, and you can visit apastyle (dot) org on the Internet to find more information on APA Style. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the full listing of APA Style guidelines and APA formatting rules.
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MLA Style. Use MLA Style for subjects related to the humanities and liberal arts, such as literature, mass communications, and media studies. The Modern Language Association oversees the development of MLA Style, and you can visit mla(dot)org on the Internet for more information. For undergraduate students, use the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (sometimes shortened to MLA Handbook) as the guide to following MLA Style. For graduate students and professionals, use the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing (sometimes shortened to MLA Style Manual) to find official rules and guidelines for MLA Style. II. THE DIFFERE CES If you still are not sure which style you should use with your paper, here are some formatting differences between APA Style and MLA Style. Choose the style that will allow you to format your paper and deliver the information to your readers in the most efficient manner. Abstract. This difference in this category is pretty obvious: APA Style requires an abstract page, while MLA Style does not. An abstract is a short summary of your paper. In-text citations. With both styles, use the last name of the author(s) in any in-text citation. With APA Style, you also include the year of publication. With MLA Style,
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you include the page number of the information you cited along with the name of the author(s), but you do not include the year of publication. By including the year of publication, APA Style gives the readers a chance to decide how much relevancy to place on a particular source, based on its age. With the subject matter used with MLA Style, however, the age of the sourced material usually isn't as vital to its relevancy, so MLA Style doesn't list the year of publication. With both styles, remember that the in-text citation is simply a method of ensuring that your readers can easily find the full citation in the reference list or works cited page at the end of the paper. You don't need extensive information about the source for an in-text citation. Page numbers. With both styles, the page number appears in the upper right corner of each page, but each style has different additional information. With APA Style, you must include a running title to the left of the page number on each page. A running title is a two- or three-word summary of the title of your paper. With MLA Style, include the author's name to the left of the page number on each page. Reference list formatting. With both APA Style and MLA Style, when listing each of your sources on the reference list page (APA Style) or works cited page (MLA Style), use the full last name of the author(s) in each entry. In APA Style, you also list only the initials of the first and middle name of each author. In MLA Style,
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you spell out the entire first and middle name of each author. (Middle name information is optional.) Title page. APA Style requires a title page, but MLA Style does not. If you choose to skip the title page with MLA Style, simply include your name, your instructor's name, your course, and the full date in the upper left-hand corner of the first page. Then center the title on the page, followed by your main text. You'll also find several subtle differences between APA Style and MLA Style in capitalization and punctuation rules. However, those differences are too numerous to list here, and they probably won't affect your decision on which style to use with your paper.
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Writing Advice for APA Style
Writing in APA Style can be an intimidating task, especially if you've never written a formal research paper previously. APA Style has many rules, guidelines, and formatting requirements for your paper that it can be overwhelming to think about all of the opportunities for mistakes. However, following APA Style is not as difficult as it sounds. As with almost any educational endeavor, hurrying unnecessarily will lead to mistakes, so take your time to ensure correct formatting. Following the APA Style tips listed here will help, too. ACTIVE VOICE. Try to avoid writing in passive voice. APA Style requires active voice, and some instructors will downgrade your paper if you use a lot of passive voice. With active voice, the subject of the sentence does something. With passive voice, the subject of the sentence has something done to it. Passive voice often uses the word "by." FOCUS O THE WRITI G. There's no question that following APA Style closely is an important part of creating a successful paper. However, the tight rules and guidelines that govern APA Style should not be your primary focus. Instead, focus on the content of your paper and focus on the writing. If the content of your paper is lacking, it won't matter to your instructor how closely your paper follows APA Style.
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LA GUAGE TIPS. When writing your APA Style paper, avoid using contractions: "Can't" should be "cannot," and "it's" should be "it is." Do not use slang language. Clear, concise language is best. Never write in the first person, either. PLAGIARISM PROBLEMS. Obviously, you don't want to plagiarize any part of your paper. To make sure you don't inadvertently commit plagiarism, cite all of your sources. If you're unsure whether to use an in-text citation for a source, you probably should use it. It's better to be safe than sorry when citing sources. PROOFREAD A FEW TIMES. You'd be surprised how often a simple mistake sneaks into formal papers because the author didn't take the time to proofread more than once. Proofreading should not be done as a last-minute item; it should be done a few times before the paper is completed. In fact, it's best to set the paper aside for a couple of days between proofreading sessions. If you can take a break from the paper for a couple of days, you'll be surprised how much better your proofreading sessions go with a fresh look at the paper, rather than a harried, last-minute look. PROOFREAD SOME MORE. Depending on the importance of the paper, you may want to hire someone to do some additional proofreading for you. Again, having a fresh look at the
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paper, this time from a different pair of eyes, will only help improve your paper. REFERE CE LIST. As you perform the research for your paper, it's important to keep the reference list in the back of your mind. When you pull information from sources, make sure that you collect extensive information about each source. Having a comprehensive list is good for two reasons. First, you must have the information for the reference list, so collecting it as you use each source will save you time when compiling the reference list later. Second, if you need to revisit a particular source to find more information for your paper, you'll have very few problems finding it again with a comprehensive source list. REPEATABLE RULES. Once you've mastered a few of the APA Style guidelines, you'll repeat them throughout your paper, making your job easier. This is especially true with citing sources, either inside the main text or on the references list page. Even though there are subtle, slight differences in formatting the citations, depending on the type of source, most the formatting is similar. YOUR I STRUCTOR K OWS BEST. Finally, if you encounter a dilemma where the instructions for your paper that your instructor provided contradict APA Style guidelines and rules, go with your instructor's preferences. Some APA Style rules are modifiable, giving your instructor some latitude. In addition, because APA Style rules
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have evolved over the years, you might have an instructor who prefers an old rule to a new rule. If you encounter a contradiction, just remember this: The last time I checked, the latest edition of the APA Style Manual had never graded a paper. Follow the desires of the person who will be grading the paper.
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Section 2:
M L A S ty l e
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How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in MLA Style
If you're a student in liberal arts or humanities, chances are good your professor will ask you to write a paper in MLA Style. Eventually, you might even create a thesis or dissertation using MLA Style. Writing in MLA Style is one of a few different writing styles you can use to format academic papers that require sources in an educational or professional setting. Although learning all the rules about MLA Style can seem overwhelming, it doesn't have to be. Many rules of MLA Style repeat themselves as you use them in your paper, meaning you don't have to learn hundreds of rules. As long as you learn the basic MLA Style guidelines, you can create a wellformatted MLA Style paper with great success. Here are some of my time-tested techniques to help you write that first MLA Style paper. If you run into a situation that I do not cover, then you can always call upon the many MLA Style resources on the Internet and in print that can handle those odd situations. I. THE ORIGI OF MLA STYLE The Modern Language Association of America oversees MLA Style, publishing the first edition of its MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing in 1985. The Modern Language Association (MLA) published the third edition of the MLA Style Manual in 2008.
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Headquartered in New York City, the MLA is an American professional organization for scholars of literature and language, including professors and graduate students. The MLA began in 1883 at Purdue University, essentially as a discussion group for literature and modern language. Today, several regional associations make up the MLA. II. WORKI G WITH MLA STYLE By following the MLA Style, as outlined in the MLA Style Manual, students receive advice on a variety of rules for creating and formatting a formal MLA paper, including rules for: * * * * * * The size of the font The type of font The margins of the paper Citing references in the text Citing references at the end of the paper Presenting tables, figures, and illustrations
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Rules for creating papers using MLA Style have undergone some changes since the first MLA Style Manual appeared almost 25 years ago. In addition, with the changes in the latest version of the MLA Style Manual, you may have some instructors who prefer the "old" rules of MLA Style. Be sure your instructors clearly define which version of MLA Style they'd like you to follow. Finally, some instructors might not require the strict formality of the MLA Style Manual in a particular paper. Instead, they might ask you to follow the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, which is a less formal
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version of MLA Style. For the most part, the MLA Handbook is aimed at undergraduate college students and high school students. Be sure you know which reference guide for MLA Style your instructor wants you to use. III. HOW TO START YOUR MLA STYLE PAPER A computer with word processing software, such as Microsoft Word or Word Perfect, is the best method for writing your MLA Style paper. A word processor is the easiest way to perform the formatting functions, indentions, and italics text. As you perform your research for your formal paper, it's important to track your sources. You'll need to cite the sources you've used in your MLA Style paper. MLA Style guidelines will dictate different formatting rules for different types of sources. For most of your sources, you'll need to track the title, author, date of publication, name of publication, and pages used as a source, among other types of information. It's always better to have more information than you'll need when citing a source than to not have enough information. IV. FI DI G MORE A SWERS ABOUT MLA STYLE For additional questions about MLA Style, the MLA Style Manual is the best source. This publication includes the rules and advice for formatting a thesis or dissertation. It also includes information on submitting your work for peer review and publication, on copyright laws, on fair use rules, and on contracts.
