Wylie - Tibetan Zombie
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Ro - Langs: The Tibetan Zombie Author(s): Turrell Wylie Source: History of Religions, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Summer, 1964), pp. 69-80 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1061872 . Accessed: 28/06/2013 13:43
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Turrell Wylie
R O - L A N G S: THE TIBETAN Z OM B I E
1 The final s in ro-langs is not a sign of plurality, nor is it pronounced in colloquial Tibetan. Ro-langs is the equivalent of vetdla, the "walking dead" of Sanskrit literature. 2 Kun-dga'-snying-po (1575-?), better known as Taranatha, composed (ca. 1608) an account of the rise of Buddhism in India titled: Dam-pa'i chos rin-po-che 'phags-pa'i yul-du ji-ltar dar-ba'i tshul-gsal-bar ston-pa dgos-'dod 'byung, which was translated by A. Schiefner as Taranatha's Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien (St. Petersburg, 1869). On Taranatha, see Giuseppe Tucci, Tibetan Painted Scrolls (Rome, 1949), I, 128 ff., 163-64, and 197 ff. 3 This passage refers to Gopiala, founder of the Pala Dynasty in Bengal, and to Devapala, his second successor. The Pala Dynasty lasted some 450 years and was predominantly Buddhistic in religious orientation (cf. Charles Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism [London, 1954], II, 109 if.). 69
In the voodoo cult of the West Indies, a zombie is a corpse which has been brought into a state of animation through supernatural power by a necromancer. Zombies are not, however, unique to Caribbean cultures. Tibet has its own zombie, known as ro-langs.1 Ro is the general word for "corpse" and langs is the perfect tense for the verb "to rise up"; thus ro-langs literally means "a risen corpse." Two types of ro-langs are found in Tibetan cultural tradition. The first, which I shall call the tantric type, is a corpse activated through a necromantic ritual for personal reasons. An illustration of this type is found in the religious history written by Kun-dga'snying-po.2 At the time of either the king Gau-pa-la or De-wa-pa-la,3 the temple
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Ro-Langs: The Tibetan Zombie
of O-tanta-pu-ri4 was built. (This is its history.) There was in a region of Magadha, a non-Buddhist yogin named Na-ra-da who possessed a straightforward nature and who had attained mantric power. In order to achieve the conjuration of ro-langs,5 he required an assistant of physical strength, devoid of illness, and possessing the nine characteristics of a hero. [The assistant] must be truthful, keen of mind and courageous, devoid of deceit and knowledgeable in all the arts. There was no one else [around], and then he saw a Buddhist votary [dgebsnyen]6to whom he said, "Act as my assistant in the conjuration!" [The votary] replied, "I cannot assist in the conjurations of a heretic." [The heretic] said, "It is not necessary that you take refuge in heresy!7 Since there will arise an everlasting enjoyment and the [Buddhist] religion will be spread, it is indeed permissible for you [to do so!]." "Well, I shall go and ask my teacher." The teacher gave permission, so [the votary] served as the conjuration assistant. When they were ready to do the conjuration, [the heretic] said, "The tongue of the ro-langs will waggle and stick out. You must seize it! If you catch it on the first time, the power [siddhi] will be great. If on the second time, it will be middling. If on the third time, it will be small. If you fail to catch it by the third time [the ro-langs]will devour us both, and then the countryside will be brought to desolation." The votary failed to catch [the tongue] the first and second time [that it extruded], so he put his mouth to that of the corpse and waited. On the third time, he seized it with his teeth and the tongue turned into a sword. The body [of the corpse] changed into gold. Holding the sword, the votary moved around and then soared up into the sky. The heretic said, "I performed conjuration in order to obtain that sword. Give it to me!" [The votary] replied, "I am going to see the sights!" and away he went to the top of Sumeru mountain. In an instant, he circled the four continents and the minor ones.8 Then [he returned and] handed the sword over to the heretic, who said, "You take this corpse, which has turned to gold! Cut off the [golden] flesh down to the bones! Do not spend [the gold] on improperthings like barley beer and prostitutes! If you use it for your own livelihood and for deeds of virtue, then what is
4 O-tanta-pu-ri, which appears to be the same as Uddandapura (cf. Tucci, op. cit., II, 611), is said to have been built by King Gopala, circa 765 A.D. It was destroyed in 1193 by Ikhtiyar-ud Din Muhammed (see Eliot, op. cit., p. 112). 5 In Tibetan: ro-langs-kyi dngos-grub. Dngos-grub (Sanskrit: siddhi) is an occult power, eight of which the siddha seeks to attain. The power to activate zombies is one of these. 6 In Sanskrit: updsaka, or one who has only to observe eight vows as opposed to the Dge-slong (Sanskrit: bhiksu), or fully ordained monk, who must observe 253 vows. 7 This is a parody on the Buddhist creed and means that the votary need not profess belief in heretical doctrines in order to assist in the necromantic ritual of the heretic. 8 This refers to the symmetry of the mandala of the Buddhist universe with Sumeru in the center, surrounded by the four major continents and the eight minor ones. For details on this arrangement, see L. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet (Cambridge, 1958), pp. 397-400. 70
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cut off [that corpse of gold] in the daytime will be replenished at night and it shall last forever!" [The heretic] then took up the sword and went away to the realm of the gods. The votary, using the gold of the ro-langs, built the great monastic temple of O-tanta-pu-ri. "O-tanta" means "to make elevated."9 He built it in accordance with the arrangement of Sumeru mountain and the four continents.10 The votary became known as U-dya u-pa-si-ka.ll1 That monastic temple [was built] without help from anyone, either king or minister. Funds for those who built the temple, those who made the images, the artisans, and the materials, all were provided by that same votary from selling gold from [the body of] the ro-langs. The gold was used to support five hundred monks and five hundred votaries, and as long as that votary himself lived, he maintained the religious endowment of [O-tanta-pu-ri]. At the time of his death, he said, "This gold will benefit no one else now, but it will be of benefit to future creatures." So it was buried in concealment.12 As seen from the above story, the tantric type of ro-langs closely resembles the zombie of voodooism in that the corpse is animated by a necromancer for occult reasons. In this instance, it was to obtain the tongue of the corpse, which turned into a sword of occult power. References to this type of ro-langs in Tibetan tradition are rare and antiquated and there is some question whether it is ever encountered outside of esoteric literature. A similar account of the conjuration of a ro-langs is quoted by Hoffmann, who added that "'The rite of the rising corpse' [ro-langs] does not belong to the original stock of the Bonshamanists, but made its way into the Land of Snows with the Tantric magicians of India."13 This statement may well be true for what I call the tantric ro-langs; but, as I said at the beginning of this paper, there are two types of ro-langs-a dichotomy not mentioned by Hoffmann. The
9 The O-tanta of the Tibetan text appears to be a rendering of the Sanskrit: uddanda, i.e., "having an elevated staff" (cf. Monier Monier-Williams, SanskritEnglish Dictionary [Oxford, 1951], p. 187). 10 According to tradition, O-tanta-pu-ri was laid out in the symmetry of the mandala of the universe. Since it was destroyed by the Moslems in the twelfth century, we can no longer reconstruct it; however, the existing monastery of Bsam-yas in central Tibet is said to have been modeled on the plan of O-tantapu-ri (see Tucci, "The Symbolism of the Temples of Bsam-yas," East and West, VI, No. 4 [Rome, 1956], 279-81). 11 This is, perhaps, a rendering in Tibetan of Sanskrit: udyd updsika, i.e., "the risen votary." 12 The ro-langs story translated here is found in the religious history of Taranatha (cf. n. 2 of this paper), fol. 98a-98b. The Tibetan text of this story in is transcription appended to this paper. A condensed version of this same ro-langs story occurs in Padma-dkar-po'i chos-'byung (fol. 80a), a religious history by a Bhutanese monk, Padma-dkar-po (1526-92). 13 Hoffmann, The Religions of Tibet (London, 1961), pp. 61-62.
