Chapter 7
Content
Chapter 7:
Theories of Intelligence, Thought and Language and Learning Readiness
Theories of Intelligence
According to Collins Cobuild Advanced Dictionary, intelligence is the
quality of being intelligent or clever; the ability to think, reason and understand instead of doing things automatically or by instinct.
Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary on the other hand, defined
intelligence as the ability to learn, understand and think in a logical way about things; the ability to do this well.
Intelligence derives from the Latin verb intelligere ( to understand , to
choose between ); per that rationale, understanding (intelligence) is different from being smart (capable of adapting to the environment). (Webster s New Universal Unabridged Dictionary (1996) p.991)
General Intelligence
Psychometric approach
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor.
After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar.
People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on other.
He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed (Spearman, 1904).
Primary Mental Abilities
Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities" (Thurstone, 1938). The abilities that he described were:
Verbal comprehension Reasoning Perceptual speed Numerical ability Word fluency Associative memory Spatial visualization
Multiple Intelligences
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures.
The eight intelligences Gardner described are: Visual-spatial Intelligence Verbal-linguistic Intelligence Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence Logical-mathematical Intelligence Interpersonal Intelligence Musical Intelligence Intra personal Intelligence Naturalistic Intelligence
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one s life" (Sternberg, 1985, p. 45). While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which is comprised of three different factors: Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities. Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills. Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.
Moral Intelligence
Moral Intelligence is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Broadly conceived, moral intelligence represents the ability to make sound decisions that benefit not only yourself, but others around you (Coles, 1997; Hass, 1998).
Social Intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand other people: what motivates them, how they work, how to work cooperatively with them. Successful salespeople, politicians, teachers, clinicians, and religious leaders are all likely to be individuals with high degrees of interpersonal intelligence. At the same time, social intelligence probably draws on specific internal abilities. For example, in a recent study of incompetence, Kruger and Dunning (1999) found that incompetent people assessed themselves as being highly competent. This lack of ability to self-assess may be due to a combination of internal (poor metacognition) and external factors (poor ability to compare oneself to others). Social intelligence appears to be receiving the most attention in the management and organizational psychology literatures (e.g., Hough, 2001; Riggio, Murphy, & Pirozzolo, 2002).
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence, on the other hand, "is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking and actions" (Mayer & Salovey, 1993, p. 433). According to Goleman (1995), "Emotional intelligence, the skills that help people harmonize, should become increasingly valued as a workplace asset in the years to come" (p. 160). EI may subsume Gardner's inter- and intrapersonal intelligences, and involves abilities that may be categorized into five domains (Salovey & Mayer, 1990):
Self-awareness: Observing yourself and recognizing a feeling as it happens. Managing emotions: Handling feelings so that they are appropriate;
realizing what is behind a feeling; finding ways to handle fears and anxieties, anger, and sadness.
Motivating oneself: Channeling emotions in the service of a goal;
emotional self control; delaying gratification and stifling impulses.
Empathy: Sensitivity to others' feelings and concerns and taking their
perspective; appreciating the differences in how people feel about things.
Handling relationships: Managing emotions in others; social competence
and social skills.
Significance of Theories of Multiple Intelligences in Teaching-Learning
In Gardner's view, learning is both a social and psychological process. When students understand the balance of their own multiple intelligences they begin to manage their own learning and to value their individual strengths. Teachers understand how students are intelligent as well as how intelligent they are. Knowing which students have the potential for strong interpersonal intelligence, for example, will help you create opportunities where the strength can be fostered in others. However, multiple intelligence theory is not intended to provide teachers with new IQ-like labels for their students. Teachers will be able to provide opportunities for authentic learning based on students' needs, interests and talents. The multiple intelligence classroom acts like the "real" world: the author and the illustrator of a book are equally valuable creators. Students become more active, involved learners.
Students will be able to demonstrate and share their strengths. Building strengths gives a student the motivation to be a "specialist." This can in turn lead to increased self-esteem.
When you "teach for understanding , students accumulate positive educational experiences and the capability for creating solutions to problems in life.
With an understanding of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, teachers, school administrators, and parents can better understand the learners in their midst. They can allow students to safely explore and learn in many ways, and they can help students direct their own learning. Adults can help students understand and appreciate their strengths, and identify real-world activities that will stimulate more learning. (Anne Guignon; Education World, 2010)
Theories of Thought and Language
Thought is defined as an idea that you have in your mind (Collins Cobuild Advanced Dictionary). Thought and thinking are mental forms and processes, respectively ("thought" is both). Thinking allows beings to model the world and to represent it according to their objectives, plans, ends and desires (Webster's II New College Dictionary, Webster Staff, Webster, Houghton Mifflin Company, Edition: 2)
Language is a system of communication which consist of a set of sound and written symbols which are used by the people of a particular country or region (Collins Cobuilds Advanced Dictionary). In communication term, language is the use by the humans of a system of sounds and words to communicate (Oxford Advanced Learner Dictionary).