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Keep in mind that the MLA says the guidelines in the third edition of the MLA Style Manual represent a "significant revision" to the documentation style, so you'll want to make sure you have the latest information. If your university library doesn't have the latest copy of the MLA Style Manual, you can purchase a copy for about $33 from the MLA Web site. Unfortunately, the MLA Web site doesn't offer many tips on using MLA Style. When using other Web sites for information on MLA Style, be sure to use the latest rules.
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Style? How Do I Write in MLA Style?
Even though MLA Style lacks explicit rules about specific pages to include in your paper and how to organize those pages, it does have many formatting rules that you need to follow. Following MLA Style shouldn't detract from the overall work of your paper, however. It takes some work to achieve the proper MLA format, but it's important to not allow the paper format to prevent you from focusing on writing the paper. These tips will give you some additional help to follow MLA Style with your paper. TIP 1. DOUBLE-CHECK ALL CITATIO S. With MLA Style, it's important to make sure you have properly listed all of the in-text citations, making it easy for readers to find each citation in the Works Cited list. Make sure you spell all authors' names correctly in the Works Cited list, too, so you don't confuse readers about the author. TIP 2. FOLLOW YOUR I STRUCTOR'S I STRUCTIO S. You may have an instructor who gives you directions for composing the thesis or dissertation that differ slightly from those in MLA Style. Follow your instructor's guidelines in those instances.
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TIP 3. GRAMMAR GUIDELI ES. Papers that follow proper grammar are more likely to receive favorable marks from an instructor. For example, always write in active voice, rather than passive voice. In other words, make certain the subjects of your sentences are doing something in the sentence, rather than the subjects having something done to them. Avoid using contractions in your paper, if possible. Do not use slang or jargon in your paper, unless you're writing about a subject that requires such language. Do not write in the first person; in other words, do not use the words "I" or "me" in any sentence. Try to avoid making absolute statements, especially when you are describing an opinion. Do not use numerous quotations just to fill a word count or page count; make sure quotations add to your argument. TIP 4. PROOFREADI G, A ECESSARY TASK. For most people, proofreading is the least enjoyable task for compiling a formal paper. However, it's a key task. You might have the most compelling argument your instructor has ever seen, but inadvertently, allowing several grammatical and spelling errors to appear in your paper will make it tough to take your argument seriously. Proofread your paper at least a few times before submitting it. If possible, take a few days off between proofreading sessions. A fresh look at the paper after a break will help you catch a few errors that you may have missed the first time around. Remember that, although word processing software spell checkers are handy, they do not catch every error, such as "to," "too," and "two." Proofreading is vital to having a successful paper.
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TIP 5. TAKE YOUR TIME. During the writing phase or the proofreading phase, you need to leave plenty of time to finish the paper. If you force yourself to hurry to meet a deadline, your writing will suffer, and you'll make mistakes. Start early on the paper, set goals for finishing different aspects of it -- initial research, detailed research, first draft, second draft, detailed proofreading, and final draft -- and you'll have a much better finished paper. TIP 6. WORKS CITED LIST. Throughout the research process for your paper, it is important to track all of the sources you use. For every idea or quote you use from one of your sources, you will have to cite the idea in the paper and list the source in the Works Cited list. Collect extensive information about each source, which will allow you to cite each source properly in your paper. It's important to give credit for any ideas you use from other people. Citing sources properly will ensure you don’t inadvertently commit plagiarism. If you’re unsure whether to use an in-text citation for a source, you probably should use it. It’s better to be safe than sorry when citing sources. TIP 7. FI AL TIP. If you ever are unsure about the formatting style you should follow when citing a particular source, turn to the MLA Style Manual. It has examples and explanations of every type of source that you'll ever encounter.
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However, be certain that you're using the latest edition of the MLA Style Manual. The changes in the latest edition are subtle, but there are enough of them that you don't want to make some silly formatting errors, just because you were using an old edition of the MLA Style Manual. If you have a difficult time finding the newest edition of the MLA Style Manual, check with your instructor. He or she might not care if you use the previous edition.
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NonHow to Cite Non-Traditional Sources in MLA Style
In some respects, writing a dissertation or thesis in MLA Style was easier two or three decades ago, at least when it came to compiling the Works Cited list. You might not have used a computer for writing or the Internet for locating more sources, but at least you didn't have to cite many nontraditional sources in a Works Cited page. When citing non-traditional sources in MLA Style, such as Web pages or electronic media, you need to follow specific rules, just as you do with traditional print media, such as books and scholarly journals. I have listed some of the more common instances below. When writing your MLA paper, if you encounter any situations not discussed below, you always can turn to the MLA Style Manual, which covers every potential source, both traditional and non-traditional. Just be certain to use the third edition of the MLA Style Manual, as the guidelines have changed for a few types of sources, such as Web sites.
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BROADCAST. When citing a TV or radio broadcast, start with the title of the episode or segment in quotation marks, if one is available, followed by the title of the program in italics. Then list the network, the local broadcast affiliate, the date of broadcast, the type of broadcast, and any additional information that would be helpful to the reader, such as if you took the ideas or quotes from a transcript. You may list the name of an author, director, or performer at the beginning of the listing on the Works Cited page, if that person was primarily responsible for the content of the entire broadcast. If the primary source was interviewed on a program, list those who conducted the interview, if available.
Smith, Xavier Z. Interview by Jeffrey T. Jones and Terry J. Thomas. "Economic Times In Africa." Financial Times Worldwide. ational Public Radio. KPBS, Omaha, 25 May 2007. Radio. "African Economic Struggles." ews Hour. PBS. WPBS, ew York, 2 Apr. 2006. Television. Transcript.
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ILLUSTRATIO S OR GRAPHIC OVELS. Unlike most printed books, using an illustration or graphic novel as a source for your paper may present some tough circumstances as far as compiling material for the Works Cited list. For example, many illustrated books have more than one "author." You might have a writer along with multiple illustrators, for example. When listing the source in the Works Cited page, first list the person who had the most influence on the source as you're using it. For example, if you're using the writer's idea in your paper, list the primary writer first before any illustrators or other writers.
* Smith, Xavier Z., writer. Understanding Technologies, an Illustrated Guide. Illus. Quincy X. Smith and Jon Q. Smith. Introd. Travis Johnson. ew York: State University Press, 2006. Print.
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WEB SITES. When citing Web sites, the third edition of the MLA Style Manual now allows writers to eliminate the URL, or Web address, if the reader of the paper can easily find the Web site through the other information listed when citing the source. The MLA says because URLs sometimes change, the URL isn't as valuable to finding the source later as is a good description of the source. MLA recommends including the URL if you think your readers will have a difficult time finding the source without the URL. You'll need to continue to include an author, article name, Web site name, date of creation of the article or Web page, and date when you accessed the Web site when citing a Web site, but the URL is now optional. If you decide to include a URL, list it inside angle brackets. Also, be sure to include the word Web as part of the listing, usually after the date of creation of the Web site. If no date is available, use n.d. in place of the date. Finally, use italics for the title if the article is independent, and use quotation marks if the article is part of a larger work, using italics for the name of the larger work.
