CIS Psych Exam Two Study Guide

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Chapter Five: Consciousness
Changes in Brain Waves

Stage One: Light stage of sleep that lasts 5-10 minutes. Brain powers down to 50% producing theta waves. People are usually confused in this stage. INCLUDES REM Stage Two: 65% of sleep is spent in this stage. Brain waves slow down, heart rate and body temp also decreases. Produces sleep spindles and K-complexes Stages Three & Four: When delta waves are observed. Delta waves are needed to feel fully rested. Stage Five: REM sleep. Heart rate increases, body temp rises. This is the end of the cycle. The amount of time in REM increases with each cycle. This is when we dream.

Features of REM Sleep y Dreams in REM are more complex y REM sleep is important for health y Rapid eye movements occur y Middle ear muscle activity (MEMA) increases y Body is paralyzed (paradoxical sleep b/c brain is active but body is paralyzed) Lucid Dreaming: Dreaming consciously. This opens the possibility to control dreams.

Sleep Disorders
Disease Insomnia Definition Difficulty falling or staying asleep Side Effects/Causes/Symptoms - Occurs with naps, caffeine use, etc - Apparent in medical conditions - Caused by many instances. - Cataplexy is a complete loss in muscle tone People dose off into REM sleep right away - Lack of oxygen causes person to wake up frequently throughout the night. - Attributes to lack of sleep - Typically harmless - People deprived of sleep are more likely to get this - Most frequent in children

Narcolepsy

Rapid and unexpected onset of sleep

Sleep Apnea

Blockage of airway during sleep. STAGE 2 of sleep Screaming, sweating, confused state during sleep STAGE 4 & 5 of sleep Walking while fully asleep. STAGE 4 of sleep

Night Terrors Sleep Walking

Drugs: Stimulants: Drugs that increase activity in the central nervous system y Nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines (CAN) Narcotic: Drug that relieves pain and induces sleep y Heroin, morphine, codeine, opiates (-in/e) Psychedelics (Hallucinogens): Drugs that cause dramatic alterations of perception, mood, and thought y Marijuana, LSD (LSDM) Last Saturday Dad Move

Split Brain Effect: Severing the corpus collosum to reduce the spread of epileptic seizures. When info is delivered to one side of the brain it can t transfer to the other side. y Corpus Collosum: Sharing of information to the left to right side of the brain. Connect the info together. y Broca s Area: Language area in the prefrontal cortex that controls speech production y Wernicke s Area: Language area in the prefrontal cortex understanding speech. y An object seen on the left field of vision is processed in the right side of the brain

Chapter Six: Learning
Learning: Change in an organisms thought and behavior as a result of experience. y Habituation: The process by which we respond less strongly over time to a repeated stimuli. - Simplest and earliest form of learning. - Aplysia shows sensation and habituation y Sensitization: Same as habituation Classical Conditioning Pavlov and Watson Pavlov: Conducted research on dogs and salivation where he stumbled upon classical (Pavlovian) conditioning. Placed dogs in a harness and inserted a cannula, collection tube, into their salivary glands to measure salivation responses to meat powder. Found that dogs salivate with food and neutral stimulus, which led to classical conditioning. y Event-Event Learning: Associating 2 events together. y Law of Contiguity: 2 events have to be related to each other in time with UCS and CS. Stimulates and Responses in Classical Conditioning: y Uncontrolled Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that elicits an automatic response. y Uncontrolled Response (UCR): An automatic response to a stimulus that doesn t need to be learned y Controlled Stimulus (CS): Initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response due to an association with an unconditioned stimulus y Controlled Response (CR): A response previously associated with a nonneutral stimulus that comes to be elicited as a neutral stimulus * Classical conditioning can be used to produce a fear response by associating a UCS with a negative CS to receive a negative CR that could soon be associated with a UCR - Amygdala is associated with fear conditioning - Classical conditioning can lead us to develop avoidance reactions to foods. In a conditioned taste aversion, we only need to try a food once to know we don t like it. This is what makes it different than other models because it only takes one interaction. The delayed association between the CS and UCS is adaptive. Contradicts the assumptions of equipotentiality, claim that we can classically condition all CSs equally well to UCSs. Principles of Classical Conditioning: 1. Acquisition: Gradually learning a conditional response. Is strengthened when time interval between UCS and CS is short. 2. Extinction: CR decreases in magnitude and eventually disappears when the CS is repeatedly presented alone without the UCS. * like forgetting occurs when we stop reinforcing behaviors 3. Spontaneous Recovery: A weaker CR appears when a CS is presented again - Stimulus Generalization: The process by which CSs that are similar elicit the same CR. - Stimulus Discrimination: Exhibit a less apparent CR to a different CS * Little Albert is the baby who was exposed to rats and developed a phobia with them as he was given a negative CS with the rat. He eventually developed a phobia for all furry animals, also known as stimulus generalization. * Learning depends upon the particulars of the situation, including specific factors, prior learning history, stimulus novelty, stimulus salience. Learning is a complex function

