Rāja yoga The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is is a key text of the Yoga school of Hinduism.[10]
Rāja Rāja yog yogaa (Sanskrit: राज योग, /ˈrɑːdʒəˈjoʊɡə/ योग, /ˈrɑːdʒəˈjoʊɡə/)) is a term with a variety of meanings depending on the context. In modern context, it refers to the Yoga school of philosophyy in Hind oph Hinduis uism. m. In histor historica icall contex context,t, it was the ul Samadhi..[1] timate stage of yoga practice, one nearing Samadhi Themod The modern ernre retro trony nym m was was introd introduce ucedd in the 19t 19th-c h-cen entur turyy by Swami by Swami Vivekananda to Vivekananda to differentiate it as the form of yoga yoga that that includes the yoga of mind.[1] Ancient, medieval and most modern literature often refers to Yoga school of Hinduism simply as Yoga.[2][3] Yoga philosophy is one of the six major orthodox schools Hinduism..[2][4] It is closely related to the Samkhya of of Hinduism school of Hinduism. Yoga school’s school’s systematic studie studiess to better oneself physically, physically, mentally and spirituall spirituallyy has influenced all other schools of Indian philosophies.[5][6] The epistemology of Yoga school of Hind The Hinduis uism, m, like like Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six Pramanas, as the means of gaining reliable knowledge. [7] These include includedd Pratyakṣa (percepti (perception), on), Anumāṇa (inference) and Sabda (Āptavacana , word/testimony of reliable sources).[8][9] ThemetaphysicsofYogaisbuiltonthesame dualist foundation as the Samkhya school.[10] The universe is conceptualized as of two realities in Samhkya-Yoga schools: Puruṣa (consciousness) and prakriti (matter). (matter). Jiva (a living being) is considered as a state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in in some form, in various permutations and combinations of various elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.[11] During the state of imbalance or ignorance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage. The end of this bondage is called liberation, or moksha by both Yoga and Samkhya
1 Ety Etymo molo logy gy and usa usage ge Rāja (Sanskrit: राज) means “chief, best of its kind” or “king”.[19] Rāja yoga thus refers to “chief, best of yoga”. rāja yoga is a In the context of Hindu philosophy, rāja retronym,, in intro troduc duced ed in the 19t 19th-c h-cent entury ury by by Swami retronym [1] Vivekananda.. In all historical texts, Rāja yoga in the Vivekananda modern sense of its meaning, is known simply as Yoga, where it means one of six major orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy.[2][3] One name, different practices The historical use of the term Rāja yoga is found in other contexts cont exts,, quite quite diffe different rent than its moder modernn usage. In ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts, it meant the highest state of yoga practice (one reaching samadhi ))..[1] Hatha Yoga Pradipika, Pradipika, for example, refers refers to Hath yoga as one of the ways to achieve such Rāja yoga. However, Hatha Yoga Pradipika, a text of the Natha the Natha sampraday sampradayaa,[20] is a differe diff erent nt prac practic tice, e, and does not ref refer er to modern modern retr retrony onym, m, Rāja yoga, where it means the Yoga philosophy, as taught in ancient Hindu texts such as the Yoga Sutras of Patan jali . Similarly, Brahma Brahma Kumar Kumaris is,, a rec recen entt re reliligio gious us move move-ment, globally markets Rāja yoga that has very little to do wi with th Yoga phi philos losoph ophyy of Hin Hindui duism sm and its ke keyy te text xt Patan Patan-jali’s Yoga Sutras.[21] Modern interpretations and literature that discusse discussess Raja yoga often credits Yogasūtras as its textual source, but many neither adopt the teachings nor the philosophical foundations of the Yoga school of Hinduism.[22] The first known use of the phrase Rāja yoga occurs in a 16th-century commentary on a specific step in Patanjali’s Yogasūtras.[21] Alain Daniélou states Daniélou states that Rāja yoga was, in the historic literature of Hinduism, one of five known methods of yoga, with the other four being Hatha yoga, Mantra yoga, Laya yoga and Shiva yoga.[23] Daniélou translates it as “Royal way to reintegration of Self with )". This vers version ion ooff Raja yoga Universal Self (Brahman (Brahman)". has the same names for eight main steps, but each step is significantly different in details than either Hatha Yoga
[12]
sch school ool Hind uism. m.and Niyama, The The ethic eth,ical theory thellory Yoga ogasc is ba base seddofonHinduis Yamas Niyama as aal s we well as elem elofemen ents tsschoo ofhool the thel Guṇa Guṇa theory theory of Samkhya.[10] Yoga school of Hinduism differs from the closely related non-theistic/atheistic Samkhya school by incorporating the concept of a “personal, yet essentially inactive, deity” or “personal god” (Ishvara).[13][14][15] Samkhya school suggests that jnana (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha, Yoga school suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya’s approach to knowledge is the path to moksha.[10] Yoga shares several central ideas school hool of Hind Hinduis uism, m, with the with Advaita Vedanta sc difference that Yoga philosophy is a form of experimental ime ntal my mystic sticism ism,, whi while le Advai Advaita ta Ve Vedanta danta is a form form [16][17][18]
[24] The of of monistic or thosescholar described in Yogainsutras of Patanjali. monistic personalism. personalism. Vedanta, and Hindu other schools of Hinduism, accept,Advaita adopt and build upon Dattatreya, his medieval era Tantric many of the teachings and techniques of Yoga. work named Yogasastra explains in 334 shlokas, princi-
1
2
ples of four yoga: Mantra yoga, Hatha yoga, Laya yoga and Raja yoga.[25] In ma manny mo mode dern rn sc scho hola larl rlyy ph phililos osop ophi hica cal,l, se self lf-devel developm opment, ent, cul cultural, tural, and reli religiou giouss literatur literature, e, Yoga Yoga philosop phil osophic hical al sch school ool of Hind Hinduis uism m is simp simply ly ref referre erredd [2][3] In some modern literature, Raja yoga to as Yoga. is considered one of the four paths[26] to spirituality within Yoga philosophy of Hinduism.[27] This mixing of concepts, hasIndian led to literature in Yoga, understanding historical and modern lconfusion iterature on particularly when [1][20] the term Raja yoga is used. Raja yoga is sometimes also branded as or referred to as “royal “royalyog yoga”, a”, “roy “royal al unio union”, n”, “sah “sahaaj mar marg”, g”, “cla “classi ssical cal yog yoga” a” and “aṣṭānga yoga"; many of these, however, are different practices and have little to do with Yoga philosophy of Patanjali.[21]
2 Hi Hisstor tory
2 HI HIST STOR ORY Y
According to Axel Michaels, the Yoga Sutras are built upon fragments of texts and traditions from ancient India.[30] Accor According ding to Feuers Feuerstein, tein, the Yoga Sutras are a condensation of two different traditions, namely “eight limbb yoga” lim yoga” (as (ashta htanga nga yoga) yoga) and ac actio tionn yoga yoga (kriya [31] yoga). The kriya yoga part is contained in chapter 1, ch chapt apter er 2 ve verse rse 1-2 1-27, 7, chapt chapter er 3 ex exce cept pt ve verse rse 54, and andch chapap[31] ter 4. The “eight limb yoga” is described in chapter 2 verse 28-55, and chapter 3 verse 3 and 54.[31] There are numerous parallels in the concepts in ancient Samkhya Samkhya,, Y Yoga oga and Abhidharma sch schools ools of thou thought, ght, particularly from 2nd century BCE to 1st century AD, notes Larson.[32] Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras may be a synthesis of thesee three traditi thes traditions. ons. From Samkh Samkhya ya scho school ol of Hinduism, Yoga Sutras adopt the “reflective discernment” (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and and purusa (dualism), its meta methphysical rationalism, as well its three epistemic three epistemic meth[32] ods to gaining reliable knowledge. From Abhidharma Buddhism’s idea of nirodhasamadhi , suggests Larson, Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of altered state of awareness, but unlike Buddhism which believes that there is neither self nor soul, Yoga is physicalist and realist like Samkhya in believing that each individual has a self and soul.[32] The third concept Yoga Sutras synthesize into its isolation, philosophy and is theintrospection, ancient ascetic traditions ancient ascetic meditation as traditions well as theofyoga ideas from the 1st millennium BCE Indian texts such as Katha as Katha Upanishad,, Shvetashvatara Upanishad and Upanishad Upanishad and Maitri Maitri Upanishad..[32] ishad
2.1 Yoga philosoph philosophyy and and Islamic Islamic history history
). A statue of a man in yoga posture (Kashmir, India (Kashmir, India).
