201406 Elevate Health

Opening Commentary
President’s Council on
Fitness, Sports & Nutrition

Guest Authors
Rachel C. Kelley, BS
Department of Nutrition Sciences
Drexel University
Stella Lucia Volpe, PhD, RD, FACSM
Department of Nutrition Sciences
Drexel University

Cornell McClellan, Member
President’s Council on Fitness, Sports & Nutrition

R

egardless of age or level of ability, I am a firm believer that being healthy
and fit should be a goal we all strive to achieve. For more than 30 years,
I have coached and encouraged people of all backgrounds to take a holistic
approach to personal wellness that enhances the mind, strengthens the body,
and nurtures the spirit.
Taking a holistic approach means that in order to achieve a healthy lifestyle, we must pay

Lead Editor

close attention to our energy balance equation. In addition to regular physical activity, good

Jeffrey I. Mechanick, MD, FACP, FACE,

nutrition is also critical to ensuring athletes maintain a competitive edge as they age, and reach

FACN, ECNU
Clinical Professor of Medicine
Director, Metabolic Support

new heights in their sports or recreational activities throughout their lifespan. Proper nutrition
includes staying hydrated and consistently consuming complex carbohydrates, lean proteins,

Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes,

and healthy fats. When older “masters” athletes are fueled by the right nutrients, they can

and Bone Disease

achieve better performance outcomes.

Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai

I was once an avid student and later became an instructor of karate. Like other sports, karate

Editorial Board

requires a regimented, intensive training routine that includes mental preparation as well as

David Bassett, Jr., PhD

strength training and conditioning. In addition to the physical training, though, healthy eating

University of Tennessee

habits have kept me energized, motivated, and prepared to compete at a high level and train

Diane L. Gill, PhD

others in a variety of sports and disciplines throughout my life including now, as a grandfather.

University of North Carolina
at Greensboro
Rachel K. Johnson, PhD, MPH, RD, FAHA
University of Vermont
Stella Lucia Volpe, PhD, RD, LDN, FACSM
Drexel University
Diane Wiese-Bjornstal, PhD
University of Minnesota
The findings and conclusions in this paper are those
of the authors and do not necessarily represent the
official position of the President’s Council on Fitness,
Sports & Nutrition.

In this issue, Stella L. Volpe, PhD, RD, LDN, FACSM, and Rachel C. Kelley, BS, look at the recent
rise in masters athletes and explore their unique nutritional needs. The article reviews the

‘

physiological changes that occur with age and the specific nutrition requirements for these
athletes to perform at their best.

Good nutrition is critical
to ensuring athletes maintain
a competitive edge as they
age, and reach new heights in their

’

sports or recreational activities
throughout their lifespan.

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E l E vat E H E A LT H

Cornell McClellan

Masters Athletes: Competitive
Sports and Sports Nutrition for
Older Adults
Introduction

Masters athletes
have diverse activity
goals that range from
elite competition to
recreational exercise
for optimizing health
and independence.

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There has been a recent rise in competitive
older athletes, also known as masters
athletes.1 Participation in the National Senior
Games, events for athletes 50 years of age or
older, exemplifies this trend. For example, in
the 1987 National Senior Games in St. Louis,
Missouri, 2,500 competitors registered for
the events, and in the 2007 games in
Louisville, Kentucky, this number increased
to 12,000 competitors.2 Not only are masters
athletes more common than in years past,
but they are also more competitive. In the
1986 Hawaii Ironman Triathlon, 31% of the
male participants were greater than or equal
to 44 years of age, and 23% of the female
participants were greater than or equal to
40 years of age.3 In 2010, these percentages
increased to 53% and 47%, respectively, and
performance times of these masters athletes
improved in swimming, cycling, and running
compared to previous age-matched finishers.3
Researchers also reported similar trends
in the New York City Marathon.4 Athletes
50 years of age or older increased their
participation and improved their running
times at greater rates than their younger
counterparts from 1983 to 1999.4
“Masters athletes” is a term that encompasses
a wide range of active individuals. The age at
which an individual qualifies for masterslevel competition depends on the nature of
the specific event. The sports with higher
aerobic and flexibility demands start masters
athletic categories at younger ages, while
those sports that preferentially require skill
start those categories at older ages.5 For
example, the first masters category in
swimming includes athletes who are 19 to
24 years of age, and the masters categories

