Architecture

Architecture (Latin architectura, after the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων – arkhitekton – from ἀρχι- "chief"
and τέκτων"builder, carpenter, mason") is both the process and the product of planning, designing,
and constructingbuildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the material form
of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are
often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.
"Architecture" can mean:
 A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures.
[3]

 The art and science of designing buildings and (some) nonbuilding structures.
[3]

 The style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures.
[3]

 The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering professional
services in connection with the design and construction of buildings, or built environments.
[4]

 The design activity of the architect,
[3]
from the macro-level (urban design, landscape architecture)
to the micro-level (construction details and furniture).
Architecture has to do with planning, designing and constructing form, space and ambience to reflect
functional, technical, social, environmental and aesthetic considerations. It requires the creative
manipulation and coordination of materials and technology, and of light and shadow. Often,
conflicting requirements must be resolved. The practise of Architecture also encompasses the
pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures, including scheduling, cost estimation and
construction administration. Documentation produced by architects, typically drawings, plans and
technical specifications, defines the structure and/or behavior of a building or other kind
of systemthat is to be or has been constructed.
The word "architecture" has also been adopted to describe other designed systems, especially
in information technology.
[3]

Contents
[hide]
 1 Theory of architecture
o 1.1 Historic treatises
o 1.2 Modern concepts of architecture
 2 History
o 2.1 Origins and vernacular architecture
o 2.2 Ancient architecture
o 2.3 Asian architecture
o 2.4 Islamic architecture
o 2.5 The medieval builder
o 2.6 Renaissance and the architect
o 2.7 Early modern and the industrial age
o 2.8 Modernism and reaction
o 2.9 Architecture today
 3 See also
 4 Notes
 5 References
 6 External links
Theory of architecture[edit]
Main article: Architectural theory
Historic treatises[edit]

The Parthenon, Athens, Greece, "the supreme example among architectural sites." (Fletcher).
[5]

The earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura, by the Roman
architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century AD.
[6]
According to Vitruvius, a good building should satisfy
the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas,
[7][8]
commonly known by the original translation –
firmness, commodity and delight. An equivalent in modern English would be:
 Durability – a building should stand up robustly and remain in good condition.
 Utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which is it used.
 Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing.
According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as
possible. Leone Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re
Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a part.
For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden
mean. The most important aspect of beauty was therefore an inherent part of an object, rather than
something applied superficially; and was based on universal, recognisable truths. The notion of style
in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of Vasari:
[9]
by the 18th century,
his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects had been translated into Italian,
French, Spanish and English.

The Houses of Parliament, Westminster, master-planned byCharles Barry, with interiors and details by A.W.N. Pugin
In the early 19th century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the titled
suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized image of
neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only "true Christian form of
architecture."
The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, published
1849, was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Architecture was the "art
which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men ... that the sight of them" contributes "to his
mental health, power, and pleasure".
[10]

For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a building is
not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way "adorned". For Ruskin, a well-constructed,
well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, at the very least.
[10]

On the difference between the ideals of architecture and mere construction, the renowned 20th-
century architect Le Corbusier wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these
materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you
touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture".
[11]

Le Corbusier's contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said "Architecture starts when you carefully
put two bricks together. There it begins."
[12]


The National Congress of Brazil, designed by Oscar Niemeyer.
Modern concepts of architecture[edit]
The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to
architectural design: "Form follows function".
While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to
functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism, it had the effect of introducing the concept
of "function" in place of Vitruvius' "utility". "Function" came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of
the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological
and cultural.

Sydney Opera House, Australiadesigned by Jørn Utzon.
Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional
aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of
expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and
of itself, it will promote social development.'
To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art's sake is not only reactionary; it can
also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere
instrumentality".
[13]

Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building
design are rationalism, empiricism,structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology.
In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure
and function, the consideration ofsustainability, hence sustainable architecture. To satisfy the
contemporary ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly
in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its
surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating,
cooling, water and waste management and lighting.

History[edit]
Main article: History of architecture
Origins and vernacular architecture[edit]
Main article: Vernacular architecture

Vernacular architecture in Norway.
Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means
(available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge
began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became a craft, and
"architecture" is the name given to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft.
It is widely assumed that architectural success was the product of a process of trial and error, with
progressively less trial and more replication as the results of the process proved increasingly
satisfactory. What is termed vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the
world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every
day. Early human settlements were mostly rural. Due to a surplus in production the economy began
to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in
some cases, such as that of Çatal Höyük in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro of the Indus Valley
Civilization in modern-day Pakistan.

The Pyramids at Giza in Egypt.
Ancient architecture[edit]
In many ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism
reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, and many ancient cultures
resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically the political power of the ruler,
the ruling elite, or the state itself.
The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and
the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types
emerged. Architectural "style" developed in the form of the Classical orders.
Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time. These texts provided both general
advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the
writings of the 1st-century BCE Roman military engineer Vitruvius. Some of the most important early
examples of canonic architecture are religious.

Kinkaku-ji (Golden Pavilion), Kyoto, Japan
Asian architecture[edit]
Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of China from the 7th–5th centuries
BCE; the Shilpa Shastras of ancient Indiaand Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka.
The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines from that of Europe;
Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in
particular, showed great regional diversity. Hindu temple architecture, which developed around the
3rd century BCE, is governed by concepts laid down in the Shastras, and is concerned with
expressing the macrocosm and the microcosm. In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion led to
architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape.

