48-59
Content
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AFTER THE M I L L E N N I U M
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AFTER THE M I L L E N N I U M
tive. T h u s w e have cited Disney W o r l d a n d the images of Superstudio, n o t for their intrinsic virtues a n d vices, b u t rather as the logical extensions of t w o points of v i e w w h i c h , i n themselves, m a y b o t h be v a l u a b l e ; b u t the p r e s u m p t i o n here i n f e r r e d t h a t o n l y the middle g r o u n d of a n a r g u m e n t is of use, t h a t its extremities are likely always to be absurd, is n o w positively introduced, n o t f r o m a n y passion f o r compromise, b u t as a n i n t u i t i o n w h i c h m i g h t assist some k i n d of alert a n d w o r k a b l e détente, w i t h destiny a n d t h e n as a m o r n i n g - a f t e r nausea w h i c h , f o r relief, made use of at least t w o time-tested recipes: a n analgesic p a i n remover, or m o r e of the same; but, i f w e have f u r t h e r suggested t h a t sometimes these remedies were administered s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d sometimes i n excess, the question as to w h e t h e r all this a c t i v i t y was really w o r t h - w h i l e c a n n o t a n y longer be postponed. AirVUi W e have surveyed a scene w h i c h , f u n d a m e n t a l l y , endorses r e t r o spective attitudes, e x p l o i t i n g k n o w n and, perhaps, popular references; w e have also witnessed a n extension of the prospective a n d f u t u r e oriented aspects of m o d e r n architecture, i n v o l v i n g techno-scientific resources and, in the end, the dematerialized and oppression-free statement have Utopian state; b u t t h e n one is also compelled to recognize t h a t i n neither of these t w o t r a d i t i o n s has capable of offsetting t h a t there emerged a n urbanistic of early m o d e r n architecture. N o r i Thus f a r we have characterized m o d e r n architecture as, first, a b o u t i-,- v . '^
acted as Scholastic classroom aids, i t becomes possible to refer to t h e m as h a v i n g been theatres of memory. A n d the designation is a useful one, because i f today we are o n l y too apt to t h i n k of buildings as necessarily prophetic, such a n alternative mode of t h i n k i n g m a y serve to correct o u r u n d u l y prejudiced n a ï v e t é . The b u i l d i n g as a theatre of prophecy, b u i l d i n g as a theatre of memory-ii the w e are able to conceive of the b u i l d i n g
as the one, we must, i n h e r e n t l y , be able also to conceive of i t as the o t h e r ; and, w h i l e recognizing that, w i t h o u t benefit of academic theory, this is the w a y i n w h i c h w e h a b i t u a l l y do interpret buildings, w e m i g h t f u r t h e r observe t h a t this m e m o r y - p r o p h e c y theatre d i s t i n c t i o n c o u l d w e l l be carried over i n t o the urbanistic field. Of course, h a v i n g said j u s t so m u c h a n d no more, it goes almost w i t h o u t saying t h a t exponents of the'' city as prophecy theatre w o u l d be likely to be t h o u g h t of as radicals w h i l e exponents of the city as m e m o r y ' theatre w o u l d , almost c e r t a i n l y be described as conservatives; but, i f there m i g h t be some degree of t r u t h i n such assumptioii, i t m u s t also be established t h a t b l o c k notions of this k i n d are n o t really v e r y useful. The mass of m a n k i n d is likely to be, at a n y one time, b o t h conservative a n d radical, to be preoccupied w i t h the f a m i l i a r a n d diverted by the unexpected ; and, i f we all of us b o t h live i n the past a n d hope f o r the f u t u r e (the present being n o more t h a n a n episode i n time), i t w o u l d seem reasonable t h a t we should accept this c o n d i t i o n . For. i f w i t h o u t prophecy there is no hope, t h e n , w i t h o u t m e m o r y there c a n be no c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Obvious, trite a n d sententious t h o u g h this m a y be, i t w a s - h a p p i l y or u n h a p p i l y - a n aspect of the h u m a n m i n d w h i c h the early proponents of modern architecture were able to overlook-happily for them, u n h a p p i l y for us. B u t , i f w i t h o u t such distinctly p e r f u n c t o r y psychology, 'the n e w w a y of b u i l d i n g ' could never have come i n t o being, there c a n n o t a n y longer be excuse f o r the failure to recognize the c o m p l e m e n t a r y relationship w h i c h is f u n d a m e n t a l to the processes of a n t i c i p a t i o n a n d retrospection. For these are inter-dependent activities; and since, quite literally, w e c a n n o t p e r f o r m w i t h o u t exercising t h e m b o t h , no attempt to suppress either i n the interests of the other c a n ever be Ii( protractedly successful. W e m a y receive s t r e n g t h f r o m the n o v e l t y of prophetic d e c l a m a t i o n ; b u t the degree^of this potency m u s t be strictly related to the k n o w n , perhaps m u n d a n e and, necessarily, m e m o r y - l a d e n context f r o m w h i c h i t emerges. W h i c h almost completes a phase of a r g u m e n t ; and, since i t is a n a r g u m e n t w h i c h here m u s t be left open, f o r present purposes i t m i g h t conveniently be t e r m i n a t e d i n the f o r m of three questions; W h y s h o u l d w e be obliged to prefer a nostalgia f o r the f u t u r e to t h a t for the past ? Could n o t the m o d e l city w h i c h w e c a r r y i n o u r m i n d s a l l o w for o u r known psychological c o n s t i t u t i o n ? Could n o t this ideal city, at one a n d the same time, behave, quite explicitly, as b o t h a theatre of prophecy and a theatre of m e m o r y ? •
attempts to reconcile this d u a l i t y of approach been, so far, v e r y successf u l ; and, because any such attempts have been too far removed f r o m effective usage or too hesitant and various to a d m i t of coherent interpretation, the p r o b l e m presented by early m o d e r n architecturethe fantasy of the comprehensive city of deliverance, p r o p o u n d e d as poetry a n d read as prescription, institutionalized i n grotesque a n d cut; rate form—still remains, to become every day m o r e impossible to ignore. A n d the p r o b l e m remains w h a t to do ?
