Communicative Competence (Study)

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND HUMANITIES
FRENCH-ENGLISH OPTION
An Evaluative Study of Communicative Competence in Conversational
English among English Language Learners in the Literary Option:
The Case of Rusizi and Nyamasheke Districts
A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Education in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of a Bachelor's degree in French-English
Education
Submitted by
Valens NGABOYERA
Supervisor: Mr Emmanuel BATUNGWANAYO
Huye, December 2006

DECLARATION
I, Valens NGABOYERA, hereby declare that, this dissertation is original and
has never been presented in any university or other institution of higher
education. It is my own research whereby other individuals' works were cited
and references thereof provided.
I thus, declare that this work is mine under the supervision of Mr Emmanuel
BATUNGWANAYO.
Student's signature
........................................

DEDICATION
To
the Almighty God,
my father Canisius KANIHUZI,
my mother Bélancile NYIRARANSABIMANA,

brothers and sisters, and
my friends and relatives,
this work is dedicated.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of this work is not the result of my own effort only. It is also a
result of the devotion of some other people to whom I address these
acknowledgements. Many members of academic faculties and staff at NUR
have given valuable assistance in the completion of this dissertation that it is
regrettably impossible to express my gratitude to all of them individually. I
would like to mention, in particular, my supervisor Emmanuel
BATUNGWANAYO for his invaluable criticisms and advice which greatly
contributed to bringing this paper to its present shape. In addition, I would like
to thank all the teachers who gave me knowledge and made me what I am
now.
My gratitude is also due to my parents, brothers, sisters and other family
members who supported me morally and financially all along my studies. They
did all they could for the sake of my welfare. God will reward them for that. I
would like also to express my gratitude to the respondents whose contribution
and help were invaluable to the completion of this work.
Moreover, I am very grateful to my classmates, especially Philothère
NTAWIHA, Vénuste NGENDAHIMANA, Innocent NSEKEYUKUNZE and John
NSENGUMUREMYI, for their moral and intellectual assistance. Last but far
from least, my heartfelt thanks go to VUMILIA choir for their particular spiritual
support during my academic life.
Many people contributed much to my studies and completion of this work;
however, it is not possible to acknowledge each of them by name. May God
remember their good deeds and bless them forever.
May God bless all of you!
Valens NGABOYERA

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
CALL: Computer Assisted Language Learning
CD: Compact Disc
E.L.: English Language
ELT: English Language Teaching

E.S.: Ecole Secondaire
ESL: English as a Second Language
F: Frequency
G.S.: Groupe Scolaire
LAD: Language Acquisition Device
N : Number of respondents
NCS: National Census Service
NCDC: National Curriculum Development Centre
NEC: National Examination Council
RPF: Rwandan Patriotic Front
SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Schools used in the research 34
Table 2: The number of students and teachers of English who make the
population 34
Table 3: The number of students who make the population according to their
classes 35
Table 4: The sample of the study 36
Table 5: Students' interest in using E.L. in real-life communication 41
Table 6: Students' feeling when speaking English out of the classroom
setting 42
Table 7: Students' choice between accuracy and fluency 43
Table 8: Availability of audio-visual equipment in schools 44
Table 9: The E.L. teachers' use of audio-visual equipment in teaching 45
Table 10: The importance of using audio-visual equipment in E.L. teaching
and learning 46
Table 11: The views of students about their teachers' emphasis on some of
the four skills 47
Table 12: The views of teachers about their emphasis on some of the four
skills 48

Table 13: The frequency at which oral skills are taught 49
Table 14: Emphasis on either speaking or listening in E.L. teaching and
learning 50
Table 15: Factors influencing teachers' choice of language skills to
emphasise 50
Table 16: The mean of students' marks from the test 52
Table 17: The mean of female and male students' marks 52
Table 18: The mean of students' marks according to their residence area 53
Table 19: The mean of students' marks according to their families' literacy 54
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Gamble and Gamble's model of communication process 13
Figure 2: Essential processes in learning to communicate 21
Figure 3: The scale of listening levels-energy 28
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX I: Recommendation letter
APPENDIX II: Questionnaire for students
APPENDIX III: Questionnaire for English Teachers
APPENDIX IV: Test for students
APPENDIX V: Correct answers of the test for students

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION i
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS iv
LIST OF TABLES v
LIST OF APPENDICES vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS viii
ABSTRACT xii
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. Background of the Study 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem 2
1.3. Choice of the Topic 3
1.4. Significance of the Study 4
1.5. Objectives of the Study 4
1.5.1. General Objective 4
1.5.2. Specific Objectives 5
1.6. Research Questions 5
1.7. Research Hypotheses 5
1.8. The Scope of the Study 5
1.9. Methodology 6
1.10. The Structure of the Work 6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1. Introduction 8
2.2. Definition and Views on Language 8
2.2.1. Definition 8
2.2.2. The Importance of Language 9
2.2.3. Qualities of Effective Language 9
2.2.4. The Elements of Language 10
2.2.4.1. Sounds 10
2.2.4.3. Grammar 10
2.2.4.4. Meanings 11
2.2.5. The Language Proficiency 12
2.2.5.1. Accuracy 12
2.2.5.2. Fluency 12
2.3. Definition and Views on Communication 13
2.3.1. Definition 13
2.3.2. Essential Components of Communication 14
2.3.2.1. People 14

