himself to have shed bis c u l t u r a l w a r d r o b e ; but, to repeat tbe words of Finsterlin, he was even about to shed t h a t c o n s t r a i n i n g 'ether m a n t l e ' w h i c h , h i t h e r t o , h a d enveloped h i m 'like a s k i n ' . For present purposes, w e see no reason to m a k e a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d Zeilenbau but, as we city, look between P l a n Voisin a n d back at the i n t e l l e c t u a l between the ville radieuse Karlsruhe-Dammarstock;
pedigree we have c o n s t r u c t e d f o r these, t h o u g h c o n v i n c e d of its general correctness, w e are also p e r t u r b e d by its inadequacy. There is an a b u n dance of ideas t h a t are i n themselves v o l a t i l e ; b u t one m i g h t still be obliged to recognize t h a t , w i t h o u t the t h r e a t of a l l - c o n s u m i n g crisis (the e q u i v a l e n t of the t h r e a t of r e v o l u t i o n ) , t h e i r m y t h i c a l potency is
i
m u c h less t h a n complete. The Utopia of the nineteen-twenties was b o r n u n d e r a strange astrological c o m b i n a t i o n : o n the one h a n d Oswald Spengler, o n the other,
Le Corbusier: Paris, Plan Voisin, 1925
H . G. W e l l s ; o n t h e one side, eschatological prediction, the irreversible decline of the West, o n the other the m i h e n n i a l i s t i c f u t u r e ; a n d i t is here p r o t o - ' m o d e r n ' : there is the F u t u r i s t city as proto-Fascist; and there is the r o u t i n e c o n v i c t i o n that, because it m a y be the one, it c a n n o t possibly be the o t h e r ; b u t if there is here a p r o b l e m w h i c h can o n l y be related to the pervasive d o g m a of m o d e r n architecture's i m m a c u l a t e conception, t h e n the t i m e has n o w come to c o n f r o n t the immaculata i m p o r t a n t delivery. F u t u r i s m one m i g h t see as a sort of r o m a n t i c f r o n t edge of Hegel; but, if the celebration of force is a m o n g its m o r e i m p o r t a n t sustaining sentiments, this also ahows us to insert i t i n t o a n h i s t o r i c a l f r a m e . Nietzsche's 'The h u m a n being w h o has become / r e e - a n d h o w m u c h m o r e the spirit who has become free-spits o n the contemptible type of w e l l - b e i n g the free m a n is a warrior.'^'^ bears a n uncanny tbe after as dreamed of by shopkeepers, Christians, cows, w o m e n , Englishmen, a n d other democrats; resemblance to M a r i n e t t i ' s ' W e w i l l g l o r i f y w a r - t b e o n l y hygiene of tbe w o r l d - m i l i t a r i s m , p a t r i o t i s m , the destructive gesture of anarchy, b e a u t i f u l ideas w h i c h kiU, and tbe scorn of w o m a n ^ \ and, 1 9 1 4 - 1 8 , i t was impossible t h a t such sentiments could posture at the m o m e n t of t h a t one m a y be concerned n o t so m u c h w i t h ideas as w i t h i n g r a i n e d , scarcely conscious habit. If w e have suggested a n Hebraic t h i n g - t h e promise of the messianic k i n g d o m - a n d t h e n its C h r i s t i a n version, i f w e have tried to and d i s c r i m i n a t e this v i r u l e n t t h i n g , platonized i n the Renaissance to recognize the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y career of this secular
secularized i n the eighteenth c e n t u r y , t h e n one c o u l d also be disposed residuum w h i c h , as i t lost little of its virulence, n o w emerged f r o m the political sphere to enter the aesthetic. I t is a case of a m e t a p h o r o f t h e good society t h o u g h t of, quite literally, as b e c o m i n g the t h i n g itself, of m y t h become prescription a n d of prescription endorsed by the t h r e a t of Either :0r. A choice of u t o p i a or else, the u r b a n i s t i c v i s i o n of the nineteen-twenties is p r o p o u n d e d i n terms of tbe m o r a l or biological p r o b l e m of s a l v a t i o n ; a n d b u i l d i n g holds the key. 'The m a c h i n e r y of society, p r o f o u n d l y o u t of gear, oscihates between a n a m e l i o r a t i o n , of h i s t o r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e , a n d a catastrophe'.^^ Such was the essential backdrop a n d it is against this b h n d i n g l i g h t t h a t there u l t i m a t e l y m i g h t be placed tbe w h o l e e x t r a o r d i n a r y orchest r a t i o n of G e r m a n ' h i s t o r y ' a n d French 'science', of s p i r i t u a l explosiveness a n d m e c h a n i c a l coolness, of i n e v i t a b i h t y and observation, of people a n d progress. I t was a l i g h t w h i c h generated energy a n d w h i c h , as i t became c o m p o u n d e d w i t h tbe gentler forces of a liberal t r a d i t i o n and the r o m a n t i c directives of a fledgling a v a n t gardism, c o n t r i b u t e d to m o d e r n architecture tbe velocity of a projectile, e n a b l i n g i t to enter the t w e n t i e t h a n d the dynamisme des temps modernes independent are a g a i n the of the human c e n t u r y like some apocalyptic discharge of a n e w l y i n v e n t e d shot g u n ; and, even t h o u g h faded, this continues to be the l i g h t w h i c h still c o n ditions a n y 'serious' endeavour connected w i t h the ' s t r u c t u r e ' or the w e l l being of society. But, h o w e v e r once v i v i d , i t m u s t finally be recognized t h a t this is also a l i g h t w h i c h permits o n l y a restrictive a n d m o n o c u l a r vision a n d i t is therefore f r o m the bias of n o r m a l optics t h a n w e m u s t recognize a n d c a n speak of Utopia's dechne a n d f a l l .