Whorf Linguistic Determinism and Linguistic Relativism
Whorf believed that the structure of language plays a role in determining worldview. He based his hypothesis on the study of the treatment of time and space in Hopi. Whorf claimed that speakers of Hopi and speakers of English see the world differently because of differences in their languages. The Whorfian hypothesis is regarded as a psychological hypothesis about language performance and not as a linguistic hypothesis about language competence. (Hunt and Agnoli, 1991.) Grammatical preferences in a language have a direct relationship to preferences in logic and thinking within a culture.
Vygotsky Thinking and Speaking
Vygotsky studied language and thought as a connected phenomenon and discovered how words and thought are interrelated and both lead to ever expanding knowledge. His work was unknown in the United States for many years. Vygotsky was of the school that thought is determined by language, by the linguistic tools of thought and by the socio-cultural experiences of the child (Vygotsky, 1934). Cognitive skills and patterns of thinking are not primarily determined by innate factors, but are the products of the activities practiced in the social institutions of the culture in which the individual grows up. Thought and language have independent origins. The two merge around two years of age, producing mental thought. Mental operations are embodied in the structure of language; therefore cognitive development results from the internalization of language. We cannot think without language.
Egocentric, or private, speech is a transitional phase in child development. It is a precursor to verbal thought. Two issues are involved in the merging of thought and language. First, mental functions have social origins and second, children use language for some time before they make the switch from external to internal speech. Egocentric speech occurs when a child uses language that she/he has acquired to organize and plan her/his own activities. Eventually it goes beneath the surface to become inner speech, or pure thought.
Chomsky Language and Mind
Chomsky s 1957 book, Syntactic Structures, set the stage for shifting the study of linguistics away from ideas of relativity toward a fundamentalist view of universals. Chomsky theorized that children are born with some form of a languageacquisition device that enables them to analyze the speech they hear and derive the rules of that language. Chomsky s concept of Universal Grammar is well known. Anthropological studies of language propose that there is considerable diversity in world languages and therefore no underlying universal grammar structure. Chomsky believes that when we study the deep structures of the languages we see that there is very little differentiation in their fundamental mechanisms and principles. This difference between anthropology and linguistics was not as sharply defined in America prior to Chomsky.
Chomsky approaches the issues of linguistic structure as a part of human psychology. Human language appears to be a unique phenomenon, unlike any communication systems in other animals. He disagrees with the argument that human language is simply a more complex form of communication found in the animal world.
The possession of human language is connected with a specific type of mental organization, not merely an advanced level of intelligence.
Chomsky argues that there is no established relationships in Karl Popper s theory that human language passed through stages, a lower stage of vocal gestures used for expression of emotion and a higher stage of articulated sounds used for expression of thought, (Chomsky, 1968) This gap is comparable to the missing link in the evolution of humans.
Chomsky argues that the theory of learning needs to expand from the concept that what is learned is a stimulus-response behaviour to include the notion of competence.
Piaget s Child Thought and Language Theory
According to Piaget, the bond uniting all the specific characteristics of
child logic is the egocentrism of the child s thinking. To this core trait he relates all the other traits he found, such as intellectual realism, syncretism, and difficulty in understanding relations. He describes egocentrism as occupying an intermediate position, genetically, structurally, and functionally, between autistic and directed thought. Directed thought is social. As it develops, it is increasingly influenced by the laws of experience and of logic proper. Autistic thought, on the contrary, is individualistic and obeys a set of special laws of its own.
Theories of Learning Readiness
Readiness is the state of being ready or prepared for something (Oxford Advanced Learner Dictionary).
Readiness approaches in developmental psychology emphasize that children cannot learn something until maturation gives them certain prerequisites (Brainerd, 1978). The ability to learn any cognitive content is always related to their stage of intellectual development. Children who are at a certain stage cannot be taught the concepts of a higher stage.
Thorndike s Law of Readiness
Law of readiness Interference with goal directed behavior causes frustration and causing someone to do something they do not want to do is also frustrating. a) When someone is ready to perform some act, to do so is satisfying. b) When someone is ready to perform some act, not to do so is annoying. c) When someone is not ready to perform some act and is forced to do so, it is annoying
Types of Learning Readiness
According to Bloom (1956), there are three different domains of learning. There is cognitive, psychomotor and affective.