2.3.2.2. Message 14
2.3.2.3. Channel 15
2.3.2.4. Noise 15
2.3.2.5. Context 16
2.3.2.6. Feedback 16
2.3.2.7. Effect 16
2.3.3. Types of Communication 17
2.3.3.1. Intrapersonal Communication 17
2.3.3.2. Interpersonal Communication 17
2.3.3.3. Public Communication 18
2.3.3.4. Oral Communication 18
2.3.3.5. Written Communication 19
2.3.4. Types of Communicative Activities 19
2.3.4.1. Functional Communication Activities 20
2.3.4.2. Social Interaction Activities 20
2.3.5. Essential Processes in Learning to Communicate 20
2.3.6 Language-based Barriers to Communication 21
2.4. Definition and Views on Communicative Competence 22
2.4.1. Definition of the Communicative Competence 22
2.4.2. Components of the Communicative Competence 23
2.4.2.1. Grammatical Competence 23
2.4.2.2. Sociolinguistic Competence 24
2.4.2.3. Discourse Competence 24
2.4.2.4. Strategic Competence 24
2.5. Language Acquisition and Language Learning 24
2.5.1. Definition and Views on Language Acquisition 24
2.5.2. Definition and Views on Language Learning 25
2.5.3. Oral Language Skills 26
2.5.3.1. Speaking 26

2.5.3.2. Listening 28
2.6. Instructional Technologies in Communicative Language Teaching 29
2.6.1. Audio Cassettes and Cassette Player 30
2.6.2. CDs and CD player 30
2.6.3. Video Cassettes and Video Player 31
2.6.4. Computer 32
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 33
3.1. Introduction 33
3.2. Design of the Study 33
3.3. Area of the Study 33
3.4. Population of the Study 34
3.5. Sample and Sampling Technique 35
3.6. Instrument of Data Collection 37
3.6.1. Questionnaire 37
3.6.2. Test 37
3.7. Validity of the Instruments 37
3.8. Method of Data Collection 38
3.9. Method of Data Analysis 38
3.10. Limitations of the Study 39
CHAPTER FOUR:DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION 40
4.1. Introduction 40
4.2. Teachers and Students' Views on E.L. Learners' Use of English in Reallife Communication 40
4.2.1. Students' Interest in Using English Language in Real-life
Communication 40
4.2.2 Students' Feeling when Speaking English Out of Classroom Setting 41
4.2.3. Students' Choice between Accuracy and Fluency when They Are
Speaking in English. 42
4.3. Availability of Language Teaching Aids in Schools and the Use of these
Latter to Develop Oral Communicative Skills among E.L. Learners 43
4.3.1. Availability of Audio-visual Equipment in Schools 43

4.3.2. Schools' Use of Audio-visual Equipment in E.L. Teaching and
Learning 44
4.3.3. Importance of Using Audio-visual Equipment in E.L. Teaching and
Learning 45
4.4. E.L. Teachers' Focus on Oral Skills when Teaching 46
4.4.1. Writing, Reading, Speaking and Listening Skills as They Are
Emphasised on by E.L. Teachers 46
4.4.2. The Frequency at which a Lesson on Oral Skills Is Planned 48
4.4.3. Emphasis on either Speaking or Listening in E.L. Teaching and
Learning 49
4.4.4. Factors Influencing Teachers in Deciding which Skills to Insist on when
Teaching English Language 50
4.5. The Ability of Students in Using E.L. in Friendly Communication
Situations 51
4.5.1. Sex and Students' Ability to Use E.L. in Their Everyday-life
Communication 52
4.5.2. Students' Residence Area and Their Ability to Use E.L. in their
Everyday-life Communication 53
4.5.3. Students' Family Literacy and their Ability to Use E.L. in Their Everydaylife Communication 54
4.6. Summary of the Chapter 55
CHAPTER FIVE: GENERAL CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES. 56
5.1. General Conclusion 56
5.2. Recommendations 57
5.2.1. To the Ministry of Education and the NCDC 57
5.2.3. To schools' Leaders 57
5.2.4. To E.L. Teachers in the Literary Option 58
5.3. Suggestion for Further Researches 58
REFERENCES 59
APPENDICES 61