* Smith, Xavier Z and Travis Johnson. African Economic Forecast, 2006. State University, 20 Dec. 2005. Web. 27 Jan. 2008. <http://www.stateu.edu/economics/smith2006.html>.
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As often occurs, if the Web site you're using has no author or editor listed, start with the title of the page or article that you're citing.
* "How Technology Affects Economies." Economic Development Worldwide. Economic Development Worldwide, n.d. Web. 27 Jan. 2008.
Finally, if you're using material that has appeared in more than one medium, such as a print version and a Web page, cite only the medium that you used primarily.
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Inside How to Cite Sources Inside the Text in MLA Style
When citing sources in an MLA Style thesis or dissertation, you'll need to follow two different formats. In-text citations are references to sources that you make within the main text of your paper. "Works Cited" is a separate page at the end of your paper where you list every reference source you used in the paper. In a formal paper, it's important to cite every source you use. You need to let your readers know that you've performed the proper research to support the position you've taken in the paper. Readers who want more information than what you've provided in your paper can use the cited sources. It's important to credit the researchers who provided the information in your paper. With this article, we'll focus on MLA rules for citing sources inside the text. I. BASIC RULES With MLA Style, an in-text citation is sometimes called a parenthetical citation. Essentially, any time you paraphrase another person's or source's ideas, or any time you use a direct quotation in your paper, you need to cite that source. By citing the source within the text, you give your readers a chance to find the source material themselves, should they want more information about a particular quote or idea.
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II. I -TEXT CITATIO S When creating an in-text citation, you want to give your readers an easy method for finding the source material. You only need enough information in the in-text citation to give the reader an easy method of finding the source in the Works Cited list at the end of your paper. Because the Works Cited list will be in alphabetical order, listed by the author's last name first, you only need to list the author's last name for your in-text citation. That should be enough information for your readers to find the source on the Works Cited page. Here are some examples for in-text citations, based on particular sources and circumstances. A) One source, author known. List the author of the source and the page number or numbers that you used in your reference. Place the source material inside parentheses immediately after the material you need to source. Do not separate the author's name and the page number with any punctuation.
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Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Johnson 16).
B) One source, author unknown. In addition to the page number, list a shortened title for the source, if you don't know the author's name. If the title is for a long work, list it in italics. If
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the title is for a short work, list it inside quotation marks. Again, use parentheses for the in-text citation.
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Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth ("2007 Economic Growth Report" 16).
C) Two or more sources, authors known. Follow the same rules as you used with one source, but you'll need to separate each source with a semicolon.
Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Johnson 16; Jones 37-38; Smith 2).
D) Multiple works, same author. If you have more than one source from the same author, just add a shortened title for the particular source you're using to the author's name in the in-text citation. Separate the author's name and the title with a comma.
Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Johnson, "2007 Economic Growth Report" 16).
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E) Multiple authors, same last name. You might end up with sources from two different authors who share the same last name. In that case, you may use the author's first initial, first and middle initials, first name and middle initial, or first and middle names. Use as much of the first and middle names as required so it's easy for your readers to find the source in the Works Cited list.
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Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (B. Johnson 16).
F) Indirect source. If you have a quote taken from an indirect source, include the phrase "qtd. in" with the in-text citation. List the actual source where you found the quote in the in-text citation and in the Works Cited list.
Jones has mentioned that "technological advancements spur economic growth" (qtd. in Johnson 16).
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G) Other option. If it makes more sense in your writing to list the author in the actual text, you can simply list the page number inside the parentheses for the in-text citation.
The economist Johnson has indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (16).
Although MLA Style allows you to use the author's name in the text of the sentence you're citing, you are not allowed to use the page number or numbers in the sentence. The page number should always appear in parentheses.
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How to Cite Sources in MLA Style
The Works Cited page in MLA Style is important to your thesis or dissertation because it gives readers a list of sources you used to reach your conclusions. A well-researched paper will have high-quality sources. With MLA Style, you list these sources on the Works Cited page(s) at the end of the paper. MLA Style requires that you follow a specific format for listing every source, based on the type of source. To start the Works Cited page, type "Works Cited" centered at the top margin. Then begin the first source immediately, double-spacing all text on the page. Each source should have a hanging indention, meaning the first line is flush left, and each subsequent line for the source should be indented one-half inch. You should alphabetize the entire Works Cited list by author's last name. If the author's name is not known, use the title of the source in the alphabetized list, ignoring "A," "An," or "The" on the front of the name of the title. Here are some examples for listing various types of sources. The examples here only list the information you need about each source. They do not follow the hanging indention or double-spacing rules. A) BOOK. List the author's name, the title of the book in italics, the city of publication, the publisher, and the year of publication. You are allowed to abbreviate the
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name of certain publishers in MLA Style. The MLA Style Manual lists the acceptable abbreviations. Specify the type of publication at the end of the entry, denoting whether the book is a printed version or an electronic version.
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Smith, Xavier Z. Working with a Fledgling Economy. ew York: State University Press, 2006. Print.
B) DISSERTATIO OR THESIS. If you make use of a dissertation or thesis as a source, you'll need to list the author's name, the title (in quotation marks), the type of paper, and some information about the publication. For example, many dissertations appear in "Dissertation Abstracts International," usually abbreviated to DAI. DAI requires some specific information, as you can see in the following example.
Jones, Thomas. "The Relationship Between Economic Power and Technological Innovation." Diss. State University, 2003. DAI 66.17 (2004): item DA4267399. Print.
In MLA Style, you can abbreviate dissertation as "Diss", and master's thesis as either "MA thesis" or "MS thesis".
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C) PUBLISHED ARTICLE. List the author's last name, followed by the full first name and middle initial, if the author commonly uses it. List the title of the article in quotation marks, followed by the publication name (in italics), the issue or volume numbers, the year of publication, and the page numbers for the full article. If you have other information you think would be helpful for a reader, you may list it at the end of the entry. In the following two examples, the first is for a scholarly journal and the second is for a newspaper. Notice how the word "Print" in the newspaper example differentiates between the print edition and Internet edition of the newspaper.
Smith, Xavier Z. "Economic Growth in Africa." Economics Quarterly 3 (2008): 332-3. Johnson, Travis. "African Economic Viability." ew York Financial ewspaper 13 Jun. 2008: B3. Print.
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D) MULTIPLE AUTHORS. List the first author by last name, then first name, and subsequent authors by first name, then last name.
Johnson, Travis, and Xavier Z. Smith. "Economic Downturn in Africa." Economics Quarterly 4 (2008): 41321.
E) MULTIPLE WORKS, SAME AUTHOR. After listing the first source with the author's full name, subsequent sources from the same author don't require the author's name. Instead, substitute three hyphens.
Johnson, Travis. "Africa's Economic Future." Economics Quarterly 2 (2008): 200-3. ---. "African Economic Viability." ew York Financial ewspaper 13 Jun. 2008: B3. Print.
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F) MULTIPLE WORKS, MULTIPLE AUTHORS. If the same author is involved in multiple sources, but some of those sources include multiple authors, you will have to list the full name in every source. If you have multiple works from the same group of authors, however, you can substitute the three hyphens for listings beyond the first listing. In this example, Johnson and Smith combined to write the second and third entries, meaning the three hyphens are appropriate for the third entry.
Johnson, Travis. "Africa's Economic Future." Economics Quarterly 2 (2008): 200-3. Johnson, Travis, and Smith, Xavier Z. "Economic Downturn in Africa." Economics Quarterly 4 (2008): 41321. ---. " urturing a Fledgling Economy." ew York Financial ewspaper 19 Jan. 2008: B1. Print.
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G) A O YMOUS AUTHOR. If you don't know the author, just skip that part of the listing and begin with the title.
"Economic Growth on the African Continent." Editorial. ew York Financial ewspaper 4 Feb. 2008: B7.
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What Pages Do I Need With My MLA Style Paper?