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Ro-Langs: The Tibetan Zombie
second type of ro-langs is so dissimilar from the first that I suggest a different provenance for it. As already illustrated, the tantric type of ro-langs is animated through an occult ritual to obtain a fetish of supernatural power. The conjuration is undertaken by the necromancer with premeditation to achieve a state of occult power (Tibetan, dngos-grub; Sanskrit, siddhi ). By way of contrast, the second type of ro-langs is activated by an evil demon without benefit of human conjuration. Greatly feared, this type of zombie seeks to turn other people into ro-langs and drastic measures are taken to prevent the spread of its contamination. I call this type of zombie the demonic rolangs. Traditionally, all ro-langs are animated by spirits of the gdon class. Gdon spirits are mentioned in stories dealing with the preBuddhist era of Tibetan history. For example, Dri-gum-btsan-po, seventh in the lineage of ancient kings, is said to have been possessed by a gdon spirit which drove him mad and caused him to fight with his minister, Long-ngam.14 Gdon spirits are in keeping with the animism of pre-Buddhist Tibet, and they are said to have been subdued by the Indian Tantrist, Padmasambhava, who introduced Buddhism to Tibet in the eighth century A.D. Those gdon spirits which are coerced to animate the tantric type of ro-langs are considered to be bound by vow to defend the Buddhist religion. Those which spontaneously activate the demonic ro-langs are either gdon, which have broken their vows, or they are bgegs spirits, which were not subjugated by Padmasambhava. Thus the tantric type of ro-langs is associated with the Indian Tantric tradition; but the demonic type of ro-langs seems to be part of the autochthonous Bon-shamanistic traditionHoffmann's statement to the contrary. What, then, is a demonic ro-langs? 15 According to Buddhist doctrine, a sentient creature is composed of five aggregates. The aggregate of "consciousness" (Tibetan, rnam-shes; Sanskrit, vijinna) combines and coordinates the functions of the other four. Rnam-shes is translated as "soul" in some Tibetan-English dictionaries; but, the term "soul" is too imbued with the concept of Christian immortality to have validity in Buddhist terminology. After death, rnam-shes leaves the body through the brahmanic
Sa-skya Bdag-chen Rin-po-che and his wife, Bdag-mo Lags, for oral traditions concerning demonic ro-langs. 72
14 Cf. Tucci, Tibetan Painted Scrolls, II, 733. 15 I am indebted to the Tibetans now residing at Seattle, particularly the
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aperture at the crown of the skull. Although this may vary in time, it usually occurs three days after death. Once "consciousness" leaves the body, the critical period begins, for it is then that a gdon, or bgegs, spirit may enter the corpse and reanimate it. Since week-long funeral services are not uncommon, the corpse is watched continuously to guard against its activation by a gdon spirit. When someone, usually a lama, sits up at night to watch the corpse, it is called "pillow-guarding" (snye-srung). If the corpse shows signs of reanimation, it has turned into a ro-langs. Activated by an evil spirit, it then sets out to turn others into ro-langs by placing its palm on the head of the intended victim, who develops the syndrome of ro-langs sickness (i.e., deathlike pallor, incoherency, and impairment of muscular control). The victim is then said to be gdon zhugs-pa, or "one in whom a gdon-demon has entered." Although usually fatal, ro-langs sickness can sometimes be cured by a lama well versed in the parapsychological doctrines of Gcod-pa.16 Despite its demonic character, a ro-langs is restricted in physical ability. It cannot speak, so it uses its hands and tongue for signaling purposes. Should someone else be present when approaching a victim, the ro-langs signals the onlooker to remain silent by wagging its tongue and waving its right hand back and forth with the palm forward. The onlooker does not give warning lest the ro-langs attack him instead of the intended victim. Neither can a ro-langs stoop or bend, so it cannot enter a room with a low doorway. In many parts of Tibet, particularly in Lho-kha, the low doorway is a common form of architectural protection against rolangs. Tibetan oral tradition evidences five classes of ro-langs. They are: lpags-langs or skin-zombie khrag-langs or blood-zombie or flesh-zombie sha-langs or bone-zombie rus-langs rme-langs or mole-zombie. As indicated by the names, the classification of a ro-langs depends upon which part of the corpse is vulnerable. For example, a blood-zombie must be made to bleed in order to make it "fall
16 Gcod-pa, literally "to cut off," is the esoteric teaching transmitted to Tibet by Pha-dam-pa (died 1117). For a Tibetan summation of this doctrine in translation, see W. Y. Evans-Wentz, Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines (London, 1958), pp. 277-334. Also, cf. George Roerich, The Blue Annals (Calcutta, 1953) II, 981 ff. 73
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
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Ro-Langs: The Tibetan Zombie
over." Since it is already a corpse, one does not "kill" a ro-langs, one causes it "to fall over" (brgyal-ba). The above autochthonous classification is graded according to the degree of vulnerability. The skin-zombie is easiest to destroy for the skin has only to be cut to make it fall over. The bloodzombie must bleed, the flesh-zombie must be incised, and the bone-zombie must be fractured to render them inanimate. The most difficult to cope with is the mole-zombie, whose only vulnerable spot is a mole, the location of which is not always known to the intended victim. Let us now examine some ro-langs stories in detail. Relying on certain characteristics found in the stories collected, I group them into three types: (1) the legendary ro-langs, (2) the epidemic rolangs, and (3) the comatose ro-langs. The following story is an example of the legendary type. There is a deserted place near Skye-rgu-mdo in Khams, called Rgyis-bzang, which was originally the name of a wealthy family that lived there a long, long time ago. The head of that family was a wellloved man; so much so, that when he died, the family was reluctant to dispose of the corpse after the funeral ceremonies were finished. It then being the dead of winter, the corpse was placed in a small shack near the main house and left there. Some two weeks later, noises within the shack aroused the suspicion of the dead man's son, who went to see what was going on. He peeked in and saw the corpse slowly moving itself. It had become a rolangs! Bolting the door in terror, the son fled to a nearby encampment of nomads and told them what had happened. Just as the son returned with several of the nomads, the door of the shack splintered away and out burst the ro-langs, walking toward them with a rigid gait. Since religious objects possess special efficacy as weapons against ro-langs,the nomads threw Buddhist images and board-boundbooks at the zombie. When these failed to stop it, they drew their short swords and hacked at the monster. Some, in desperation, fired their guns. But, the zombie kept coming! Both arms were cut off and still it moved. Only when a nomad decapitated it with a mighty swing of his sword did the ro-langs finally fall over. The nomads assured the son that, at last, the evil monster was destroyed and they rode off into the night. No more had they gone than the ro-langs, headless and armless, again rose to its feet. Its skin, blood, flesh, and bone had all been attacked, and yet it moved. It must be a mole-zombie, the son thought, so he ran to his mother and asked if his father had had a mole on his body. Indeed he had, she remembered, and she told her son it was located on the father's back. Taking a knife, the son carefully circled behind the ro-langs and plunged the blade into its back just where his mother said the mole