The foundational text of Yoga school of Hinduism is the Patanjali. After Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. After ititss cir circu culat latio ionn in the first half of 1st millennium CE, many Indian scholars reviewed it, then published their Bhāṣya (notes and com-
Biruni vis visIn early 11th century, the Persian scholar Al scholar Al Biruni ited India, lived with Hindus for 16 years, and with their help translated several significant Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian languages. One of these was Patanjali’s Yogas Yogasutras. utras.[33][34][35] Along with generally accurate translations, Al Biruni’s text has significant differences than Yogasutra manuscripts discovered in India, during the 19th century. Al Biruni’s record has helped modern scholars establish that Patan Patanjali’s jali’s Yogasutras manuscript existe existedd in Ind India ia in man manyy ve versi rsions ons,, eac eachh with with mu multi ltiplecomplecommentaries by Hindu scholars. Some of these versions and commentaries have been lost or yet to be found. [33] Al Biruni’s translation preserved many of the core themes of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism, but certain sutras and analytical commentaries were restated making it more consistent with Islamic monotheistic theology.[33][36] Al Biruni’s version of Yoga Sutras reached Persia and Arabian peninsula by about 1050 AD. In Indian historical Indian historical timeline timeline,, marking with the arrival the arrival of Islam in Islam in India in twelfth century, further development and literature on Yoga philosophy of Hinduism went into decline.[37] By the sixteenth century, Patan-
[38] Yoga was mentary) on it, which together form a canon texts jali’s Yogaby sadhus was nearly extinct. byphilosophy called the Pātañjalayogaśāstra (“The Treatise on of Yoga of preserved sadhus (ascetics, (ascetics, sannyasis sannyasis) ) of India. Some [28][29] Patañjali”). of the Hindu yoga elements were adopted by Sufi sect
3 of Muslims in India.[39][40] The Sufi Muslims at times adopted and protected the Yoga tradition of Hindus during ing th thee Islam Islamic ic rule rule of In Indi dia, a, and and at othe otherr titime mess he help lped ed the the [41] persecution and violence against those Hindus. The Mughal Emperor Akbar Emperor Akbar,, known for his syncretic tolerance, was attracted to and patronized Yoga philosophy of Hinduism.[42]
that, to Patanjali, “Yoga essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object.”[10][49]
2.2 Yoga philosoph philosophyy and and modern modern history history
4 The eight eight steps of Yoga scho school ol
During the colonial era, particularly the 19th century, a period of sustained rediscovery and study led to the re- Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras outline eight anga (अङ् ग, limbs) emergence of Yoga school of Hinduism. Vivekananda Vivekananda,, to better oneself physically, mentally and spiritually:[46] Helena Blavatsky Blavatsky and and others played a key role in its [43] growth. Yama – Yama – ethical restraints (the don'ts) By early 21st century, scholars had located 37 editions Niyama – Niyama – ethical observances (the dos) of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras published between 1874 to 1992, and 82 different manuscripts, from various loca Āsana – Āsana – a posture that one can hold for a period of tions in India, Nepal, Pakistan, Europe and the United time, staying relaxed, steady, comfortable and moStates, many in Sanskrit, some in different North and tionless South Indian languages, suggesting a wide popularity of Yoga philosophy.[44][45] The numerous historical variants Prāṇāyāma – conscious regulation and exercise of Prāṇāyāma – show contamination contamination as these manuscripts were transmitbreath ted, some ancient andmargin medieval marked withwith “corrections” in the of manuscripts the pages and else Pratyāhāra – Pratyāhāra – mastery of sensory organs, withdrawal where by unknown authors and for unclear reasons. This of the senses from external objects has made the chronological study of Yoga school of philosophy a difficult task.[44] Dhāraṇā – – concentration, introspective focus, one Dhāraṇā pointedness of mind •
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3 Pra racctic tice
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Yoga philosophy, as conceptualized in Yoga Sutras of Patanjali , is a way of life that incorporates ethical practices, a system of training one’s body, mind and spirit limbs of yoga yoga), aimed (called limbs aimedat at achi achiev eving ingaa lib libera erated ted,, free state of existenc existence. e. Patan Patanjali jali includes a definition of yoga of mind. 4.1 4.1
3. 3.11 Defin Definit itio ionn
Dhyāna – Dhyāna – meditation Samādhi – the quiet state of complete forgetfulness Samādhi – of external world and the physical, complete blissful awareness of one’s mind and liberated being, superconscious consci ous state.