ABSTRACT

Students, and especially students in developing countries, frequently remain
deficient in the ability to actually use the language and to understand its use in
normal communication. Therefore, the lack of communicative competence in
conversational English among E.L. learners can cause a serious problem to
the whole Rwandan society in general and particularly to the learners
themselves. This study intends to illustrate the extent to which E.L. learners in
the literary option are communicatively competent in conversational English
and factors that influence that competence. To achieve this objective, three
research questions and three hypotheses were used.
The population targeted by this study was made of 366 students and 4
teachers of English in the literary option in Rusizi and Nyamasheke. Using the
purposive sampling and the random sampling techniques 73 and 4 teachers
were selected as the sample of the study. Two research instruments: the
questionnaire and the test were used in the collection of data. After testing the
validity of instruments the questionnaire was administered by the researcher
and he managed to control over the students who sat for the test to prevent
them from cheating. Then, the quantitative method of data analysis was used.
It was found out that students are not communicatively competent in
conversational English. This results in the fact that 100% of teachers say that
their students are not interested in using E.L. in real-life communication, and
that they feel shy when using English outside the classroom while 43.8% of
students say that they prefer to be more accurate rather than fluent in their
speech. It was also noticed that, despite students and teachers' awareness of
a paramount importance of using audio-visual equipment in E.L. teaching and
learning, teachers do not use some of these teaching aids that are available in
their schools in E.L. teaching. For instance, 50% of teachers say that they use
only radio in E.L. teaching. Then, it was found that oral language skills are
given less emphasis.
This study has some implications to the development of oral skills for
communicative purposes among E.L. learners. Since students are not
interested in using English in real-life situations, they can not be
communicatively competent. Then, since teachers do not use updated
teaching aids, students would always find their E.L. learning boring.
Therefore, to overcome this problem, learners, teachers and decision-makers
need mainly to be aware of it.

CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study
Language is the main tool of communication between the members of the
society that uses it. DeSantis (1999, p.80) emphasises this saying that «The
language is a structured system of signs, sounds, gestures, or marks that is
used and understood to express ideas and feelings among people within a
community, nation, geographic area or cultural tradition». It is the case of
English Language, the one of four languages used in various needs of
communication in Rwandan community. Those languages are Kinyarwanda,

French, English and Swahili. On this, the NCS (2005) states that almost all the
residents of the country (99.7%) could speak Kinyarwanda in 2002. French,
English and Swahili were spoken only by 3.9%, 1.9% and 3% of the
population respectively. Among these languages, three are taught from the
Primary to the Tertiary level and they are used as Official Languages.
However, the use of Kinyarwanda in everyday life communication is still at a
high rate even in the intellectual community. This is remarkable in many
secondary schools where foreign languages seem to be used only in
classrooms when dealing with courses designed in those languages. Briefly,
the NCS (op cit.) says that the level of knowledge of foreign languages is far
too low in Rwanda.
As far as English Language is concerned, it is remarkable that there are some
people who are still considering it as a newly-introduced language in Rwanda.
The reason of this may be that there is no long time since the English
Language in Rwanda has been officially promoted after the 1994 Genocide
and the RPF victory. This promotion was mainly due to the coming back of
many Rwandan Refugees from English Language speaking countries. It is
also due to the role of the English Language in the globalisation policy. The
NCS (2005) emphasises this saying that, in this era of globalisation, fluency in
foreign languages (especially the English Language) is vital for easier
exchange of information among countries and for communication with other
nationals.
In addition, when compared with other foreign languages spoken in Rwanda,
English Language is not used by many people. Generally, English is only
used in schools by some school authorities and outside the school by some
businessmen from Anglophone countries. Furthermore, many of these English
Language users in Rwanda do not use it in real communication but, only, in
classes as a subject or a medium of instruction. Therefore, communicatively
unable learners with a mastery of structures are frequent in Rwandan
secondary schools, even in the Literary Option. This may be due to the fact
that teachers focus on teaching only grammar and few other linguistic features
of English language, neglecting oral language skills and their use in real
communication.
According to Ashworth and Wakefield (2005, p.3), «A speaker of any
language can create and comprehend a number of utterances that can cover
a multitude of functions such as requesting, refusing, promising, warning,
denying, agreeing, disagreeing, and expressing emotions». In the contrary,
many Rwandan English Language Learners, especially those from the
countryside, use English only when they are in classes and they have no
other opportunity to express their everyday feelings in English but only in their
mother tongue.
Consequently, this weakness in the use of English Language for
communicative purposes can be observed to almost all categories and levels
of learners. Unfortunately, it is the same case for many of the Literary Option
learners whereas they are supposed to be more communicatively competent
than those of professional and science option.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