Cognitive learning breaks down to these levels of increasing complexity: Knowledge - or recalling what was told Comprehension - or gaining understanding Application - or taking knowledge of one kind and applying to a different area Analysis - this means taking a whole concept and breaking it down into parts Synthesize - this means building parts up into a new whole (includes deduction) Evaluate - is the most complex, where judgment is made based on criteria
Psychomotor learning (Simpson, 1969) Sensory preparedness - ability to perceive State of readiness - perceiving can produce motor action Reflex/ Imitation - repeating back what is shown Manipulation - doing what is told rather than shown (some previous imitation) Guided response - own trial and error set using known methods Precision - accurate actions carried out independently Complex articulation - means the sequencing of actions on demand Naturalize - means that skills become absorbed and automatic Origination - or creative newness
Affective learning (Krathwohl, 1964) Receiving - is where there is a passive response to stimuli Responding - is where curiosity and responsibility come in a response Valuing - this is where intrinsic worth is recognized and beliefs emerge Organize - means patterning and building a set of values Characterize - means an absorption and coherence given to values
Factors affecting Learning Readiness
Conflict of personalities due to the many differing types of intelligences Differences in learning aptitudes due to differing types of natural talents Generation gap due to age and hierarchy differences between the younger and older staff Sensitivities in race, religion and culture due to multicultural learning community (Dahlan & Hussin, 2005)
Resources
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia www.wikipedia.com Chomsky, N. (1968) Language and Mind. Retrieved April 8, 2003, from Marxist.org InternetArchive http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/phil osophy/works/us/chomsky.htm Alford, Dan Moonhawk. (2002) The Great Whorf Hypothesis Hoax. Retrieved February 13, 2003 from http://www.enformy.com/dma-Chap7.htm Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences. New York: BasicBooks. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books. Carroll, J. B. (1982). "The Measurement of Intelligence". in R. J. Sternberg. Handbook of human intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Armstrong, Thomas. Multiple Intelligences in The Classroom. Va: asdc, 1994 Gardner, Howard. Frames Of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. NY: basicbooks, 1983.
Theories of Intelligence, Thought and Language and Learning Readiness
Theories of Intelligence
According to Collins Cobuild Advanced Dictionary, intelligence is the
quality of being intelligent or clever; the ability to think, reason and understand instead of doing things automatically or by instinct.
Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary on the other hand, defined
intelligence as the ability to learn, understand and think in a logical way about things; the ability to do this well.
Intelligence derives from the Latin verb intelligere ( to understand , to
choose between ); per that rationale, understanding (intelligence) is different from being smart (capable of adapting to the environment). (Webster s New Universal Unabridged Dictionary (1996) p.991)
General Intelligence
Psychometric approach
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor.
After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar.
People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on other.
He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed (Spearman, 1904).
Primary Mental Abilities
Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities" (Thurstone, 1938). The abilities that he described were:
Verbal comprehension Reasoning Perceptual speed Numerical ability Word fluency Associative memory Spatial visualization
Multiple Intelligences
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures.
The eight intelligences Gardner described are: Visual-spatial Intelligence Verbal-linguistic Intelligence Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence Logical-mathematical Intelligence Interpersonal Intelligence Musical Intelligence Intra personal Intelligence Naturalistic Intelligence
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one s life" (Sternberg, 1985, p. 45). While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which is comprised of three different factors: Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities. Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills. Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.
Moral Intelligence
Moral Intelligence is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Broadly conceived, moral intelligence represents the ability to make sound decisions that benefit not only yourself, but others around you (Coles, 1997; Hass, 1998).
Social Intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand other people: what motivates them, how they work, how to work cooperatively with them. Successful salespeople, politicians, teachers, clinicians, and religious leaders are all likely to be individuals with high degrees of interpersonal intelligence. At the same time, social intelligence probably draws on specific internal abilities. For example, in a recent study of incompetence, Kruger and Dunning (1999) found that incompetent people assessed themselves as being highly competent. This lack of ability to self-assess may be due to a combination of internal (poor metacognition) and external factors (poor ability to compare oneself to others). Social intelligence appears to be receiving the most attention in the management and organizational psychology literatures (e.g., Hough, 2001; Riggio, Murphy, & Pirozzolo, 2002).
