Bonds
Content
Bonds
Covalent bonds: requires enzymes to break them (the strongest)
Ionic: can be broken with water
Hydrogen: can be broken with heat, acidity, salinity
We covered 4 macro molecules
Nucleotides: Nucleotide are the basis for genetics (that’s not a part of this course). We are focusing on
ATP
ATP is like currency. The energy it can release lets us perform functions of the body (e.g., a reaction
can cost X number of ATP, just like a trip to Fiji can cost X number of dollars). The energy in ATP is
stored in the bonds between phosphate groups.
Carbohydrates: This is where we get the bulk of our energy. Carbs get broken down into glucose.
Glucose is important. Your brain functions on glucose
Protein: There are lots of types of proteins. Proteins are made up of amino acids. They are held
together by peptide bonds. If you have a long chain of amino acids, we call this a polypeptide. This is
the PRIMARY STRUCTURE
Example. Let AA=Amino Acid
AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA
together make up the primary structure
The peptide bonds holding this
All Amino Acids have R-groups. These can interact with each other and cause the protein to fold. This
gives the protein TERTIARY STRUCTURE.
R-groups can attract or repel each other. The sequence of AA’s are what give them their unique
folding.
Tertiary structure is mostly held together by ionic and hydrogen bonds (remember, they are weaker
than covalent bonds)
Some tertiary structure is held together by covalent bonds. Those will be much harder to denature
(because covalent bonds are stronger)
When you break the bonds of tertiary structure, we call it DENATURING the protein. (when things
denature, they unfold)
This is commonly done by
High heat
Acidity (low pH)
High salinity (super salty)
Lipids: Three main lipids we focused on
a. Phospholipids compose the bylayer/cell membrane (The stuff on the outside of the cell)
b.Triglycerides: these are fats with a glycerol head, and fatty acid tails. We can break the carboncarbon fatty acids tails down, 2 at a time using hydrolysis for energy.
c. Steroids: cholesterol is a lipid, and common steroid
Fats with kinked tails are less viscous/more fluid than fats with straight tails
Kinked tails= unsaturated
Straight tails=saturated
Transportation across the cell membrane
Hydrophobic=non polar
Hydrophilic=polar
To get polar molecules, and ions across the hydrophobic cell membrane, proteins are used. We’ve
talked about three ways for them to get across
Diffusion: They can move from high concentration to low concentration (go with the flow)
Primary active transport: Using pumps powered by ATP (the breaking of the phosphate bonds in ATP),
to transport molecules or ions from low concentration to high concentration (going AGAINST the flow)
Secondary active transport: Moon used the example of glucose entering the cell after binding with Na+
(sodium). This is my favorite example to show this. Watch this video if this is sticky to you, it explains
well.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nYC3_3hb54Q
The key here is that it took energy to pump Na+ out of the cell first. It was after that initial investment of
energy that the molecule could then get into the cell
More protein stuff
Channels: diffusion of single atom ions
Transport proteins:
Uniport-moves one thing
Symport moves two things in one direction
Antiport- can move multiple things in and out
SOME receptor proteins bind to SPECIFIC ligands
OSMOSIS
Water flows from low concentration of solutes, to higher concentrations of solutes
A+solutes < ------------B (no solutes)
A (+solutes) has higher osmolarity than B(no solutes)
If there is a semipermeable membrane separating A and B, then there will be osmosis (flow of water)
from B to A.
The osmotic pressure is flowing from the right to the left
ENZYMES
Enzymes catalyze (if you know that word great, if you don't, don't get hung up on it) reactions. That
means they make reactions happen more easily.
As Moon said, “they drive a reaction”.