Yamas amas
Main article: Yamas article: Yamas
Patanjali begins his treatise by stating the purpose of his The five yamas listed by Patañjali in Yogasūtra 2.30 Patanjali book in first sutra, followed by defini defining ng the word “yoga” are:[50] in his second sutra of Book 1:[46] 1. Ahiṃsā (अिहं Ahiṃsā (अिहं सा): Nonviole Nonviolence nce , non-harming other [51] living beings योग: िचत् त-वृ त् ित िनरोध: (yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ) citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ) – Yoga Sutras 1.2
This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates Taimni translates it as “Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti ) of the citta)".[47] mind Swami Vivekananda translates Vivekananda translates sutra as (“Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Cittathe ) from taking various forms (Vrittis).”[48] Edwin Bryant explains Bryant explains
4 THE THE EIGHT EIGHT STEPS STEPS OF YOGA SCHOOL SCHOOL
Patanjali, in Book 2, explains how and why each of the above self restraints help in the personal growth of an individual. indivi dual. For example, in verse II.35, Patan Patanjali jali states that the virtue of nonviolence and non-injury to others Ahimsa)) le lead adss to th thee ab aban ando donm nmen entt of enmi enmity ty,, a stat statee that that (Ahimsa leads the yogi to the perfection of inner and outer amity with everyone, everything.[53][54] Later Lat er sc scho holars lars of Yoga sc scho hool ol ex expan pande dedd this this lis listt of Patan Patan--
sources of joy matter most, and the craving for external sources of pleasant ceases.[71] Later Yoga school scholars added the following to the above list
jali, such as inare: the[56][57][58] ŚāṇḍilyaThe Śāṇḍilya Upanishad Upanishad, , recommended as well as by additional Svātmārāma yamas are:
2. Dāna: Dāna: generosity, generosity, charity, sharing with others[72]
[55]
forgiveness ess[59] (non-dwelling in the 1. Kṣamā (क् Kṣamā (क् षमा): forgiven past or other’s actions/speech) ित): forti fortitude tude (non-f (non-fear, ear, non-giving up in 2. Dhṛti (धृ Dhṛti (धृ ित): adversity) 3. Dayā (दया): Dayā (दया): comp compassi assion on[59] (non-arrogance, nonself centeredness) 4. Ārjava (आर् Ārjava (आर् जव): non-hypoc non-hypocrisy, risy, sinc sincerity erity[60]
conv nvic ictition on th that at th ther eree is kn know owle ledg dgee in 1. Āstika: Āstika: co Vedas/Upanishads (orthodox school), faith in Self, or belief in God 3. Hrī : remorse and acceptance of one’s past/mistakes/ignorance, modesty, humility[73] 4. Mati: Mati: think and reflect to understand, reconcile reconcile con[74] flicting ideas 5. Huta: Huta: religious and social rituals, ceremonies such as yajna as yajna
4.3 4.3 Asan Asanaa
article: Asana 5. Mitāhāra (िम (िमतह तहार ार): ): meas measur ured ed diet diet[61] (non- Main article: Asana overea ove reating, ting, non-u non-unde nderea reating, ting, non-i non-inapp napprop ropriat riatee eating/drinking) Patannjali begi Pata begins ns disc discussi ussion on of Asanas (आसन, posture) posture) by defining it in verse 46 of Book 2, as follows, [46]
4.2 4.2 Ni Niyyama ama Main article: Niyama article: Niyama The second limb in Patanjali’s Yoga philosophy is called niyamas which include virtuous habits, behaviors and observancess (the “dos”).[62][63] Sadhana Pada Verse 32 lists servance the niyamas as:[64]
Sanskrit: स् Sanskrit: स् िथरसु िथरसु खमासनम् ॥४६॥ ॥४६॥ Translation 1: An asana is what is steady and pleasant.[75] Translationn 2: Motionless and Agreeable form Translatio form [76] Asana (of staying) is (yoga posture). – Yoga Sutras II.46
1. Śauca: Śauca: puri purity ty,, clea clearn rnes esss of min mind, d, sp spee eech ch and Asana is thus a posture that one can hold for a period [65] of time, staying relaxed, steady, comfortable and motionbody less. Patanjali does not list any specific asana, except the suggestion, “posture one can hold with comfort and 2. Santoṣa: Santoṣa contentment, acc acceptance eptance of are others, acceptance of: one’s circumstances as they in order to terse Āraṇya ya tra trans nslat lates es ve verse rse II.47 II.47 of Yoga motionlessness”. [77] Āraṇ get past or change them, optimism for self[66] sutra as, “asanas are perfected over time by relaxation of effort with meditation on the infinite"; this combination 3. Tapas: Tapas: persistence, perseverance, austerity[67][68] and practice stops the quivering of body. [78] The posture 4. Svādhyāya: Svādhyāya: study of V Vedas edas (see Sabda in epistemol- that causes pain or restlessness is not a yogic posture. ogy section), study of self, self-reflec self-reflection, tion, introspec- Other secondary texts studying Patanjali’s sutra state that requir uirem emen entt of co corre rrect ct postur posturee is to ke keep ep br breas east,t, nec neckk tion of self’s thoughts, speeches and actions[68][69] one req [76] and head erect (proper spinal posture). 5. Īśvarapraṇidhāna: Īśvarapraṇidhāna: conte contempl mplati ation on of the Ish Ishvar varaa Later yoga sch school ool sch scholars olars dev develo eloped, ped, desc described ribed and (God/Supreme Being, Brahman, Brahman, True Self, Un- commented on numerous postures. Vyasa, fo forr example, changing Reality)[66][70] in his Bhasya (commentary) on Patanjali’s treatise suggests twelve:[79] Padmasana (lotus), Veerasana (heroic), As with Yamas, Patanjali tersely explains how and why Bhad Bhadrasan rasanaa (dec (decent), ent), Svastika Svastikasana sana (lik (likee the mys mystic tical al each of the above Niyamas help in the personal growth sig sign), n), Danda Dandasana sana (staff) (staff),, Sopas Sopasray rayasan asanaa (su (support pported), ed), of an individual. individua l. Forofexamp example, le, in verse Patan Patanjali jali Paryank (bedstead), Krauncha-nishadasana (seated states that the virtue contentment andII.42, acceptance of Paryankasana heron), her on), asana Hasta Hastanis nishada hadasana sanaKrauncha-nishadasa (sea (seated ted ele elephan phant), t), naUsht Ushtranranothers as they are (Santoṣa ( Santoṣa)) leads to the state where inner ishadasana (seated camel), Samasansthanasana (evenly
4.6 4.6 Dhar Dharan anaa
balanced) and Sthirasukhasana (any motionless posture that is in accordance with one’s pleasure). [76] The Hatha Yoga Pradipika describes the technique of 84 asanas, asana s, stati stating ng four of these as most impo important: rtant: Pad Pad-masana (lotus), Bhadrasana (decent), Sinhasana (lion), and Siddhasana (accomplished).[80][81] The Gheranda Samhita discuss discussed ed 32 asana asanas, s, whi while le Svatmarama de[81] scribes 15 asanas.