Unlike some other formal styles for writing scholarly papers, MLA Style does not specify a large number of specific pages that you must include in your paper. APA Style, for example, requires a title page, an abstract page, and a table of contents, among several other types of optional pages. MLA Style, however, does not even require a title page. I will discuss optional pages you can use in your MLA Style paper in this article, along with some methods you can use to format your paper in MLA Style. 1) TITLE PAGE. MLA Style makes a title page an optional choice for the writer. If you decide to use a title page, center the text. The title page may contain the title, author's name, mailing address, e-mail address, and contact telephone numbers. Some instructors will require you to include the name of the faculty advisor, the date of submission, and the members of the committee that will accept the work. With MLA Style, a separate title page is not numbered. If you're writing an extremely formal paper, such as a thesis or dissertation, you almost certainly should include a separate title page, unless your instructor specifies differently. If you include the title on the first page of the main text, you should number it, but this format is limited to a less formal paper. 2) APPROVAL PAGE. The approval page, which contains all signatures of approval from members of the thesis approval committee, is optional.
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3) ABSTRACT PAGE. The abstract page, which is a short summary of the purpose of the paper, is optional. 4) BIOGRAPHY PAGE. The biography page, which provides a short description of the author and his or her accomplishments, is optional. 5) DEDICATIO PAGE. The dedication page, which allows the author to dedicate the thesis to a person or multiple people who helped with the paper, is optional. 6) EPIGRAPH PAGE. The epigraph page, which may contain a poem or quotation, is optional. 7) TABLE OF CO TE TS PAGE. If the paper is long enough to have sections, you may include a table of contents page. 8) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIO S A D TABLES. This page, if applicable, lists all of the illustrations and tables you used in the paper, sorted by the pages on which they appear. 9) PREFACE. The preface, which is an optional page, may introduce the paper by discussing a related idea that doesn't quite fit within the parameters of the main text. 10) MAI TEXT. With the main text, simply select a readable font, usually Times New Roman at 12 points. Double space throughout the main text, and indent all paragraphs by one-half inch.
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MLA Style does not require headings, chapters, or any other method for breaking up the main text. MLA Style also does not prohibit any methods for breaking up the text, however. If your instructor doesn't specify a method for breaking up the text, you can use a few different optional methods. If you choose to use chapters, you can use the following methods for breaking up the text within the chapters. You can use an extra blank line to separate ideas. Just hit the Enter key an additional time after completing a paragraph. Keep in mind, though, that this method might be ineffective if the blank line occurs at the end of a printed page. Some writers combat this problem by typing three asterisks, centered on the page, in place of the blank line. Others actually type "[blank line]" flush left in place of the blank line. You may use headings to break up the text and organize similar ideas. MLA Style prefers using an Arabic number with each heading. You also should type each heading flush left with no extra blank lines before or after the heading. For example: 1. Economic Growth 2006 2. Economic Growth 2007 3. Economic Growth 2008 Finally, you may simply use an Arabic number to signify related ideas in the text. Just type "1" centered on a blank line before the first idea, "2" centered before the second idea, and so on.
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11) E D OTES. If you choose to list endnotes, you need to use a separate page immediately following the main text. An endnotes page is optional in MLA Style. 12) WORKS CITED. The Works Cited page in MLA Style is a list of all sources you referenced in the main text. The listing of all sources requires you to follow a specific set of rules. 13) GLOSSARY. The glossary page, which is a list of all confusing and unusual terms used in the text, along with definitions, is optional. 14) I DEX. If you choose to include an optional index page, it will list the various proper nouns and ideas that you've included throughout the main text, listed alphabetically and linked to the page numbers on which the items appear.
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How to Format a Paper in MLA Style
When formatting your paper in MLA Style, you'll need to follow a series of rules that outline all aspects of the creation of the paper. Most people think of MLA Style when trying to determine how to cite sources used as references in the paper. However, MLA Style includes rules for many aspects of formatting the paper beyond citing sources. Here are 15 formatting tips you should follow when creating your MLA paper. ALIG ME T. Align the text flush left. If your word processor, such as MS-Word, has a "full justify" setting, which spreads the text and aligns it both left and right, do not use it. Leave the text ragged on the right side. BI DI G. MLA Style calls for binding the pages with a simple paper clip or spring clip. Do not use a staple or other permanent binding system, unless your instructor requests it. E D OTES A D FOOT OTES. You may use endnotes or footnotes with MLA Style, but they should only be used to further explain a term or a complex idea, beyond what you're able to include in the main text. Endnotes and footnotes should not be used to cite sources. Save those for the "Works Cited" page. FO T. MLA Style calls for a 12-point font size, along with an easily readable font, such as Times New Roman.
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HEADI GS. In MLA Style, headings and subheads that break up the text are optional. Check with your instructor before using them. I DE TIO S. You'll need to indent the first line of any paragraph by onehalf inch from the left margin. If you aren't using word processing software, indent by five spaces. ITALICS. You should use italics for titles of longer works. MLA Style also allows use of italics within the body of the text for emphasis of a particular word or phrase, but use such items sparingly. MARGI S. All four sides of the MLA paper -- top, bottom, right, and left - require a margin of 1 inch. The only items that should appear outside the margins are the page numbers. PAGE UMBERI G. Place the page number in the upper right corner of every page. Use Arabic numerals for the page numbers. The page number should appear one-half inch from the top of the paper and even with the right margin (1 inch from the edge of the paper). If you choose to use an optional title page, you should not number it. If you choose not to create a separate title page, instead including the title and other relevant information on the first page of the main text, you must use "1" as the number of that page. PAPER TYPE. Use standard, 20-pound white paper that measures 8.5-by11 inches. PU CTUATIO . Follow all standard punctuation marks with just one space, including colons, commas, periods, and semicolons. Some instructors still prefer the old rule of using two spaces after periods that end sentences.
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MLA Style does allow some flexibility in punctuation when the instructor requests a change from the standard MLA Style. QUOTATIO BLOCKS. Whenever using a quotation that will be longer than four typed lines, set the entire quotation block apart by indenting it from the left margin 1 inch (or 10 spaces). Double-space within the quotation block. You do not need to use quotation marks with a quotation block. SPACI G. You'll need to double-space all of the text within the paper, except in rare special circumstances as directed by your instructor. All quotations, notes, and lists of works cited should be double-spaced. TITLE. MLA Style doesn't require a separate title page. You can include the information used for the title on the first page of the paper, and begin the paper's main text on the same page. All text should be double-spaced on the first page. You can place the page number in the upper right corner. In the upper left corner, flush left and beginning at the margins, include your name, the instructor's name, the course, and the date. Then center the text for the title, mixing uppercase and lowercase letters. If you choose to skip the separate title page, you can begin the main text immediately after the title text. U DERLI I G. With the third edition of the MLA Style Manual, the new guidelines have eliminated the use of underlining. Now italicize all published works, rather than using underlining.
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The Differences Between MLA Style and Chicago Style
You can choose from several writing and formatting styles when you write your dissertation or thesis, including MLA Style and Chicago Style, also called Turabian Style. Actually, you might not have the opportunity to choose the formatting style for your paper: Your instructor might choose for you. If your professor wants you to choose the style for your paper, you will want to follow a few guidelines. Most formal writing formats are similar, but you will notice many slight differences between styles. It's important to take some time to make sure you select the style that will best fit your paper's subject matter. Here are some of the differences between MLA Style and Chicago (Turabian) Style. I. SELECTI G A STYLE 1) MLA STYLE. Primarily, the Modern Language Association (MLA) designed MLA Style for subjects related to the humanities and liberal arts, such as literature, mass communications, and media studies. The MLA oversees the development of MLA Style, and you can visit the organization's website on the Internet for more information. For undergraduate students, use the "MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers" (sometimes shortened to MLA Handbook) as the guide to
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following MLA Style. For graduate students and professionals, use the "MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing" (sometimes shortened to MLA Style Manual) to find official rules and guidelines for MLA Style. Keep in mind that the latest version of the MLA Style Manual, the third version, was recently released. 2) CHICAGO (TURABIA ) STYLE. For the most part, Chicago (Turabian) Style is designed to be a general style that works well for all types of college students in all types of subjects. The University of Chicago Press has created the "Chicago Manual of Style," which provides guidelines for citing sources and formatting papers. The 15th edition is the latest edition. Kate Turabian, the dissertation secretary at the University of Chicago for 30-plus years, created "A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations," to give students and researchers additional guidelines. The sixth edition is the latest edition. The two styles are nearly identical, with only a few differences, and they're often combined to represent one style, as we've done here. Non-scholarly publications also will make use of Chicago (Turabian) Style in magazines and newspapers. If MLA Style just doesn't seem as though it will work for the subject matter in your paper, you can make use of Chicago (Turabian) Style as a fallback. (Keep in mind that APA Style is available, too, and it's primarily aimed at subjects related to psychology and social sciences.) II. THE DIFFERE CES If you still are unsure which style to use with your paper, one of the biggest differences between MLA Style and Chicago (Turabian) Style involves in-
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text citations. Chicago (Turabian) allows for footnotes and endnotes to cite sources, while MLA does not. With both styles, enclose the last name of the primary author in parentheses in any in-text citation. That's where the similarities stop, though. With MLA Style, you include the page number of the information you cited along with the name of the author, but you do not include the year of publication. Then include the full source citation in the Works Cited list at the end of the paper.