a v a n t garde, as other t h a n retrospective. ' A f t e r t h a t v i o l e n t e r u p t i o n , ' says W a l t e r Gropius, 'every t h i n k i n g m a n felt the necessity p r o g r a m m e r a p i d l y demonstrated for a n the intellectual change of f r o n t ' ^ ^ ; but, if after W o r l d W a r I , tbe F u t u r i s t its i n t r i n s i c atavism, t h e n , as ville radieuse came to be f o r m u l a t e d - e x c e p t f o r the absence of n a t i o n a l i s m and related phallic fantasies—tbe basic components seem t o have been m u c h the same. L'esprit nouveau
r o m a n t i c f r o n t edge of a de-spiritualized Hegel; and, via a n appeal to S a i n t - S i m o n i a n 'science' ('demonstrations w i l l ' ) , t h e n , as the most pellucid ' m o m e n t ' of the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y Utopia developed intensity, i t became indeed possible for the architect to feel himself a n undefiled creature. For, n o t only could he suppose
33
AFTER THE M I L L E N N I U M
After the
Millennium
things also; and w h e n , i n the late nineteen-forties, m o d e r n architecture became established a n d institutionahzed the image of the m o d e r n city necessarily suffered. M o d e r n a r c h i t e c t u r e h a d c e r t a i n l y a r r i v e d b u t the N e w Jerusalem was n o t exactly a g o i n g c o n c e r n ; and, s l o w l y i t began to appear t h a t s o m e t h i n g h a d gone w r o n g . M o d e r n architecture h a d n o t . ipso facto, resulted i n a better w o r l d ; and, as u t o p i a n fantasies correspondi n g l y contracted, so, f r o m the b l u r r i n g of c r i t i c a l target, there ensued a c e r t a i n aimlessness w h i c h i t is p r o b a b l y t r u e to say has afflicted the architect ever since. Could be a n y longer conceive b i m s e h to be the protagonist of a n e w i n t e g r a t i o n of c u l t u r e } M u s t he so conceive h i m self? A n d , i f so, h o w . '
Whenever the utopia disappears, history ceases to be a process leading to an ultimate end. The frame of reference according to w h i c h we evaluate facts vanishes and we are left w i t h a series of events all equal as far as their inner significance is concerned.
KARL MANNHEIM
Come to our well r u n desert Where anguish arrives by cable A n d the deadly sins m a y be bought i n tins W i t h instructions o n the label.
W . H . AUDEN
N o w the extent to w h i c h these questions were consciously
asked
was p r o b a b l y never l a r g e ; but, aU the same, t h e i r i m p h c i t presence c o u l d o n l y create a divergence of interest r e v o l v i n g a r o u n d the e v a l u a t i o n of the u r b a n models of the twenties. Thus, o n the one h a n d , the radieuse ville could be seen as a f r i g h t e n i n g false p r o m i s e ; b u t , o n the other,
it was stih possible f o r a s o m e w h a t too assertive o p t i m i s m to s u r v i v e and this by i n t e r p r e t i n g tbe Corbusian city as no more t h a n a l a u n c h i n g pad f o r the e l a b o r a t i o n and p e r f e c t i o n of the t e c b n o c r a t i c a l l y a n d scientifically inspired city of the f u t u r e . Thus, o n the one h a n d , a n o v e r t l y b a c k w a r d look and. o n the other, a n ostensible look f o r w a r d ; and t h u s the c u l t of townscape and the c u l t of science fiction. ^ Townscape, a c u l t of English vhlages, I t a l i a n h i h t o w n s a n d N o r t h a n d a n o n y m o u s a r c h i t e c t u r e ; and, of course i t made its flrst appearance w e h before the issues j u s t suggested rose to the surface. Indeed, i n the pages of The Architectural Review, even i n the early nineteen-thirties, one c a n detect the u n c o o r d i n a t e d presence of aU its later ingredients. A perhaps w h o l l y English taste f o r t o p o g r a p h y ; a surely Bauhaus-inspired taste f o r the p r e g n a n t object of m a s s _ p r o d u c t i o n - t b e h i t h e r t o u n n o t i c e d V i c t o r i a n m a n h o l e , etc; a feeling for p a i n t , the t e x t u r e of decay, eighteenth c e n t u r y folly a n d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y g r a p h i c s ; Eyes and Ears in East Anglia-a Robert Lugar: double cottage, 1805, elevation and plan aged 14^; The Native Style; scJwolboy's Warmth holiday representative Everything; Angus titles of these early days i n c l u d e : The Seeing Eye or How to Uke in the West;
The parousia of m o d e r n architecture. A bundle of eschatological f a n tasies about i m m i n e n t a n d apocalyptic catastrophe c o m b i n e d w i t h still others about instant m i l l e n n i u m . Crisis: the t h r e a t of d a m n a t i o n , the hope of salvation. Irresistible change w h i c h still requires h u m a n cooperation. The n e w architecture a n d u r b a n i s m as emblems of the N e w Jerusalem. The c o r r u p t i o n s of h i g h c u l t u r e . The b o n f i r e of vanities. Sehtranscendence t o w a r d s a f o r m of coUectivized freedom. The architect, repossessed of v i r t u e and f o r t i f i e d b y the equivalent of religious experience, m a y n o w revert to his p r i m a l innocence. This is to caricature, t h o u g h n o t seriously to distort a complex of sentiments movement. M a k e m e a cottage i n the vale, she said. W h e r e I m a y m o u r n a n d pray. Yet p u h n o t d o w n m y palace towers, t h a t are So l i g h t l y , b e a u t i f u l l y b u i h ; Perchance I m a y r e t u r n w i t h others there W h e n I have purged m y guilt. The sentiments w h i c h T e n n y s o n i n The Palace of Art ( 1 8 3 2 - 4 2 ) a t t r i b u t e d to his soul were still, m o r e or less, representative of the m o d e r n architect i n the twenties a n d i t is o f t e n d i f f i c u l t to dispute t h e i r abstemiousness a n d m o r a l d i g n i t y . But, if 'a cottage i n the vale' ( a cottage ornée n o d o u b t ) c a n be sharply devalued as a s y m b o l of innocence, so c a n other o f t e n l y i n g just beneath the t h r e s h o l d of consciousness, of the modern w h i c h have been c r u c i a l i n f o r m i n g the conscience
A f r i c a n casbahs, was, above ah else, a m a t t e r of felicitous happenings