Given the recognition t h a t Utopian models w i l l f o u n d e r in the
c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m w h i c h , for better or worse, immerses us, i t w o u l d seem o n l y reasonable to approach such models w i t h the greatest c i r c u m spection ; g i v e n the i n h e r e n t dangers a n d debilitations of a n y i n s t i t u t i o n alized status quo-and p a r t i c u l a r l y a status quo ante (more of L e v i t t o w n , more of W i m b l e d o n , even m o r e of U r b i n o a n d C h i p p i n g C a m d e n ) it w o u l d also seem t h a t neither simple 'give t h e m w h a t they w a n t ' n o r unmodified townscape are equipped with sufficient c o n v i c t i o n to provide m o r e t h a n p a r t i a l answers; and, such being the case, i t becomes necessary to conceive of a strategy w h i c h m i g h t , one hopes, a n d w i t h o u t disaster, accommodate the ideal a n d w h i c h m i g h t plausibly, a n d w i t h o u t devaluation, respond to w h a t w e believe the I n a recent book, The Art of Memory,'-^
real to be.
Frances Yates speaks of Gothic
cathedrals as m n e m o n i c devices. The bibles a n d the encyclopedias of
both the illiterate a n d the liter ite, these buildings were intended to
articulate t h o u g h t b y assisting recollection; and, to the degree t h a t t h e y
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Crisis of the Object: Predicament
of Texture
The projected m o d e r n city, i n this w a y , m a y be seen as a transitional piece, a proposal w h i c h eventually, i t is hoped, m a y lead to the reestablishment of a n u n a d u l t e r a t e d n a t u r a l setting. Sun, space, v e r d u r e : essential joys, t h r o u g h the f o u r seasons stand the trees, friends of m a n . Great blocks of dwellings r u n t h r o u g h the t o w n . What does it matter ? They are b e h i n d the screen of trees. Nature is entered into the lease. ^
Cities force g r o w t h and make men talkative and entertaining but they make men artificial.
R A L P H W A L D O EMERSON
Such was the vision of a n ever-evolving r e t u r n to n a t u r e , a r e t u r n t h a t was (and is) evidently felt to be so i m p o r t a n t that, w h e n e v e r possible, demonstrations of this vision have insisted o n their absolute detachment, symbolic a n d physical, f r o m a n y aspects of existing context w h i c h has been, typically, envisaged as a c o n t a m i n a n t , as s o m e t h i n g b o t h m o r a l l y a n d h y g i e n i c a l l y leprous. A n d thus Lewis M u m f o r d o n a n i l l u s t r a t i o n i n his Culture of Cities: Rear of a handsome facade i n E d i n b u r g h : barracks architecture facing a c a t w a l k : typical indifference to rear views characteristic of scene p a i n t i n g . A n architecture of f r o n t s . B e a u t i f u l silks, costly perfumes. Elegance of m i n d a n d small pox. Out of sight, o u t of m i n d . M o d e r n f u n c t i o n a l p l a n n i n g distinguishes itself f r o m this p u r e l y visual conception of the plan, by dealing honestly a n d competently w i t h every side, abolishing the gross d i s t i n c t i o n between f r o n t a n d rear, seen and obscene, and creating structures t h a t are h a r m o n i o u s i n every dimension.^ Paris, Place des Vosges (Place Royale). From the Plan Turgot, 1739
I thinlc that our governments w i l l remain virtuous as long as they are chiefly agricultural.
T H O M A S JEFFERSON
But . . . h o w can m a n w i t h d r a w himself f r o m the fields .?Where w i l l he go, since the earth is one huge unbounded field ? Quite simple; he w i f i m a r k off a portion of this field by means of walls, w h i c h set up an enclosed finite space over against amorphous, limitless space . . . For i n t r u t h the most accurate definition of the urbs and the polis is very fike the comic definition of a cannon. You take a hole, wrap some steel wire tightly around it, and that's your cannon. So the urbs or polis starts by being an empty space . . . and all the rest is just a means of fixing that empty space, of l i m i t i n g its outfines . . . The square . . . This lesser rebefiious field w h i c h secedes f r o m the limitless one, and keeps to itself, is a space sui generis of the most novel k i n d i n w h i c h m a n frees himself f r o m the c o m m u n i t y of the plant and the animal . . . and creates an enclosure apart w h i c h is purely h u m a n , a civil space.
JOSÉ ORTEGA Y GASSET
Le Corbusier: Ville Radieuse, 1930
I n i n t e n t i o n the m o d e r n city was to be a f i t t i n g h o m e f o r the noble savage. A being so a b o r i g i n a l l y pure necessitated a domicile of equivalent p u r i t y ; and, if w a y back the noble savage h a d emerged f r o m the trees, t h e n , if his w i l l - t r a n s c e n d i n g innocence was to be preserved, his virtues m a i n t a i n e d intact, i t was back i n t o the trees t h a t he m u s t be r e t u r n e d . One m i g h t i m a g i n e t h a t such a n a r g u m e n t was the u l t i m a t e psychological rationale of the ville radieuse or Zeilenbau city, a city w h i c h , i n its complete p r o j e c t i o n , was almost literally i m a g i n e d as b e c o m i n g n o n existent. I m m e d i a t e l y necessary buildings appear, so far as possible, as delicate a n d unassertive i n t r u s i o n s i n t o the n a t u r a l c o n t i n u u m ; b u i l d i n g s raised above the g r o u n d provide as little contact as possible w i t h t h e potentially reclaimable e a r t h : and, while there ensues a f r e e d o m to releasing q u a l i f i c a t i o n of g r a v i t y , we are perhaps also encouraged a n y conspicuous artifact.