According to DeSantis (1999, p.10), «The ability to use language efficiently
and effectively requires years of practice and study». However, Brumfit and
Johnson (1979, p.117) say that «Students, and especially students in
developing countries, who have received several years of formal English
teaching, frequently remain deficient in the ability to actually use the language
and to understand its use, in normal communication, whether in the spoken or
the written mode».
Therefore, if the researcher decided to conduct a research about an
evaluation of communicative competence in conversational English among
E.L. Learners in the Literary Option, it is not because English Language has
little time to be taught and practiced in the whole secondary school program in
general and in the Literary Option in particular. The problem is not even that
teachers do not want to see their students using English Language efficiently
and effectively, hence communicatively competent in conversational English.
The problem of the study with respect to the given topic is what lack of
communicative competence in conversational English among E.L. Learners in
the literary Option can cause to the whole Rwandan society in general and
particularly to the learners themselves. For instance, it is known that the main
objective of the language is to facilitate a good communication between
members of the community using it. Hence, if an English Language Learner is
studying without acquiring the communicative competence in that language,
he will also go on studying that language without motivation. However,
Littlewood (1981) says that the learners' motivation is found in the
achievement of their ultimate objective of taking part in communication with
others. In this way, the lack of motivation will lead to the learner's poor
performance in E.L. tests.
Parents whose children are in the literary option can be much discouraged
since they miss what they expected to be the product of their children.
Similarly, the poor communicative competence, which may be generally due
to little and poor use of E.L. in actual communication, can hinder the
implementation of the bilingualism policy in Rwanda. Furthermore, Rwandan
intellectuals missing E.L. communicative competence in conversational
English can be limited on both international job market and studies in foreign
countries especially in English speaking ones.
However, all these consequences: the lack of motivation among E.L. learners,
the discouragement of E.L. learners' parents and the difficulty of implementing
the bilingualism policy in Rwanda, can be faced if people are not aware of the
problem of communicative competence in conversational English among E.L.
Learners especially those of the Literary Option.
1.3. Choice of the Topic
During the pedagogic internship it was noticed that many secondary school
students were not able to express themselves in English Language for
communicative purposes. This might be mainly due to the fact that their
teachers did not put much emphasis on teaching oral skills to enhance
students' conversational English in actual communication. Therefore, the
researcher's interest was to conduct this research on the evaluative study of
communicative competence in conversational English among English
language learners in the literary option.

1.4. Significance of the Study
The benefits that are likely to accrue from this study are many, but to be more
specific four categories of people might benefit much from it. Those are:
learners, teachers, educational stakeholders and the common society of
Rwanda.
Ø E.L. learners can benefit from the findings of the study in developing their
English Language communicative skills. This is possible only if learners are
aware of their weaknesses in E.L. use as a strong tool of communication. In
addition, as a result of this study, learners can be taught in a more functional
mode rather than in a traditional one. Therefore, they can be equipped with
the capacity to become familiar with E.L. by using it for communicative
purposes.
Ø Teachers can benefit from the findings of this study in that they can get
aware of the problem of communicative competence among E.L. learners and
then to find what to do in order to overcome that problem. Therefore, they can
feel motivated and self confident since they may have their teaching
objectives achieved.
Ø Educational stakeholders can be encouraged to put a great emphasis on
the E.L. teaching for communicative purposes. Therefore, curriculum
designers and the ministry of education can provide materials and equipments
that enable a more communicative teaching and learning of E.L.
Ø Common society can benefit from study in that a great number of the
Rwandan community can be able to use English Language in its everyday life
communication. Therefore, interpersonal communication can move from that
made among compatriots themselves towards the one they make with
foreigners, especially in business issues. This can help much in promoting the
national economy.

1.5. Objectives of the Study
1.5.1. General Objective
This study intended to make an evaluation of the communicative competence
in conversational English among English Language Learners in the Literary
Option. This evaluation illustrated the extent to which those learners are
communicatively competent in conversational English and factors that
influence that competence.

1.5.2. Specific Objectives

Ø Determine the extent to which E.L. learners in the Literary Option
emphasise on accuracy and fluency in their real-life communication
Ø Find out the extent to which the level of literacy in learners' families affects
their communicative competence in conversational English.
Ø Find out the extent to which E.L. learner's residence area affects their
communicative competence in conversational English.
Ø Find out the teaching aids that are used in schools to familiarize learners
with English Language as a tool of communication.
Ø Determine how often teachers focus on skills enabling the development of
oral communication.

1.6. Research Questions
1. To what extent do E.L. learners in the Literary Option put emphasis on
accuracy and fluency in their real-life communication?
2. What are the teaching aids used in schools to develop oral communicative
skills among E.L. learners?
3. How often do teachers focus on oral skills during the E.L. teaching
process?

1.7. Research Hypotheses
1. Sex is not a significant factor influencing E.L. learners' communicative
competence in conversational English.
2. There is no significant difference of communicative competence in
conversational English between E.L. learners from rural area and those from
urban area.
3. There is no significant relationship between family literacy and E.L.
Learners' communicative competence in conversational English.