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Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Johnson 16).
With Chicago (Turabian) Style, you have two options. You can include an in-text citation inside parentheses that includes the name of author, along with the year of publication and the page numbers from which you took this particular quote or idea. With this option, you must include a full bibliography at the end of the paper.
Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Johnson 2007, 16).
You also can use full footnotes or endnotes within the text, thereby skipping the bibliography at the end. Both styles require superscript numbers within the text. Chicago Style (first example) does not require superscript numbers with the note, but Turabian Style does (second example).
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Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth.1 1. Thomas Johnson ...
1
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Thomas Johnson ...
Keep in mind that the in-text citations only serve to give readers a chance to find the complete information about the source in the Works Cited (MLA Style) or bibliography (Chicago and Turabian Styles) at the end of the paper. You'll also find some differences in the formatting of each footnote, endnote, or bibliography entry in Chicago (Turabian) Style versus the Works Cited page in MLA Style. However, those subtle differences are too numerous to list here. Refer to the books listed above to find specific rules for citing sources in a bibliography or Works Cited list.
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Section 3:
C h i c a g o S ty l e
( T u r a b ia n Sty l e )
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How to Start a Thesis or Dissertation in Chicago Chicago (Turabian) Style
Although college students can use several formatting styles to create a thesis or dissertation, there's one style that works in almost every circumstance: Chicago Style (also sometimes called Chicago Turabian Style). For a general-assignment paper, Chicago Style works extremely well. Although Chicago Style will work for a thesis or dissertation as well, your instructor might want you to use another, more formal style that's designed specifically for a thesis in a certain area of study. MLA Style, for example, works well with areas of study in liberal arts, and APA Style works well with psychological areas of study. Think of Chicago (Turabian) Style as a flexible option for creating a thesis or dissertation that doesn't quite fit some of the other style options. Chicago Style requires following several rules for formatting the paper and for listing the sources you used to create the paper. As you look the rules and the large books devoted to Chicago Style, you might be intimidated. After all, if the book describing how to follow Chicago (Turabian) Style is 900 or more pages, how difficult is it for you to learn enough rules to formulate a decent paper? It's not as difficult as it seems. Following Chicago Style requires learning a few basic, common sense rules, and then applying slight variations of those rules throughout your paper.
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I. THE ORIGI ATIO OF CHICAGO STYLE The University of Chicago Press oversees the guidelines and rules for Chicago (Turabian) Style. The main publication devoted to Chicago Style is "The Chicago Manual of Style," which sometimes is abbreviated to CMS or CMOS. The University of Chicago Press created the first Chicago Style Manual in 1906, and the 15th edition appeared in 2003. The Chicago Style Manual provides advice and guidelines for all aspects of writing; it is not limited to creating formal papers. You'll find tips and rules on grammar, correct usage of abbreviations, and proper punctuation in the Chicago Style Manual. Beyond the printed edition of the Chicago Style Manual, you can visit chicagomanualofstyle(dot)org on the Internet for more information, including a "Quick Guide" to Chicago (Turabian) Style. The Chicago Style Manual is available at the Web site for $55 in a print version and $60 in an electronic version. You also can access the entire Chicago Style Manual through the Web site with an annual $30 subscription fee. As part of the Chicago Style is "A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations," written by Kate L. Turabian. Turabian served as the dissertation secretary at the University of Chicago for almost 30 years, and she created the Turabian Manual as a complement to the Chicago Style Manual. The Turabian Manual was designed to give students a list of rules and guidelines to follow for various writing projects. The first Turabian Manual was a pamphlet Turabian created in the 1930s describing the correct style for formatting a dissertation. The Turabian manual is now in its sixth edition, which was printed in 1996. Turabian died in 1987.
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Turabian Style and Chicago Style are almost identical, which is why they're often referred to in combination. Turabian Style allows for use of footnotes for citing sources, which separates it from many styles of writing formal papers. Papers that use Chicago (Turabian) Style typically are less formal papers not designed for publication. However, Chicago (Turabian) Style is flexible enough to work with almost any type of paper, including a thesis or dissertation. II. HOW TO START YOUR CHICAGO (TURABIA ) STYLE PAPER With any formal paper, including a Chicago Style paper, research is the key to create a strong paper. While performing research, track your sources. With every quotation or idea that you use from a source, you must tell your readers about the source. The type of information you'll need from a source varies, depending on the publication, but most citations of sources require at least the author's name, article title, publication name, publication date, and pages that generated the idea or quotation. When it's time to write your paper, using a computer with word processing software (such as Microsoft Word or WordPerfect) works well for following the formatting requirements for Chicago (Turabian) Style. For more in-depth items that I did not cover here, you may want to access one of the many books or Internet sites devoted to Chicago (Turabian) Style.
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How to Format a Paper in Chicago (Turabian) Style
The basic guidelines for creating a thesis, dissertation or formal paper using Chicago (Turabian) Style are straightforward. Most of them use common sense rules and formatting options. Use some of the guidelines listed here to format your thesis or dissertation using Chicago (Turabian) Style. A) ABBREVIATIO S. Abbreviations appear more regularly in formal papers now versus a few decades ago. If you choose to use abbreviations, stick with common ones. However, do not use abbreviations for expressions of dimensions, such as "miles." When using abbreviations that contain two periods, such as "U.S.", do not add a space after the first period. B) ALIG ME T. Chicago (Turabian) Style requires left justification of all text (minus indentions), but it allows for either ragged right or full justification of text. If you choose full justification, Chicago (Turabian) Style requires you to ensure that the spacing between words is minimal and that hyphens used to break words at the end of a line are used correctly and sparingly. Your word processing software should enable you to follow these two rules for full justification, unless you have numerous extremely large words in your paper. C) CAPITALIZATIO . Beyond typical sentences, Chicago (Turabian) Style allows for two types of capitalization. Headline-style capitalization calls for capitalizing all words, other than articles, certain prepositions, and conjunctions. Sentence-style capitalization calls for capitalizing only the first word, a word after a colon, and proper nouns.