continue in increments of 5 years, up to
90 to 94 years of age.5 For golf, however, the
first masters category begins at 50 years of
age.5 In most athletic events, masters athletes
include those individuals who are 21 years of
age or older.6
Masters athletes have diverse activity goals
that range from elite competition to
recreational exercise for optimizing health
and independence.7 Masters athletes and
their coaches, physicians, dietitians, and
other healthcare professionals need to be
aware of changes in physiology that occur
with age. Depending on the athlete’s goals,
they can use this information to develop
exercise and diet plans that will promote a
competitive edge and improve health without
adding risk.

Current Problem
The reality for older adults is that endurance
and strength capacities decline with age.
Older individuals are more likely to have
decreased cardiac output, hypertension,
increased resting heart rate, and diminished
heart function.8 These changes contribute to
a steady decrease in maximal oxygen
consumption (VO2max) per decade in
masters athletes who are 25 to 65 years of
age. This decrease ranges from 2.8 to 4.2
milliliters of oxygen per kilogram of body
weight per minute (mL/kg/min).5 Although
some controversy exists in the field, most
researchers have shown that this decline is
even greater, 5 to 6 mL/kg/min, in sedentary
individuals.5,9 Physical impairments such as
strains, injuries, lumbar disc disease, and
osteoarthritis are also increased concerns for
older adults.2 Age-related reduction in
muscle mass, which has been shown to
decrease 1.25% each year after age 35, with
or without activity, may contribute to these
issues.8 Changes also occur in metabolism as
one ages. These changes include decreased
metabolic rate, insulin sensitivity, appetite,
gastric emptying, gastric acid, and digestive
enzymes.2,8 Thus, older individuals may have
higher needs for protein and certain vitamins
and minerals than younger adults.2

table 1. Possible age-related Physiological Changes
that May Influence Exercise Performance in Masters athletes
• 2.8 to 4.2 ml/kg/min decrease in vO2max every decade between 25 and 65 years of age
(5 to 6 ml/kg/min decrease if sedentary)
• 1.25% decrease in muscle mass every year after 35 years of age
• Reduced cardiac output
• Increased resting heart rate
• Diminished left ventricular function
• vulnerability to injury or re-injury
• age-associated anabolic resistance
• Presence of chronic conditions
• Reduced hormonal concentrations
Based on research summarized by Kibler et al.,8 Shephard,5 anish,2 and Foster et al.1
Definitions: mL/kg/min = milliliters of oxygen/kilogram of body weight/minute; VO2max = maximal oxygen consumption

Masters athletes should take comfort in the
fact that physical activity will lessen most of
the physiological declines mentioned
previously and highlighted in Table 1. Thus,
healthcare professionals should encourage
exercise in older adults at the elite or
recreational levels. Researchers have shown
that sedentary individuals reach the aerobic
fitness needed to maintain independent
living, approximately 15 mL/kg/min, around
80 to 85 years of age; however, active adults
prolong reaching this threshold by 10 to 20
years.5,10 Furthermore, elite athletes should

not feel discouraged from competing as they
age. Signorelli et al.11 measured maximal
heart rate, VO2max, and general flexibility in
professional soccer players from two age
groups: 17 to 22, and 27 to 36 years of age.
They concluded that the younger and older
players began the soccer season in identical
training states.11 Additionally, other
researchers have reported that 70-year-old
competitive athletes are more physically fit
than untrained persons who are 40 years
of age.12

In spite of physiological
changes that come with
age, elite athletes should
not feel discouraged
from competing as they
grow older.