tour by Archibald
A Cubist Folk Art; and,
most signiflcantly, t w o apparently c r u c i a l articles by A m é d é e Ozenfant w h o , i n Colour in the Town ( 1 9 3 7 ) , states w i t h obvious reference: Leave i t to the H . G. Wells of architecture to trace the o u t l i n e of ideal t o w n s , to sketch a h y p o t h e t i c a l Paris or L o n d o n of the year 3 0 0 0 . Let us accept the present, the a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n of the English c a p i t a l ! Her past, her present a n d her i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e . I w o u l d speak of w h a t is i m m e d i a t e l y reafizable. • At flrst s t a r t l i n g , o n reflection, the presence of Ozenfant i n this
collection ceases to be so. For this was the period of bis brief domicile i n L o n d o n ; a n d it w o u l d seem that, d u r i n g this t i m e , he was led to r e s u m e - t h o u g h w i t h less passionate i n t e n s i t y - t h a t process of b r i n g i n g
34
AFTER THE M I L L E N N I U M
i n t o prominence h i t h e r t o u n d i s c r i m i n a t e d aspects of v e r n a c u l a r or f o l k c u l t u r e or mass p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h he a n d Le Corbusier h a d practised some fifteen years earher. I n v o l v i n g attitudes derived f r o m the repertory of Synthetic Cubism a n d a SurreaUst n o t i o n of the object trouvé, the p o i n t of v i e w of specifics, a c r i t i c i s m s o m e w h a t what Ozenfant m i g h t be felt t o h a v e p r o v i d e d was a c r i t i c i s m of L o n d o n f r o m analogous to Le Corbusier's i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h a specific rather t h a n a n ideal P a r i s - w i t h a Paris of studio w i n d o w s , the foyers of M é t r o stations, r a n d o m rubble p a r t y walls a n d generally emotive accidents, a n e m p i r i c a l Paris w h i c h Le Corbusier so o f t e n quoted i n bis buildings b u t never i n his urbanistic proposals. Ozenfant's t w o articles belong to the i n c u n a b u l a of townscape and
are of f a r more t h a n simply period interest. But, i f i t w o u l d seem t h a t f o r a t i m e the possibihty was open of seeing the townscape idea as affihated to Cubist a n d post-Cubist t r a d i t i o n , this was a n o p e n i n g w h i c h W o r l d W a r I I , i n v o l v i n g a d e v a l u a t i o n of t h i n g s French, tended to m i n i m i z e . For there was a l w a y s available the attractive a n d m o r e comprehensible alternative of p r o c l a i m i n g the e n d u r i n g significance of a n indigenous style of vision. I n other words, townscape c o u l d readily be interpreted as a derivative of the late eighteenth c e n t u r y Picturesque; and, as it implicated afi t h a t love of disorder, c u l t i v a t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l , distaste for the r a t i o n a l , passion for the various, pleasure i n the idiosyncratic a n d suspicion of the generalized w h i c h may, sometimes, be supposed to distinguish the a r c h i t e c t u r a l t r a d i t i o n of the United K i n g d o m , so (almost
above Yona Friedman: the spatial city, 1961 above right Tatsuhiko Nakajima and GAUS: Kibogaoka Youth Castel, c. 1971
like E d m u n d Burke's political polemic of the 1 7 9 0 s ) i t was enabled to thrive. But, i n application, townscape was surely less defensible t h a n i t was as a n idea. I t i n v o l v e d a h i g h l y interesting t h e o r y of the 'accident'(its m o d e l was surely Serho's p o p u l a r and Comic Scene rather t h a n the aristocratic a n d T r a g i c Scene w h i c h u t o p i a h a d consistently employed) but, i n practice, townscape seems to have lacked a n y ideal referent f o r the always engaging 'accidents' w h i c h i t sought to p r o m o t e ; and, as a resuh, j t s tendency has been to provide sensation w i t h o u t plan, to appeal to the eye and n o t to the m i n d and, w h i l e usefully sponsoring a perceptual w o r l d , to devalue a w o r l d of concepts. It m a y be argued t h a t these l i m i t a t i o n s are n o t intrinsic to the
approach, t h a t townscape c a n be detached f r o m w h a t too early became a n u n d u e p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h beer a n d y a c h t i n g : but, m e a n w h i l e , i t s h o u l d be e n o u g h to stipulate its i m p o r t a n c e as a doctrine. Scarcely dependent u p o n Camiho Sitte, as is sometimes erroneously supposed, m u c h of present-day a c t i v i t y is incomprehensible unless we are prepared to ixcognize the r a m i f i c a t i o n s of townscape's anfluence. Beyond its basic visuals townscape has become the p o i n t of reference f o r a n u m ber of related arguments. Thus, i t has been given a sociological a n d economic credibihty b y Jane Jacobs: it has been given r a t i o n a l gloss by below NER Group, USSR: city project, Moscow, 1967 the allegedly scientific n o t a t i o n a l systems of K e v i n L y n c h : and, i f the advocacy p l a n n i n g a n d do-it-yourself are inconceivable w i t h o u t Arato Isozaki: space city project, collage, 1960
influence of townscape, so equally are Pop-inspired appraisals of the Strip at Las Vegas and e n t h u s i a s m for the p h e n o m e n o n of Disney W o r l d . -!f Like townscape, w h a t w e have chosen to cafl science fiction also antedates the collapse of m o d e r n architecture's m i h e n n i a l i s t i c idea. But, if it is to be related to F u t u r i s t a n d Expressionist precedent, it is also to be seen as, i n some sense, a r e v i v a l . Science fiction identifies itself w i t h mega-buildings, l i g h t w e i g h t t b r o w a w a y s , p l u g - i n v a r i a b i l i t y , over-city grids-ironing-board over Stockholm, waffle-iron over Diisseldorflinear cities, i n t e g r a t i o n of buildings w i t h transport, m o v e m e n t systems a n d tubes. I t displays a preference f o r process a n d h y p e r - r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , for crude facts as f o u n d , a n obsession w i t h the spirit of the times. Its v o c a b u l a r y displays a conversance w i t h c o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y : and.