1.8. The Scope of the Study
As far as the evaluation of the communicative competence in conversational
English among E.L. learners is concerned, this study does not cover all types
of communication because of certain reasons such as the shortage of time
and money. Therefore, the study was not be concerned with written and oral
communication; however, it was delimited to the evaluation of the
communicative competence in conversational English. Since the
conversational English involves mainly oral skills such as speaking and

listening this study insisted on the development of speaking and listening
language skills as basics of productive and receptive communication.
Furthermore, the research was conducted to all E.L. learners in the literary
option. However, the study was concerned with schools located in districts of
Rusizi and Nyamasheke in the Southern part of the Western Province of
Rwanda.
1.9. Methodology
This study was conducted in four schools located in Rusizi and Nyamasheke
districts. As only schools with the literary option were concerned with the
study, 366 students who are in that option and 4 teachers of English were
taken as the population of the study. Using the purposive sampling and the
random sampling techniques 73 and 4 teachers were selected as the sample
of the study. Two research instruments: the questionnaire and the test were
used in the collection of data. Then, after having the validity of instruments
tested, the researcher administered the questionnaire and he controlled over
the students who sat for the test to prevent them from cheating. As far as the
method of data analysis is concerned, the quantitative method was used.
Therefore, Epidata 3.1 and SPSS 11.5 are computer software that helped the
researcher to analyse data through this method.

1.10. The Structure of the Work
This study covers five chapters. The first chapter deals with the general
introduction including the background to the study, the statement of the
problem, the choice of the topic, the significance of the study, the objectives of
the study, the research questions, the research hypotheses, the scope of the
study, the methodology and the present subchapter..
The second chapter is the literature review. It is an overview of various ideas
from books which relate to the topic of this study. Therefore, it includes ideas
relating to the evaluation of communicative competence in conversational
English among E.L. learners in the literary option.
The third chapter is the research methodology. It comprises the design of the
study, the area of the study, the population of the study, the sample and
sampling techniques, the instruments of data collection, the validity of
instruments, method of data collection, methods of data analysis and the
limitations of the study.
The fourth chapter deals with data presentation, data analysis, and
interpretation. Finally, the last chapter gives the general conclusion,
recommendations and suggestions for further researches.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE
REVIEW

2.1. Introduction
The present study is about the evaluation of communicative competence in
conversational English among English Language Learners in the literary
option. It involves notions such as language, communication, communicative
competence, the language learning and acquisition, and then, it involves
instructional technologies in communicative language teaching. Since the
above notions are almost repeated throughout the whole dissertation, this
chapter enables readers to understand better what each of these issues is
about.

2.2. Definition and Views on Language
2.2.1. Definition
As far as the term «language» is concerned, people can refer to it in different
ways according to the context in which it is used. The language should be
referred to as any means of communication between all beings such as
animals, human beings, etc. There is also the programming language, which
is used when designing computer programmes. However, the language
concerned with this research is what International Student Edition (2002,
p.798) defines as «A particular form of words and speech used to the people
of a country area or a social group».
According to DeSantis (1999, p.80), «The language is a system of signs,
sounds, gestures or marks that is used and understood to express ideas and
feelings among people within a community, a nation, a geographical area or a
cultural tradition». Gamble and Gamble (2002, p.112) added that «Language
is a unified system of symbols that permits a sharing of meanings». Here,
these symbols, which represent things, are words. (op cit)
It is noticed that these writers have different views on language but most of
them turn around its main purpose of enabling communication between its
users. Therefore, it is up to those users to master the language as a system.
That is why Payne (2001) focuses not only on the mixture of its structures but
also on the real message to be transmitted properly so that the language may
accomplish its main role of ensuring the communication in real-life context.

2.2.2. The Importance of Language
DeSantis (1999) says that the language is the basis of the human
communication. According to him it is a useful tool of communication because
its words and words' patterns are used to exchange meanings between
persons and even between generations; therefore it allows us to encounter
our world in a meaningful way.

However, this importance can be remarkable only if the language is properly
used. That is the reason why all language learners must be aware of the
proper use of the language as a tool of communication.
2.2.3. Qualities of Effective Language
Allen and McKerrow (1977), discussing about the qualities of effective
language, say that the language essential qualities that contribute to speaking
excellence are appropriateness, clarity and vividness.
1o Appropriateness
Talking about appropriateness, they say that the language is appropriate
when it is adapted to the speaker, the audience, and the occasion of
speaking. Therefore, failure to adapt it to any of these concerns may interfere
with effective communication.
2o Clarity
They continue saying that, if the audience does not understand your
message, it may be that your ideas lack clarity. They add that the
achievement of clarity depend on the use of simple and specific expressions.
3o Vividness
Vividness is that quality of style that renders ideas compelling and
memorable. They say that the primary attributes of a vivid style are
forcefulness and freshness. Here, forcefulness is concerned with attracting
the audience's attention on the speaker's subject.