4. 4.44 Prāṇā Prāṇāyyāma Main article: Pranayama article: Pranayama Prāṇāyāma is made out of two Sanskrit words prāṇa (प् राण, breath)[82] and ayāma (आयाम, restraining, extending, stretching).[83] Af After ter a de desi sired red pos postur turee has bee beenn achi achiev eved, ed, ve verse rsess II.49 through II.51 recommend the next limb of yoga, prāṇāyāma prāṇāyā ma, which is the practice of consciously regulating breath (inhalation and exhalation).[84] This is done in several ways, inhaling and then suspending exhalation for a period, exhaling and then suspending inhalation for a period, slowing the inhalation and exhalation, consciously changing the time/length of breath (deep, short breathing).[85][86]
4. 4.55 Prat Pratya yaha hara ra Main article: Pratyahara article: Pratyahara Pratyāhāra is a combination of two Sanskrit words pratya
5
4.6 4.6 Dhar Dharan anaa Main article: Dharana article: Dharana Dharana (Sanskrit: धारणा) means concentration, intro-
spective focus and one-pointedness of mind. The root of word is dhṛ (धृ (धृ)),, which has a meaning of “to hold, maintain, keep”.[93] Dharana as the sixth limb of yoga, is holding one’s mind onto a particular inner state, subject or topic of one’s mind.[94] The mind (not sensory organ) is fixed on a mantra,, or one’s breath/navel/tip breath/navel/tip of tongue/any place, or mantra an object one wants to observe, or a concept/idea in one’s mind.[95][96] Fixing the mind means one-pointed focus, without drifting of mind, and without jumping from one topic to another.[95]
4.7 4.7 Dhy Dhyan anaa Main article: Dhyana article: Dhyana in Hinduism Dhyana (Sans (Sanskrit: krit: ध् यान) literally means “contempla-
tion, reflection” and “profound, abstract meditation”.[97] Dhyana is contemplating, reflecting on whatever Dharana has focussed focussed on. If in the sixth limb of yoga one focussed on a personal deity, Dhyana is its contemplation. If the concentration was on one object, Dhyana is non-judgmental, non-presumptuous observation of that object.[98] If the focus was on a concept/idea, Dhyana is contemplating that concept/idea in all its aspects, forms and consequ consequenc ences. es. Dhy Dhyana ana is uninte uninterrupt rrupted ed train of thought, current of cognition, flow of awareness.[96]
[87]
(प् रत् रत् य, य,[88]belie belief) f) and ahāra (आहार, (आहार, brin bringing ging near, fetch). Pratyahara is fetching and bringing near one’s aware awareness ness and one’s thoughts to within. It is a process of withdra withdrawwing one’s thoughts from external objects, things, person, situation. It is turning one’s attention to one’s true Self, one’s inner world, experiencing and examining self.[89] It is a step of self extractio extractionn and abstraction. Pratyahara is not consciously closing one’s eyes to the sensory world, it is consciously closing one’s mind processes to the sensory world. Pratyahara empo empowers wers one to stop being controlled by the external world, fetch one’s attention to seek selfknowl kno wledg edgee and exper experie ienc ncee the fre reedo edom m inn innate ate in one’s one’s in[90][91] ner world. Pratyahara marks the transition of yoga experience from
DhyanaDharana is integrally related to Dharana, oneprocess leadss of to other. is a state of mind, Dhyana the proces mind. Dhyana is distinct from Dharana in that the meditator becomes activel activelyy engaged with its ffocus. ocus. Patanjali defines contemplation ( Dhyana) as the mind process, where the mind is fixed on something, and then there is “a course of uniform modification of knowledge”. [99] Adi Shankara, Shankara, in his commentary on Yoga Sutras, distinguishess Dhyana from Dharana, by explaining Dhyana tinguishe as the yoga state when there is only the “stream of continuous thought about the t he obj object, ect, uninterrupted by other thoughts of different kind for the same object"; Dharana, states Shankara, is focussed on one object, but aware of its many aspects and ideas about the same object. Shankara gives the example of a yogin in a state of dharana on morning sun may be aware of its brilliance, color
first perfect forms in dhyana statebeing contemplates onby sun’s limbssfour limb thatlimbs perf perfect ectthat inne inner r state state,,external fr from om outsi outside de toto inside inslast ide,,three from and orbitorbit; alonethe foryogin example, without interrupted its [92] [100] outer sphere of body to inner sphere of spirit. color, brilliance or other related ideas.
6
5 PH PHILO ILOSOP SOPHY HY
4.8 4.8 Sama Samadh dhii
observe).[107] Some ancient scholars proposed “unusual perception” as pramana and called it internal perception, a proposal contested by other Indian scholars. The internal perception concepts included pratibha (intuition), samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), and jnanalaksanapratyaksa (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state). [108] Further, some schools of Hinduis Hinduism m considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from Pratyakṣa-pranama, so as to contrast nirnaya (definite judgment, conclusion) from anadhyavasaya (indefinite judgment).[109]
Main article: Samadhi article: Samadhi Samadhi (Sans (Sanskrit: krit: समािध) liter literally ally mean meanss “putting
together, joining, combining with, union, harmonious whole, trance”.[101][102] Samadhi is oneness with the subject of meditation. There is no distinction, during the eighth limb of yoga, between the actor actor of med medititati ation, on, the act act of med medititati ation on and the subsubject of meditation. Samadhi is that spiritual state when one’s mind is so absorbed in whatever it is contemplating on, that the mind loses the sense of its own identity. The think thinker, er, the thou thought ght proce process ss and the thoug thought ht fuse with the subject of thought. There is only oneness, samadhi .[96][103][104]
•
Anumāṇa (अनु मान) means infe inference. rence. It is de-
scribed as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason.[110] Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of Anumana.[105] In all except one Hindu philosophies,[111] this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is ex expla plain ined ed byInd by India iann tex texts ts as co cons nsis istin tingg of thr three ee parts: parts: pratijna prati jna (hypothesis), hetu (a reason), and drshtanta
Pratyakṣa Yoga school, like Samkhya school, considers Dṛṣṭam Anumāna or (direct sense perception), (inference), and Śabda or Āptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only valid means of knowledge or Pramana.[8] Unlike few other schools of Hinduism such as Advaita as Advaita Vedanta, Vedanta, Yoga did not adopt the follo ollowing wing thre threee Pramanas: Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, (postulation, derivin derivingg from from circumstances) circum stances) or Anupalabdi (non-perception, (non-perception, nega[9] tive/cognitive proof) . •
The The parts, hypot hypothe hesi siss mus must furt urthe herr be brobr o(examples). ken down into two state thetancient Indian scholars: sadhya (that idea which needs to proven or disproven) and paksha (the object on which the sadhya is predicated). predicated). The infe inference rence is condi conditiontionallytrueif sapaksha (positi (positive ve exa example mpless as eviden evidence) ce) are present, and if vipaksha (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies philosophi es also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand Vyapti - - the requirement that the hetu (rea (reason) son) must nec necessa essarily rily and sepa separate rately ly account for the inference in “all” cases, in both sapaksha and vipaksha.[112][113] A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion).[114]
Pratyakṣa (प् रत् (प् रत् यक् यक् षाय) means perce perception. ption. It is of
two types in Hindu texts: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects, •
while perception is described by thisThe school anas thatinternal of inner sense, the mind.[105][106]
Śabda