37
AFTER THE M I L L E N N I U M
38
AFTER THE M I L L E N N I U M
if the ville radieuse fiction
carried w i t h i t the i m p h c a t i o n of a f u t u r e , science
pushes this c o n v i c t i o n even f u r t h e r .
To one extent, of course, science fiction is m o d e r n architecture w i t h afi its old style presumptions as to the r a t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of b u i l d i n g s u r v i v i n g intact, even t h o u g h a little hystericafiy over stipulated. T h a t is: i n so far as m e t h o d o l o g y , systems analysis and parametric design are elevated to be i m p o r t a n t pursuits, science fiction m a y present itself as a n academicized version of w h a t m o d e r n a r c h h e c t u r e was, anciently, Cumbernauld town centre, model of early design supposed to be. B u t science fiction, like old-fashioned m o d e r n architecture, has also a less r i g o r o u s more poetic face. This is the f a m i l i a r i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h images conceived to illustrate science a n d t h e n t h e i r advertisement as proofs o f t h e designer's all-relevant objectivity. But science fiction, w h i c h m a y thus be either pure or Pop, i n spite
of a l l its prophetic gestures, m a y also be t h o u g h t of as the reverse of a n y t h i n g r e v o l u t i o n a r y . The search for system, after all, is v e r y hke the old academic t h i n g - p l a t o n i c c e r t a i n t y i n brave n e w disguise; status quo-ist. I n fact, science fiction, whüe even elaborate concern for the f u t u r e m a y also be seen as regressive a n d i n some of its m o r e free forms, sufi'ers f r o m some of the same defects as the F u t u r i s m of w h i c h i t is the unconsciously i r o n i c a l r e v i v a l . W h i c h is to say: t h a t for ah hs a c t i o n directed posture, i n h e r e n t l y , it is almost unbelievably passive; that rather t h a n protest, it largely involves endorsement of w h a t is supposed to be endemic: that, r a t h e r t h a n being conscious of morals, i t is apt to be success-oriented; a n d t h a t , hke the o r i g i n a l Futurists, some of its devotees are perfectly w i l l i n g , i f u s e f u l (because such is c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v ism), to describe black as being w h i t e . A n attitude to F u t u r i s m has already here been divulged, the cele b r a t i o n of force majeure, a nationahst a n d essentially p r e - 1 9 1 4 manifest a t i o n ; and, to this we m i g h t add K e n n e t h Burke's observation t h a t the F u t u r i s t propensity was to make of a n abuse a v i r t u e . To the protest: the streets are noisy, there was the characteristic reply, we prefer i t t h a t w a y ; and, to the p r o p o s i t i o n : the drains smefi, there was the entirely predictable response, weU w e like stink. ^ But, ah this apart, i n F u t u r i s m , there stih remains the M a r i n e t t i - M u s s o h n i degringolade q u a l i f y present judgements. I n a n y case, the results of science fiction, w h e t h e r systemic or neoCumbernauld, residential area Futurist, usually suffer f r o m the same conditions w h i c h plague the ville radiei/se-disregard for context, distrust of the social c o n t i n u u m , the use of symbohc Utopian models f o r literal purposes, the assumption t h a t the existing city w i l l be made to go a w a y ; and, if the ville radieuse easy to see l i o w science fiction, is n o w supposed to be evil, p r o d u c t i v e of t r a u m a a n d disorientation, i t is n o t w h i c h \^'ould seem to c o m p o u n d the Uls. is i n a n y position to aheviate the p r o b l e m . Nevertheless, a n indebtedness to science fiction m a y still be p r o ;^ and, w i t h o u t w i s h i n g obsessively to insist u p o n this, i t can o n l y be conceded t h a t i t does
claimed ; and, i f we are n o w p r o v i d e d w i t h t w o models w h i c h Frangoise
41
AFTER THE M I L L E N N I U M
A n y t h i n g m i g h t here h a p p e n : the death of architecture, n o n - b u i l d i n g , A n d y W a r h o l bug-eyed monsters, i m m e d i a c y of feeling f o r hfe, i n s t a n t n o m a d i s m , the wished-for end of all repression. W e are presented w i t h townscape i n a space-suit: b u t whereas the idiosyncrasies of tbe t o w n scape images are supposedly a t t r i b u t a b l e to the pressures of context, the A r c h i g r a m images are generafiy presented i n a n ideal v o i d w h i c h , f o r all intents and purposes is the same v o i d as t h a t i n w h i c h the u r b a n model of c. 1 9 3 0 is located. But, if A r c h i g r a m m i g h t represent an engagingly incidental and
accidental f u s i o n of the retrospective a n d the prospective models. T e a m X, by reason of its loose o r g a n i z a t i o n and diversity of manifestations, is less easy to characterize. T e a m X f o u n d the ideality a n d the taste f o r generality of classic m o d e r n architecture to be l a r g e l y w i t h o u t m e a n i n g ; but, ff i t denounced the A t h e n s Charter a n d the related p r o n o u n c e ments of C I A M as h a v i n g become irrelevant, i t w o u l d seem that (perhaps b y i n t e n t i o n ) , i t has faffed to develop a n y body of t h e o r y of equivalent coherence. For T e a m X bears the w e i g h t of w h a t ff supposes to be tbe apostolic succession: and, t h o u g h ff o f t e n endeavours to c o m pensate f o r this elevated predicament by i n s u b s t a n t i a l graphics themselves