recognize a c o m m e n t a r ' u p o n the dangers of prolonged exposure to
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W f i i c f i , a l l o w i n g for a characteristically M u m f o r d i a n rhetoric, is a l l classically representative of the bias of the i n t e r - w a r period. The p r o m i nent criteria are honesty a n d hygiene, the city of vested interest a n d impacted association is to disappear; and, i n place of t r a d i t i o n a l subterfuge and i m p o s i t i o n , there is to be i n t r o d u c e d a visible and r a t i o n a l equality of p a r t s - a n equality w h i c h insists u p o n openness a n d is readily to be i n t e r preted as b o t h cause a n d effect of a n y c o n d i t i o n of h u m a n e w e l l - b e i n g . Now, of course, the e q u a t i o n of the b a c k y a r d w i t h m o r a l a n d physical i n s a l u b r i t y , w h i c h becomes the opposition of closure a n d openness a n d their i n v e s t m e n t w i t h negative a n d positive qualities ('Elegance of m i n d a n d s m a l l pox'—as t h o u g h the one a u t o m a t i c a l l y f o l l o w e d the other), could be illustrated f r o m a n abundance of other sources; and, i n terms of t h a t distinctively n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y v i s i o n of the danse macabre, the h u m a n scarecrow i n the cholera-infected c o u r t y a r d , this style of a g u m e n t s h o u l d scarcely require reinforcement. Visually oriented architects a n d planners, preoccupied w i t h the trophies a n d t r i u m p h s o f c u i t u r e , w i t h the representation of the public r e a l m a n d its public fapades, had, f o r the most part, s h a m e f u l l y c o m p r o m i s e d n o t o n l y the pleasurable possibilities but, worse t h a n this, the essential sanitary bases of t h a t m o r e i n t i m a t e w o r l d w i t h i n w h i c h 'real' people, people as deserving aspects of concern, actually do exist. A n d , i f this statement were to be a u g m e n t e d to say something about p r a g m a t i c a l l y callous capitalists then its general substance w o u l d n o t be r a d i c a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d . But, if such was the one-time negative and necessary criticism of t r a d i t i o n a l metropolis, t h e n i f a n o v e r v i e w of n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y Paris can be a l l o w e d to represent the evil, a n o v e r v i e w of A m s t e r d a m S o u t h m a y also be i n t r o d u c e d to exhibit the i n i t i a l conceptions of a n a l t e r n a t i v e ; and b o t h illustrations derive f r o m the accessible pages of Siegfried Giedion.^ The H a u s m a n n e s q u e s i t u a t i o n , as witnessed by a b i r d or f r o m a balloon, is so sufficiently comparable to the air photo of Berlagian A m s t e r d a m as to need the m i n i m u m of c o m m e n t . B o t h are subservient to the aesthetic of the F r e n c h seventeenth c e n t u r y h u n t i n g forest w i t h its ronds-points a n d pattes-d'oie; and, i n being so, they b o t h o f t h e m , by means of m a j o r arteries c o n v e r g i n g at a, h o p e f u l l y , s i g n i f i c a n t place, describe a t r i a n g u l a r t e r r i t o r y as subject for development or i n f i l l . B u t t h e n i t is here, w i t h the i n f i l l , t h a t resemblance ceases. For, if a m o n g the grandeurs a n d brutalities of Second Empire Paris, logical i n f i l l c o u l d be disregarded, i f i t could be reduced to the abstract v o l u m e t r i c status of trees i n a garden b y Le Notre, t h e n i n conscientious early t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y H o l l a n d such a h i g h l y casual u n i v e r s a l m a t r i x or 'texture' was, emphatically, not available. A n d , because of the F r e n c h prototype, the result is a D u t c h embarrassment. I n A m s t e r d a m a genuine a t t e m p t has been made to p r o vide a m o r e tolerable theatre of existence. A i r , light, prospect, open space above CJieltenJiam, rear view of Lansdown Terrace below Exeter, Barnfleld Crescent have all .been made available; but, w h i l e one m a y sense t h a t one is here on the t h r e s h o l d of the welfare state, one m a y still be overcome by the a n o m a l y . The t w o big avenues, f o r all their ambitious protestation, are diffident a n d residual. They are l a c k i n g i n the v u l g a r or the b o r i n g swagger and self-confidence of their Parisian prototypes. They are a m o n g the last
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pathetic gestures to the n o t i o n of the street; a n d their c a r e f u l l y edited concessions to De Stijl or to Expressionism do n o t conceal their predicament. T h e y have become n o m o r e t h a n the conservatively i n s i n u a t e d props to a d y i n g idea. For, i n the a r g u m e n t of solid versus void they h a v e become r e d u n d a n t ; a n d t h e i r references to a vision of classical Paris n o w have n o t h i n g to say. S i m p l y these avenues are disposable. I n no w a y do their facades designate a n y effective f r o n t i e r between public a n d private. They are evasive. A n d m u c h m o r e t h a n the facades of eighteenth c e n t u r y opposite above Paris, Boulevard Richard-Lenoir, 1861-3 below Amsterdam South, 1934 opposite below Amsterdam South, c.1961
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E d i n b u r g h , they ineffectively conceal. For the i m p o r t a n t r e a l i t y has n o w become w h a t lies b e h i n d . The m a t r i x of the city has become t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m c o n t i n u o u s solid to c o n t i n u o u s void. I t goes w i t h o u t saying t h a t b o t h the f a i l u r e a n d success of A m s t e r d a m South, a n d of m a n y comparable projects, c o u l d o n l y activate t l i e conscience; but, w h a t e v e r m a y have been the doubts (the conscience is a l w a y s m o r e activated by f a i l u r e t h a n success), it p r o b a b l y remains t r u e to say t h a t logical scepticism was n o t able to digest the issue f o r at least some ten years. W h i c h is to say that, u n t i l the late nineteen-twenties, the c u l t u r a l l y o b l i g a t o r y street still d o m i n a t e d the scene a n d that, as a result, certain conclusions r e m a i n e d unapproachable. I n this sequence, the questions of w h o did w h a t a n d precisely w h e n a n d w h e r e are, f o r present purposes, irrelevant. The City of Three M i l l i o n I n h a b i t a n t s , miscellaneous Russian projects, K a r l s r u h e - D a m m a r stock, etc., a l l have t h e i r dates; a n d the assignment of p r i o r i t y or praise or blame is n o t here a n issue. S i m p l y the issue is that, b y 1 9 3 0 , the disintegrat i o n of the street a n d of a l l h i g h l y organized public space seemed to have become i n e v i t a b l e ; a n d f o r t w o m a j o r reasons; the n e w a n d rationalized f o r m of h o u s i n g a n d the n e w dictates of v e h i c u l a r activity. For, i f the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of h o u s i n g n o w evolved f r o m the inside out, f r o m the logical needs of the i n d i v i d u a l residential u n i t , t h e n i t c o u l d n o longer be subservient to e x t e r n a l pressures; and, if e x t e r n a l public space h a d become so f u n c t i o n a l l y chaotic as to be w i t h o u t effective significance, t h e n - i n a n y ^ case—there were n o v a l i d pressures w h i c h it c o u l d a n y longer exert. Such were the apparently u n f a u l t a b l e deductions w h i c h u n d e r l a y t h e establishment of the city of m o d e r n a r c h i t e c t u r e ; but, a r o u n d these , p r i m a r y arguments, there was e v i d e n t l y the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a w h o l e miscellany of secondary rationalizations to proliferate. A n d t h u s the n e w city could achieve f u r t h e r j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n terms of sport or of science, i n terms of democracy or equality, i n terms of h i s t o r y a n d absence of t r a d i t i o n a l parti pris, i n terms of p r i v a t e automobiles a n d p u b f i c transport, i n terms of t e c h n o l o g y a n d socio-political crisis; and, like the idea of the city of m o d e r n architecture itself, i n some f o r m or another, almost a l l of these arguments are still w i t h us. A n d , of course, t h e y are r e i n f o r c e d ( t h o u g h w h e t h e r r e i n f o r c e m e n t is the correct w o r d m a y be doubted) by others. ' A b u i l d i n g is fike a soap bubble. This bubble is perfect a n d h a r m o n i o u s i f the b r e a t h has been evenly distributed f r o m the inside. The exterior is the result of a n interior.'* This d e b i l i t a t i n g h a l f t r u t h has proved to be one of Le , Corbusier's more persuasive observations. T h a t i t never h a d very m u c h to do w i t h practice s h o u l d be o b v i o u s ; but, i f i t is a n impeccable statement of academic t h e o r y r e l a t i n g to domed a n d v a u l t e d structures, i t is also a d i c t u m w h i c h c o u l d o n l y l e n d support to the n o t i o n of the b u i l d i n g as • preferably a free s t a n d i n g object i n the r o u n d . Lewis M u m f o r d intimates as m u c h ; but, if for Theo V a n Doesburg a n d m a n y others i t was a x i o m a t i c t h a t 'the n e w architectm^e w i l l develop i n a n afi sided plastic w a y , ' ^
_ g
Theo Van Doesburg: Counterconstruction, maison particulière, 1923
I" -l
1
t
M
M
t
it
I
I
I
I
I
i
1 ^ rl
L
1^,1
3
—
Ludwig Hilberseimer: project for central Berlin, 1927
'
Li
Walter Gropius; diagrams showing the development of a rectangular site with parallel rows of apartment blocks of different heights, 1929
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C R I S I S OF T H E O B J E C T : P R E D I C A M E N T OF T E X T U R E
this placing of immensely h i g h p r e m i a u p o n the b u i l d i n g as 'interesting' a n d detached object ( w h i c h still continues) m u s t n o w be b r o u g h t i n t o c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the s i m u l t a n e o u s l y entertained p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t the b u i l d i n g (object ?) m u s t be made to go a w a y ('Great blocks of dwellings r u n t h r o u g h the t o w n . W h a t does i t matter.? They are b e h i n d the screen of trees'). A n d , if we have here presented this s i t u a t i o n i n terms of a t y p i c a l l y Corbusian self-contradiction, there is obvious a n d abundant reason to recognize t h a t one is c o n f r o n t e d w i t h this same c o n t r a d i c t i o n any, a n d every, day. Indeed, i n m o d e r n architecture, the pride i n objects a n d the w i s h to dissimulate pride i n this pride, w h i c h is everywhere revealed, is s o m e t h i n g so e x t r a o r d i n a r y as to defeat all possibility of compassionate c o m m e n t . B u t m o d e r n architecture's object f i x a t i o n (the object w h i c h is n o t
a n object) is o u r present c o n c e r n o n l y i n so far as it involves the city, the city w h i c h was to become evaporated. For, i n its present a n d unevaporated f o r m , the city of m o d e r n architecture become a congeries of c o n spicuously disparate objects is quite as p r o b l e m a t i c a l as the t r a d i t i o n a l city w h i c h it has sought to replace. Let us. first of a l l , consider the theoretical desideratum that the Le Corbusier: project for city centre of Saint-Dié, 1945, perspective [ yet another prevalent s u p p o s i t i o n : t h a t , i f space is sublime, t h e n limitless naturalistic space m u s t be f a r m o r e so t h a n a n y abstracted a n d s t r u c t u r e d ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ . ^ n d , f i n a l l y , let us upstage this w h o l e i m p h c i t a r g u m e n t b y i n t r o d u c i n g the n o t i o n t h a t , i n a n y c a s e ^ ^ ^ e is f a r less i m p o r t a n t t h a n t i m e a n d t h a t too m u c h i n s i s t e n c e - p a r t i c u l a r l y u p o n delimited space-is likely — ^ to i n h i b i t the u n r o l l i n g of the f u t u r e a n d the n a t u r a l b e c o m i n g of the ' u n i v e r s a l society.' Such are some of the ambivalences a n d fantasies w h i c h were, a n d still are, embedded i n the city of m o d e r n a r c h i t e c t u r e : but, t h o u g h these could seem to add u p to a cheerfuf a n d e x h i l a r a t i n g prescription, as already noticed, even w h e n realizations of this city, t h o u g h pure, were o n l y partial, doubts about i t began very early to be entertained. Perhaps these were scarcely a r t i c u l a t e d doubts a n d w h e t h e r they concerned the necessities of perception or the predicament o f t h e public r e a l m is d i f f i c u l t Le Corbusier: project for city centre of Saint-Dié, 1945, plan to d e t e r m i n e ; but, if, i n the A t h e n s Congress of 1 9 3 3 ^ C I A M h a d spelled out the g r o u n d rules f o r the n e w city, t h e n b y the mid-forties there c o u l d be n o such dogmatic certainty. For neither the state n o r the object h a d vanished a w a y ; and, i n C I A M ' s Heart of the City^ conference of 1 9 4 7 , l u r k i n g reservations as to their c o n t i n u i n g v a l i d i t y began, indecisively, to surfacql Indeed, a consideration o f t h e 'city core', i n itself, already indicates a c e r t a i n h e d g i n g of bets and, possibly, the beginnings of a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t the ideal of i n d i s c r i m i n a t e n e u t r a l i t y or inconspicuous equality was h a r d l y attainable or even desirable. But, i f a r e n e w e d interest i n the possibilities of focus a n d hence of confluence seems, by this time, to have been developing, w h i l e the interest was there, the e q u i p m e n t to service i t was l a c k i n g : a n d the p r o b l e m presented b y the revisionism of the late forties m i g h t best be typified a n d i l l u s t r a t e d by Le Corbusier's p l a n f o r St. Dié, w h e r e m o d i f i e d r a t i o n a l b u i l d i n g is obliged to be a n object and, t h e n , let us a t t e m p t to place this p r o p o s i t i o n i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the evident suspicion t h a t buildings, as m a n - m a d e artefacts, e n j o y a meretricious status, i n some w a y , d e t r i m e n t a l to a n u l t i m a t e s p i r i t u a l release. Let us f u r t h e r attempt to place this d e m a n d f o r the r a t i o n a l m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n of the object a n d this parallel need f o r its d i s i n t e g r a t i o n alongside the very obvious feeling t h a t space is, i n some w a y , more sublime t h a n matter, that, w h i l e the a f f i r m a t i o n of m a t t e r is i n e v i t a b l y gross, the a f f i r m a t i o n of a spatial c o n t i n u u m c a n o n l y facilitate the demands óf freedom, n a t u r e a n d spirit. A n d t h e n let us q u a l i f y w h a t became a widespread tendency to space w o r s h i p w i t h