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was located. The ro-langstwitched and pitched over in a bloody, headless heap, never to rise again.17 This, the legendary type of ro-langs story, has certain characteristics. The incident is one which happened many generations ago and the story is handed down through the years. The multiplicity of morbid details suggests that the original story has not escaped subsequent elaborations. The "legendary" ro-langs story exemplifies, therefore, a nightmarish fantasy in Tibetan oral tradition. Let us now consider an example of the second type of ro-langs story, that is, the epidemic type. The lama of a certain monastery in Khams died and his body was laid out in the temple for week-long funeral services, which were conducted by the thirty monks of the monastery. On the third night, the monks were all asleep and only a young acolyte remained awake. Too frightened to sleep, the eleven-year-old boy sat and watched the corpse. Then, a black cat suddenly came into the gloom of the temple hall and moved noiselessly towards the corpse of the lama, illuminated only by the flickering light of butter-lamps. The cat circled the corpse three times and then, before the astonished eyes of the acolyte, disappeared into the corpse. The body stirred, opened its eyes and slowly sat up. It was a ro-langs! The acolyte hid behind a large Buddha-image near the altar and stared in horroras the ro-langsmoved rigidly around the hall. It touched each of the sleeping monks on the head, contaminating them all with ro-langssickness. When the ro-langsturned its back, the acolyte slipped out of the temple and ran to warn the local villagers. The villagers returned with him to the monastery, but none had the courage to enter the temple, so they bolted the door to imprison the zombies. A sngags-pa, or "exorcist"18 was summoned and he came to the temple, his hair piled high on his head and fastened with ornaments of human bone. Unafraid, he unbolted the door and went into the temple. He first chanted mystic syllables to the sound of his ritual drum and bell, and then he approached the zombies. He struck each of the monks a blow with the flap of his outer robe.19The ro-langsmonks each fell over from this blow and the ro-langs lama was destroyed in the same way. And so, out of that whole monastery, only the little acolyte was saved.20
17 This story is from the repertoire of Bdag-mo 'Jam-dbyangs Sa-skya-pa, a raconteur of ro-langs tales, par excellence. She thinks that this particular incident took place in the late nineteenth century. 18 A sngags-pa is one versed in ritualistic syllables (mantra) and is applied to those Rnying-ma-pa devotees who specialize in the occult arts. 19 This is known as a gzan-lcag, or "robe-blow," which is delivered by gripping that part of the religious toga which is thrown over the left shoulder and lashing with it much in the manner of a whip. 20 This is another story from the repertoire of Bdag-mo Sa-skya-pa. 75
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Ro-Langs: The Tibetan Zombie
The special feature of this type of ro-langs story, which I call the "epidemic" type, is that the ro-langs turns large numbers of people into ro-langs overnight. Although every demonic ro-langs possesses the evil power to turn others into zombies by touching them on the head, the affliction of many people in a short period of time distinguishes the "epidemic" type from those stories in which the ro-langs is destroyed without having claimed a single victim. The third, and last, type of ro-langs story, that is, the comatose type, is illustrated by the following stories. The mother of Mthu-stobs dbang-phyug21at Sa-skya died, her corpse was laid out on a bier, and arrangements for her funeral ceremonies were carriedout. A curtain was hung in front of the bier and a low table, set with butter-lamps, was placed in front of the curtain. Three lamas sat cross-legged and read the Bar-do-thos-grol (i.e., The Tibetan "Book of the Dead").22 The reading of the book continued from day to day, and then, on the third night, the corpse stirred. Ro-langs, for some demoniacal reason, find it difficult to rise up when there is too much light, so, the ro-langs pulled the curtain aside and blew out the flickering butterlamps. At that moment, two of the lamas leaped to their feet and fled in terror. One stayed behind. Wielding the heavy, wooden boards that serve as covers for the Tibetan "Book of the Dead," the remaining lama struck the ro-langs on the head with all his strength. Blood gushed from the wound and streamed down the face of the ro-langs.It fell over and moved no more. Four days later, when the funeral ceremonies were completed, the corpse was cremated as per custom.23 The second example of a comatose type of ro-langs story is as follows: There was in Sa-skya a very fat man by the name of Mi-nyag-pa Bstan-'dzin rgya-mtsho. He died in the iron-tiger year (1950). 'Jamdbyangs-phun-tshogs, the abbot of Lha-rgyal monastery in Sde-dge, Khams, was visiting Sa-skya at the time, and he was requested to perform "pillow-guarding" for the corpse. The corpse of the deceased Mi-nyag-pa began to increase in size. The lama, 'Jam-dbyangs, was disturbed as he watched the body slowly getting bigger and bigger. Then, on the second night, the corpse sud21 This man was the gsol-dpon-chen-mo, or "great food-master," a monk-servant in the service of the late Khri-chen Rdo-rje-'chang, ruling lama of Sa-skya, who died in 1950. 22 This Tibetan book, which deals with the illusory events that transpire between death and rebirth, is available in translation (see Evans-Wentz, The Tibetan Book of the Dead [Oxford, 1927]). 23 The Sa-skya Bdag-chen Rin-po-che, who related this story to me, said that it happened when he was twelve years old (i.e., ca. 1940) and that the event was told to him personally by the lama involved. 76