below
and
verbal i n f a n t i h s m , t h o u g h its members have been c a r e f u l n o t to t r a p i n a w e b of ex cathedra statements, one senses i n t h e i r i n v a r i a b l y cautious performance the consciousness of almost ecclesiastical responsibility. I t has been stated (Bakema) t h a t 'Team X w o u l d replace tbe isolated b u f f d i n g and b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m m e w i t h the overlapping of b m l d i n g s a n d programmes, t h a t i t w o u l d replace f u n c t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h ' h u m a n association"^ and, a m o r e recent move, t h a t
below rigiit
Alison and Peter Smithson; layout for a provincial market town with established local market 1967
Candilis, Josic and Woods: project for Toulouse-le-Mirail, 1961
for i m p o s i t i o n i t w o u l d substitute p a r t i c i p a t i o n : ^ but, a d m i r a b l e t h o u g h afi these proposals are ( a n d w h o w o u l d w i s h to disagree w i t h s u c h
Choay m i g h t designate culturalist anticipate their cross-breeding-a
a n d progressivist,^
w e m i g h t reasonably
process w h i c h b o t h parties m a y be
at pains to deny. But, possible denials apart, the offspring are e v i d e n t ; a n d i n such a n example as C u m b e r n a u l d , f o r instance, a great clash of townscape a n d n e o - F u t u r i s m is. perhaps i n a d v e r t e n t l y , the p r e v a i h n g idea. W e hve i n townscape and, after a trek, w e shop i n F u t u r i s m ; and, as w e m i g r a t e b e t w e e n the 'relative' a n d the ' r a t i o n a l ' , between fantasies of w h a t was a n d w h a t is to be, t h e n , receiving as w e do a n elementary lesson i n philosophy and its variants, no d o u b t w e c a n scarcely fail b u t be edified. A n d of interest i n the same respect is the w o r k of A r c h i g r a m a n d T e a m X. Judging b y the b u l k of its proposals f o r u r b a n a p p l i c a t i o n , A r c h i g r a m w o u l d seem to be m a k i n g picturesque ah of the u n p l a n n e d randomness, h i g h - p i t c h e d t o n a h t y , the aggressive images of tlie future. For, the h a p p y jerkiness, the obviously syncopation, aU of the f a m o u s
ingredients of Englishness i n a c t i o n are n o w g i v e n a space-age gloss.
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AFTER THE M I L L E N N I U M
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AFTER THE M I L L E N N I U M
other results i n its f a t a l d e v a l u a t i o n , t h e y are, of course, b o t h alike i n insisting o n the possibilities of a p p a r e n t l y i m m e d i a t e g r a t i f i c a t i o n . A n d to insist o n tbe ideal shared. For S u p e r s t u d i o : Y o u can be w h e r e y o u hke t a k i n g w i t h y o u t h e t r i b e or f a m i l y . fvuj .f ^y'"' There's n o need f o r shelters, since the c h m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s a n d the body mechanisms of t h e r m o - r e g u l a t i o n have been m o d i f i e d to g u a r a n t e e t o t a l comfort. A t the most w e can play at m a k i n g shelter, or r a t h e r at t h e home, at architecture. A l l y o u have to do is to stop a n d connect a p l u g : t h e desired m i c r o climate is i m m e d i a t e l y created (temperature, h u m i d i t y , e t c . ) ; y o u p l u g i n to the n e t w o r k of i n f o r m a t i o n , y o u s w i t c h o n t h e f o o d a n d w a t e r blenders.. A n d thus, w i t h c e r t a i n q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , also f o r Disney W o r l d . But, w h e n Superstudio continues t h a t , i n the ideal society: There w i l l be no f u r t h e r need f o r cities or castles. N o f u r t h e r need f o r roads or squares. Every p o i n t wUl be the same as a n y o t h e r ( e x c l u d i n g a few deserts or m o u n t a i n s w h i c h are i n n o wise inhabitable).^ Ithaca, New York. State Street 1869 it is t h e n , evidently, t h a t the t w o visions a g a i n part c o m p a n y . For freed o m i n Florence a n d f r e e d o m i n D u b u q u e , a p p a r e n t l y , bear different faces; a n d it is precisely such a s i t u a t i o n as Superstudio projects t h a t Disney W o r l d g r e w u p to alleviate. I t is n o t a q u e s t i o n t h a t , i n fact, i n I o w a there are n o castles or squares; b u t i t is a m a t t e r t h a t t b e absence of these ffems m a y (sometimes) be felt as d e p r i v a t i o n , a m a t t e r t h a t , where the 'ideal' Cartesian grid has l o n g been a fact of life, some relief m a y (occasionally) be sought w h i c h has g u a r a n t e e d t h e p o p u l a r success of Disney W o r l d . So, to a degree, since t h e y are l i n k e d i n a c h a i n of cause a n d effect, Disney World, Florida, Main Street Superstudio: landscape with figures, c . l 9 7 0 the t w o visions are stffl c o m p l e m e n t a r y . Superstudio, i n tbe interests of a non-oppressive e g a l f f a r i a n i s m , w o u l d systematically eradicate all existi n g v a r i e t y i n f a v o u r of a n ideally u n i f o r m stage (it is p r o b a b l y caUed a wholesome generalities), the p r o d u c t is n o t , exactly, distinguishable. A n d t h u s T e a m X ahernates between systems b u i l d i n g a n d s i m u l a t e d vihages, between g r o w t h fantasies a n d townscape t u n e up.'' N o w , evidently, the v a r i o u s uneasy fusions of science h c t i o n townscape-aU claiming to be libertarian and signify a considerable investment and non-repressive—must plateau) f o r spontaneous h a p p e n i n g : and, i f Disney W o r l d proceeds