AFTER THE M I L L E N N I U M
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AFTER THE M I L L E N N I U M
tive. T h u s w e have cited Disney W o r l d a n d the images of Superstudio, n o t for their intrinsic virtues a n d vices, b u t rather as the logical extensions of t w o points of v i e w w h i c h , i n themselves, m a y b o t h be v a l u a b l e ; b u t the p r e s u m p t i o n here i n f e r r e d t h a t o n l y the middle g r o u n d of a n a r g u m e n t is of use, t h a t its extremities are likely always to be absurd, is n o w positively introduced, n o t f r o m a n y passion f o r compromise, b u t as a n i n t u i t i o n w h i c h m i g h t assist some k i n d of alert a n d w o r k a b l e détente, w i t h destiny a n d t h e n as a m o r n i n g - a f t e r nausea w h i c h , f o r relief, made use of at least t w o time-tested recipes: a n analgesic p a i n remover, or m o r e of the same; but, i f w e have f u r t h e r suggested t h a t sometimes these remedies were administered s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d sometimes i n excess, the question as to w h e t h e r all this a c t i v i t y was really w o r t h - w h i l e c a n n o t a n y longer be postponed. AirVUi W e have surveyed a scene w h i c h , f u n d a m e n t a l l y , endorses r e t r o spective attitudes, e x p l o i t i n g k n o w n and, perhaps, popular references; w e have also witnessed a n extension of the prospective a n d f u t u r e oriented aspects of m o d e r n architecture, i n v o l v i n g techno-scientific resources and, in the end, the dematerialized and oppression-free statement have Utopian state; b u t t h e n one is also compelled to recognize t h a t i n neither of these t w o t r a d i t i o n s has capable of offsetting t h a t there emerged a n urbanistic of early m o d e r n architecture. N o r i Thus f a r we have characterized m o d e r n architecture as, first, a b o u t i-,- v . '^
acted as Scholastic classroom aids, i t becomes possible to refer to t h e m as h a v i n g been theatres of memory. A n d the designation is a useful one, because i f today we are o n l y too apt to t h i n k of buildings as necessarily prophetic, such a n alternative mode of t h i n k i n g m a y serve to correct o u r u n d u l y prejudiced n a ï v e t é . The b u i l d i n g as a theatre of prophecy, b u i l d i n g as a theatre of memory-ii the w e are able to conceive of the b u i l d i n g
as the one, we must, i n h e r e n t l y , be able also to conceive of i t as the o t h e r ; and, w h i l e recognizing that, w i t h o u t benefit of academic theory, this is the w a y i n w h i c h w e h a b i t u a l l y do interpret buildings, w e m i g h t f u r t h e r observe t h a t this m e m o r y - p r o p h e c y theatre d i s t i n c t i o n c o u l d w e l l be carried over i n t o the urbanistic field. Of course, h a v i n g said j u s t so m u c h a n d no more, it goes almost w i t h o u t saying t h a t exponents of the'' city as prophecy theatre w o u l d be likely to be t h o u g h t of as radicals w h i l e exponents of the city as m e m o r y ' theatre w o u l d , almost c e r t a i n l y be described as conservatives; but, i f there m i g h t be some degree of t r u t h i n such assumptioii, i t m u s t also be established t h a t b l o c k notions of this k i n d are n o t really v e r y useful. The mass of m a n k i n d is likely to be, at a n y one time, b o t h conservative a n d radical, to be preoccupied w i t h the f a m i l i a r a n d diverted by the unexpected ; and, i f we all of us b o t h live i n the past a n d hope f o r the f u t u r e (the present being n o more t h a n a n episode i n time), i t w o u l d seem reasonable t h a t we should accept this c o n d i t i o n . For. i f w i t h o u t prophecy there is no hope, t h e n , w i t h o u t m e m o r y there c a n be no c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Obvious, trite a n d sententious t h o u g h this m a y be, i t w a s - h a p p i l y or u n h a p p i l y - a n aspect of the h u m a n m i n d w h i c h the early proponents of modern architecture were able to overlook-happily for them, u n h a p p i l y for us. B u t , i f w i t h o u t such distinctly p e r f u n c t o r y psychology, 'the n e w w a y of b u i l d i n g ' could never have come i n t o being, there c a n n o t a n y longer be excuse f o r the failure to recognize the c o m p l e m e n t a r y relationship w h i c h is f u n d a m e n t a l to the processes of a n t i c i p a t i o n a n d retrospection. For these are inter-dependent activities; and since, quite literally, w e c a n n o t p e r f o r m w i t h o u t exercising t h e m b o t h , no attempt to suppress either i n the interests of the other c a n ever be Ii( protractedly successful. W e m a y receive s t r e n g t h f r o m the n o v e l t y of prophetic d e c l a m a t i o n ; b u t the degree^of this potency m u s t be strictly related to the k n o w n , perhaps m u n d a n e and, necessarily, m e m o r y - l a d e n context f r o m w h i c h i t emerges. W h i c h almost completes a phase of a r g u m e n t ; and, since i t is a n a r g u m e n t w h i c h here m u s t be left open, f o r present purposes i t m i g h t conveniently be t e r m i n a t e d i n the f o r m of three questions; W h y s h o u l d w e be obliged to prefer a nostalgia f o r the f u t u r e to t h a t for the past ? Could n o t the m o d e l city w h i c h w e c a r r y i n o u r m i n d s a l l o w for o u r known psychological c o n s t i t u t i o n ? Could n o t this ideal city, at one a n d the same time, behave, quite explicitly, as b o t h a theatre of prophecy and a theatre of m e m o r y ? •
attempts to reconcile this d u a l i t y of approach been, so far, v e r y successf u l ; and, because any such attempts have been too far removed f r o m effective usage or too hesitant and various to a d m i t of coherent interpretation, the p r o b l e m presented by early m o d e r n architecturethe fantasy of the comprehensive city of deliverance, p r o p o u n d e d as poetry a n d read as prescription, institutionalized i n grotesque a n d cut; rate form—still remains, to become every day m o r e impossible to ignore. A n d the p r o b l e m remains w h a t to do ?
Given the recognition t h a t Utopian models w i l l f o u n d e r in the
c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m w h i c h , for better or worse, immerses us, i t w o u l d seem o n l y reasonable to approach such models w i t h the greatest c i r c u m spection ; g i v e n the i n h e r e n t dangers a n d debilitations of a n y i n s t i t u t i o n alized status quo-and p a r t i c u l a r l y a status quo ante (more of L e v i t t o w n , more of W i m b l e d o n , even m o r e of U r b i n o a n d C h i p p i n g C a m d e n ) it w o u l d also seem t h a t neither simple 'give t h e m w h a t they w a n t ' n o r unmodified townscape are equipped with sufficient c o n v i c t i o n to provide m o r e t h a n p a r t i a l answers; and, such being the case, i t becomes necessary to conceive of a strategy w h i c h m i g h t , one hopes, a n d w i t h o u t disaster, accommodate the ideal a n d w h i c h m i g h t plausibly, a n d w i t h o u t devaluation, respond to w h a t w e believe the I n a recent book, The Art of Memory,'-^
real to be.