2.2.4. The Elements of Language
2.2.4.1. Sounds
According to DeSantis (1999, p.84), «The smallest functional unit of sound in
a language is called a phoneme. In English language there are thirty-nine
phonemes. Each phoneme is distinct from the other ones. For language to
exist, a series of these distinct sounds must be produced by successive
movement of the speech organs».
He adds that, «Most of us learn to speak a language before we learn to write
it, and most of us are born with the physical mechanisms that enable us to
make speech sounds. However, we do not all learn to produce the sounds in
exactly the same way. Though using the same language, people of certain
geographical regions or cultural groups may speak quite differently». (op cit.,
p.83)
He continues saying that «The International Phonetic alphabet (IPA) was
devised as a consistent and universal system for transcribing the speech
sounds of all languages. This is useful since the letters of our alphabet and
our spelling system do not represent the sounds of our language». (op cit.,
p.84)

2.2.4.2. Words
DeSantis defines the word as «The symbol that stands for the objects or
concepts that it names». (op cit., p.106) He continues saying that a word can
represent an object, as the word chair represents the actual piece of furniture,
or it can represent an abstract concept, as freedom represents the intangible
qualities of self-determination and civil and political liberty.
Words are agreed-upon sound combinations within a language community.
For example, the sounds in the word help constitute a word because English
speakers agree that they do. On the other hand, zelp, while consisting of
common sounds in our language, is not a word because this combination of
sounds does not an agreed-upon meaning. (op cit.)

2.2.4.3. Grammar
While DeSantis (op cit., p.106) defines grammar as «Rules that govern how
words are put together to form phrases and sentences», Roberts (1972)
defines «grammar» as the particular knowledge of how to assemble words in
sentences and how to pronounce these sentences. Therefore, according to
Roberts, saying that a person speaks English is to say that he has built into
him a set of rules that enable him to produce, or generate, English sentences
as he needs them. These rules enable him also to understand the sentences
of another person speaking that language.
He divides grammar into three components. The syntactic component
describes the parts of the sentence and the order in which they are arranged.
The phonological component tells us how the sentence is pronounced. And
then, the semantic component which tells us what the sentence means. (op
cit.)
In addition, Leech and Svartvik (1975, p.23) say that «The grammar of spoken
sentences is simpler and less strictly constructed than the grammar of written
sentences». Therefore, since the modern society is in need of people who not
only read English well but also speak it fluently, E.L. learners have to make
any possible effort to increase their knowledge in oral language skills. (op cit.)

2.2.4.4. Meanings
Leech and Svartvik (1975) represent the different types of meaning in four
circles or sections. In the first section, the meaning is referred to as a concept.
Here we find the basic meaning categories like the number, the amount, the
time, the manner, the degree, etc. which identify aspects of our experience of
the world.
The second section represents logical communication where the basic
meaning categories of the first section are used to make judgments about
truth and falsehood, to give and elicit information about the world. It is the
case of categories such as statements, questions and responses, affirmation
and denial, etc.

The third section involves another aspect of communication: the attitudes and
behaviour of the speaker and the hearer. This section involves such speech
acts as commanding, suggesting, advising, threatening, promising, etc. Here
the logical meaning, presented in the second section, is extended or even
distorted to perform a different type of function. For example; a question,
which is logically designed to elicit information on a particular point, is adapted
pragmatically for the purpose of making an offer, making a suggestion, or
expressing a strong feeling.
The fourth section comprises the organisational aspect of communication. The
question here is about how to arrange thoughts and how to bind them
together in order to communicate in most appropriate way. Here it is the
textual or discourse aspect of communication because it concerns the
composition of a whole text not just the way we construct a single sentence.

2.2.5. The Language Proficiency
2.2.5.1. Accuracy
Bailey (2005) says that accuracy refers to the ability to speak properly. That
is, selecting correct words and expressions to convey the intended meaning.
Similarly, Broughton et al (1980, p.23) say that «Accuracy is the use of words,
phrases and sentences in appropriate contexts to convey the message they
actually intended to convey.» For Richards et al (1985, p.108), «Accuracy
refers to the ability to produce grammatical correct sentences».
Here, Bailey and Broughton et al insist on the appropriateness of the
language used to the speaker's purpose. In addition Richards et al insist on
the correctness of the language. Therefore, they all want to insist on the fact
that a language learner should do his best to know correct words and
structures to use in any communicational situation. Then, knowing these, he
should also be able to use them correctly when speaking.

2.2.5.2. Fluency
For Bailey (2005) fluency is the capacity to speak fluidly, confidently and at a
consistent rate with the norms of the relevant native speech community.
Richards et al (1985, p.107) say that «Fluency is the features which give
speech the qualities of being natural and normal, including the use of pausing,
rhythm, intonation, stress, rate of speaking, and use of interjections and
interruptions». They continue saying that «Fluency describes a level of
proficiency in communication, which includes:
· The ability to speak with a good but not necessarily perfect command of
intonation, vocabulary and grammar;
· The ability to communicate ideas effectively;

· The ability to produce continuous speech without causing comprehension
difficulties or breakdown of communication». (op cit., p. 107-108)
Johnson and Morrow (1981, p.48) add that «The development of fluency
implies that students must do many things which are not entirely predictable,
which may well sound rather odd, but which will indicate that their natural
language learning capabilities are being exercised and encouraged».