The Taj Mahal (1632–1653), inIndia
Islamic architecture[edit]
Main article: Islamic architecture
Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, incorporating architectural forms from the
ancient Middle East and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the religious and social
needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa, Spain and
the Indian Sub-continent. The widespread application of the pointed arch was to influence European
architecture of the Medieval period.
The medieval builder[edit]

Notre Dame de Paris, France
In Europe during the Medieval period, guilds were formed by craftsmen to organize their trades and
written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of
architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes
described in contemporary documents.
The major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals. From about 900
CE onwards, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across
Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic.

La Rotonda (1567), Italy by Palladio
Renaissance and the architect[edit]
In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there was a revival of Classical learning
accompanied by the development of Renaissance Humanism which placed greater emphasis on the
role of the individual in society than had been the case during the Medieval period. Buildings were
ascribed to specific architects –Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult of the
individual had begun. There was still no dividing line between artist,architect and engineer, or any of
the related vocations, and the appellation was often one of regional preference.
A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and
engineering which affected the proportions and structure of buildings. At this stage, it was still
possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the
scope of the generalist.
Early modern and the industrial age[edit]

Paris Opera by Charles Garnier(1875), France
With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology,
architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate
on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical aspects of building
design. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients
and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes,
typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in theNeo Gothic or Scottish
Baronial styles. Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at Ecole des Beaux
Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and
feasibility. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects,
graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks.
Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption.
Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province
of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.
Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. House builders could use current
architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural
journals.
Modernism and reaction[edit]
Main article: Modern architecture

The Bauhaus Dessau architecture department from 1925 by Walter Gropius
Around the beginning of the 20th century, a general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist
architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as
precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in
1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design
is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar, Germany in
1919, redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the creation of a
building as the ultimate synthesis—the apex—of art, craft, and technology.
When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral,
philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist
architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and
economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the
architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly
declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure
forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings
displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces
instead of hiding them behind decorative forms.

Fallingwater, Organic architectureby Frank Lloyd Wright.
Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed Organic architecture, in which the form was
defined by its environment and purpose, with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation
and the natural world with prime examples being Robie House and Fallingwater.

The Crystal Cathedral, California, by Philip Johnson (1980)
Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty
based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading
traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods
made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to
high-rise superstructures. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed into the International Style, an
aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New York's World Trade Center.
Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented
styles and as the founders of that movement lost influence in the late
1970s, Postmodernismdeveloped as a reaction against its austerity. Postmodernism viewed
Modernism as being too extreme and even harsh in regards to design. Instead, Postmodernists
combined Modernism with older styles from before the 1900s to form a middle ground. Robert
Venturi's contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed
inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (an ungainly building in which the
whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of these approaches.
Architecture today[edit]

Postmodern design at Gare do Oriente, Lisbon, Portugal, by Santiago Calatrava.
Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems,
services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with
specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition,
there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect
[Notes 1]
from the 'project' architect who
ensures that the project meets the required standards and deals with matters of liability.
[Notes 2]
The
preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated,
and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and
compliance with local laws. A large structure can no longer be the design of one person but must be
the work of many. Modernism andPostmodernism, have been criticised by some members of the
architectural profession who feel that successful architecture is not a personal philosophical or
aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider everyday needs of people and use
technology to create liveable environments, with the design process being informed by studies of
behavioral, environmental, and social sciences.

Green roof planted with native species at L'Historial de la Vendée, a new museum in western France.
Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with profound affect on the
architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the financing of buildings, have
become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design, rather than
solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Major examples of this can be found in greener roof
designs, biodegradable materials, and more attention to a structure's energy usage. This major shift
in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment.
Sustainability in architecture was pioneered by Frank Lloyd Wright, in the 1960s by Buckminster
Fuller and in the 1970s by architects such as Ian McHarg and Sim Van der Ryn in the US
and Brenda and Robert Vale in the UK and New Zealand. There has been an acceleration in the
number of buildings which seek to meet green building sustainable design principles. Sustainable
practices that were at the core of vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration for
environmentally and socially sustainable contemporary techniques.
[14]
The U.S. Green Building
Council'sLEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been
instrumental in this.
[15]

Concurrently, the recent movements of New Urbanism and New Classical Architecture promote a
sustainable approach towards construction, that appreciates and develops smart
growth, architectural tradition and classical design.
[16][17]
This in contrast to modernist and globally
uniform architecture, as well as leaning against solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl.
[18]


See also[edit]

Angkor Wat, Cambodia, symmetry and elevation have often been utilised in the architectural expression of religious
devotion or political power.

Machu Picchu, Peru, shows the adaptations of architecture and town planning to a rugged natural site

Lower Manhattan, March 2001. The 20th century saw cities across the world transformed by highrise buildings in
the International Style
 Architectural design competition
 Architectural drawing
 Architectural style
 Architectural technology
 Architectural theory
 Architecture prizes
 Building materials
 Contemporary architecture
 Glossary of architecture
 List of human habitation forms
 Organic architecture
 Sociology of architecture
 Sustainable architecture