Frances Yates speaks of Gothic
cathedrals as m n e m o n i c devices. The bibles a n d the encyclopedias of
both the illiterate a n d the liter ite, these buildings were intended to
articulate t h o u g h t b y assisting recollection; and, to the degree t h a t t h e y
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Crisis of the Object: Predicament
of Texture
The projected m o d e r n city, i n this w a y , m a y be seen as a transitional piece, a proposal w h i c h eventually, i t is hoped, m a y lead to the reestablishment of a n u n a d u l t e r a t e d n a t u r a l setting. Sun, space, v e r d u r e : essential joys, t h r o u g h the f o u r seasons stand the trees, friends of m a n . Great blocks of dwellings r u n t h r o u g h the t o w n . What does it matter ? They are b e h i n d the screen of trees. Nature is entered into the lease. ^
Cities force g r o w t h and make men talkative and entertaining but they make men artificial.
R A L P H W A L D O EMERSON
Such was the vision of a n ever-evolving r e t u r n to n a t u r e , a r e t u r n t h a t was (and is) evidently felt to be so i m p o r t a n t that, w h e n e v e r possible, demonstrations of this vision have insisted o n their absolute detachment, symbolic a n d physical, f r o m a n y aspects of existing context w h i c h has been, typically, envisaged as a c o n t a m i n a n t , as s o m e t h i n g b o t h m o r a l l y a n d h y g i e n i c a l l y leprous. A n d thus Lewis M u m f o r d o n a n i l l u s t r a t i o n i n his Culture of Cities: Rear of a handsome facade i n E d i n b u r g h : barracks architecture facing a c a t w a l k : typical indifference to rear views characteristic of scene p a i n t i n g . A n architecture of f r o n t s . B e a u t i f u l silks, costly perfumes. Elegance of m i n d a n d small pox. Out of sight, o u t of m i n d . M o d e r n f u n c t i o n a l p l a n n i n g distinguishes itself f r o m this p u r e l y visual conception of the plan, by dealing honestly a n d competently w i t h every side, abolishing the gross d i s t i n c t i o n between f r o n t a n d rear, seen and obscene, and creating structures t h a t are h a r m o n i o u s i n every dimension.^ Paris, Place des Vosges (Place Royale). From the Plan Turgot, 1739
I thinlc that our governments w i l l remain virtuous as long as they are chiefly agricultural.
T H O M A S JEFFERSON
But . . . h o w can m a n w i t h d r a w himself f r o m the fields .?Where w i l l he go, since the earth is one huge unbounded field ? Quite simple; he w i f i m a r k off a portion of this field by means of walls, w h i c h set up an enclosed finite space over against amorphous, limitless space . . . For i n t r u t h the most accurate definition of the urbs and the polis is very fike the comic definition of a cannon. You take a hole, wrap some steel wire tightly around it, and that's your cannon. So the urbs or polis starts by being an empty space . . . and all the rest is just a means of fixing that empty space, of l i m i t i n g its outfines . . . The square . . . This lesser rebefiious field w h i c h secedes f r o m the limitless one, and keeps to itself, is a space sui generis of the most novel k i n d i n w h i c h m a n frees himself f r o m the c o m m u n i t y of the plant and the animal . . . and creates an enclosure apart w h i c h is purely h u m a n , a civil space.
JOSÉ ORTEGA Y GASSET
Le Corbusier: Ville Radieuse, 1930
I n i n t e n t i o n the m o d e r n city was to be a f i t t i n g h o m e f o r the noble savage. A being so a b o r i g i n a l l y pure necessitated a domicile of equivalent p u r i t y ; and, if w a y back the noble savage h a d emerged f r o m the trees, t h e n , if his w i l l - t r a n s c e n d i n g innocence was to be preserved, his virtues m a i n t a i n e d intact, i t was back i n t o the trees t h a t he m u s t be r e t u r n e d . One m i g h t i m a g i n e t h a t such a n a r g u m e n t was the u l t i m a t e psychological rationale of the ville radieuse or Zeilenbau city, a city w h i c h , i n its complete p r o j e c t i o n , was almost literally i m a g i n e d as b e c o m i n g n o n existent. I m m e d i a t e l y necessary buildings appear, so far as possible, as delicate a n d unassertive i n t r u s i o n s i n t o the n a t u r a l c o n t i n u u m ; b u i l d i n g s raised above the g r o u n d provide as little contact as possible w i t h t h e potentially reclaimable e a r t h : and, while there ensues a f r e e d o m to releasing q u a l i f i c a t i o n of g r a v i t y , we are perhaps also encouraged a n y conspicuous artifact.