cient cient and medi mediev eval al Indi Indian an text textss ide identif ntifyy four four req require uire-ments for correct perception:[107] Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct (direct exp experi erienc encee by one’s sensory organ(s) with the object, whatever is being studied), Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay through hearsay,, according to ancien ancientt Indian scholars, where one’s sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting rejecting someone else’s percepti perception), on), Avyabhicara (does not wander; correct perception does not change, nor is it the result of deception because one’s sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and Vyavasayatmaka (definite; (defini te; correct perceptio perceptionn exc excludes ludes judgments of doubt, either because of one’s fai failure lure to observe all
द) means on[9][115] word,Hiriyanna testimonyexof past or (शब् present reliablerelying experts. plains Sabda-pramana as a concept which means reliable reli able expert expert tes testimo timony. ny. The sc school hoolss of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a frac fraction tion of those facts facts and [116] truths directl directly. y. He must must coo coope perat ratee with with oth others ers to rapidly rapi dly acq acquire uireand and sha share re kno knowled wledge ge and ther thereb ebyy enric richh each each oth other’ er’ss live lives. s. This This me means ans of gai gainin ningg pr prope operr knowledge is either spoken or written, but through Sabda (words).[116] The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from the Sabda of reliable sources.[9][116] The disagreement between the schools of Hinduism has
the details, orand because one iswhat mixing infe rencetowith observation observing oneinference wants observe, or not observing what one does not want to
been on Carvaka, how to establish reliability. Somepossible, schools, such as Carvaka as , state that this is never and therefore Sabda is not a proper pramana. Other
5.3 Soter Soteriol iolog ogyy
schools debate means to establish reliability. [117]
5.2 Metaph Metaphys ysic icss The metaphysics of Yoga school, again like Samkhya consid siders ers cconsc onscious ious-school, is a form of dualism of dualism.. It con ness and matter, self/soul and body as two different realities. [118][119] The Samkhya-Yoga system espouses dualism between consci con sciousn ousness ess and matte matterr by postu postulatin latingg two “irr “irreduc educibl ible, e, innate and independent realities: Purusha Purusha and and Prakriti Prakriti.. While the Prakriti is is a single entity, the Samkhya-Yoga schools admit a plurality of the Puruṣas in this world. Unintelligent, Unintelli gent, unmanif unmanifest, est, uncaused, ever-activ ever-active, e, imperceptible and eternal Prakriti is alone the final source of the world world of ob objec jects. ts. The Puruṣa is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer ( bhokta) and the Prakriti is is the enjoyed (bhogya). Samkhya-Yoga believes that that the Puruṣa cannot be be regard regarded ed as th thee source of inanimate world, because an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. This metaphysics is a pluralistic spiritualism, a form of realism built on the foundation of dualism.[120] Yoga sc schoo hooll of Hin Hindui duism sm adopt adoptss the the theory ory of Guṇa from [10] Samkhya. Guṇas theory states that three gunas (innate tendency, attributes) are present in different proportions in all beings, and these three are sattva guna (goodness, constructive, harmonious), rajas guna (passion, active, confused), and tamas guna (darkness, destructive, chaotic).[121][122] These three are present in every being but in different proportions, and the fundamental nature and psychological dispositions of beings is a consequence of the relative proportion of these three gupredomin ominates ates an indi individu vidual, al, the nas.[10] When sattva guna pred qualities of lucidity, wisdom, constructiveness, harmonious, and peacefulness manifest themselves; when rajas is predominant, attachment, craving, passion-driven activity and restlessness manifest; and when tamas predominates in an individual, ignorance, delusion, destructive behavior, behavi or, lethargy, and suffe suffering ring manife manifests. sts. The guṇas theory underpins the philosophy of mind in Yoga school of Hinduism.[10] The early early sc scho holar larss of Yoga Yoga phi philos losop ophy hy,, pos posits its that that the Puruṣa (consciousness) by its nature is sattva (constructive), while Prakriti (matter) (matter) by its nature is tamas (chaotic).[10] It further posits that individuals at birth have buddhi (in (intelligenc telli gence, e, sattvi sattvic). c). As life progre progresses sses and churn churnss this buddhi , it creates ahamkara (eg (ego, o, rajasi rajasic). c). Whe Whenn ego in turn is churned by life, manas (temper, mood, tamasic sic)) is prod produced uced.. Tog Togethe ether, r, buddhi , ahamkara and manas interact and constitute citta (mind) in Yoga school of Hinduism.[10] Unrestrained modification of citta causes suffering. suff ering. A way of life that empow empowers ers one to become
7
sutra begins, in verse 2 of Book 1, by defining Yoga as “restraining the Citta from Vrittis.”[48]
5.3 Soteri Soteriolo ology gy
The fusion of Dharana Dharana , Dhyana and Samadhi Samadhi is Sanyama – the path to Kaivalya to Kaivalya in in Yoga school.
Yoga school of Hinduism holds that ignorance is the cause of suffering and saṁsāra and saṁsāra..[10] Liberation, like many other schools, is removal of ignorance, which is achieved through discriminative discernment, knowledge and selfawareness. The Yoga Sūtras is Yoga school’s treatise on is th thee st stat atee wher wheree ec ec-how how to acco accompl mplis ishh this. this.[10] Samādhi is static awareness develops, state Yoga scholars, and this is how one starts the process of becoming aware of Purusa and true Self. It further claims that this aw awareness areness is eternal, and once this awareness is achieved, a person cannot ever cease being aware; this is moksha is moksha,, the soteriologi soteriological cal [10] goal in Hinduism. Book 3 of Patanjali’s Yogasutra is dedicated to soteriological ologi cal aspec aspects ts of yoga philosop philosophy. hy. Pat Patan anjali jali begin beginss by stating that all limbs of yoga are necessary foundation to reaching the state of self-awareness, freedom and liberati libe ration. on. He refers refers to the three last limbs of yoga as sanyama, in verses III.4 to III.5, and calls it the technology for “discerning principle” and mastery of citta and self-know self-knowledge. ledge.[96][123] In verse III.12, the Yogasutras tras sta state te tha thatt this this disce discerni rning ng princ princip iple le the thenn emp empow owers ersone one to perfect sant (tranquility) (tranquility) and udita (reason) in one’s mind and spirit, spirit, through intentne intentness. ss. This leads to one’s ability to discern the difference between sabda (word), artha (meaning) and pratyaya (understanding), and this ability empowers one to compassionately comprehend the cry/speech of all living beings.[124][125] Once a yogi
ever aware, isofthe one’s andpotential spirituality this state of sanyamafreedoms , it leads to pow kaivalya, , the innatemore in buddhi pathconsciousness t o one’s highest to and reaches ers, intuition, self-knowledge, andunusual and kaivalya [124] soteriological al goal of the yogi. a more serene, content, liberated life. life. Patan Patanjali’s jali’s Yoga soteriologic
8
The benefits of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism is then summarized in verses III.46 to III.55 of Yogas Yogasutras, utras, stating ingtha thatt thefirs the firstt 5 lim limbs bs lea leads ds to bod bodililyy pe perf rfec ectio tions ns such such as beauty, loveliness, loveliness, strength and toughness; while the last 3 limbs through sanyama leads to mind and psychological perfections perfections of percepti perceptiveness, veness, one’s nature, mastery overr egoi ove egoism, sm, dis discrim criminat inative ive kno knowled wledge ge of puri purity, ty, self and [126][127] This kno knowled wledge ge onc oncee reac reached hed is irre irrevers versibl ible, e, soul. states Yogasutra’s Yogasutra’s Book IV.