2.3. Definition and Views on
Communication
2.3.1. Definition
In our everyday life humans, like most of other divine creatures, need the
others to solve various problems encountered. Therefore, there is always a
need of communication between them. Here, several scholars have much to
say about communication.
Revell (1979, p.1) defines communication as «An exchange, between people,
of knowledge, of information, of ideas, of opinions, of feelings». Similarly, for
Richards et al (1985, p.48) «Communication is an exchange of information,
ideas, etc, between two or more persons». Then, Gamble and Gamble (2002,
p.6) say, «Communication is the deliberate or accidental transfer of meaning.»
They also present the following model to illustrate the communication process.
Figure 1: Gamble and Gamble's model of communication process
Channel(s)
Channel(s)
Message
Message
Receive/Send
Send/ Receive
Context
Noise Noise Noise
Source: Gamble and Gamble (2002, p.14)

2.3.2. Essential Components of
Communication

A number of authors tried to provide a classification of essential components
of communication. Their classifications are similar for some components and
a bit different for the others. Those writers are mainly Gamble and Gamble
(2002), DeSantis (1999) and Payne (2001). According to Gamble and Gamble
(2002), there are seven essentials of communication namely: people,
message, channels, noise, context, feedback, and effect.

2.3.2.1. People
Gamble and Gamble (2002) say that the human communication involves
people, and those people are referred to as senders, persons who encode
messages and receivers who decode messages during every communication
event.
According to DeSantis (1999), the communication is made between two sides,
the source and the receiver. For him the source, which is the creator of the
message, performs four roles: determining the meaning of what is to be
communicated, encoding the meaning into the message, sending the
message, and perceiving and reacting to a listener's response to the
message. However, the receiver decodes the messages by analysing and
interpreting them. Then, the receiver has to store and recall the message, and
finally, to respond to the source, message, channel, environment, and noise.
Payne (2001) has also classified this component of communication as
composed of two elements namely, the sender that he considers as the
initiators of the communication and the receiver which he considers as the
target of the communication.

2.3.2.2. Message
According to Gamble and Gamble (2002), the message is referred to as the
content of a communication act. That is what you talk about, the words you
use, the sounds you make, the way you gesture, and your facial expression
during any communication act.
For Payne (2001, p.8), «The message is whatever the sender communicates
to the receiver». DeSantis (1999, p.18) adds that «A message is a stimulus
produced by the source. It comprises, words, grammar, organization of
thoughts, physical appearance, body movement, aspects of the person's
personality and self-concept, and the personal style»

2.3.2.3. Channel
Gamble and Gamble (2002) say that the channel is the medium with and
through which we send and receive messages. The channel may be verbal
and nonverbal. Therefore, we are multichannel communicators because all
our senses can be used as channels of message transmission.

Likewise, Payne (2001, p.8) defines the `channel' as «The mean used to
transmit the message from sender to receiver». DeSantis (1999, p.19) adds
that «The channel is the route by which messages flow between sources and
receivers. The usual communication channels are light waves and sound
waves, which allow us to see and hear one another».
Similarly to Gamble and Gamble who say that the channel may be verbal and
non-verbal, DeSantis (op cit.) says that smelling, touching and tasting are also
channels through which we receive messages.

2.3.2.4. Noise
Gamble and Gamble (2002, p.9) say that «The noise is anything that
interferes with or distorts one's ability to send or receive messages». This is
can be the case for a language learner when he misses proper language to
use for a given situation.
The noise, as an essential of communication, is what Payne (2001) calls
«interference». He says that interference is anything which blocks or hinders
the reception of the message or the feedback. He adds that the interference
can possibly arise from the context, the sender, the receiver or the channel.
Similarly to Payne, DeSantis (1999) refers to the noise as interference. That is
anything that changes the meaning of an intended message. He adds that the
interference can be external and physical and/or internal and psychological.
Therefore, DeSantis continues saying that «A person who speaks in aloud
voice to get someone's attention may create both physical and psychological
interference. If the receiver perceives the loudness as anger, the loud voice
creates not only a distraction from attending but also a distortion of
interpretation». (op cit., p.19)

2.3.2.5. Context
According to Gamble and Gamble (2002) the context is referred to as the
setting in which communication takes place. This setting may be natural or so
unnatural that it can affect communicators, causing them to alter their posture,
their manner of speaking, attire or means of interacting.
Payne (2001), talking about context, says that all communication occurs in a
specific time and space. He adds that there are social and psychological
aspects of context. Therefore, this has as synonyms, situation, environment,
occasion or setting.
For DeSantis (1999, p.21), «The context is the broad circumstances or
situation in which communication occurs.(...) The number of people, the type
of communication, and the situation in which the communication occurs all
lend themselves to the context. Each context affects what we say and how we
say it».

2.3.2.6. Feedback
For Gamble and Gamble (2002), the feedback is referred to as information
returned to a message source. This can be positive feedback when it is
concerned with a behaviour enhancing a response, or negative feedback
when it is concerned with a response that extinguishes behaviour in progress.
The feedback can also be internal or external.
Payne (2001, p.8) defines feedback as «The response the sender gets from
the receiver». Similarly, DeSantis (1999) says that the feedback is the
response to a message that a receiver sends back to a source. This enables a
sender to determine whether the message has been received and understood
as intended.