If you ask me to meet you at 9 PM on a Sunday night, I might not be inclined to go. If you offer to meet
me at 12, where I am already at, AND bring me snacks and coffee, I might be VERY inclined to meet
you. The time and snacks are like enzymes. They made the meeting easier to happen. They did not
change the length of the meeting, what was said, or anythings besides how EASILY it happened
Covalent bonds: requires enzymes to break them (the strongest)
Ionic: can be broken with water
Hydrogen: can be broken with heat, acidity, salinity
We covered 4 macro molecules
Nucleotides: Nucleotide are the basis for genetics (that’s not a part of this course). We are focusing on
ATP
ATP is like currency. The energy it can release lets us perform functions of the body (e.g., a reaction
can cost X number of ATP, just like a trip to Fiji can cost X number of dollars). The energy in ATP is
stored in the bonds between phosphate groups.
Carbohydrates: This is where we get the bulk of our energy. Carbs get broken down into glucose.
Glucose is important. Your brain functions on glucose
Protein: There are lots of types of proteins. Proteins are made up of amino acids. They are held
together by peptide bonds. If you have a long chain of amino acids, we call this a polypeptide. This is
the PRIMARY STRUCTURE
Example. Let AA=Amino Acid
AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA
together make up the primary structure
The peptide bonds holding this
All Amino Acids have R-groups. These can interact with each other and cause the protein to fold. This
gives the protein TERTIARY STRUCTURE.
R-groups can attract or repel each other. The sequence of AA’s are what give them their unique
folding.
Tertiary structure is mostly held together by ionic and hydrogen bonds (remember, they are weaker
than covalent bonds)
Some tertiary structure is held together by covalent bonds. Those will be much harder to denature
(because covalent bonds are stronger)
When you break the bonds of tertiary structure, we call it DENATURING the protein. (when things
denature, they unfold)
This is commonly done by
High heat
Acidity (low pH)
High salinity (super salty)
Lipids: Three main lipids we focused on
a. Phospholipids compose the bylayer/cell membrane (The stuff on the outside of the cell)
b.Triglycerides: these are fats with a glycerol head, and fatty acid tails. We can break the carboncarbon fatty acids tails down, 2 at a time using hydrolysis for energy.
c. Steroids: cholesterol is a lipid, and common steroid
Fats with kinked tails are less viscous/more fluid than fats with straight tails
Kinked tails= unsaturated
Straight tails=saturated
Transportation across the cell membrane
Hydrophobic=non polar
Hydrophilic=polar
To get polar molecules, and ions across the hydrophobic cell membrane, proteins are used. We’ve
talked about three ways for them to get across
Diffusion: They can move from high concentration to low concentration (go with the flow)
Primary active transport: Using pumps powered by ATP (the breaking of the phosphate bonds in ATP),
to transport molecules or ions from low concentration to high concentration (going AGAINST the flow)
Secondary active transport: Moon used the example of glucose entering the cell after binding with Na+
(sodium). This is my favorite example to show this. Watch this video if this is sticky to you, it explains
well.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nYC3_3hb54Q
The key here is that it took energy to pump Na+ out of the cell first. It was after that initial investment of
energy that the molecule could then get into the cell
More protein stuff
Channels: diffusion of single atom ions
Transport proteins:
Uniport-moves one thing
Symport moves two things in one direction
Antiport- can move multiple things in and out
SOME receptor proteins bind to SPECIFIC ligands
OSMOSIS
Water flows from low concentration of solutes, to higher concentrations of solutes
A+solutes < ------------B (no solutes)
A (+solutes) has higher osmolarity than B(no solutes)
If there is a semipermeable membrane separating A and B, then there will be osmosis (flow of water)
from B to A.
The osmotic pressure is flowing from the right to the left
ENZYMES
Enzymes catalyze (if you know that word great, if you don't, don't get hung up on it) reactions. That
means they make reactions happen more easily.
As Moon said, “they drive a reaction”.
If you ask me to meet you at 9 PM on a Sunday night, I might not be inclined to go. If you offer to meet
me at 12, where I am already at, AND bring me snacks and coffee, I might be VERY inclined to meet
you. The time and snacks are like enzymes. They made the meeting easier to happen. They did not
change the length of the meeting, what was said, or anythings besides how EASILY it happened