of e m o t i o n a l c a p i t a l ; but, before
proposing the q u e s t i o n : Is i t w o r t h i t . ' i t n o w becomes necessary to recognise the latest representatives (tbe u l t i m a t e logical derivatives.') of t h e t w o models. A t w h i c h stage tbe u t o p i a of Superstudio a n d 'symbolic A m e r i c a n u t o p i e ' which Robert V e n t u r i has professed discover i n Disney World'^ m a y c o n v e n i e n t l y exhibit t b e extremes w h i c h the t w o critiques of the ville radieuse reduced themselves. the to to
have (for tbe m o m e n t . ' )
N o t o r i o u s l y , the exigencies of f r e e d o m (no i m p o s i t i o n of a u t h o r i t y ) w i U support t h e most c o n t r a d i c t o r y positions; and, ostensibly, this is w h a t w e here find. The u t o p i a of Superstudio—the w o r l d as Cartesian The mid-western prairie grid-demands a final e m a n c i p a t i o n f r o m the abstract t y r a n n y of
objects, a n d tbe aheged u t o p i a of Disney W o r l d - a n essentiafiy n a t u r a l istic situation-suggests t h a t , r a t h e r t h a n a n y p r o b l e m , objects are a relief ; but, if the one proposes the supersession of the object w h i l e tbe
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f r o m a c o m m e r c i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n of the needs of j u s t such a stage, t h e n , perhaps, the o n l y o u t s t a n d i n g difference concerns the q u a l i t y of the a c t i o n or its source of o r i g i n . I n other words, the o n l y o u t s t a n d i n g difference relates to a concept i o n of society, t h o u g h , even here, relationships are closer t h a n m i g h t at first be supposed. A n d thus, w h i l e Superstudio envisions the w i t h e r ing a w a y of the state, Disney W o r l d is the p r o d u c t of a social s i t u a t i o n w h e r e the evidence of the public r e a l m was never very h i g h l y assertive. Simply, Superstudio proposes 'the e l i m i n a t i o n of tbe f o r m a l structures of p o w e r ' ; w h i l e Disney W o r l d is a n attempt to f u r n i s h the resultant vacuum. The p r o b l e m m a y , therefore, u l t i m a t e l y reduce itself to one of style: to the question of w h a t is acceptable f u r n i t u r e ; to the q u e s t i o n : m a y h u m a n bodies, preferably naked a n d s u r r o u n d e d by m i n i m u m apparatus, be construed as acceptable f u r n i t u r e , or are we obhged to assume t h a t a little m o r e is required 1 W h i c h is also the question as to w h e t h e r w e m a k e o u r f u r n i t u r e ourselves or order ff f r o m G r a n d Rapids. For, i n b o t h cases, the f u r n i t u r e is s o m e t h i n g w h i c h simply floats above a n operative i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e and presents ffself as 'real' or ' f f l u s o r y ' according to taste. I n b o t h cases w e are i n d r e a m w o r l d s e x h i b i t i n g different styles of sophistication—with the i m p l i c i t proviso that, for Superstudio, there is somehow a n i n t r i n s i c c o n n e c t i o n between the i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e a n d w h a t is dependent u p o n it. Given the 'correct' i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e ; W e ' l l keep sfience to listen to o u r bodies. We'U w a t c h ourselves h v i n g . The m i n d w i l l f a f i back o n itseff to read its o w n history. W e ' f l play w o n d e r f u l games of a b i f f t y a n d love. We'U talk a lot, to ourselves a n d to everybody. Life w f l l be tbe o n l y e n v i r o n m e n t a l a r t . ' " Now the objectives of W a l t Disney Enterprises are, surely, never
who on
f u e l the various theatres of i l l u s i o n above;
a n d it s h o u l d be
evident t h a t the correct a n a l o g y is t h a t of the N e w Y o r k skyscraper; the 6 5 t b floor is the R a i n b o w R o o m w h e r e the c o n s u m p t i o n of Transcendentalist cocktaffs is the order of the day a n d t h e n , w a y , w a y beneath (out of sight b u t n o t o u t of m i n d ) is tbe p r a g m a t i c sub-basement w h i c h facilitates b o t h the upstairs afflatus a n d public e u p h o r i a . I n b o t h cases the t w o w o r l d s of fflusion and fact, of p u b l i c i t y a n d p r i v a c y are insulated. Inter-dependent b u t separate, they m a y possibly be equal, but, i n no w a y , are they to be i n t e g r a t e d ; and, ff the example of Second Empire Paris m a y here be quoted, w h a t w e h a v e i n each case is the u n d e r w o r l d of H a u s s m a n n ' s Opéra. To the strict m o r a l i s t - t h o u g h there m a y n o t be m a n y l e f t - t h e r e sewers a n d the s u p e r w o r l d of Garnier's