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table 2. General Sports Nutrition Guidelines
for athletes of all ages
• Eat a balanced diet: 45% to 65% carbohydrate, 10% to 35% protein, 20% to 35% fat
• 7 to 10 g/kg/day carbohydrate
• 1.2 to 1.7 g/kg/day protein
• Consume 30 to 60 g/hour of carbohydrate if exercising intensely more than 1 hour
• Consume a recovery snack within 90 minutes of exercise
• Break up protein to 20 g portions every 4 hours after strength trainings
Based on research summarized by Rodriguez et al.15 and areta et al.21 For more information on general healthy eating, please refer
to a previous Research Digest article written by volpe et al. (2013).52
Definitions: g/kg/day = grams/kilogram of body weight/day

Nutritional
Recommendations

Masters athletes can
maintain a healthy body
weight as they grow
older, despite age-related
decrease in resting
metabolic rate (RMR),
due to their increased
activity.

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E l E vat E H E A LT H

Diet planning for masters athletes follows
most of the same principles as diet planning
for active younger adults. For sedentary older
individuals, the age-related reduction in
resting metabolic rate (RMR) plays a major
role in constructing diets that will achieve a
healthy body weight.13 This concern is not
relevant for masters athletes. They will
maintain or increase their total daily energy
expenditure, despite any possible decrease in
RMR because of age, due to their increased
activity.6,14 Intensely active older adults
should focus on consuming enough calories,
much like younger athletes, to optimize
performance and maintain muscle mass.
Future research should seek to develop
RMR prediction equations that are specific
to masters athletes so that registered
dietitians can accurately estimate energy
needs in this population.
Masters athletes should adhere to the sports
nutrition guidelines established by the
evidence-based joint position statement by
the American College of Sports Medicine,
Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, and the
Dietitians of Canada, which is highlighted in
Table 2.15 This statement recommends the
following macronutrient distribution ranges:
45% to 65% carbohydrate, 10% to 35%
protein, and 20% to 35% fat.15 Depending
on the intensity of an athlete’s training and
his or her absolute calorie needs, an athlete
may need a different breakdown of

macronutrient distribution ranges. During
training periods, endurance athletes should
consume 7 to 10 grams/kilogram body
weight/day (g/kg/day) of carbohydrate, and
ultra-endurance athletes should aim for
greater than 10 g/kg/day.14,15 Additionally,
masters athletes should still follow the
general recommendation to consume around
30 to 60 grams of carbohydrate per hour
of exercise.15 Similarly, the recovery
carbohydrate recommendation of 1.5 g/kg
within 90 minutes remains relevant for older
competitors in endurance events.14,15 Masters
athletes should also adhere to these general
health recommendations: make carbohydrate
choices mainly from whole grains; choose
lean protein foods; and focus on healthy
mono- and polyunsaturated fats versus
saturated fats.6
Despite the similarities in diet
recommendations for athletes of all ages,
masters athletes present with some unique
concerns. Masters athletes should be aware
that the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for
vitamin D, calcium, and vitamin B6 increase
after 50 years of age.14 Supplements of, or
foods fortified with, folate and vitamin B12
may be necessary because of age-associated
cognitive risks and reduced production of
gastric acid needed for absorption,
respectively.13,14 Other areas of nutrition
research that have more complex findings
and recommendations for masters athletes
include: protein, vitamin D, and antioxidant
intakes, which will be described in more
detail in the following sections.13,14,16