5.4 God in Yoga school school of Hinduis Hinduism m Yoga philosophy allows the concept of God, unlike the closely related Samkhya related Samkhya school school of Hinduism which is [128] atheistic/non-theistic. Hindu scholars such such as the 8th Adi Sankara Sankara,, as well many modern academic century Adi century scholars describe Yoga school as “Samkya school with God.”[4][14][129] The Yogasutras of Patanjali use use the term Isvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra’s release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is Isvara? These commentaries range from defining Isvara from a “personal [14][130] Whicher god” to “special self” to “anything that has spiritual explains sigthat nificance to the individual”. while Patanjali’s terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali’s concept of Isvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a “transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation”. [131] Patanjali defines Isvara (Sanskrit: ईश् वर) ईश् वर) in verse 24 of Book1,as“aspecialSelf(पु रु Book1,as“aspecialSelf(पु रु षिवशे षिवशे ष, puruṣa-viśeṣa)",[46]
8 REFERE REFERENC NCES ES
7 Notes 8 Re Reffer eren ence cess [1] Mallinson-1 2011 2011.. [2] Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga, 978-8120832329,, pages 100Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329 101, 333-340 [3] Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN Routledge, ISBN 9780415648875,, pages 43-46 and Introduction chapter 0415648875 [4] Maurice Phillips (Published as Max as Max Muller collection), Muller collection), The Evolution of Hinduism, Origin and Growth of Religion, p. 8, at Google at Google Books Books,, PhD. Thesis awarded by University Univ ersity of Berne, Switzerland, page 8 [5] Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN Routledge, ISBN 9780415648875,, pages 20-29 0415648875 [6] Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al), Ashgate, ISBN Ashgate, ISBN 978-0754633013, 978-0754633013, pages 149-158 [7] John A. Grimes, A Concise Concise Dictionary Dictionary of Indian Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University University of New York Press, ISBN Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, 978-0791430675, page 238 [8] Larson 1998 1998,, p. 9 [9]
Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Indian Philosophy Philosophy Vol Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Perrett), Routledge, ISBN 978-0815336112 978-0815336112,, pages pages 245248; John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosoph Phil osophy: y: Sanskrit Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 9780791430675,, page 238 0791430675
[10] Edwin Edwin Bryant Bryant (2011, (2011, Rutgers Rutgers Univers University) ity),, The Yo Yoga ga Sutra Sutrass of Patanjali IEP IEP
This sutra of Yoga philosophy Hinduism adds the characteristics of Isvara as that ofspecial Self which is [11] Samkhya - Hinduism Encyclopedia Britannica (2014) unaffected unaffec ted (अपरामृ (अपरामृ ष् ष् ट, aparamrsta) by one’ one’ss ob obst staa- [12] Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Incles/hardships cles/hard ships (क् ले ले श, श, klesha), one’s circumstances creterpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsiated by past or one’s current actions (कर् म, karma), one’s dass, ISBN dass, 978-8120805033, pages 36-47 ISBN 978-8120805033, life fruits (िवपाक, vipâka), and one’s psychological dis[13] Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An positions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).[132][133] Indian Metaphysics Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN Routledge, ISBN 9780415648875,, page 39-41 0415648875
6 See also
[14] Lloyd Pflueger, Pflueger, Person Purity and Power Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice Practice of Yo Yoga ga (Editor: (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Jacobsen), 978-8120832329,, pages 38Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329 39
•
Bhakti yoga
•
Cittabhumi
•
Jnana yoga
[15] Kovoor Kovoor T. Behanan Behanan (2002), Yoga: Yoga: Its Scientific Scientific Basis, Basis, Dover, ISBN Dover, ISBN 978-0486417929 978-0486417929,, pages 56-58
Karma yoga Shinshin-tōitsu-dō, Shinshin-tōitsu-dō, Japanese yoga
Metaphysics: [16] Phillips, Phillips, Stephen Stephen H. (1995). (1995). Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of “New Logic” . Open Court Publishing. pp. 12–13.