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denly exhaled air with a whoosh and opened its eyes. At first, the lama was too terrified to move, but he regained his control and took up the wooden book covers and approached the ro-langs. With a powerful slash of the wooden slat, he struck the corpse on the head and a veritable fountain of blood squirted into the air, splattering everywhere. The ro-langs,which was a "blood-zombie," twitched and fell over, inanimate again.24 In these two illustrations of the comatose type of ro-langs, we find certain distinguishing elements missing in the other two types. First, the event is recent in time and identification of the deceased is complete. Second, no one falls victim to the contamination of ro-langs sickness, and, finally, the ro-langs is destroyed before it becomes completely ambulatory. It is to be noted here that other ro-langs stories have been collected from the Tibetans residing at Seattle, who collectively represent the provinces of Gtsang, Dbus, and Khams. Of the stories omitted from this paper, none necessitated establishing another "type" of ro-langs. This does not preclude the possibility that there may be yet another "type," for ro-langs stories in Tibetan oral tradition seem as numberless as the hairs on Dracula's head. Suffice it to say that the stories collected justify establishing only three types, that is, the legendary, the epidemic, and the comatose. Let us now look more closely into these stories of ro-langs. Even the most illogical coffin sometimes contains a quite logical corpse. Could this be the case for zombies in Tibet? The most nightmarish of the three types is the "legendary" ro-langs, which could hold its own with the more memorable monsters of medieval Europe. It is to be remembered, however, that incidents of this type are said to have happened so long ago that it is impossible to decorticate the fantastic embellishments from the original event. Thus any logical interpretation of a "legendary" ro-langs story would prove futile. The "epidemic" type of ro-langs story suggests the possibility that the corpse was infected with some virulent, contagious disease, which contaminated all who came in close contact with it. It is to be remembered that Tibetan medical practices are integrated with religious ritual. Usually, but not always, a medical doctor in Tibet is also a monk or a lama. If visible pathological symptoms are manifested, the patient's treatment is a combination of magic and medicine, with emphasis on the latter. But, if it
24
This is yet another of Bdag-mo Sa-skya-pa's repertoire of ro-langs stories. 77
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Ro-Langs: The Tibetan Zombie
is an illness that exhibits no external signs, the treatment tends to be more magical than medicinal. Sickness, in general, is attributed to the gdon spirits, thus, a meningococcus would be considered a gdon spirit, and cerebrospinal meningitis would be diagnosed as "spirit sickness." In such cases, an exoricist with occult powers would be considered more efficacious than an orthodox monk trained in medicine.25 The limitations of Tibetan medical knowledge prevent any positive statement regarding the pathological condition of an "epidemic" ro-langs, and those made in this paper are only presumptions. The comatose type of ro-langs seems most amenable to logical explanation. The limitations of medical knowledge, even in modern Western civilizations, have resulted in some people being pronounced dead, only to have them recover again. In Tibet, where death is usually presumed when the pulse cannot be felt and the breath not heard,26 a comatose state, whether pathologically or psychologically induced, could be mistaken for death. If a Tibetan manifested signs of resuscitation after being considered dead, he would be treated as a ro-langs. It is said that the sclera of the eye of a ro-langs is blue instead of white. This is, in fact, a symptom of the comatose state where lack of oxygen intensifies the bluish color of veinous blood in the sclera. The events of both comatose ro-langs stories given in this paper suggest the possibility that the ro-langs was not even a corpse but actually a person resuscitating from a comatose state. Even the statement in the second story that the body of Mi-nyag-pa began to increase in size is not necessarily a necromantic embellishment. There is a pathological condition called anasarca, which is characterized by abnormal retention of body fluids. In one case, a patient in an American hospital gained almost thirty pounds in fortyeight hours, even though in a state of unconsciousness the entire time.27 These Tibetan stories, then, seem amenable to medical explanation, if it is presumed that the person was not dead, but rather in a comatose state. In conclusion, then, the concept of the demonic ro-langs appears
25 Monks were trained in Tibetan medicine at Lcags-po-ri, the medical college which stands on a hill near the Potala in Lhasa. The basics of anatomy, medical instruments, and pharmacopoeia were illustrated on wall hangings. For color reproductions and discussion of these, see Ilza Veith, Medizin in Tibet (Berlin, 1961). 26 On death and funeral practices in Tibet, see S. C. Das, Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet (London, 1902), pp. 252-57. 27 I am indebted to Paul L. Rowan, M.D., of Seattle, Washington, for his suggestions on the medical aspects of this paper. 78
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to be a natural development within the animistic framework of Tibetan medical practices. If a person shows signs of resuscitation after being considered dead, the limits of pathology are passed and the realm of demonology is entered. Anabiosis of a presumed "corpse" is attributed to a demonic spirit, and the resultant rolangs must be dealt with as a monster. Thus the concept of demonic ro-langs resolves for the Tibetan the enigma of the "rising dead."
APPENDIX [Fol. 98a] 28 rgyal po gau pa la 'di'am de wa pa la'i mtshams su / dpal o tanta pu ri'i gtsug lag khang yang bzhengs te / de ni ma gadha'i phyogs cig na mu stegs byed kyi rnal 'byor pa sngags kyi nus pa grub cing drang po'i rang bzhin can na ra da zhes zer ba zhig yod cing / de ro langs kyi dngos grub sgrub pa la grogs lus stobs che zhing nad med la lus la dpa' bo'i mtshan ma dgu yod pa / ngag bden par smra ba / blo rno zhing dpa' ba / g. yo sgyu med pa / bzo'i gnas thams cad la mkhas pa zhig dgos pa las / gzhan med de / nang pa'i dge bsnyen zhig la 'dug pa g. yog mi byed zer / de na re / khyod mu stegs la skyabs su 'gro ni mi dgos / longs spyod zad mi shes pa 'byung bas chos dar bar byas pas chog mod zer / 'o na slop dpon la zhus la 'ong gi byas nas / slob dpon la zhus pas gnang ste de'i sgrub g. yog byas / 'grub tu nye ba na de na re / ro langs Ice phyir g. yugs te byung na bzung dgos te / lan dang po la zin na dngos grub chen po / bar pa la 'bring / tha ma la chung ngu 'grub / lan sum la ma zin na dang po 'o skol gnyis za / de nas yul khams stongs pa tsam du 'gro zer / dge bsnyen gyis lan dang po gnyis pa gnyis la ma zin / de nas ro langs dang kha sprad de bsdad pas / gsum pa la so btab pas zin / de nas Ice ral grir gyur / lus gser du song ngo / dge bsnyen gyis ral gri thogs te bskor bas nam mkha' la 'phags pa na / mu stegs na re / ngas ral gri'i don du bsgrubs pa yin pas ral gri nga la thong zer / ngas Itad mo zhig bltas la 'ong gis byas nas ri rab kyi rtse mor phyin / gling bzhi gling phran dang bcas pa yud kyis bskor nas / ral gri khong rang la gtad [fol. 98b] pas / de na re / lus gser du song ba 'di khyod rang gyis / rus pa la ma thug par sha'i thad nas chod / chang rin dang / smad 'tshong gi don sogs log pa la ma song ba gyis / rang gi 'tsho ba dang dge ba'i las la sbyar na de ring bead pa'i shul do nub gang ste zad mi shes pa yong zer / khong rang ral gri thogs nas lha yul du song ngo / dge bsnyen des ro langs kyi gser la brten te / o tanta pu ri'i gtsug lag khang chen po bzhengs pa yin / o tanta 'phur byed kyi don yin / dge bsnyen gyis nam mkha' la phyin nas ri rab gling bzhi dngos su mthong ba'i bkod pa ltar bzhengs / dge bsnyen de la u dya u pa si ka zhes thogs so / lha khang de la rgyal po blon po sogs su'i yang drin ngos med / lha khang rtsig mkhan / lha bzhengs mkhan / bzo bo rnams kyi gla lto yon rgyu sogs thams cad ro langs kyi gser btsongs pa kho nas grub cing / gser de kho nas dge slong lnga brgya dang / dge