is i n these conditions of apparent schism s o m e t h i n g w t i i c h m u s t be v e r y p r o f o u n d l y w r o n g ; but, ff ff w i f l seem to h i m t h a t here t e c h n o l o g y a n d art are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y abused, it m i g h t stih be desirable f o r this n o t o r i o u s l y i n t o l e r a n t personage to suppress his i n i t i a l reactions. For, ff it is almost certain t h a t the strict moralist, whose t e m p e r a m e n t is after afl a little early Christian, w i h w i s h to assign p r i m a r y value o n l y to the technological catacombs, t h e n , a l t h o u g h his p o i n t of v i e w is to be understood, this a t t r i b u t i o n of a u t h e n t i c i t y o n l y to the props of i l l u s i o n must, i n the end, be considered self-defeating. For, g i v e n tbe r i f t i n g of 'reality' a n d 'fantasy', i t is a question of w h a t sponsors w h a t ; Do tbe sewers validate the O p é r a or does the O p é r a validate the sewers; w h i c h has p r i o r i t y , the servant or the served 7 M o d e r n architecture, a n d Superstudio f o l l o w i n g its general lead, has a l w a y s w i s h e d to abolish this gross d i s t i n c t i o n , or even to obliterate the q u e s t i o n ; b u t i f i n seeking to do so, ff has, perhaps i n a d v e r t e n t l y , too m u c h accepted the M a r x i a n d i s t i n c t i o n of ' s t r u c t u r e ' a n d 'superstruct u r e ' assigning i m p o r t a n c e a n d signiflcance o n l y to the first, t h e n the results of a t o t a l f a i l u r e to consider the p r o b l e m are n o t too h a r d to describe. 'Disney W o r l d is nearer to w h a t people really w a n t t h a n what architects have ever given t h e m ' . ' ^ The j u d g e m e n t is Robert V e n t u r i ' s ; and, w h e t h e r i t is correct or n o t (because w h o r e a l l y knows.?), ff m u s t be aUowed at least to embody a n i m p o r t a n t h a l f t r u t h . So Disney W o r l d is j u s t i f l a b l y p o p u l a r ; and, i f w e judge i t f o r w h a t i t is, this should surely be e n o u g h . B u t w h e n a derivative of townscape has been annexed by the e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n d u s t r y a n d is t h e n p o l e m i c a l l y represented as a U t o p i a a n d as 'a symbohc A m e r i c a n u t o p i a ' t h e n w h o U y different critical standards become a c t i v a t e d ; and, ff the inter-dependence of Idtsch a n d g o v e r n m e n t is n o t h i n g new, t h e n surely ( a n d h o w e v e r Fauve-Dada w e m a y w i s h to be) this does n o t necessarily caU f o r the i n v e r s i o n of a l l serious judgements of value. Disney W o r l d deals w i t h the crude a n d the o b v i o u s ; a n d this is b o t h its v i r t u e and h m i t a t i o n . Its images are n o t c o m p l e x ; and, thus, Disney
to be f o r m u l a t e d i n exactly this m a n n e r . ' B u y h o m e m a d e cookies f r o m a t u r n of the c e n t u r y m e r c e n a r y g r a n d m a o n M a i n Street; visit the air c o n d f f i o n e d Cindereha's Castle by elevator' ( w h o needs Chambord.?); i n A d v e n t u r e l a n d 'come face to face w i t h a gigantic p y t h o n , be menaced by t r u m p e t i n g A f r i c a n e l e p h a n t s ; . . . pass under the p l u n g i n g , t h u n d e r i n g A l b e r t Scbweffzer F a h s ; ' " i n T o m o r r o w l a n d , i n seven minutes, ride a n e a r t h b o u n d rocket to the m o o n ; and, eventually, exercise the exotic emotions elicited by cheap air t r a v e l - I s f a h a n , B a n g k o k , T a h i t i - i n the hotels corresponding to these themes. So m u c h is a composite picture of the above-ground delights of Disney W o r l d w h e r e several h u n d r e d acres of m o s t l y fibre glass fantasy rest u p o n a n unseen t e c h n o l o g i c a l substructure w i t h o u t e a r t h l y parallel, w h e r e , w i t h easy access .md a c c o m m o d a t i n g all the vast priorities of change, are c o n t a i n e d a l l the r e q u i r e d s e r v i c e s - v a c u u m garbage systems, electrical c i r c u i t r y , sewage lines, complete supply t r a c t o r t r a f f i c routes a n d t o t a l b e h i n d (or below) the scenes access for the costumed employees
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W o r l d ' s M a i n Street is n o t so m u c h a n idealization of the real t h i n g as it is a hltering and p a c k a g i n g o p e r a t i o n , i n v o l v i n g the e l i m i n a t i o n of u n pleasantness, of tragedy, of t i m e a n d of blemish. But the real M a i n Street, the authentic n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h i n g is neither so facile n o r so felicitous. I t registers, instead, a n optimistic desperation. The Greek temple, the false V i c t o r i a n fagade, the Palladian portico, the unused Opera-House, the courthouse sanctioned by tbe g l a m o u r of N a p o l e o n I l l ' s Paris, the conspicuous m o n u m e n t to the Civil W a r or to the Fearless F i r e m a n , ' ^ these are the evidence of almost