•
•
9 Personalism Stanford Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013) [37] White 2014 2014,, pp. 6-9. [17] Personalism [18] Northrop Frye (2006), Educated Imagination and Other [38] White 2014 2014,, pp. 6-16. Writings on Critical Theory, 1933-1962, University of [39] Bonnie G. Smith et al (2012), Crossroads and Cultures, Toronto Press, ISBN Press, ISBN 978-0802092090, 978-0802092090, page 291 Volume Volume I: To 1450: A History of the World’s World’s Peoples Peoples,, Monier-Williams’ ms’ SanskritSanskrit-Engli English sh Dictiona Dictionary, ry, [19] rAja Monier-Willia ISBN 978-0312442132 978-0312442132,, page 428 Macmillan, ISBN Macmillan, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany [40] Jean Filliozat Filliozat (1991), Religion, Religion, Philosoph Philosophy, y, Yoga: Yoga: A [20] Mallinson-2 2011 2011.. Selection of Articles, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 9788120807181,, pages 215-230, 293-303 8120807181 [21] Jason Birch (2013), Råjayo Råjayoga: ga: The T he Reincarnations Reincarnations of the Kingg of All Yogas, Kin ogas, Inter Internatio national nal Jou Journal rnal of Hindu Studie Studiess, [41] Jamal Malik Malik (2008), (2008), Islam in South Asia: A Short HisVolumee 17, Issue 3, pages 401–444 Volum ISBN 978-9004168596, tory, Brill Academic, Academic, ISBN 978-9004168596, pages 185186 [22] Jason Birch (2013), Råjayo Råjayoga: ga: The T he Reincarnations Reincarnations of the Kingg of All Yogas, Kin ogas, Inter Internatio national nal Jou Journal rnal of Hindu Studie Studiess, [42] David White (2014), The (2014), The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali - - A BiVolume 17, Issue 3, page 404-406 ography,, Princeton University Press, ISBN ography Press, ISBN 978-1-40085005-1,, pages 146-152 5005-1 [23] Alain Alain Daniélou Daniélou (1991), Yoga: Yoga: Mastering Mastering the Secrets of Matter and the Universe, ISBN Universe, ISBN 978-0892813018 978-0892813018,, Chap[43] White 2011 2011,, p. 20-21. ters 1-12 (2010), On the Written Transmission of [24] Alain Alain Daniélou Daniélou (1991), Yoga: Yoga: Mastering Mastering the Secrets of [44] Philipp Maas (2010), On the Pātañjalayogaśāstra, in “From Vasubandhu to CaiMatter and the Universe, ISBN Universe, ISBN 978-0892813018, 978-0892813018, pages tanya, Studies in Indian Philosophy and its Textual His90-96 tory” (Editors: Johannes Bronkhorst und Karin Preisendanz), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN Banarsidass, ISBN 9788120834729, 9788120834729, pages [25] Antonio Antonio Rig Rigopoul opoulos os (1998), Dattatreya: Dattatreya: The Immortal Immortal 157-172 Guru, Yogin, and Avatara, State University Universi ty of New York Press, ISBN Press, 978-0791436967, page 62 ISBN 978-0791436967, [45] Philipp Maas (2008), “Descent with Modification": The Opening of the Pātañjalayo Pātañjalayogaśāstra, gaśāstra, in Śāstrārambha: In[26] The other three are: Jnana yoga, Karma yoga and Bhakti quiries quir ies Into the Preambl Preamblee in Sanskrit Sanskrit (Editor: (Editor: Walter Walter yoga. See: Yoga See: Yoga in Hinduism - Ways to the Goal Sla Slaje), je),Otto Otto Harrassow Harrassowitz itz Ve Verlag rlag,, ISBN 978-3 978-3447056 447056458 458,, [27] Yogain Hin Hindui duism sm - Wa Ways ys to the theGoa Goall Oriental Philosophy, pages 97-119 Lander University (2011) 1: The Yoga [46] Sanskrit Original with Translation with Translation 1: [28] Maas 2006 2006.. Philosophy TR Philosophy TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University University Archives; [29] Larson, p. 21–22. Translation 2: 2: The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of 2004,, p. 267. [30] Michaels 2004 Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa GN Vyasa GN Jha (Translator), with notes; Harvard University University Archives; [31] Feuerstein 1978 1978,, p. 108. Translatio Transl ationn 3: The Yog Yogasutr asutras as of Pat Patan anjali jali Charles Charles [32] Larson, pp. 43-45 Johnston (Translator)
•
•
•
[33] Sglish, Pines1966), and TAl-Bīrūni Gelblum (Translator (Translatorsfrom fromSanskrit ArabictotoAraEn- [47] hibition For text of andthe word-by-word word-b y-word translation transla as “Yoga s the inmodifications of thetion mind.” See: isiTaimni, bic, ~ 1035 AD), and Patañjali, Al-Bīrūnī's Patañjali, Al-Bīrūnī's Arabic Verp. 6. sion of Patañjali’s Yogasūtra, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 29, No. 2 (1966), pages [48] Vivekanada, p. 115. 302-325 [49] Bryant Bryant 2009, 2009, p. 10. [34] David White (2014), The (2014), The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali - - A Bi[50]] Āgāśe Āgāśe,, K. S. (1904). (1904). Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi . Puṇe: ography,, Princeton University Press, ISBN ography Press, ISBN 978-1-4008- [50 Ānandāśrama. p. 102. 5005-1 [35] Hellmut HellmutRitte Ritter,r, al-Bīrūnī' al-Bīrūnī'ss übers übersetzung etzungdes des Yoga-Sū Yoga-Sūtra tra des [51] James Lochtefeld, Lochtefeld, “Yama “Yama (2)", The Illustrated EncyclopePatañjali , Oriens, Vol. 9, No. 2 (Dec. 31, 1956), pages dia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 165-200 (in German) 9780823931798,, page 777 9780823931798 [36] Philipp Maas (2013), A Concise Concise Historiography Historiography of Clas- [52] Arti Dhand (2002), (2002), The dharma of ethics, ethics, the ethics of sical Yoga Philosophy, in Periodization and Historiogradharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism, Journal of Rephy of Indian Philosophy Philosophy (Editor: (Editor: Eli Franco), Franco), Sammligious Ethics, 30(3), pages 347-372 lung de Nobili, Nobili, Institut Institut für fürSüdas Südasienien-,, Tibet-und Tibet- und BuddhisBuddhisPhilosophy TR TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhomuskunde der Universität Wien, ISBN Wien, ISBN 978-3900271435, 978-3900271435, [53] The Yoga Philosophy pages 53-90, OCLC 53-90, OCLC 858797956 jaraja jara ja commentary commentary;; Harvard Harvard Univers University ity Archives, Archives, page 80
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[68] SA Bhagwat (2008), Yoga and Sustainability. Journal of [89] Gary Kissiah Kissiah (2011), The Yoga Yoga Sutras Sutras of PatanjaliPatanjaliYoga,, Fall/Winter 2008, 7(1): 1-14 Yoga Illuminations Through Image, Commentary and Design , ISBN 978-0615388441 978-0615388441,, pages 356-359 Polishing ng the mirror Yoga mirror Yoga Journal, GARY KRAFTSOW, [69] Polishi FEB 25, 2008 [90] GS Iyengar (1998), Yoga: A Gem for Women , ISBN 9788170237150,, pages 29-30 8170237150 [70] Īśvara + praṇidhāna, Īśvara praṇidhāna, Īśvara and and praṇidhāna praṇidhāna Mindful Yoga, Yoga, Mindful Mindful Life: Life: A [71] The Yoga Philosophy Philosophy TR TR Tatya (Translator), with Bho- [91] Charlotte Bell (2007), Mindful Guide for Everyday Everyday Practice, Rodmell Press, ISBN Press, ISBN 978jaraja jara ja commentary commentary;; Harvard Harvard Univers University ity Archives, Archives, page 84 1930485204,, pages 136-144 1930485204 [72 [72]] Willi William am Owen Owen Cole Cole (19 (1991) 91),, Moral Moral Iss Issues uesin in SixReligio SixReligions, ns, Heinemann, ISBN Heinemann, 978-0435302993, pages 104-105 ISBN 978-0435302993, [92] RS Bajpai (2002), The Splendours And Dimensions Of 978-81715696 71569649 49,, pages Yoga, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81 [73] Hri Hri Monier Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary 342-345
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Akhilananda, Swami; Allport, Gordon W. (1999). Hindu Psychology. Rou Routle tledge dge.. ISBN 978-0-20300266-7.. 00266-7
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Larson, Gerald James (2008), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Indian Philosophies:: Yoga: India’ India’ss philosophy philosophy of meditation, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-
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Maehle, Gregor (2007), Ashtang Ashtangaa Yo Yoga: ga: Practic Practicee and Philosophy Philosophy, New World Library Mallinson-1, James (2011), “Hatha Y Yoga”, oga”, Brill Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol.3, BRILL Mallinson-2, James (2011), “Nāth Sampradāya”, Brill Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol.3, BRILL
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Raja Yoga Sutras – Three translations of the Yoga Sutras (one of the core Raja Yoga texts), with cross
referencing, word for word and index for easy study.