Protein
The protein needs of all athletes increase
from the 0.8 g/kg/day recommendation for
healthy sedentary individuals to a range of
1.2 to 1.7 g/kg/day, depending on the
volume of exercise.15 This increased intake
may be especially important for older
athletes. Several researchers have shown that
age-related declines in muscular strength and
mass may be related to a reduced sensitivity
to exercise.16–19 This reduced sensitivity
would slow the rate of muscle growth. Fujita
et al.18 studied muscle protein synthesis rates
in healthy older adults approximately
70 years of age. Study participants received
a continuous infusion of labeled amino acids
and either a normal dose of insulin or an
above-normal dose. The researchers reported
that only individuals who received the higher
dose of insulin experienced increases in
muscle protein synthesis rates, blood flow
needed for nutrient delivery, and certain
markers of insulin signaling.18 Thus, even in
healthy older adults who do not have type 2
diabetes mellitus, there may be age-related
insulin resistance.18 This insulin resistance
may contribute to the development of
sarcopenia (i.e., the general loss of muscle
mass) and reductions in strength.18
Additionally, Durham et al.20 stated that

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muscle protein synthesis was reduced by
40% in healthy older adults compared to
younger adults after an acute bout of
endurance exercise. This result suggests not
only impaired muscle growth in response to
insulin, but in response to exercise as well.
The participants in both of these studies,
however, did not participate in regular
exercise training programs. Future research
should determine whether or not age-related
anabolic resistance could account for
decreases in performance in those who have
exercised throughout their lives, such as
masters athletes. But to err on the side of
caution, older athletes, even more so than
their younger counterparts, should focus on
adhering to recommendations for amount
and timing of protein consumption. This
strategy will maximize muscle growth
and strength.
Masters athletes should obtain the majority
of their protein from whole foods like meat,
fish, egg whites, and milk, because the amino
acids from these sources are easily absorbed.16
Pairing sufficient intake of high quality
sources of protein with resistance training
may overcome age-associated declines in
muscle mass.19 Timing of protein intake
post-exercise may also help to maximize
muscular growth and strength. Areta et al.21
demonstrated that during the 12 hours after
resistance training, consuming whey protein
isolate, a protein supplement used in this
experiment, in 20-gram increments every
3 hours was the best strategy to boost muscle
protein synthesis. Consuming the same

amount in 10-gram portions every 1.5 hours
or in 40-gram portions every 6 hours was not
as effective.21 These researchers utilized a
supplement to control for protein quality,
but athletes should consume whole food
sources after a workout. Pennings et al.22
studied casein protein intake in older men.
They reported that the use of casein protein
for muscle fiber development was
significantly higher if the men consumed the
protein after 30 minutes of exercise, versus
rest.22 Adherence to a strength training
regimen and proper protein intake will help
promote better performance with age.
Because age-associated insulin resistance may
be present in some masters athletes, they
should also consider combining this protein
with some carbohydrate (approximately
50 grams). This additional carbohydrate
would not only help restore glycogen stores
and meet energy needs, but it would enhance
the insulin response as well.23 Whether or not
combining carbohydrate with protein
provides additional performance benefits for
athletes remains controversial. However,
the possibility that older healthy individuals
may lose insulin sensitivity makes the
recommendation a prudent one for
masters athletes.

Adherence to a strength
training regimen and
proper protein intake
will help promote better
performance with age.

V
Another nutrient of concern for masters
athletes is vitamin D. The majority of the
body’s supply of vitamin D comes from the
skin’s ability to make the vitamin from
sunlight. Therefore, vitamin D status is not
problematic in some of the athletes who train
and compete outdoors. As individuals age,
however, the efficiency of this process
decreases.13,24 Although there are vitamin
D-fortified foods, such as milk, yogurt, and
orange juice, as well as a few natural dietary
sources, such as salmon, sardines, and egg
yolks, it is difficult to meet vitamin D
recommendations through diet alone.
Thus, older individuals often need to take
supplements to obtain enough vitamin D
in their diet.
There are many possible performance and
health benefits associated with adequate
vitamin D status.25 The vitamin is essential
for general bone health and the prevention of
osteoporosis and injury.24 It is interesting that
researchers have discovered vitamin D effects
in muscle.26 Given these recent findings,
Grimaldi et al.27 evaluated upper and lower
body muscular strength and serum vitamin D
levels in 419 men and women 20 to 76 years
of age. They reported that those adults with
higher blood levels of vitamin D demonstrated
better strength, especially leg strength.27
Barker et al.28 conducted a randomized
placebo-controlled vitamin D supplement
trial in healthy adults and found that the
additional vitamin D in the supplemented
individuals (those who took the extra vitamin
D) assisted in their recovery from intense
resistance exercise. After 28 days of treatment
and a single-leg strength exercise, the group
that took the vitamin D supplements
exhibited better recovery and fewer molecular
markers of muscle damage than the placebo
group.28 Even though researchers could not
link these results to lower feelings of muscle
soreness, any potential recovery aid is
applicable to masters athletes, who may
require longer rest periods between workouts.