recognize a c o m m e n t a r ' u p o n the dangers of prolonged exposure to
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W f i i c f i , a l l o w i n g for a characteristically M u m f o r d i a n rhetoric, is a l l classically representative of the bias of the i n t e r - w a r period. The p r o m i nent criteria are honesty a n d hygiene, the city of vested interest a n d impacted association is to disappear; and, i n place of t r a d i t i o n a l subterfuge and i m p o s i t i o n , there is to be i n t r o d u c e d a visible and r a t i o n a l equality of p a r t s - a n equality w h i c h insists u p o n openness a n d is readily to be i n t e r preted as b o t h cause a n d effect of a n y c o n d i t i o n of h u m a n e w e l l - b e i n g . Now, of course, the e q u a t i o n of the b a c k y a r d w i t h m o r a l a n d physical i n s a l u b r i t y , w h i c h becomes the opposition of closure a n d openness a n d their i n v e s t m e n t w i t h negative a n d positive qualities ('Elegance of m i n d a n d s m a l l pox'—as t h o u g h the one a u t o m a t i c a l l y f o l l o w e d the other), could be illustrated f r o m a n abundance of other sources; and, i n terms of t h a t distinctively n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y v i s i o n of the danse macabre, the h u m a n scarecrow i n the cholera-infected c o u r t y a r d , this style of a g u m e n t s h o u l d scarcely require reinforcement. Visually oriented architects a n d planners, preoccupied w i t h the trophies a n d t r i u m p h s o f c u i t u r e , w i t h the representation of the public r e a l m a n d its public fapades, had, f o r the most part, s h a m e f u l l y c o m p r o m i s e d n o t o n l y the pleasurable possibilities but, worse t h a n this, the essential sanitary bases of t h a t m o r e i n t i m a t e w o r l d w i t h i n w h i c h 'real' people, people as deserving aspects of concern, actually do exist. A n d , i f this statement were to be a u g m e n t e d to say something about p r a g m a t i c a l l y callous capitalists then its general substance w o u l d n o t be r a d i c a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d . But, if such was the one-time negative and necessary criticism of t r a d i t i o n a l metropolis, t h e n i f a n o v e r v i e w of n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y Paris can be a l l o w e d to represent the evil, a n o v e r v i e w of A m s t e r d a m S o u t h m a y also be i n t r o d u c e d to exhibit the i n i t i a l conceptions of a n a l t e r n a t i v e ; and b o t h illustrations derive f r o m the accessible pages of Siegfried Giedion.^ The H a u s m a n n e s q u e s i t u a t i o n , as witnessed by a b i r d or f r o m a balloon, is so sufficiently comparable to the air photo of Berlagian A m s t e r d a m as to need the m i n i m u m of c o m m e n t . B o t h are subservient to the aesthetic of the F r e n c h seventeenth c e n t u r y h u n t i n g forest w i t h its ronds-points a n d pattes-d'oie; and, i n being so, they b o t h o f t h e m , by means of m a j o r arteries c o n v e r g i n g at a, h o p e f u l l y , s i g n i f i c a n t place, describe a t r i a n g u l a r t e r r i t o r y as subject for development or i n f i l l . B u t t h e n i t is here, w i t h the i n f i l l , t h a t resemblance ceases. For, if a m o n g the grandeurs a n d brutalities of Second Empire Paris, logical i n f i l l c o u l d be disregarded, i f i t could be reduced to the abstract v o l u m e t r i c status of trees i n a garden b y Le Notre, t h e n i n conscientious early t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y H o l l a n d such a h i g h l y casual u n i v e r s a l m a t r i x or 'texture' was, emphatically, not available. A n d , because of the F r e n c h prototype, the result is a D u t c h embarrassment. I n A m s t e r d a m a genuine a t t e m p t has been made to p r o vide a m o r e tolerable theatre of existence. A i r , light, prospect, open space above CJieltenJiam, rear view of Lansdown Terrace below Exeter, Barnfleld Crescent have all .been made available; but, w h i l e one m a y sense t h a t one is here on the t h r e s h o l d of the welfare state, one m a y still be overcome by the a n o m a l y . The t w o big avenues, f o r all their ambitious protestation, are diffident a n d residual. They are l a c k i n g i n the v u l g a r or the b o r i n g swagger and self-confidence of their Parisian prototypes. They are a m o n g the last
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C R I S I S OF T H E O B J E C T : P R E D I C A M E N T OF T E X T U R E
pathetic gestures to the n o t i o n of the street; a n d their c a r e f u l l y edited concessions to De Stijl or to Expressionism do n o t conceal their predicament. T h e y have become n o m o r e t h a n the conservatively i n s i n u a t e d props to a d y i n g idea. For, i n the a r g u m e n t of solid versus void they h a v e become r e d u n d a n t ; a n d t h e i r references to a vision of classical Paris n o w have n o t h i n g to say. S i m p l y these avenues are disposable. I n no w a y do their facades designate a n y effective f r o n t i e r between public a n d private. They are evasive. A n d m u c h m o r e t h a n the facades of eighteenth c e n t u r y opposite above Paris, Boulevard Richard-Lenoir, 1861-3 below Amsterdam South, 1934 opposite below Amsterdam South, c.1961
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C R I S I S OF T H E O B J E C T : P R E D I C A M E N T OF T E X T U R E
E d i n b u r g h , they ineffectively conceal. For the i m p o r t a n t r e a l i t y has n o w become w h a t lies b e h i n d . The m a t r i x of the city has become t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m c o n t i n u o u s solid to c o n t i n u o u s void. I t goes w i t h o u t saying t h a t b o t h the f a i l u r e a n d success of A m s t e r d a m South, a n d of m a n y comparable projects, c o u l d o n l y activate t l i e conscience; but, w h a t e v e r m a y have been the doubts (the conscience is a l w a y s m o r e activated by f a i l u r e t h a n success), it p r o b a b l y remains t r u e to say t h a t logical scepticism was n o t able to digest the issue f o r at least some ten years. W h i c h is to say that, u n t i l the late nineteen-twenties, the c u l t u r a l l y o b l i g a t o r y street still d o m i n a t e d the scene a n d that, as a result, certain conclusions r e m a i n e d unapproachable. I n this sequence, the questions of w h o did w h a t a n d precisely w h e n a n d w h e r e are, f o r present purposes, irrelevant. The City of Three M i l l i o n I n h a b i t a n t s , miscellaneous Russian projects, K a r l s r u h e - D a m m a r stock, etc., a l l have t h e i r dates; a n d the assignment of p r i o r i t y or praise or blame is n o t here a n issue. S i m p l y the issue is that, b y 1 9 3 0 , the disintegrat i o n of the street a n d of a l l h i g h l y organized public space seemed to have become i n e v i t a b l e ; a n d f o r t w o m a j o r reasons; the n e w a n d rationalized f o r m of h o u s i n g a n d the n e w dictates of v e h i c u l a r activity. For, i f the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of h o u s i n g n o w evolved f r o m the inside out, f r o m the logical needs of the i n d i v i d u a l residential u n i t , t h e n i t c o u l d n o longer be subservient to e x t e r n a l pressures; and, if e x t e r n a l public space h a d become so f u n c t i o n a l l y chaotic as to be w i t h o u t effective significance, t h e n - i n a n y ^ case—there were n o v a l i d pressures w h i c h it c o u l d a n y longer exert. Such were the apparently