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence, on the other hand, "is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking and actions" (Mayer & Salovey, 1993, p. 433). According to Goleman (1995), "Emotional intelligence, the skills that help people harmonize, should become increasingly valued as a workplace asset in the years to come" (p. 160). EI may subsume Gardner's inter- and intrapersonal intelligences, and involves abilities that may be categorized into five domains (Salovey & Mayer, 1990):
Self-awareness: Observing yourself and recognizing a feeling as it happens. Managing emotions: Handling feelings so that they are appropriate;
realizing what is behind a feeling; finding ways to handle fears and anxieties, anger, and sadness.
Motivating oneself: Channeling emotions in the service of a goal;
emotional self control; delaying gratification and stifling impulses.
Empathy: Sensitivity to others' feelings and concerns and taking their
perspective; appreciating the differences in how people feel about things.
Handling relationships: Managing emotions in others; social competence
and social skills.
Significance of Theories of Multiple Intelligences in Teaching-Learning
In Gardner's view, learning is both a social and psychological process. When students understand the balance of their own multiple intelligences they begin to manage their own learning and to value their individual strengths. Teachers understand how students are intelligent as well as how intelligent they are. Knowing which students have the potential for strong interpersonal intelligence, for example, will help you create opportunities where the strength can be fostered in others. However, multiple intelligence theory is not intended to provide teachers with new IQ-like labels for their students. Teachers will be able to provide opportunities for authentic learning based on students' needs, interests and talents. The multiple intelligence classroom acts like the "real" world: the author and the illustrator of a book are equally valuable creators. Students become more active, involved learners.
Students will be able to demonstrate and share their strengths. Building strengths gives a student the motivation to be a "specialist." This can in turn lead to increased self-esteem.
When you "teach for understanding , students accumulate positive educational experiences and the capability for creating solutions to problems in life.
With an understanding of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, teachers, school administrators, and parents can better understand the learners in their midst. They can allow students to safely explore and learn in many ways, and they can help students direct their own learning. Adults can help students understand and appreciate their strengths, and identify real-world activities that will stimulate more learning. (Anne Guignon; Education World, 2010)
Theories of Thought and Language
Thought is defined as an idea that you have in your mind (Collins Cobuild Advanced Dictionary). Thought and thinking are mental forms and processes, respectively ("thought" is both). Thinking allows beings to model the world and to represent it according to their objectives, plans, ends and desires (Webster's II New College Dictionary, Webster Staff, Webster, Houghton Mifflin Company, Edition: 2)
Language is a system of communication which consist of a set of sound and written symbols which are used by the people of a particular country or region (Collins Cobuilds Advanced Dictionary). In communication term, language is the use by the humans of a system of sounds and words to communicate (Oxford Advanced Learner Dictionary).
Whorf Linguistic Determinism and Linguistic Relativism
Whorf believed that the structure of language plays a role in determining worldview. He based his hypothesis on the study of the treatment of time and space in Hopi. Whorf claimed that speakers of Hopi and speakers of English see the world differently because of differences in their languages. The Whorfian hypothesis is regarded as a psychological hypothesis about language performance and not as a linguistic hypothesis about language competence. (Hunt and Agnoli, 1991.) Grammatical preferences in a language have a direct relationship to preferences in logic and thinking within a culture.
Vygotsky Thinking and Speaking
Vygotsky studied language and thought as a connected phenomenon and discovered how words and thought are interrelated and both lead to ever expanding knowledge. His work was unknown in the United States for many years. Vygotsky was of the school that thought is determined by language, by the linguistic tools of thought and by the socio-cultural experiences of the child (Vygotsky, 1934). Cognitive skills and patterns of thinking are not primarily determined by innate factors, but are the products of the activities practiced in the social institutions of the culture in which the individual grows up. Thought and language have independent origins. The two merge around two years of age, producing mental thought. Mental operations are embodied in the structure of language; therefore cognitive development results from the internalization of language. We cannot think without language.
Egocentric, or private, speech is a transitional phase in child development. It is a precursor to verbal thought. Two issues are involved in the merging of thought and language. First, mental functions have social origins and second, children use language for some time before they make the switch from external to internal speech. Egocentric speech occurs when a child uses language that she/he has acquired to organize and plan her/his own activities. Eventually it goes beneath the surface to become inner speech, or pure thought.