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E l e vat e H E A LT H

Older individuals
often need to take
supplements to obtain
enough vitamin D in
their diet. The vitamin is
essential for general bone
health and the prevention
of osteoporosis and
injury, and it may also
assist in muscle recovery
from intense resistance
exercise.

A
Another new area of research that is
especially relevant for masters athletes is
antioxidant supplementation. The popular
and scientific media have claimed that
antioxidants protect against poor health
outcomes like tissue damage, cardiovascular
disease, cancer, and aging.29–31 The proposed
reason behind this protective effect is that
antioxidants reduce oxidative stress, which
may cause cell damage. Oxidative stress
involves molecules known as free radicals.
Free radicals are highly reactive, and they can
attack cellular membranes, proteins, and
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Free radicals
can originate from exposure to toxins or
radiation as well as from injury and
inflammation,32 but the majority of free
radicals are byproducts of normal energy
production.30,33 Thus, exercise is a significant
source of these molecules.29

Exercise leads to oxidative stress and the
accumulation of this free radical damage is a
leading hypothesis for aging.33 Furthermore,
excessive amounts of free radicals cause
decreases in muscle force, as well as more
rapid muscle fatigue.34 Thus, at first glance,
antioxidant supplementation would seem to
be an easy recommendation for all exercising
individuals, especially masters athletes.
However, the issue is much more complex.
Free radical production during exercise is one
way in which the body detects the stress of
physical training and adapts to it. Free
radicals trigger changes like increases in
muscle fiber size, generation of more blood
vessels in muscle, and improvements in the
body’s own antioxidant systems, which
improve an individual’s physical fitness and
health.34,35 Insufficient levels of oxidative
stress will not properly activate cell processes
necessary for these exercise adaptations, force
production, and longevity.30,34–40

Brazil nuts are
one source of the
antioxidant selenium,
which provides
improved immunity,
cognitive protection,
and reproductive and
thyroid health.

table 3. Sources of various antioxidants and Possible
Health Outcomes
Antioxidant

Dietary Sources

Health Outcomes

Vitamin A

Sweet potatoes, liver meats,
spinach, carrots, cantaloupe,
mango, broccoli

• Improved immunity
• Optimal eye health
• Healthy cell growth and differentiation

Vitamin C

Red bell peppers, citrus fruits,
strawberries, tomatoes,
Brussels sprouts

• Improved immunity
• Recycling of other antioxidants
• Healthy connective tissue formation

Vitamin E

Sunflower seeds, almonds,
hazelnuts, peanuts,
green vegetables

• Improved immunity
• Prevention of coronary heart disease
• anti-inflammation and anti-cancer

Selenium

liver meats, seafood,
Brazil nuts, turkey, chicken,
brown rice, oatmeal

• Improved immunity
• Cognitive protection
• Optimal reproductive and thyroid health

Based on research summarized by the National Institutes of Health.51 For more information on general healthy eating, please refer
to a previous Research Digest article written by volpe et al. (2013).52