28 See n. 12 of this paper.
mthong / de la nga'i sgrub g. yog gyis byas pas / mu stegs pa'i sgrub
79
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Ro-Langs: The Tibetan Zombie
bsnyen Inga brgya'i 'tsho ba sbyar te / dge bsnyen de nyid ma shi'i bar du khong rang gis chos gzhi bteg / 'da' ba'i tshe / gser 'dis re zhig gzhan la phan mi thogs / ma 'ongs pa na sems can la phan par 'gyur zhes gter du sbas //
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Turrell Wylie
R O - L A N G S: THE TIBETAN Z OM B I E
1 The final s in ro-langs is not a sign of plurality, nor is it pronounced in colloquial Tibetan. Ro-langs is the equivalent of vetdla, the "walking dead" of Sanskrit literature. 2 Kun-dga'-snying-po (1575-?), better known as Taranatha, composed (ca. 1608) an account of the rise of Buddhism in India titled: Dam-pa'i chos rin-po-che 'phags-pa'i yul-du ji-ltar dar-ba'i tshul-gsal-bar ston-pa dgos-'dod 'byung, which was translated by A. Schiefner as Taranatha's Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien (St. Petersburg, 1869). On Taranatha, see Giuseppe Tucci, Tibetan Painted Scrolls (Rome, 1949), I, 128 ff., 163-64, and 197 ff. 3 This passage refers to Gopiala, founder of the Pala Dynasty in Bengal, and to Devapala, his second successor. The Pala Dynasty lasted some 450 years and was predominantly Buddhistic in religious orientation (cf. Charles Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism [London, 1954], II, 109 if.). 69
In the voodoo cult of the West Indies, a zombie is a corpse which has been brought into a state of animation through supernatural power by a necromancer. Zombies are not, however, unique to Caribbean cultures. Tibet has its own zombie, known as ro-langs.1 Ro is the general word for "corpse" and langs is the perfect tense for the verb "to rise up"; thus ro-langs literally means "a risen corpse." Two types of ro-langs are found in Tibetan cultural tradition. The first, which I shall call the tantric type, is a corpse activated through a necromantic ritual for personal reasons. An illustration of this type is found in the religious history written by Kun-dga'snying-po.2 At the time of either the king Gau-pa-la or De-wa-pa-la,3 the temple
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Ro-Langs: The Tibetan Zombie
of O-tanta-pu-ri4 was built. (This is its history.) There was in a region of Magadha, a non-Buddhist yogin named Na-ra-da who possessed a straightforward nature and who had attained mantric power. In order to achieve the conjuration of ro-langs,5 he required an assistant of physical strength, devoid of illness, and possessing the nine characteristics of a hero. [The assistant] must be truthful, keen of mind and courageous, devoid of deceit and knowledgeable in all the arts. There was no one else [around], and then he saw a Buddhist votary [dgebsnyen]6to whom he said, "Act as my assistant in the conjuration!" [The votary] replied, "I cannot assist in the conjurations of a heretic." [The heretic] said, "It is not necessary that you take refuge in heresy!7 Since there will arise an everlasting enjoyment and the [Buddhist] religion will be spread, it is indeed permissible for you [to do so!]." "Well, I shall go and ask my teacher." The teacher gave permission, so [the votary] served as the conjuration assistant. When they were ready to do the conjuration, [the heretic] said, "The tongue of the ro-langs will waggle and stick out. You must seize it! If you catch it on the first time, the power [siddhi] will be great. If on the second time, it will be middling. If on the third time, it will be small. If you fail to catch it by the third time [the ro-langs]will devour us both, and then the countryside will be brought to desolation." The votary failed to catch [the tongue] the first and second time [that it extruded], so he put his mouth to that of the corpse and waited. On the third time, he seized it with his teeth and the tongue turned into a sword. The body [of the corpse] changed into gold. Holding the sword, the votary moved around and then soared up into the sky. The heretic said, "I performed conjuration in order to obtain that sword. Give it to me!" [The votary] replied, "I am going to see the sights!" and away he went to the top of Sumeru mountain. In an instant, he circled the four continents and the minor ones.8 Then [he returned and] handed the sword over to the heretic, who said, "You take this corpse, which has turned to gold! Cut off the [golden] flesh down to the bones! Do not spend [the gold] on improperthings like barley beer and prostitutes! If you use it for your own livelihood and for deeds of virtue, then what is
4 O-tanta-pu-ri, which appears to be the same as Uddandapura (cf. Tucci, op. cit., II, 611), is said to have been built by King Gopala, circa 765 A.D. It was destroyed in 1193 by Ikhtiyar-ud Din Muhammed (see Eliot, op. cit., p. 112). 5 In Tibetan: ro-langs-kyi dngos-grub. Dngos-grub (Sanskrit: siddhi) is an occult power, eight of which the siddha seeks to attain. The power to activate zombies is one of these. 6 In Sanskrit: updsaka, or one who has only to observe eight vows as opposed to the Dge-slong (Sanskrit: bhiksu), or fully ordained monk, who must observe 253 vows. 7 This is a parody on the Buddhist creed and means that the votary need not profess belief in heretical doctrines in order to assist in the necromantic ritual of the heretic. 8 This refers to the symmetry of the mandala of the Buddhist universe with Sumeru in the center, surrounded by the four major continents and the eight minor ones. For details on this arrangement, see L. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet (Cambridge, 1958), pp. 397-400. 70
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cut off [that corpse of gold] in the daytime will be replenished at night and it shall last forever!" [The heretic] then took up the sword and went away to the realm of the gods. The votary, using the gold of the ro-langs, built the great monastic temple of O-tanta-pu-ri. "O-tanta" means "to make elevated."9 He built it in accordance with the arrangement of Sumeru mountain and the four continents.10 The votary became known as U-dya u-pa-si-ka.ll1 That monastic temple [was built] without help from anyone, either king or minister. Funds for those who built the temple, those who made the images, the artisans, and the materials, all were provided by that same votary from selling gold from [the body of] the ro-langs. The gold was used to support five hundred monks and five hundred votaries, and as long as that votary himself lived, he maintained the religious endowment of [O-tanta-pu-ri]. At the time of his death, he said, "This gold will benefit no one else now, but it will be of benefit to future creatures." So it was buried in concealment.12 As seen from the above story, the tantric type of ro-langs closely resembles the zombie of voodooism in that the corpse is animated by a necromancer for occult reasons. In this instance, it was to obtain the tongue of the corpse, which turned into a sword of occult power. References to this type of ro-langs in Tibetan tradition are rare and antiquated and there is some question whether it is ever encountered outside of esoteric literature. A similar account of the conjuration of a ro-langs is quoted by Hoffmann, who added that "'The rite of the rising corpse' [ro-langs] does not belong to the original stock of the Bonshamanists, but made its way into the Land of Snows with the Tantric magicians of India."13 This statement may well be true for what I call the tantric ro-langs; but, as I said at the beginning of this paper, there are two types of ro-langs-a dichotomy not mentioned by Hoffmann. The
9 The O-tanta of the Tibetan text appears to be a rendering of the Sanskrit: uddanda, i.e., "having an elevated staff" (cf. Monier Monier-Williams, SanskritEnglish Dictionary [Oxford, 1951], p. 187). 10 According to tradition, O-tanta-pu-ri was laid out in the symmetry of the mandala of the universe. Since it was destroyed by the Moslems in the twelfth century, we can no longer reconstruct it; however, the existing monastery of Bsam-yas in central Tibet is said to have been modeled on the plan of O-tantapu-ri (see Tucci, "The Symbolism of the Temples of Bsam-yas," East and West, VI, No. 4 [Rome, 1956], 279-81). 11 This is, perhaps, a rendering in Tibetan of Sanskrit: udyd updsika, i.e., "the risen votary." 12 The ro-langs story translated here is found in the religious history of Taranatha (cf. n. 2 of this paper), fol. 98a-98b. The Tibetan text of this story in is transcription appended to this paper. A condensed version of this same ro-langs story occurs in Padma-dkar-po'i chos-'byung (fol. 80a), a religious history by a Bhutanese monk, Padma-dkar-po (1526-92). 13 Hoffmann, The Religions of Tibet (London, 1961), pp. 61-62.