u n f a u l t a b l e deductions w h i c h u n d e r l a y t h e establishment of the city of m o d e r n a r c h i t e c t u r e ; but, a r o u n d these , p r i m a r y arguments, there was e v i d e n t l y the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a w h o l e miscellany of secondary rationalizations to proliferate. A n d t h u s the n e w city could achieve f u r t h e r j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n terms of sport or of science, i n terms of democracy or equality, i n terms of h i s t o r y a n d absence of t r a d i t i o n a l parti pris, i n terms of p r i v a t e automobiles a n d p u b f i c transport, i n terms of t e c h n o l o g y a n d socio-political crisis; and, like the idea of the city of m o d e r n architecture itself, i n some f o r m or another, almost a l l of these arguments are still w i t h us. A n d , of course, t h e y are r e i n f o r c e d ( t h o u g h w h e t h e r r e i n f o r c e m e n t is the correct w o r d m a y be doubted) by others. ' A b u i l d i n g is fike a soap bubble. This bubble is perfect a n d h a r m o n i o u s i f the b r e a t h has been evenly distributed f r o m the inside. The exterior is the result of a n interior.'* This d e b i l i t a t i n g h a l f t r u t h has proved to be one of Le , Corbusier's more persuasive observations. T h a t i t never h a d very m u c h to do w i t h practice s h o u l d be o b v i o u s ; but, i f i t is a n impeccable statement of academic t h e o r y r e l a t i n g to domed a n d v a u l t e d structures, i t is also a d i c t u m w h i c h c o u l d o n l y l e n d support to the n o t i o n of the b u i l d i n g as • preferably a free s t a n d i n g object i n the r o u n d . Lewis M u m f o r d intimates as m u c h ; but, if for Theo V a n Doesburg a n d m a n y others i t was a x i o m a t i c t h a t 'the n e w architectm^e w i l l develop i n a n afi sided plastic w a y , ' ^
_ g
Theo Van Doesburg: Counterconstruction, maison particulière, 1923
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Ludwig Hilberseimer: project for central Berlin, 1927
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Walter Gropius; diagrams showing the development of a rectangular site with parallel rows of apartment blocks of different heights, 1929
58
CRISIS OF T H E O B J E C T : P R E D I C A M E N T OF T E X T U R E
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C R I S I S OF T H E O B J E C T : P R E D I C A M E N T OF T E X T U R E
this placing of immensely h i g h p r e m i a u p o n the b u i l d i n g as 'interesting' a n d detached object ( w h i c h still continues) m u s t n o w be b r o u g h t i n t o c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the s i m u l t a n e o u s l y entertained p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t the b u i l d i n g (object ?) m u s t be made to go a w a y ('Great blocks of dwellings r u n t h r o u g h the t o w n . W h a t does i t matter.? They are b e h i n d the screen of trees'). A n d , if we have here presented this s i t u a t i o n i n terms of a t y p i c a l l y Corbusian self-contradiction, there is obvious a n d abundant reason to recognize t h a t one is c o n f r o n t e d w i t h this same c o n t r a d i c t i o n any, a n d every, day. Indeed, i n m o d e r n architecture, the pride i n objects a n d the w i s h to dissimulate pride i n this pride, w h i c h is everywhere revealed, is s o m e t h i n g so e x t r a o r d i n a r y as to defeat all possibility of compassionate c o m m e n t . B u t m o d e r n architecture's object f i x a t i o n (the object w h i c h is n o t
a n object) is o u r present c o n c e r n o n l y i n so far as it involves the city, the city w h i c h was to become evaporated. For, i n its present a n d unevaporated f o r m , the city of m o d e r n architecture become a congeries of c o n spicuously disparate objects is quite as p r o b l e m a t i c a l as the t r a d i t i o n a l city w h i c h it has sought to replace. Let us. first of a l l , consider the theoretical desideratum that the Le Corbusier: project for city centre of Saint-Dié, 1945, perspective [ yet another prevalent s u p p o s i t i o n : t h a t , i f space is sublime, t h e n limitless naturalistic space m u s t be f a r m o r e so t h a n a n y abstracted a n d s t r u c t u r e d ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ . ^ n d , f i n a l l y , let us upstage this w h o l e i m p h c i t a r g u m e n t b y i n t r o d u c i n g the n o t i o n t h a t , i n a n y c a s e ^ ^ ^ e is f a r less i m p o r t a n t t h a n t i m e a n d t h a t too m u c h i n s i s t e n c e - p a r t i c u l a r l y u p o n delimited space-is likely — ^ to i n h i b i t the u n r o l l i n g of the f u t u r e a n d the n a t u r a l b e c o m i n g of the ' u n i v e r s a l society.' Such are some of the ambivalences a n d fantasies w h i c h were, a n d still are, embedded i n the city of m o d e r n a r c h i t e c t u r e : but, t h o u g h these could seem to add u p to a cheerfuf a n d e x h i l a r a t i n g prescription, as already noticed, even w h e n realizations of this city, t h o u g h pure, were o n l y partial, doubts about i t began very early to be entertained. Perhaps these were scarcely a r t i c u l a t e d doubts a n d w h e t h e r they concerned the necessities of perception or the predicament o f t h e public r e a l m is d i f f i c u l t Le Corbusier: project for city centre of Saint-Dié, 1945, plan to d e t e r m i n e ; but, if, i n the A t h e n s Congress of 1 9 3 3 ^ C I A M h a d spelled out the g r o u n d rules f o r the n e w city, t h e n b y the mid-forties there c o u l d be n o such dogmatic certainty. For neither the state n o r the object h a d vanished a w a y ; and, i n C I A M ' s Heart of the City^ conference of 1 9 4 7 , l u r k i n g reservations as to their c o n t i n u i n g v a l i d i t y began, indecisively, to surfacql Indeed, a consideration o f t h e 'city core', i n itself, already indicates a c e r t a i n h e d g i n g of bets and, possibly, the beginnings of a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t the ideal of i n d i s c r i m i n a t e n e u t r a l i t y or inconspicuous equality was h a r d l y attainable or even desirable. But, i f a r e n e w e d interest i n the possibilities of focus a n d hence of confluence seems, by this time, to have been developing, w h i l e the interest was there, the e q u i p m e n t to service i t was l a c k i n g : a n d the p r o b l e m presented b y the revisionism of the late forties m i g h t best be typified a n d i l l u s t r a t e d by Le Corbusier's p l a n f o r St. Dié, w h e r e m o d i f i e d r a t i o n a l b u i l d i n g is obliged to be a n object and, t h e n , let us a t t e m p t to place this p r o p o s i t i o n i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the evident suspicion t h a t buildings, as m a n - m a d e artefacts, e n j o y a meretricious status, i n some w a y , d e t r i m e n t a l to a n u l t i m a t e s p i r i t u a l release. Let us f u r t h e r attempt to place this d e m a n d f o r the r a t i o n a l m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n of the object a n d this parallel need f o r its d i s i n t e g r a t i o n alongside the very obvious feeling t h a t space is, i n some w a y , more sublime t h a n matter, that, w h i l e the a f f i r m a t i o n of m a t t e r is i n e v i t a b l y gross, the a f f i r m a t i o n of a spatial c o n t i n u u m c a n o n l y facilitate the demands óf freedom, n a t u r e a n d spirit. A n d t h e n let us q u a l i f y w h a t became a widespread tendency to space w o r s h i p w i t h
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