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D) CORRECTI G FLUID. You may use a white correcting fluid to cover black specks and stray spots on the final paper. E) DATE. Chicago (Turabian) Style allows for two date formats: 31 March 2008 (day month year) or March 31, 2008 (month day, year). Just be certain that you select one format and stick with it throughout your paper. F) FO T. If using a word processor, stick with a serif font, such as Times New Roman. Use text in a 10- or 12-point size. A computer-generated font is preferred to a typewriter because the computer can create italicized text more easily than a typewriter. G) HYPHE ATIO . With Chicago (Turabian) Style, you may break words with a hyphen at the end of a line in your main text, but you should not hyphenate words at the end of two consecutive lines. H) I DE TIO S. Indent paragraphs within the main text of the paper onehalf inch or five to eight spaces. Chicago (Turabian) Style does not require a specific indention measurement, but it does require that writers use the same amount of indention throughout the paper. I) MARGI S. For all four sides of the paper, use a 1-inch margin. However, if the paper will be bound on the left, a wider margin is allowed on the left side. J) UMBERS. Spell out and use words for all numbers through 100 in Chicago (Turabian) Style. For numbers larger than 100, use numerals. Exceptions include: Spell out all numbers that start a sentence, use numerals
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for all percentages and decimal numbers, and use numerals for all numbers within a series of amounts. K) PAGE UMBERI G. Number almost every page in the paper with Arabic numerals, other than the pages that lead into the main text, such as the copyright, dedication, and table of contents pages. All of these pages, which Chicago (Turabian) Style calls "display" pages, should be numbered with lowercase roman numerals. Do not number the title page, but count the title page among the display pages. The next page should be blank or the copyright page, and it is not numbered, either. The page following the blank/copyright page should be numbered "iii" in roman numerals, centered at the bottom of the page. At the beginning of the main text, switch from roman numerals to Arabic numbers and place the number "1" in the upperright corner of the page. If, however, a page contains a chapter heading or another type of main heading, you can center the Arabic numeral at the bottom of the page. Number all blank pages and any other pages; the pagination should run consecutively. Place all page numbers at least threequarters of an inch from the edge of the paper.
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L) PAPER TYPE. Use standard white, 20-pound bond paper that measures 8.5-by-11 inches. If using a computer, use an inkjet or laser printer to print the paper. M) SPACI G. Use double-spacing throughout the paper's main text. However, block quotation, endnotes, footnotes, headings, and captions may be single-spaced, according to Chicago (Turabian) Style. ) TITLE. Center all text on the title page, both horizontally and vertically. All text should be uppercase and double-spaced, too.
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What Pages Do I Need With My Chicago (Turabian) Style Paper?
If you are writing a thesis or dissertation or any formal paper using Chicago (Turabian) Style, you have several options for deciding which pages to include in your paper. Some pages are required, while others are optional for your thesis or dissertation. I have listed the page descriptions (below) in the order in which they should appear in your Chicago (Turabian) Style paper. Always start each of these sections on a new page. Most of them will only require one page. A) TITLE. On the title page, which is required, all text must be doublespaced using uppercase characters. Center the text both horizontally and vertically. Begin with the name of the educational institution, followed by the title. Next, list the committee to which you're submitting the dissertation or thesis, along with the department or college for which you're submitting it. Then include the word "BY" on a separate line, followed by the author's name. Finally, place the city and state where you wrote the paper, along with the month and year of graduation. Place extra horizontal lines between each section on the title page, allowing you to center it vertically on the paper. Keep in mind that the title page is the first of the "display" pages in Chicago (Turabian) Style, but you do not number it. B) COPYRIGHT PAGE OR BLA K PAGE. This page is immediately after the title page, and you need to either include a copyright notice or leave the page blank. The blank (or mostly blank) page prevents characters on the first main text page from bleeding through the title page. For the copyright,
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near the bottom of the page, type "Copyright," the copyright symbol, the year the paper was written, and the name of the author. On the next line, indent and type, "All rights reserved" with no punctuation marks. Do not number this page, either, but you do count it in your pagination. The next display page will be "iii" in roman numerals. C) DEDICATIO . A dedication page is an optional page. Simply type "To" followed by the name of the person(s) to which you want to dedicate the paper. D) EPIGRAPH PAGE. The epigraph page, which may contain a poem or quotation, is optional. E) TABLE OF CO TE TS. The table of contents is an optional page, and it should be numbered as part of the display pages. It is an organized listing of the contents of the paper, providing page numbers to the various sections and headings in the paper. The reader can use the table of contents to jump to a particular section of the paper. When listing chapter headings in the table of contents, make sure they exactly match the chapter headings in the text. Use a leader to connect the chapter heading or section name (aligned on the left) with the page number (aligned on the right). Type "CONTENTS" or "TABLE OF CONTENTS" centered at the top of the page. F) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIO S A D LIST OF TABLES. These optional pages are part of the display pages, and you should only use them if you have illustrations and tables in your paper. List each illustration or table with the appropriate title and page number, connected by a leader. Right-align the page number and left-align the title of each table or figure.
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G) PREFACE. The preface is another optional display page. The author can list the motivation for the project and acknowledgements. H) LIST OF ABBREVIATIO S OR GLOSSARY. If you have a lot of odd abbreviations or terms in your paper, you can list them on one of these optional pages. I) ABSTRACT. Use an abstract page to briefly summarize the contents of the thesis or dissertation. It's an optional display page. J) MAI TEXT. Begin numbering the main text with Arabic numerals, and you should no longer use the lowercase roman numerals from the display pages. Each Arabic page number should appear in the upper right corner of each page. If you have a chapter heading or another type of main heading at the top of a page, you may center the page number at the bottom of the page. K) APPE DIX. Use the optional appendix page(s) for material that doesn't quite fit into the main text, such as complex tables or technical notes. You may have more than one appendix. Each appendix should deal with a different idea or topic. Number them either with letters or numbers, such as "Appendix A" and "B" and "C," for example. L) BIBLIOGRAPHY OR REFERE CE LIST. Include your bibliography after the final main text page or appendix page on a new page. The reference list page should include all works that you’ve cited in your paper, listed alphabetically. (We’ll discuss citing references in another article.) Make sure you continue the Arabic page numbering throughout the bibliography pages.
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How to Cite Sources Inside the Text in Chicago (Turabian) Style
Any time you write a formal paper, such as a thesis or dissertation, it's important that you properly cite any sources that you use. Any time you use an idea that was introduced in another place -- whether it's a book, a Web site, or another scholarly paper -- you must give credit to the original author, by citing the source. If you use a quotation from another source, you also must list the source in your paper. It's important to list the sources you use so whoever reads your paper can find more information, should they need it. A comprehensive source list also shows your instructor and other readers that you've performed the necessary research to develop the position you've taken in the paper. Citing sources in Chicago (Turabian) Style requires two processes. One citation is required at the position in the main text where the cited material appears, where you have three options: 1) In-text citations, 2) footnotes, or 3) endnotes. The other citation occurs at the end of the paper, in a list of all cited works, called a reference list or a bibliography. If you use endnotes, the bibliography is not required, although most formal pages include one. In this article, we'll focus on in-text citations, which Chicago (Turabian) Style sometimes calls parenthetical references, within the main text of the paper. Other articles in this series will handle the other types of references.
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I) AUTHOR-DATE You can use a couple of different types of parenthetical references within the text, depending on the structure of the sentence, as shown in these examples. AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE A). Include the name of the author within the sentence, followed by the year of publication inside parentheses.
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The Jones study (2003) indicates that technological advancements spur economic growth.
AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE B). You can place the name of the authors inside the parentheses with the year of publication, depending on your sentence structure. Use no punctuation within the parentheses.
Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth (Jones 2003).
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AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE C). If you don't have a date of publication, use "n.d." in place of the date.
Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth (Jones n.d.).
AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE D). With multiple authors, use commas and the word "and" inside the parentheses. If the cited work has more than three authors, use "et al." after the primary author.
Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth (Jones, Johnson, and Smith 2003). Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth (Jones et al. 2003).
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AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE E). If you have multiple sources from the same author or sources from multiple authors with the same last name, you'll have to list part of the title of the work or the organization of the author along with the author. You also can add "a" and "b" to the year of publication, should you have two sources from the same author published in the same year.
Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth (Jones Economic Growth Study, 2003). Other economic studies show that investing in technological research will benefit the economy, too (Jones Technology and the Economy, 2003).
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AUTHOR-DATE (EXAMPLE F). If you need to cite a source with no author, list a shortened version of the title or the organization that created the source. Use the same formatting as with the author.
Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth (State University 2003).
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II. FOOT OTES OR E D OTES If you decide to use footnotes or endnotes instead of the author-date style, you'll need to use numbers within the main text to link the material you want to source with the footnote or endnote. Use an Arabic number with each source, either in superscript, in parentheses, or in brackets. Use the Arabic numbers in sequential order.
Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth. [1] Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth. (1) Some economic studies indicate that technological advancements spur economic growth.1
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List each footnote at the bottom of the page where the source is cited. Separate the main text from the footnote(s) with a vertical line, called a separator. Endnotes go at the end of all of the pages of the main text. Indent each footnote or endnote and use single-spacing, with a blank space between each footnote or endnote. After listing the source once in an endnote or footnote, you can use an abbreviated version of the author's name and title of the work upon subsequent listings. Use a superscript number or a number with a period to introduce the footnote.
1. Jones, Xavier. ...
1
Jones, Xavier. ...
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How to Create a Bibliography in Chicago (Turabian) Style
With Chicago (Turabian) Style, the bibliography page is where you list all of the sources you used to create your paper. You need to follow a variety of formatting rules when listing the sources. The type of source that you're listing determines the formatting configuration that you'll use, but there are a few formatting rules that work for every listing. A) ALPHABETIZI G. When creating the alphabetical list of the bibliography, sort the list of sources based on the last name of the author. When sorting the list, ignore any spaces in the last name. If you have more than one source from an author, sort them by either the dates in which they were created or by placing the titles of the sources in alphabetical order. Just be certain that once you've chosen a sorting preference for multiple sources from one author, you stick with it. B) AUTHORS. List the author's last name, followed by the first name and middle name, if the author commonly uses it. If you have more than one author for a source, list each one individually. The first author should be listed by last name, then first name. Subsequent authors should be listed by first name, then last name. When listing more than one author, separate them by commas, with the word “and” ahead of the final author in the list. C) CAPITALIZATIO . Use headline-style capitalization with all titles in your bibliography.
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D) I DE TIO . After the first line of each source, indent each subsequent line about one-half inch, creating a hanging indention for each source. E) SPACI G. You may single-space each entry in the bibliography, leaving a blank space between entries. I. BIBLIOGRAPHY EXAMPLES Here are some examples for listing various sources in Chicago (Turabian) Style. (These examples do not follow the indention rules.) ARTICLES. When using a newspaper or a magazine as a source, list the author, title of the article (in quotations), name of the periodical (in italics), date of publication, and page numbers used.
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Johnson, Thomas J. "Governments Invest in Technology." ew York Times, 29 ovember 2007, B1.
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A journal article requires slightly different formatting. Be sure to include the issue number and the issue date ahead of the page number(s).
Johnson, Thomas J. "The Economic Impact of Technology." Journal of Economic Growth 6 (June 2005): 110-2.
BOOKS. Include the author's name, the book title (italicized), the publisher's location and name, and the date of publication. Do not use the page numbers used as a source in the bibliography.
Johnson, Thomas J. and Xavier Quincy Smith. Economic Growth in Africa. ew York: Jones Brothers Publishers, 2003.
GOVER ME T DOCUME T. Because such a document usually doesn't include an author, list the governmental division in the alphabetical list and italicize the title.
U.S. Department of the Treasury. Economic Growth Forecast, 2006-2010. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 2005.
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I TER ET SITE. List the author's name, if known; title of the online article or Web page (in quotations); Web site name; date of publication, if known; Internet address; and date of retrieval (in parentheses).
Johnson, Thomas J. "Determining Technology's Role in Economic Growth." Economic Growth, August 20, 2006, http://www.economicgrowth.com/johnson/techrole.html (accessed July 20, 2007).
SCHOLARLY WORK. If using a thesis or dissertation as a source, list the author's name, the title (in quotations), the type of paper, the educational institution, and the year of publication.
Jones, Steven. "Hydrogen Bonding and Water Molecules." Ph.D. diss., State University, 2000.
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II. ODD SITUATIO S Same author, multiple sources. If you end up with several sources from the same author, you may skip repeating the author's name. Instead, use a solid horizontal line to replace the author's name. The horizontal line should be noticeably longer than the hanging indention of the source, probably threequarters inch to one inch in length. If you have an additional source that lists multiple authors, you will have to enter the original author's name again. The only time you may use the horizontal line is when all of the authors are the same as the previous work in the list. In the four examples below, the first two have the same single author, and the last two have the same pair of authors.
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Johnson, Thomas J. "Governments Invest in Technology." ew York Times, 29 ovember 2007, B1. _________. "The Economic Impact of Technology." Journal of Economic Growth 6 (June 2005): 110-2. Johnson, Thomas J. and Xavier Quincy Smith. Economic Growth in Africa. ew York: Jones Brothers Publishers, 2003. _________. Economic Decline in Africa. ew York: Jones Brothers Publishers, 2006.
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III. ADDITIO AL I FORMATIO . Finally, for additional information on formatting sources in a reference list, look at either The Chicago Manual of Style or Turabian's A Manual for Writers. Both books cover a large number of situations for listing sources within a bibliography. The chicagomanualofstyle(dot)org Web site also has a large number of helpful resources.
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How to Create Headings and Endnotes in Chicago (Turabian) Style
Chicago (Turabian) Style provides the writer with a few different options for breaking up the blocks of text in the main text area of the thesis or dissertation. You may use headings or chapters, depending on the type of paper you're creating and on how you need to organize the information. I) HEADI GS You may use headings to better organize your Chicago (Turabian) Style paper. The organization of headings is a little bit like an outline, with varying levels of headings and subheadings that aid in organization. You don't number each heading in Chicago (Turabian) Style as you do with an outline, but you can use up to five different levels of headings and subheadings with Chicago (Turabian) Style. The headings formatting requirements include: FIRST LEVEL. The first level headings should be centered above their associated text blocks. Use headline-style capitalization, and you may use either bold, italics, or underline characters. SECO D LEVEL. Type the second level heading centered in headlinestyle capitalization in standard text. Do not use any italics, bold, or underline characters.
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THIRD LEVEL. The third level heading is left-aligned, using headlinestyle capitalization. You may use bold, italics, or underline characters with the third-level heading. FOURTH LEVEL. For the fourth level of heading, switch to sentence-style capitalization. Left-align the text, and do not use any bold, italics, or underline characters. FIFTH LEVEL. With the fifth level of heading, you will indent the heading, using it like a lead-in sentence to a paragraph, complete with a period at the end of the heading. The fifth-level heading should consist of italics, bold, or underline characters. Use sentence-style capitalization with the fifth-level heading.
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An example of the formatting for all five levels of headings looks this way.
First Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Second Level of Heading (centered) Main text continues as normal (indented). Third Level of Heading (left-align) Main text continues as normal (indented). Fourth level of heading (left-align) Main text continues as normal (indented). Fifth level of heading. (indented) Main text follows immediately ...
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With the first four levels of headings, you should leave a blank line before and after the heading to give it more emphasis. If you use fewer than five levels of headings, you may select any of the heading levels to use, as long as you remain true to the order of the headings. For example, you may use the first and third heading levels, in that order, when you have a two-heading configuration. You may use the second, third, and fifth heading levels, in that order, when you have a three-heading configuration. However, you may not use the fourth, first, and fifth heading levels, in that order, for a threeheading configuration. Three final rules regarding headings: First, if you are centering the heading and it is more than 48 characters, then you should split the heading into two or more separate lines. The lines should be single-spaced. List them in an inverted pyramid, as shown below. Investments in Technology in Africa Will Spur Economic Growth Second, the left-aligned headings should be divided into multiple lines, if the heading will occupy a line stretching across more than half the page. Singlespace all of these lines, and try to divide them evenly. Investments in Technology on African Continent Will Spur Unprecedented Economic Growth Third, never end a page with a subhead; carry it over to the next page.