3*
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Ro-Langs: The Tibetan Zombie
second type of ro-langs is so dissimilar from the first that I suggest a different provenance for it. As already illustrated, the tantric type of ro-langs is animated through an occult ritual to obtain a fetish of supernatural power. The conjuration is undertaken by the necromancer with premeditation to achieve a state of occult power (Tibetan, dngos-grub; Sanskrit, siddhi ). By way of contrast, the second type of ro-langs is activated by an evil demon without benefit of human conjuration. Greatly feared, this type of zombie seeks to turn other people into ro-langs and drastic measures are taken to prevent the spread of its contamination. I call this type of zombie the demonic rolangs. Traditionally, all ro-langs are animated by spirits of the gdon class. Gdon spirits are mentioned in stories dealing with the preBuddhist era of Tibetan history. For example, Dri-gum-btsan-po, seventh in the lineage of ancient kings, is said to have been possessed by a gdon spirit which drove him mad and caused him to fight with his minister, Long-ngam.14 Gdon spirits are in keeping with the animism of pre-Buddhist Tibet, and they are said to have been subdued by the Indian Tantrist, Padmasambhava, who introduced Buddhism to Tibet in the eighth century A.D. Those gdon spirits which are coerced to animate the tantric type of ro-langs are considered to be bound by vow to defend the Buddhist religion. Those which spontaneously activate the demonic ro-langs are either gdon, which have broken their vows, or they are bgegs spirits, which were not subjugated by Padmasambhava. Thus the tantric type of ro-langs is associated with the Indian Tantric tradition; but the demonic type of ro-langs seems to be part of the autochthonous Bon-shamanistic traditionHoffmann's statement to the contrary. What, then, is a demonic ro-langs? 15 According to Buddhist doctrine, a sentient creature is composed of five aggregates. The aggregate of "consciousness" (Tibetan, rnam-shes; Sanskrit, vijinna) combines and coordinates the functions of the other four. Rnam-shes is translated as "soul" in some Tibetan-English dictionaries; but, the term "soul" is too imbued with the concept of Christian immortality to have validity in Buddhist terminology. After death, rnam-shes leaves the body through the brahmanic
Sa-skya Bdag-chen Rin-po-che and his wife, Bdag-mo Lags, for oral traditions concerning demonic ro-langs. 72
14 Cf. Tucci, Tibetan Painted Scrolls, II, 733. 15 I am indebted to the Tibetans now residing at Seattle, particularly the
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aperture at the crown of the skull. Although this may vary in time, it usually occurs three days after death. Once "consciousness" leaves the body, the critical period begins, for it is then that a gdon, or bgegs, spirit may enter the corpse and reanimate it. Since week-long funeral services are not uncommon, the corpse is watched continuously to guard against its activation by a gdon spirit. When someone, usually a lama, sits up at night to watch the corpse, it is called "pillow-guarding" (snye-srung). If the corpse shows signs of reanimation, it has turned into a ro-langs. Activated by an evil spirit, it then sets out to turn others into ro-langs by placing its palm on the head of the intended victim, who develops the syndrome of ro-langs sickness (i.e., deathlike pallor, incoherency, and impairment of muscular control). The victim is then said to be gdon zhugs-pa, or "one in whom a gdon-demon has entered." Although usually fatal, ro-langs sickness can sometimes be cured by a lama well versed in the parapsychological doctrines of Gcod-pa.16 Despite its demonic character, a ro-langs is restricted in physical ability. It cannot speak, so it uses its hands and tongue for signaling purposes. Should someone else be present when approaching a victim, the ro-langs signals the onlooker to remain silent by wagging its tongue and waving its right hand back and forth with the palm forward. The onlooker does not give warning lest the ro-langs attack him instead of the intended victim. Neither can a ro-langs stoop or bend, so it cannot enter a room with a low doorway. In many parts of Tibet, particularly in Lho-kha, the low doorway is a common form of architectural protection against rolangs. Tibetan oral tradition evidences five classes of ro-langs. They are: lpags-langs or skin-zombie khrag-langs or blood-zombie or flesh-zombie sha-langs or bone-zombie rus-langs rme-langs or mole-zombie. As indicated by the names, the classification of a ro-langs depends upon which part of the corpse is vulnerable. For example, a blood-zombie must be made to bleed in order to make it "fall
16 Gcod-pa, literally "to cut off," is the esoteric teaching transmitted to Tibet by Pha-dam-pa (died 1117). For a Tibetan summation of this doctrine in translation, see W. Y. Evans-Wentz, Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines (London, 1958), pp. 277-334. Also, cf. George Roerich, The Blue Annals (Calcutta, 1953) II, 981 ff. 73
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
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Ro-Langs: The Tibetan Zombie
over." Since it is already a corpse, one does not "kill" a ro-langs, one causes it "to fall over" (brgyal-ba). The above autochthonous classification is graded according to the degree of vulnerability. The skin-zombie is easiest to destroy for the skin has only to be cut to make it fall over. The bloodzombie must bleed, the flesh-zombie must be incised, and the bone-zombie must be fractured to render them inanimate. The most difficult to cope with is the mole-zombie, whose only vulnerable spot is a mole, the location of which is not always known to the intended victim. Let us now examine some ro-langs stories in detail. Relying on certain characteristics found in the stories collected, I group them into three types: (1) the legendary ro-langs, (2) the epidemic rolangs, and (3) the comatose ro-langs. The following story is an example of the legendary type. There is a deserted place near Skye-rgu-mdo in Khams, called Rgyis-bzang, which was originally the name of a wealthy family that lived there a long, long time ago. The head of that family was a wellloved man; so much so, that when he died, the family was reluctant to dispose of the corpse after the funeral ceremonies were finished. It then being the dead of winter, the corpse was placed in a small shack near the main house and left there. Some two weeks later, noises within the shack aroused the suspicion of the dead man's son, who went to see what was going on. He peeked in and saw the corpse slowly moving itself. It had become a rolangs! Bolting the door in terror, the son fled to a nearby encampment of nomads and told them what had happened. Just as the son returned with several of the nomads, the door of the shack splintered away and out burst the ro-langs, walking toward them with a rigid gait. Since religious objects possess special efficacy as weapons against ro-langs,the nomads threw Buddhist images and board-boundbooks at the zombie. When these failed to stop it, they drew their short swords and hacked at the monster. Some, in desperation, fired their guns. But, the zombie kept coming! Both arms were cut off and still it moved. Only when a nomad decapitated it with a mighty swing of his sword did the ro-langs finally fall over. The nomads assured the son that, at last, the evil monster was destroyed and they rode off into the night. No more had they gone than the ro-langs, headless and armless, again rose to its feet. Its skin, blood, flesh, and bone had all been attacked, and yet it moved. It must be a mole-zombie, the son thought, so he ran to his mother and asked if his father had had a mole on his body. Indeed he had, she remembered, and she told her son it was located on the father's back. Taking a knife, the son carefully circled behind the ro-langs and plunged the blade into its back just where his mother said the mole