Chomsky Language and Mind
Chomsky s 1957 book, Syntactic Structures, set the stage for shifting the study of linguistics away from ideas of relativity toward a fundamentalist view of universals. Chomsky theorized that children are born with some form of a languageacquisition device that enables them to analyze the speech they hear and derive the rules of that language. Chomsky s concept of Universal Grammar is well known. Anthropological studies of language propose that there is considerable diversity in world languages and therefore no underlying universal grammar structure. Chomsky believes that when we study the deep structures of the languages we see that there is very little differentiation in their fundamental mechanisms and principles. This difference between anthropology and linguistics was not as sharply defined in America prior to Chomsky.
Chomsky approaches the issues of linguistic structure as a part of human psychology. Human language appears to be a unique phenomenon, unlike any communication systems in other animals. He disagrees with the argument that human language is simply a more complex form of communication found in the animal world.
The possession of human language is connected with a specific type of mental organization, not merely an advanced level of intelligence.
Chomsky argues that there is no established relationships in Karl Popper s theory that human language passed through stages, a lower stage of vocal gestures used for expression of emotion and a higher stage of articulated sounds used for expression of thought, (Chomsky, 1968) This gap is comparable to the missing link in the evolution of humans.
Chomsky argues that the theory of learning needs to expand from the concept that what is learned is a stimulus-response behaviour to include the notion of competence.
Piaget s Child Thought and Language Theory
According to Piaget, the bond uniting all the specific characteristics of
child logic is the egocentrism of the child s thinking. To this core trait he relates all the other traits he found, such as intellectual realism, syncretism, and difficulty in understanding relations. He describes egocentrism as occupying an intermediate position, genetically, structurally, and functionally, between autistic and directed thought. Directed thought is social. As it develops, it is increasingly influenced by the laws of experience and of logic proper. Autistic thought, on the contrary, is individualistic and obeys a set of special laws of its own.
Theories of Learning Readiness
Readiness is the state of being ready or prepared for something (Oxford Advanced Learner Dictionary).
Readiness approaches in developmental psychology emphasize that children cannot learn something until maturation gives them certain prerequisites (Brainerd, 1978). The ability to learn any cognitive content is always related to their stage of intellectual development. Children who are at a certain stage cannot be taught the concepts of a higher stage.
Thorndike s Law of Readiness
Law of readiness Interference with goal directed behavior causes frustration and causing someone to do something they do not want to do is also frustrating. a) When someone is ready to perform some act, to do so is satisfying. b) When someone is ready to perform some act, not to do so is annoying. c) When someone is not ready to perform some act and is forced to do so, it is annoying
Types of Learning Readiness
According to Bloom (1956), there are three different domains of learning. There is cognitive, psychomotor and affective.
Cognitive learning breaks down to these levels of increasing complexity: Knowledge - or recalling what was told Comprehension - or gaining understanding Application - or taking knowledge of one kind and applying to a different area Analysis - this means taking a whole concept and breaking it down into parts Synthesize - this means building parts up into a new whole (includes deduction) Evaluate - is the most complex, where judgment is made based on criteria
Psychomotor learning (Simpson, 1969) Sensory preparedness - ability to perceive State of readiness - perceiving can produce motor action Reflex/ Imitation - repeating back what is shown Manipulation - doing what is told rather than shown (some previous imitation) Guided response - own trial and error set using known methods Precision - accurate actions carried out independently Complex articulation - means the sequencing of actions on demand Naturalize - means that skills become absorbed and automatic Origination - or creative newness
Affective learning (Krathwohl, 1964) Receiving - is where there is a passive response to stimuli Responding - is where curiosity and responsibility come in a response Valuing - this is where intrinsic worth is recognized and beliefs emerge Organize - means patterning and building a set of values Characterize - means an absorption and coherence given to values
Factors affecting Learning Readiness
Conflict of personalities due to the many differing types of intelligences Differences in learning aptitudes due to differing types of natural talents Generation gap due to age and hierarchy differences between the younger and older staff Sensitivities in race, religion and culture due to multicultural learning community (Dahlan & Hussin, 2005)
Resources
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia www.wikipedia.com Chomsky, N. (1968) Language and Mind. Retrieved April 8, 2003, from Marxist.org InternetArchive http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/phil osophy/works/us/chomsky.htm Alford, Dan Moonhawk. (2002) The Great Whorf Hypothesis Hoax. Retrieved February 13, 2003 from http://www.enformy.com/dma-Chap7.htm Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences. New York: BasicBooks. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books. Carroll, J. B. (1982). "The Measurement of Intelligence". in R. J. Sternberg. Handbook of human intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Armstrong, Thomas. Multiple Intelligences in The Classroom. Va: asdc, 1994 Gardner, Howard. Frames Of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. NY: basicbooks, 1983.