Operant Conditioning: Learning controlled by the consequences of the organism s behavior. Involves reinforcement and punishment. Thorndike and Skinner *Dopamine is the neurotransmitter associated with operant conditioning y Thorndike Instrumental Conditioning, Law of Effect,& Insight - Instrumental Conditioning: Learning from the relationships between learning and its consequences - Law of Effect: If we re rewarded for a response to a stimulus, we re more likely to repeat it. S-R theorists believe that almost everything we do voluntarily results from the gradual build-up of S-R bonds. - Insight: Grasping the underlying nature of a problem y Skinner Shaping, Chaining, Skinner Box - Shaping: Progressively reinforcing behaviors that become closer and closer to the target. Skinner and students discovered shaping on accident at the UofM. - Chaining: Linking behaviors together - Skinner Box: A box that electronically records an animal s response and prints out a cumulative record, or graph, of the animal s activity. - Skinner s Behavior Analysis: Behavior changes due to ABCs Antecedents, Behaviors, and Consequences  Respondent is stimulus with stimulus  Operant Environment plays a role Discrimitive Stimulus: Any stimulus that signals the presence of reinforcement. Signals/antecedents that occurs after behavior. Ex. Waving at someone and getting a wave back.

Classical Conditioning
Elicited automatically Reward is provided unconditionally Behavior depends on autonomic nervous system

Both
Have aquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery

Operant Conditioning
Emitted voluntarily Reward is contingent on behavior Behavior depends on skeletal muscles

Reinforcement and Punishment: y Reinforcement: Any outcome that strengthens the probability of a response to occur in the future - Positive Reinforcement: Presentation that strengthens the probability of a behavior - Negative Reinforcement: Removal of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of a behavior  Primary Reinforcement: Something that isn t learned and increases the target behavior. Biologically learned/known.  Secondary Reinforcement: Neutral object that becomes associated with a primary reinforce y Punishment: Outcome or consequence of behavior that weakens the probability of a behavior - Positive Punishment: Getting something you don t want - Negative Punishment: Taking something away that you don t want taken away y Disadvantages of Punishment: - Tells only what not to do - Creates anxiety - Encourages sneaky behavior - Model for aggressive behavior Schedules of Reinforcement: Pattern of delivering reinforcement y Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. Allows behaviors to adapt quicker y Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcing behaviors only some of the time. Leads to greater resistance to extinction

Reinforcement Schedules: y Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule: Providing reinforcement after a regular number of responses y Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule: Pattern in which we provide reinforcement for producing the response at least once after a specific time interval y Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule: Pattern in which we provide reinforcement after a specific number of responses on average with the number varying randomly y Variable Interval (VI) Schedule: Reinforcement for producing the response after an average time interval with the actual interval varying randomly. * Ratio schedules yield higher rates of responding than interval schedules. Variable is more resistant to extinction

Something is added + Reinforcement + Punishment - Reinforcement - Punishment

Something is gained

Something is lost

Something is taken away

Two-Factory Learning Theory: Conditional and Instrumental conditioning in interaction with one another. y Situation (CS), paired with trauma (UCS-UCR), leads to fear (CR) the conditioned fear is an aversion motivational state y Examples: - Rat sees light turn on and electrical shocks turn on. The rat escapes to the other side to avoid shocks, which is a negative reinforcement. - A person is in the environment where they take drugs (CS) this signals a (CR) which is the withdrawal symptoms. The person experiences the withdrawal symptoms and take the drug (UCS) to relieve the withdrawal symptoms (UCR) Cognitive Models of Learning: y Ed Tolman suspected that reinforcement wasn t necessary for learning. Applied concept of latent learning, learning that isn t directly observable. - Cognitive Maps: Spatial representations of how a physical space is organized. - Observational Learning: Learning by watching others. Learn by watching models, parents or role models who influence us. - Mirror Neurons: Cells in the prefrontal cortex that becomes activated by specific motions when an animal both performs and observes that action. y Albert Bandura demonstrated how children can learn to act aggressively by watching aggressive role models. Conducted a Bobo doll experiement where he showed preschoolers videos of adults with a large Bobo doll. He showed some kids with a model abusing a doll while others did not show this. Proved that children copy model behaviors, good or bad. This coincides with the media and violence

Chapter Seven: Memory
Modal Model of Memory:

Sensory Memory: Sustains sensations for identification. Has a large capacity and has a very short duration lasting ½ - 3 seconds. y Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory. Lasts about 1 second y Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory. Lasts 5-10 seconds Short Term Memory (working memory): Does conscious work in memory and thinks where construction occurs. Capacity is 7 +/- 2 and duration lasts around 10-15 seconds. y Chunking: Organizing info into meaningful groupings allowing us to extend the span of short term memory. Form of elaborative rehearsal. y Control Processes of Working Memory: - Attention: Selects info from sensory memory - Encoding: Sends info to LTM - Retrieval: Brings info from LTM to working memory - Rehearsal: Maintains info to working memory  Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating stimuli in their original form to retain memory.  Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking stimuli to reach others in a meaningful way to improve retention * Peterson s studied memory by giving subjects lists with three letter stings and asking them to recall these three letter strings. They made some subjects wait longer than others but made both count backwards from time given. They found out that STM lasts only about 10-15 seconds. Long Term Memory: Ties together past with present with relatively enduring retention. Info stored regards our facts, experiences, and skills. Capacity is huge and is usually permanent.

Long Term Memory

Explicit Memory Memories we recall intentionally of of which we have conscious awareness of. SPECIFIC!

Implicit Memory Memories we don't reflect or remember consciously.

Episodic Memory Memories of events (18th bday, etc) Includes flashbulb memory. Right Frontal

Semantic Memory Our knowledge for facts around the world . Names, dates, etc. Left Frontal

Procedural Memory Knowing how to do something (driving a car)

Classical Conditioning UCS w/ CS creates UCR & CR (Pavlov & Dogs)

Priming Our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or quicker when we've encountered similiar stimuli

Habituation Adapting to something or making something become a habit

Three Levels of Processing: y Encoding: Process of getting info into our memory banks. Many memory failures are a fail due to encoding. - To encode something we must attend to it - Not every detail gets encoded into our brains y Storage: Process of keeping info in memory. How we store things depends on our interpretations and expectations.

y

Retrieval: Reactivation or reconstruction of experience from our memory stores. Memory retrieved is usually not 100% the same as memory encoded. Memories are reconstructive, transforming our recollections to fit our beliefs and expectations. - Recall: Generating previously remembered info. (Open ended response) - Recognition: Selecting previously remembered info from options (Multiple Choice) - Relearning: Reacquiring knowledge that we d previously learned but largely forgotten over time. Also called method of savings. Is the most sensitive retrieval method.

* Ebbinghaus founded the concept of learning. Forgetting curve showed that most forgetting occurs almost immediately after learning new material, with less and less forgetting after that. Also found that when relearning material, it was quicker. Serial Position Effect/Graph: Graph depicting primacy and recency effects on people s ability to recall items on a list. y Recency: Tendency to remember words at the end of a list well y Primacy: Tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list well Mnemonic: A learning device that enhances recall. y Pegword Method: Rhyming a component to remember a list of words y Method of Loci: Relies on imagery of places y Keyword Method: Thinking of a word that stimulates the memory of another Schema: Organized knowledge structure or mental model that we ve stored in memory. Usually has a script. y Can sometimes lead to problems because we can remember things that never happened. Distributed vs. Massed Practiced: y Distributed: Studying info in small increments over time - Spread out study time - Test frequently - Elaborative Rehearsal (Connect knowledge with yourself) - Levels of Processing (Process meaningful thoughts to you) - Mnemonic Devices y Massed: Studying info in large increments over a brief amount of time Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon (TOT): Experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to accept it. Encoding Specificity: Phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve info are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it y Context-Dependent Learning: Remembering something better when the external content of the original memories matches the retrieval content. y State-Dependent Learning: Remembering something better when the person is in the same psychological/internal state during encoding. Decay and Interference: y Decay: Fading of information of memory over time y Interference: Loss of info from memory because of competition from additional incoming info - Proactive Interference: Interference with the acquisition of new info due to previously learned info - Retroactive Interference: Interference with retention of old info due to acquisition of new information. * Retro = Old/Past Roles of Brain in Memory: y Amygdala: Where emotional components of these and other memories, especially those of fear provoking events are

y y

Hippocampus: Retaining of actual events. When damaged affects our retention of learning new memories. Consolidates memories Long Term Potentiation (LTP): Gradual strengthening of connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation. Neurons that fire together, wire together.