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II) CHAPTERS If you have a thesis or dissertation that makes use of numerous different ideas and is long enough to need a more complex organizational structure, Chicago (Turabian) Style allows for the use of chapters. Begin each chapter on a new page. Chapter titles typically are listed in two pieces: The word "CHAPTER" and the number of the chapter as one piece, followed by a more descriptive title of a few words, which gives the reader an idea of the broad topic that will be discussed in the chapter. CHAPTER O E ECO OMIC FORECASTS I AFRICA
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When creating chapters, you can omit the "CHAPTER" and simply list the number designation. Always list chapters in numerical order and do not skip numbers. You also may select one of three ways to list the chapter numbers: Spell out the word representing the number, use an Arabic numeral, or use a roman numeral. SEVE CHAPTER SEVE CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER VII Rather than using headings to discuss subtopics within a chapter, you may divide chapters into parts. Each part should only contain the word "PART" and the number of the part. As with chapters, always list parts in numerical order and do not skip numbers. If you used Arabic numerals for numbering each chapter, you should use roman numerals for each part, and vice versa, as shown below. CHAPTER I PART 1 PART 2 CHAPTER II
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The Differences Between Chicago (Turabian) Style and APA Style of Writing
A formal paper, such as a dissertation or a thesis, requires you to follow several formatting rules. The rules provide a structure for the paper, giving instructors the ability to work through the paper's ideas and to judge the validity of your arguments. Such rules also give you a standard, acceptable method for citing the sources that you've used to create your paper, and thereby avoiding inadvertently plagiarizing some material. Determining which set of formatting rules, or styles, to follow is a decision you and your instructor will need to make. A few different popular formats exist, including MLA Style, chiefly used for the humanities and liberal arts, along with APA Style and Chicago (Turabian) Style. Generally, you select the style to follow based on the subject matter of the paper you’re writing. Each style treats the formatting of the paper a little differently to meet the citation needs for the subject matter. In this article, we'll compare APA Style and Chicago (Turabian) Style. I. CHOOSI G YOUR STYLE If your instructor doesn't select the style that you’ll use for your paper, pick a style based on these suggestions. CHICAGO (TURABIAN) STYLE. For the most part, Chicago (Turabian) Style works well as an all-encompassing style for all types of subject matter. The University of Chicago Press has created The Chicago Manual of Style,
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Writing Styles for College Students
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which provides the guidelines for citing sources and formatting papers. The 15th edition is the latest edition. Visit chicagomanualofstyle.org on the Web for more information. Kate Turabian, the dissertation secretary at the University of Chicago for 30 years, created A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, giving students and researchers additional guidelines. The sixth edition is the latest edition. The two styles are nearly identical, with only a few differences, and they're often combined to represent one style, as we've done here. Non-scholarly publications also will make use of Chicago (Turabian) Style in magazines and newspapers. APA STYLE. Subjects related to the social sciences, such as business, criminal justice, economics, law, and medical subjects, including nursing and psychology, work best with APA Style. The American Psychological Association created the APA Style, and you can visit apastyle.org on the Internet to find more information on APA Style. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the full listing of APA Style guidelines and formatting rules. II. THE DIFFERE CES Quite a few formatting differences exist between Chicago (Turabian) Style and APA Style, including those listed here. Choose the style that will allow you to format your paper and deliver the information to your readers in the most efficient manner. I -TEXT CITATIO S. Most of the differences between Chicago (Turabian) and APA Styles involve in-text citations. Both styles include the last name of the author and a page number in parentheses for the in-text
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citation. APA Style also includes the year of publication of the source, but Chicago (Turabian) Style does not.
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Chicago (Turabian) Style also allows the use of footnotes, rather than in-text citations, to cite your sources. With a footnote, you link the material that needs to be sourced with the source information, usually through superscript Arabic numerals. A footnote lists far more information about each source than does an in-text citation. Footnotes appear only on the page that contains the information that you need to cite. When using footnotes, you don't necessarily have to include a bibliography, although most people use both. An in-text citation, meanwhile, provides only a little basic information about the source. Readers use the in-text citation to find the full source information in the bibliography or reference list. With Chicago (Turabian) Style, you may use either footnotes or in-text citations. APA Style only allows in-text citations. PAGE UMBERS. With both styles, the page number appears in the upper right corner of each page. With APA Style, you must include a running title to the left of the page number on each page. A running title is a two- or three-word summary of the title of your paper. With Chicago (Turabian) Style, you only list the page number. If a chapter heading appears on the page in Chicago (Turabian) Style, you should list the page number along the bottom of the page, instead of in the upper right corner. REFERE CE LIST FORMATTI G. With both styles, when listing each of your sources on the reference list page or in a bibliography, use the full last name of the author(s) in each entry. In APA Style, you also list only the
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initials of the first and middle name of each author. In Chicago (Turabian) Style, you spell out the entire first and middle name of each author. (The middle name information is optional.)
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Writing Advice for Chicago (Turabian) Style
If you follow information and instructions from publications and Internet resources devoted to Chicago (Turabian) Style, then writing a formal paper isn't as difficult as it sounds. Following all the rules can be tricky, but it's not impossible. Follow the tips listed here, and your Chicago (Turabian) Style thesis or dissertation will be a success. A) BIBLIOGRAPHY. As you perform the research for your paper, keep the bibliography in the back of your mind. For every idea or quote you use from one of your sources, you will have to cite the idea in the paper and list the source in the bibliography. Even if you choose to use footnotes with your Chicago (Turabian) Style paper, you probably will want to create a bibliography. When you pull information from sources, make sure you collect extensive information about each source for the bibliography. Having a comprehensive list will help if you need to revisit a source to find more information for your paper. B) CITATIO S CHECKED A D RE-CHECKED. Be sure you have properly listed all of the citations in your paper, whether you chose to use intext citations, footnotes, or endnotes. Although formatting every citation correctly can be difficult, it helps your instructor when he reads your paper. In addition, other readers must be able to find each citation in the bibliography, so it's important to cite everything correctly. Make sure you spell all authors' names correctly, too. Citing sources properly will ensure you don't inadvertently commit plagiarism. If you're unsure whether to use an in-text citation for a source, you probably should use it. It's better to be safe than sorry when citing sources.
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C) EXTER AL SOURCES. If you are unsure about the formatting style for a particular page in your paper or for citing a source, turn to either the Chicago Style Manual or the Turabian Manual for Writers. Both books have hundreds of examples for formatting formal papers. Keep in mind, however, that neither book has been updated in recent years. The latest version of the Chicago Style Manual, the 15th edition, was published in 2003. The Turabian Manual's sixth edition was published in 1996, meaning it doesn't contain much information on citing Internet sources, for example. D) FOLLOW YOUR I STRUCTOR'S I STRUCTIO S. You may have an instructor who gives you directions for composing the thesis or dissertation that differ slightly from those in Chicago (Turabian) Style. Follow your instructor's guidelines in those instances. Chicago (Turabian) Style contains many optional pages and areas where the writer has some latitude to make changes. If you are unsure how you should handle a particular aspect of your paper's formatting, check with your instructor. E) GRAMMAR GUIDELI ES. Papers that follow proper grammar are more likely to receive favorable marks from an instructor. For example, always write in active voice, rather than passive voice. The Chicago Style Manual contains quite a few grammar-related resources. F) PROOFREAD A FEW TIMES. Proofreading should not be done as a last-minute item; you should proofread a few times before you finish the paper. In fact, it's best to set the paper aside for a couple of days between proofreading sessions. If you can take a break from the paper for a couple of days, you'll be surprised how much better your proofreading sessions go with a fresh look at the paper. Depending on the importance of the paper, you may want to hire someone to do some additional proofreading for you.
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Keep in mind that word processing software spell checkers (such as Microsoft Word and Wordperfect) are very handy, but they do not catch every error.
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G) TAKE YOUR TIME. As with most tasks, those who take their time usually achieve a better result than those who rush through the project. Hurrying unnecessarily with your Chicago (Turabian) Style paper will lead to mistakes, so take your time to ensure correct formatting. If you are forced to hurry because of an impending deadline, your writing will suffer, and you'll make mistakes in formatting. Start early on the paper, set goals for finishing different aspects of it, such as completing the research or completing the first draft, and you'll have a much better finished product. H) THE WRITI G MATTERS. Following the Chicago (Turabian) Style rules closely are an important part of creating a successful paper. However, such rules should not overwhelm your work. Instead, focus on the content of your paper and focus on the writing. If the content of your paper is lacking, it won't matter to your instructor how closely your paper follows Chicago (Turabian) Style.
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