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was located. The ro-langstwitched and pitched over in a bloody, headless heap, never to rise again.17 This, the legendary type of ro-langs story, has certain characteristics. The incident is one which happened many generations ago and the story is handed down through the years. The multiplicity of morbid details suggests that the original story has not escaped subsequent elaborations. The "legendary" ro-langs story exemplifies, therefore, a nightmarish fantasy in Tibetan oral tradition. Let us now consider an example of the second type of ro-langs story, that is, the epidemic type. The lama of a certain monastery in Khams died and his body was laid out in the temple for week-long funeral services, which were conducted by the thirty monks of the monastery. On the third night, the monks were all asleep and only a young acolyte remained awake. Too frightened to sleep, the eleven-year-old boy sat and watched the corpse. Then, a black cat suddenly came into the gloom of the temple hall and moved noiselessly towards the corpse of the lama, illuminated only by the flickering light of butter-lamps. The cat circled the corpse three times and then, before the astonished eyes of the acolyte, disappeared into the corpse. The body stirred, opened its eyes and slowly sat up. It was a ro-langs! The acolyte hid behind a large Buddha-image near the altar and stared in horroras the ro-langsmoved rigidly around the hall. It touched each of the sleeping monks on the head, contaminating them all with ro-langssickness. When the ro-langsturned its back, the acolyte slipped out of the temple and ran to warn the local villagers. The villagers returned with him to the monastery, but none had the courage to enter the temple, so they bolted the door to imprison the zombies. A sngags-pa, or "exorcist"18 was summoned and he came to the temple, his hair piled high on his head and fastened with ornaments of human bone. Unafraid, he unbolted the door and went into the temple. He first chanted mystic syllables to the sound of his ritual drum and bell, and then he approached the zombies. He struck each of the monks a blow with the flap of his outer robe.19The ro-langsmonks each fell over from this blow and the ro-langs lama was destroyed in the same way. And so, out of that whole monastery, only the little acolyte was saved.20
17 This story is from the repertoire of Bdag-mo 'Jam-dbyangs Sa-skya-pa, a raconteur of ro-langs tales, par excellence. She thinks that this particular incident took place in the late nineteenth century. 18 A sngags-pa is one versed in ritualistic syllables (mantra) and is applied to those Rnying-ma-pa devotees who specialize in the occult arts. 19 This is known as a gzan-lcag, or "robe-blow," which is delivered by gripping that part of the religious toga which is thrown over the left shoulder and lashing with it much in the manner of a whip. 20 This is another story from the repertoire of Bdag-mo Sa-skya-pa. 75
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Ro-Langs: The Tibetan Zombie
The special feature of this type of ro-langs story, which I call the "epidemic" type, is that the ro-langs turns large numbers of people into ro-langs overnight. Although every demonic ro-langs possesses the evil power to turn others into zombies by touching them on the head, the affliction of many people in a short period of time distinguishes the "epidemic" type from those stories in which the ro-langs is destroyed without having claimed a single victim. The third, and last, type of ro-langs story, that is, the comatose type, is illustrated by the following stories. The mother of Mthu-stobs dbang-phyug21at Sa-skya died, her corpse was laid out on a bier, and arrangements for her funeral ceremonies were carriedout. A curtain was hung in front of the bier and a low table, set with butter-lamps, was placed in front of the curtain. Three lamas sat cross-legged and read the Bar-do-thos-grol (i.e., The Tibetan "Book of the Dead").22 The reading of the book continued from day to day, and then, on the third night, the corpse stirred. Ro-langs, for some demoniacal reason, find it difficult to rise up when there is too much light, so, the ro-langs pulled the curtain aside and blew out the flickering butterlamps. At that moment, two of the lamas leaped to their feet and fled in terror. One stayed behind. Wielding the heavy, wooden boards that serve as covers for the Tibetan "Book of the Dead," the remaining lama struck the ro-langs on the head with all his strength. Blood gushed from the wound and streamed down the face of the ro-langs.It fell over and moved no more. Four days later, when the funeral ceremonies were completed, the corpse was cremated as per custom.23 The second example of a comatose type of ro-langs story is as follows: There was in Sa-skya a very fat man by the name of Mi-nyag-pa Bstan-'dzin rgya-mtsho. He died in the iron-tiger year (1950). 'Jamdbyangs-phun-tshogs, the abbot of Lha-rgyal monastery in Sde-dge, Khams, was visiting Sa-skya at the time, and he was requested to perform "pillow-guarding" for the corpse. The corpse of the deceased Mi-nyag-pa began to increase in size. The lama, 'Jam-dbyangs, was disturbed as he watched the body slowly getting bigger and bigger. Then, on the second night, the corpse sud21 This man was the gsol-dpon-chen-mo, or "great food-master," a monk-servant in the service of the late Khri-chen Rdo-rje-'chang, ruling lama of Sa-skya, who died in 1950. 22 This Tibetan book, which deals with the illusory events that transpire between death and rebirth, is available in translation (see Evans-Wentz, The Tibetan Book of the Dead [Oxford, 1927]). 23 The Sa-skya Bdag-chen Rin-po-che, who related this story to me, said that it happened when he was twelve years old (i.e., ca. 1940) and that the event was told to him personally by the lama involved. 76
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denly exhaled air with a whoosh and opened its eyes. At first, the lama was too terrified to move, but he regained his control and took up the wooden book covers and approached the ro-langs. With a powerful slash of the wooden slat, he struck the corpse on the head and a veritable fountain of blood squirted into the air, splattering everywhere. The ro-langs,which was a "blood-zombie," twitched and fell over, inanimate again.24 In these two illustrations of the comatose type of ro-langs, we find certain distinguishing elements missing in the other two types. First, the event is recent in time and identification of the deceased is complete. Second, no one falls victim to the contamination of ro-langs sickness, and, finally, the ro-langs is destroyed before it becomes completely ambulatory. It is to be noted here that other ro-langs stories have been collected from the Tibetans residing at Seattle, who collectively represent the provinces of Gtsang, Dbus, and Khams. Of the stories omitted from this paper, none necessitated establishing another "type" of ro-langs. This does not preclude the possibility that there may be yet another "type," for ro-langs stories in Tibetan oral tradition seem as numberless as the hairs