frenzied eflbrt, v i a the m o v i n g l y i n g e n u o u s r e c o n s t i t u t i o n of stable c u l t u r a l images, to provide stability i n a n unstable scene, to c o n v e r t f r o n t i e r f l u x i n t o estabhshed c o m m u n i t y . M a i n Street was never very pretty nor, probably, ever very prosperous; b u t i t was a posture t o w a r d s the w o r l d i n v o l v i n g b o t h independence and enterprise a n d i t was never l a c k i n g i n a rawness of pathetic d i g n i t y . Its clumsy, w o u l d - b e m e t r o p o l i t a n veneers are the indications of a c e r t a i n stoicism of m o o d , of a sort of embittered flamboyance, w h i c h acquires its final d i g n i t y f r o m its essential lack of success. T h a t is, w h i l e M a i n Street was a n o f t e n g r a n d attempt to dissimulate real h a r d s h i p and d e p r i v a t i o n - a n a t t e m p t w h i c h could o n l y fafl, one m a y stfll sometimes, even i n its physical inadequacy, discern the i m p l i c i t g r a n d e u r of its m o r a l impulse. I n other words, the real M a i n Street, about w h i c h there m a y o f t e n be s o m e t h i n g a little sardonic, is a n e x h i b i t i o n of a reserved a n d scarcely agreeable reality, of a reality w h i c h engages speculative curiosity, w h i c h stimulates the i m a g i n a t i o n a n d w h i c h , for its u n d e r s t a n d i n g , insists u p o n the expenditure of m e n t a l energy. I n the real M a i n Street there is, inevitably, a t w o - w a y commerce between the observer and the observed; b u t tbe Disney W o r l d v e r s i o n c a n scarcely allow for a n y such r i s k y business. The Disney W o r l d version c a n n o t seriously emulate its enigmatic o r i g i n a l . A m a c h i n e f o r the p r o d u c t i o n of euphoria, i t c a n o n l y leave the i m a g i n a t i o n u n p r o v o k e d a n d the capacity f o r speculation u n s t i m u l a t e d ; and, w h i l e i t m i g h t be argued t h a t the nausea p r o d u c e d by over-exposure to sugar c o a t i n g a n d eternally fixed smiles m i g h t guarantee a c e r t a i n genuine a n d unpleasant e m o t i o n a l response, t h e n there is surely some question (sado-masochism n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g ) as to w h e t h e r such a t r a u m a t i c experience is really necessary. B u t i f i m p h c i t l y , w e h a v e assigned to Billy G r a h a m the role of Street. 1869 proceeds to synthesize different realities by s y n c r e t i s m . . . Thus designing coincides m o r e a n d m o r e w i t h existence: n o longer existence u n d e r the p r o t e c t i o n of design objects, b u t existence as design'.'* A n d w h a t to say a b o u t this ? T h a t such poetry m a y seduce b u t c a n seldom c o n v i n c e ; t h a t insistence u p o n t o t a l f r e e d o m is to deny the s m a l l a p p r o x i m a t e freedoms w h i c h are ah that, historically, have been avafiable a n d are probably a f l t h a t w e c a n ever a n t i c i p a t e ? ' ' Perhaps; and c e r t a i n l y , if Superstudio seems to envisage the f u t u r e 'city' as a c o n t i n u o u s W o o d stock festival f o r the benefit of ' a f i ' ( m e a n i n g a h i g h l y restricted elite), a Woodstock w i t h o u t garbage, t h e n as w e e x a m i n e Superstudio's images, w e c a n n o t exactly r i d ourselves of a n impression. For are w e n o t to suppose-indeed c a n w e do o t h e r - t b a t these are the products of a n magazine? enhghtened gesture o n the part of the editor of Playboy
Certainly there is here no 'oppression'; a n d i f the libido rides unchecked, w e m i g h t even i m a g i n e t h a t these are a m o n g the results of a n i n v i t a t i o n to Herbert Marcuse to prepare a special issue of H u g h Hefner's p u b l i c a t i o n . . . so f a r as w e c a n see a kitsch n o t u n e q u i v a l e n t to the k f f s c h of Disney W o r l d . But, i f a p u n m a y be a d m i t t e d a n d w e m i g h t beheve t h a t Superstudio a n d Disney W o r l d are o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e versions of the Idtsch of death, t h e n , ff one is to be relegated to the status o f t h e reader of a 'heavy' s k i n magazine or obliged to find hope o n l y i n false pieties, the t i m e has surely come to recognize t h a t a n y a r g u m e n t (and p a r t i c u l a r l y a p a r t i s a n a r g u m e n t ) ff pursued to its logical t e r m i n a t i o n can o n l y be self-destruc-
A r c h b i s h o p of C a n t e r b u r y (it could never be Pope) of Disney W o r l d , t h e n we are still constrained to ask; H o w about Superstudio; Superstudio w h i c h moves u p o n Itahanate levels of cosmopolitan intelligence a n d w h i c h , f r o m a basis qf bourgeois n e o - M a r x i s m , propounds (we believe correctly) the u n a v o i d a b l e denouement of science fiction.? A n d w h a t to reply ? To say that, i n Superstudio, w e discern a httle too m u c h of the bella figura syndrome, t h a t w e are n o t u n o b s e r v a n t of a n insidiously neo-Fascist content.' W e do n o t suppose these to be adequate responses. For Superstudio w r i t e s of: 'Design, become perfect and r a t i o n a l , ( w h i c h )