The optimal intake of antioxidants, one
which is low enough to avoid damage and
fatigue yet high enough to maintain healthful
adaptation, is difficult, if not impossible, to
achieve by taking supplements. Results from
various antioxidant supplementation studies
have been positive (good effects),41–43
negative (bad effects),44,45 and neutral (no
effects).46,47 Importantly, masters athletes
have not been included in many of these
studies, and their age may alter their
antioxidant requirements. Miranda-Vilela
et al.48 reported that supplementation with
pequi fruit pulp oil, an oil that contains
antioxidants, may have health benefits for
endurance-trained males 45 years of age
or older. This crossover study required
participants, 125 runners between the ages
of 15 and 67 years of age, to consume
400 mg/day of the oil for 2 weeks before
completing a race of the participants’ usual
distance. The trial’s findings are limited
because it lacked a placebo (or control group)
and included runners who trained at various

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E l E vat E H E A LT H

distances. Nevertheless, there was a general
trend of reduced inflammation and total and
low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol
in older runners, especially males.48
Additionally, Louis et al.49 conducted a
3-week double-blind vitamin and mineral
supplement trial in endurance-trained
masters cyclists. They concluded that the
supplemental antioxidants reduced signs of
muscular fatigue compared to the placebo.

However, researchers could not link these
results to significant differences in
performance.49
Based on recent studies, masters athletes
should consume antioxidants through whole
foods rather than overwhelming their systems
with supplements. Furthermore, the multiple
antioxidants present in foods work together
to reduce oxidative stress. Whole foods also
have beneficial compounds that still remain
unknown or impossible to replicate. Using
food frequency data from the Hertford Shire
Cohort Study, a database of the antioxidant
content of foods, and results from glucose
tolerance tests, Okubo et al.50 demonstrated
an inverse relationship between impairments
in glucose metabolism and dietary
antioxidant intake (i.e., those individuals
who consumed more antioxidants in their
diet were less likely to show abnormalities in
glucose metabolism). The 1,441 men and
1,253 women were 59 to 73 years of age, and
the better fasting and post-meal insulin and
glucose values were significantly correlated
with higher intakes of antioxidant-rich
foods.50 Given that age-associated insulin
resistance is likely to occur, masters athletes,
like all older adults, should focus on
incorporating antioxidant-rich foods into
their diets, like deep-colored fruits and
vegetables (e.g., blueberries, raspberries,
tomatoes, broccoli, kale, etc.).6 Some of these
foods are listed in Table 3.

Masters athletes, like all
older adults, should focus
on incorporating
antioxidant-rich foods—
­
like deep-colored fruits
and vegetables— into
their diets.

Conclusion
The majority of training and nutrition
recommendations for active adults also
pertain to masters athletes. As masters
athletes continue to grow in numbers and
remain competitive, researchers will discover
unique aspects of this population’s exercise
physiology. Future studies will illuminate
specific nutrition needs and the success of
alternative therapies like antioxidant
supplementation in these individuals. Armed
with this knowledge, training and healthcare
professionals will be prepared to advise
masters athletes on specific exercise and
nutrition strategies that will enhance athletic
performance. The future looks bright for
older competitors who seek to stay in
the game.

Scientific Summary
Miriam E. Nelson, Ph.D., Science Board Member, and Professor,
Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, Boston, MA
In this issue of Elevate Health, Rachel Kelley, BS, and Stella Volpe, PhD, RD, LDN, FACSM,
from Drexel University address the important topic of nutrition recommendations for
older adults in competitive sports. As the number of masters athletes escalates, this
topic area becomes more and more important. As Ms. Kelley and Dr. Volpe outline,
nutrition for masters athletes follows many of the same principles as for all other adults;
however, there are some important differences. Depending upon weight status and
athletic participation, calorie and protein needs may differ. Additionally, there are some
nutrients of special concern for older adult athletes, such as vitamin D. Importantly, older
adult athletes are at risk for chronic disease and functional decline, as are all older adults.
The guidance provided in this paper will help practitioners guide masters athletes
to improve overall health and to help them reach their full athletic potential now
and in the future.

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E l e vat e H E A LT H

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