Amnesia: y Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to encode new memories from our experiences. Can result from physical trauma. y Retroactive Amnesia: Loss of memories from our past. Types of Failed Memories: y Flashbulb Memory: Emotional memory that is extraordinary vivid and detailed. Many times our flashbulb memory is false, especially after a long period of time. y Source Monitoring Conclusion: Lack of clarity about the origin of memory. People do so by seeking clues about how we encoded memories. y Memory Illusion: False, but subjectively compelling memory. y Happens because brain s generally adaptive tendency to go beyond info available y Representative Heuristic y Suggestive Memory Technique: Procedure that encourages patients to recall memories that may/may nor have taken place. Ex. Police lineup - Can affect recollections and behaviors y Misinformation Effect: Creation of false memories by providing false info about an event after it takes place. *Elizabeth Loftus conducted a Lost in the Mall study where she demonstrated that we can implant elaborate memories of a made-up event that never happened. She used suggestive questioning and statements to conduct this study. Also found out misinformation effect.

Chapter Eight: Language
Language: Largely flexible system of communication that combines symbols, such as words or gestural signs, in rulebased ways to create meaning. Sounds, words, and sentences bear no clear relation to their meaning. y Phoneme (Ingredients): Sounds of our language - Categories in sound our vocal apparatus produces - Influenced by elements of vocal tract, including lips, tongue placement, etc. - About 100 phonemes in the world y Morphemes (Menu Items): The smallest units of meaningful speech. - Smallest units of measuring a language - Created by stringing phonemes together - Convey info about meaning from words/sentences - Ex. Re = repeat/redo y Syntax (Putting Meal Together): Grammatical rules that govern how we compose words into meaningful strings. - Rules of language - Word order, morphological markers, sentence structure (formal language) y Extralinguistic Information: Elements of communication that aren t part of the content of language but are critical to the meaning. - Nonverbal cues including body language, tone, posture, gestures, etc. * Semantics: Meaning derived from words or sentences Language Stages in Infants: 1. Babies first begin to learn language in their mother s womb

2. Babbling: Intentional vocalization without any specific meaning. Important for language development. All babies initially share the same phonemes at first. 3. Infants acquire sounds of language during their first year of life. By comprehension precedes production, children learn language before they speak it. Children start to speak their first words around their first birthdays. First major milestone is combining words into phrases. 4. One Word Stage: Early stage of language development when children use one word to convey thoughts. 5. Two Word Stage and so on to eventually making sentences Linguistic Determinism Hypothesis: View that all thoughts are represented verbally and that, as a result, our language defines our thinking. False! Linguistic Relativity/ Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Characteristics of language shape our thought process. Implication is that people who speak different languages perceive, think about, and remember the world differently. y Conclusion is that language can influence our ability to perceive, remember, and solve problems. The ability of language to determine how we perceive, remember, and solve problems is limited. How limited remains to be seen! *Baboons are the other species that use language in a more human-like manner. Heuristics vs. Algorithms: Heuristics: Rules of thumb that produce quick solutions at the cost of possible errors. People use heuristics everyday. y Availability Heuristics: What s easier to recall? Frequency that you see something. y Representative Heuristic: What do I expect? Prototypes. (Stereotypes) Algorithm: Procedure that always produces a correct solution. Computers execute algorithms. Thin Slicing: Looking at a snip it of information and being able to make predictions off of brief encounter. Is a heuristic. Cognitive Economy: Allows us to simply what we attend to and keep what we need for decision making. Can cause people to make faulty conclusions. Reasoning: Inductive Reasoning: Specific General y Biases in inductive reasoning are ignoring base rates, confirmation bias, prior knowledge, the representative and the availability heuristic. Deductive Reasoning: General Specific y Flaws include prior knowledge and imagery. y Used for syllogisms, starts with major premise and adds minor premise to validate a claim y Ex. proofs in math Approaches in Reasoning: Base Rates: How common a characteristic or behavior is in the general population Confirmation Bias: Seeking out information that supports our beliefs Top-Down Processing: Processing driven by beliefs and expectations. Framing: The way a question is formulated which can influence that decisions people make Concept: Our knowledge and ideas about objects, actions, and characteristics that share core properties. Ways to Problem Solve: y State Space: All of the possible states and transitions between states that can exist in a problem. Ex. Moves in chest/checkers - Initial State: State the problem is in at the start. Ex. Red and black checkers set-up - Goal State: The state we are trying to get to. Can have multiple goal states. Ex. Kings in checkers - Current State: Wherever you are right now. Changes frequently to get to goal state. Weak Methods and Chaining: y Weak Method: Methods that any person can apply where you don t need to know a lot about the domain.

y

Means-Ends Analysis:  Forward Chaining: Move the current state toward the goal state  Backward Chaining: Move the goal state toward the current state Ex. Tower of Hanoi Expert and Novices do NOT differ in their use of weak methods. They do differ in domain knowledge. - Paradox of Memory is when experts cannot tell you how they get to the goal state after they are extremely good at something. -

Problem Solving: Generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal y Mental Set: Being stuck in a specific problem solving strategy y Functional Fixedness: Difficulty in realizing that one object may have many uses

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