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Rāja yoga Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%81ja_yoga?oldid=665072017 Contributors: Fubar Obfusco, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Angela, Mxn, Dcoetzee, Carlossuarez46, 20040302, Bobert wi, LordSimonofShropshire, Andycjp, Master Of Ninja, Pyrop, Fvdham, Dbachmann, Edgarde, Brian0918, VishalB, Cmdrjameson, MPerel, Hanuman Das, Raga, Tarakananda, Nemonoman, DangerousBoy, Marudubshinki, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Nihiltres, Paul foord, foord, DaGizza, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RobotE, Gene.arboit, Vyzasatya, TheMandarin, PM Poon, Priyanath, Priyanath, Deepak~enwiki, Tomisti, HopeSeekr of xMule, Langdell~enwiki, RDF, Sethie, SmackBot, Vald, Srkris, Gilliam, Bluebot, SvGeloven, DHN-bot~enwiki, VirtualSteve, Zachorious, Zachorious, John Hupp, Nibuod, Zen611, Leaflord, Mikhajist, Armyrifle9, RandomCritic, PRRfan,Nick Dturner, Rqacc2, Linkspamremover, Morganfitzp, Thijs!bot, Klasovsky, Brahmakumaris.info,Arman4, OrenBochman, Number, Escarbot, Nshuks7, JuliaCmdrObot, Rossi, Indian Chronicles,Lentower, Ekabhishek, MER-C, Xact, VoABot II, Faizhaider, HeBhagawan, Gurujii, CliffC, Abecedare, Citizen521, Yonidebot, Jarry1250, Redtigerxyz, Debnathsandeep, Wikiyogini, A Ramachandran, Jmrowland, Tekaphor, Sselvakumar, Rei-bot, Buddhipriya, Davin, Dcraft96, Swami1980, Nazar, Doug, Falcon8765, SieBot, David Plum, Mankar Camoran, Lara bran, Navy.enthusiast, CRISTINAESTANISLAU, Ken123BOT, Randy Kryn, Vinay Jha, ClueBot, Samuel Grant, Nar!!!!nar, Michał Sobkowski, Ficbot, Simon D M, El bot de la dieta, Aravindhan31, Enimerotita, LucyintheskyLucyintheskywithdada, Wakari07, Wednesday Next, XLinkBot, Manbu, Mitsube, Cminard, Ism schism, Addbot, Innerself, Mootros, ת, Econgame, Vyom25, Sophitori, Zorrobot, Tobemaloos, Luckas-bot, Rujara Rujaraju, ju, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Rochakbansal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Makeswell, CaiusNero, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, RomanHunt, Shivaji Shivaji mizner, DRMANJUNATH, Edm21, In fact, Wrongly2tire, FrescoBot, Paine Ellsworth, Aditya soni, PigFlu Oink, Jonesey95, Skyerise, Hamtechperson, Jauhienij, Alicesky, Dinamik-bot, Vernekar8, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Sadhana01, TeleComNasSprVen, TeleComNasSprVen, Phoenixthebird, Phoenixthebird, Thecheesykid, Kkm010, ZéroBot, Drmeesha Drmeeshajoshi, joshi, NiranjanE,L NiranjanE, L Kensington, Kensington, Zuggernaut, Ggn77, ClueBot NG, Wbmag129, Ompanhalkar, Wrathkind, Dream of Nyx, Januarythe18th, Aurphir, Theopolisme, Helpful Helpful Pixie Bot, Curb Chain, BG19bot, MKar, Joycecobb38, Joshua Jonathan, Jrjy3, Amitrochates, Rockin It Loud, Epicgenius, FrigidNinja, PaniniPartha, Noyster, GreyWinterOwl, GreyWinterOwl, Sharma Hrishi, Ms Sarah Welch, Welch, Pradeepwb, Iṣṭa Devatā, AndrewNewYork, AndrewNewYork, Valerie Valerie dhyanat. and Anonymous: Anonym ous: 141 1 41
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https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Anahata_blue.svg License: CC CC BY-SA 3.0 Con File:Anahata_blue.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Anahata_blue.svg tributors: Own Own work Original artist: Mirzolot2 Mirzolot2 File:Bronze_figure_of_Kashmiri_in_Meditation_by_Malvina_Hoffman_Wellcome_M0005215.jpg Source: https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Bronze_figure_of_Kashmiri_in_Meditation_by_Malvina_Hoffman_Wellcome_ M0005215.jpg License: CC CC BY 4.0 Contributor Contributors: s: http://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/obf_images/f5/52/8f442637d50a6210fca8bc6702cb.jpg Original artist: ? ? https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? ? Contributors: Contributors: ? ? Original File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg artist: ? ? File:Dhanurasana_Yoga-Asana_Nina-Mel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Dhanurasana_ Yoga-Asana_Nina-Mel.jpg License: CC CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own Own work Original artist: Kennguru Kennguru File:Eka-Pada-Chakrasana_Yoga-Asana_Nina-Mel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/ Eka-Pada-Chakrasana_Yoga-Asana_Nina-Mel.jpg License: CC CC BY 3.0 Contributors Contributors: : Own Own work Original artist: Kennguru Kennguru File:Eka-Pada-Raja-Kapotasana_Yoga-Asana_Nina-Mel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/ Eka-Pada-Raja-Kapotasana_Yoga-Asana_Nina-Mel.jpg License: CC CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own Own work Original artist: Kennguru Kennguru File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by Cc-byContributors: : ? sa-3.0 Contributors ? Original artist: ? ? File:Hatha_Yoga,_Pawanmuktasana,_Zhengzhou,_China.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/ Hatha_Yoga%2C_Pawanmuktasana%2C_Zhengzhou%2C_China.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: FloraVictoria File:Janusirsasana_Yoga-Asana_Nina-Mel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Janusirsasana_ Yoga-Asana_Nina-Mel.jpg License: CC CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own Own work Original artist: Kennguru Kennguru File:Lotus_position.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Lotus_position.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OccupyPresent.pdf&page=1 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OccupyPresent.pdf&page=1 Original artist: Bryan Bryan Helfrich, Helfrich, Alias52 File:Om.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8e/Om.svg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8e/Om.svg License: PD PD Contributors: Contributors: svg created by Rugby471 from a public domain symbol Original artist:
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