on Dracula's head. Suffice it to say that the stories collected justify establishing only three types, that is, the legendary, the epidemic, and the comatose. Let us now look more closely into these stories of ro-langs. Even the most illogical coffin sometimes contains a quite logical corpse. Could this be the case for zombies in Tibet? The most nightmarish of the three types is the "legendary" ro-langs, which could hold its own with the more memorable monsters of medieval Europe. It is to be remembered, however, that incidents of this type are said to have happened so long ago that it is impossible to decorticate the fantastic embellishments from the original event. Thus any logical interpretation of a "legendary" ro-langs story would prove futile. The "epidemic" type of ro-langs story suggests the possibility that the corpse was infected with some virulent, contagious disease, which contaminated all who came in close contact with it. It is to be remembered that Tibetan medical practices are integrated with religious ritual. Usually, but not always, a medical doctor in Tibet is also a monk or a lama. If visible pathological symptoms are manifested, the patient's treatment is a combination of magic and medicine, with emphasis on the latter. But, if it
24
This is yet another of Bdag-mo Sa-skya-pa's repertoire of ro-langs stories. 77
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Ro-Langs: The Tibetan Zombie
is an illness that exhibits no external signs, the treatment tends to be more magical than medicinal. Sickness, in general, is attributed to the gdon spirits, thus, a meningococcus would be considered a gdon spirit, and cerebrospinal meningitis would be diagnosed as "spirit sickness." In such cases, an exoricist with occult powers would be considered more efficacious than an orthodox monk trained in medicine.25 The limitations of Tibetan medical knowledge prevent any positive statement regarding the pathological condition of an "epidemic" ro-langs, and those made in this paper are only presumptions. The comatose type of ro-langs seems most amenable to logical explanation. The limitations of medical knowledge, even in modern Western civilizations, have resulted in some people being pronounced dead, only to have them recover again. In Tibet, where death is usually presumed when the pulse cannot be felt and the breath not heard,26 a comatose state, whether pathologically or psychologically induced, could be mistaken for death. If a Tibetan manifested signs of resuscitation after being considered dead, he would be treated as a ro-langs. It is said that the sclera of the eye of a ro-langs is blue instead of white. This is, in fact, a symptom of the comatose state where lack of oxygen intensifies the bluish color of veinous blood in the sclera. The events of both comatose ro-langs stories given in this paper suggest the possibility that the ro-langs was not even a corpse but actually a person resuscitating from a comatose state. Even the statement in the second story that the body of Mi-nyag-pa began to increase in size is not necessarily a necromantic embellishment. There is a pathological condition called anasarca, which is characterized by abnormal retention of body fluids. In one case, a patient in an American hospital gained almost thirty pounds in fortyeight hours, even though in a state of unconsciousness the entire time.27 These Tibetan stories, then, seem amenable to medical explanation, if it is presumed that the person was not dead, but rather in a comatose state. In conclusion, then, the concept of the demonic ro-langs appears
25 Monks were trained in Tibetan medicine at Lcags-po-ri, the medical college which stands on a hill near the Potala in Lhasa. The basics of anatomy, medical instruments, and pharmacopoeia were illustrated on wall hangings. For color reproductions and discussion of these, see Ilza Veith, Medizin in Tibet (Berlin, 1961). 26 On death and funeral practices in Tibet, see S. C. Das, Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet (London, 1902), pp. 252-57. 27 I am indebted to Paul L. Rowan, M.D., of Seattle, Washington, for his suggestions on the medical aspects of this paper. 78
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to be a natural development within the animistic framework of Tibetan medical practices. If a person shows signs of resuscitation after being considered dead, the limits of pathology are passed and the realm of demonology is entered. Anabiosis of a presumed "corpse" is attributed to a demonic spirit, and the resultant rolangs must be dealt with as a monster. Thus the concept of demonic ro-langs resolves for the Tibetan the enigma of the "rising dead."
APPENDIX [Fol. 98a] 28 rgyal po gau pa la 'di'am de wa pa la'i mtshams su / dpal o tanta pu ri'i gtsug lag khang yang bzhengs te / de ni ma gadha'i phyogs cig na mu stegs byed kyi rnal 'byor pa sngags kyi nus pa grub cing drang po'i rang bzhin can na ra da zhes zer ba zhig yod cing / de ro langs kyi dngos grub sgrub pa la grogs lus stobs che zhing nad med la lus la dpa' bo'i mtshan ma dgu yod pa / ngag bden par smra ba / blo rno zhing dpa' ba / g. yo sgyu med pa / bzo'i gnas thams cad la mkhas pa zhig dgos pa las / gzhan med de / nang pa'i dge bsnyen zhig la 'dug pa g. yog mi byed zer / de na re / khyod mu stegs la skyabs su 'gro ni mi dgos / longs spyod zad mi shes pa 'byung bas chos dar bar byas pas chog mod zer / 'o na slop dpon la zhus la 'ong gi byas nas / slob dpon la zhus pas gnang ste de'i sgrub g. yog byas / 'grub tu nye ba na de na re / ro langs Ice phyir g. yugs te byung na bzung dgos te / lan dang po la zin na dngos grub chen po / bar pa la 'bring / tha ma la chung ngu 'grub / lan sum la ma zin na dang po 'o skol gnyis za / de nas yul khams stongs pa tsam du 'gro zer / dge bsnyen gyis lan dang po gnyis pa gnyis la ma zin / de nas ro langs dang kha sprad de bsdad pas / gsum pa la so btab pas zin / de nas Ice ral grir gyur / lus gser du song ngo / dge bsnyen gyis ral gri thogs te bskor bas nam mkha' la 'phags pa na / mu stegs na re / ngas ral gri'i don du bsgrubs pa yin pas ral gri nga la thong zer / ngas Itad mo zhig bltas la 'ong gis byas nas ri rab kyi rtse mor phyin / gling bzhi gling phran dang bcas pa yud kyis bskor nas / ral gri khong rang la gtad [fol. 98b] pas / de na re / lus gser du song ba 'di khyod rang gyis / rus pa la ma thug par sha'i thad nas chod / chang rin dang / smad 'tshong gi don sogs log pa la ma song ba gyis / rang gi 'tsho ba dang dge ba'i las la sbyar na de ring bead pa'i shul do nub gang ste zad mi shes pa yong zer / khong rang ral gri thogs nas lha yul du song ngo / dge bsnyen des ro langs kyi gser la brten te / o tanta pu ri'i gtsug lag khang chen po bzhengs pa yin / o tanta 'phur byed kyi don yin / dge bsnyen gyis nam mkha' la phyin nas ri rab gling bzhi dngos su mthong ba'i bkod pa ltar bzhengs / dge bsnyen de la u dya u pa si ka zhes thogs so / lha khang de la rgyal po blon po sogs su'i yang drin ngos med / lha khang rtsig mkhan / lha bzhengs mkhan / bzo bo rnams kyi gla lto yon rgyu sogs thams cad ro langs kyi gser btsongs pa kho nas grub cing / gser de kho nas dge slong lnga brgya dang / dge
28 See n. 12 of this paper.
mthong / de la nga'i sgrub g. yog gyis byas pas / mu stegs pa'i sgrub
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Ro-Langs: The Tibetan Zombie
bsnyen Inga brgya'i 'tsho ba sbyar te / dge bsnyen de nyid ma shi'i bar du khong rang gis chos gzhi bteg / 'da' ba'i tshe / gser 'dis re zhig gzhan la phan mi thogs / ma 'ongs pa na sems can la phan par 'gyur zhes gter du sbas //
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