2.3.2.7. Effect
Gamble and Gamble (2002) say that the effect, during the communication
process, is the communication outcome. This means that communication has
always some effects on communicators. The effect can be emotional,
physical, cognitive or any combination of the three.
Therefore, a communicator should always take into account the effect of the
communication he is involved in. Hence, he must avoid everything that may
affect negatively the outcome of his communication. One of what he must
avoid is the bad use of language.

2.3.3. Types of Communication
DeSantis (1999) says that types of communication are usually distinguished
by, the number of people involved in it, the purpose of communication, and
the degree of formality in which it occurs. Therefore, when considering the
number of people involved in a communication action, he classifies these
types into four, namely: intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group and team,
and public communication. Here, the small group and team communication is
taken as a subcomponent of interpersonal communication. Written
communication and oral communication are also added to these types as the
manner of communication is taken into account.

2.3.3.1. Intrapersonal Communication
According to DeSantis (1999), intrapersonal communication is the process of
understanding information within oneself because we communicate with
ourselves before communicating with others. He adds, «Intrapersonal
communication includes diverse internal activities such as thinking, problem
solving, conflict resolution, planning, emotion, stress, evaluation, and

relationship development. (...) Intrapersonal communication may occur without
the presence of any other type of communication, but all other types of
communication cannot occur without it. ». (op cit., p.22)
Gamble and Gamble (2002, p.9) say, «During the intrapersonal
communication, you think about, talk with, learn about, reason with, and
evaluate yourself». Similarly, Payne (2001) says that intrapersonal
communication is the meaning we create within ourselves. Therefore, he adds
that before communicating with others, we create within ourselves the
meaning that we want to transfer with our message.

2.3.3.2. Interpersonal Communication
DeSantis (1999, p.23) defines the interpersonal communication as «The
informal exchange of information between two or more people». This type of
communication is similar to the intrapersonal communication in that it also
help, to share information, solve problems, resolve conflicts, understand our
perception of self and of others, and establish relationship with others.
Gamble and Gamble (2002, p.9) say that «When you engage in interpersonal
communication, you interact with another, learn about him or her and act in
ways that help sustain or terminate your relationship». In addition, for Payne
(2001), the interpersonal communication occurs in contexts where two or
more people actively participate in exchanging messages. It is the case of a
conversation, a small group discussion, and an interview. He adds that, in this
type of communication, the largest group must be made of ten to fourteen
people.

2.3.3.3. Public Communication
Gamble and Gamble (2002, p.9) say, «Through public communication you
inform and persuade the members of an audience to hold certain attitudes,
values, or beliefs; so that they will think, believe, or act in a particular way. On
the other hand you can also function as a member of an audience in which
case another person will do the same for you.»
Similarly, Payne (2001) talks about person-to-group communication and
called it «a public speaking». He says that, in this type of communication, one
person, the speaker, addresses the audience not as different and multiple
individuals but as one receiver.

2.3.3.4. Oral Communication
Payne (2001) says that oral communication is a very important part of
everyday life. It is important because as one makes communication decisions,
he is building his personal and professional future. He says that the value of
effective oral communication is immediately evident considering what it can

mean to someone. Therefore, he provides three domains in which the oral
communication is helpful.
First, he states the personal importance. The oral communication takes
someone from silence or isolation which is the worst punishment in some
societies. He adds that communication is the foundations for friendship, love
and our personal happiness.
Second, he discusses the professional importance saying that effective oral
communication is usually the basis of our job to be done better. Therefore,
communication can help us realise our career and financial goal, as the better
the job, the more likely it is to be financially rewarded.
Third, talking about the social importance, Payne says that effective oral
communication is part of our drive toward improving our society. In fact,
according to Payne, oral communication is so important that the Constitution's
First Amendment in the USA guaranteed freedom of speech.

2.3.3.5. Written Communication
Contrary to the oral communication, which is done using oral and aural
means, the written communication is done using different forms of written
texts. Therefore, still trying to compare the characteristics of oral
communication and written communication, Reid (1985) says that in speaking,
you may use intonation, facial expression and body movement in addition to
your words to help you express your ideas, hence help you communicate.
However, when you are expressing your ideas in written form, these elements
of communication are not available to you. Therefore, in this case the
punctuation can be resorted to in order to cover that gap.
Unfortunately, many English as Second Language students are not equipped
with sufficient language skills to use in written communication. Therefore, Reid
(op cit.) states three problems encountered by ESL student writers. Firstly,
they have grammatical errors that interfere with communication. Secondly,
they have difficult to find ways to communicate- fully and successfully- their
ideas. Thirdly, they have problems related to their cultural backgrounds in that
different cultures have different ways of presenting written materials.
The most important form of written materials which is used in communication
is the letter. Talking on this, Reid gives the example of some uses of a letter in
written communication. He says, «In less formal situations, a personal letter or
not is used. Some uses of the personal letter are: as invitations, to say thanks,
to express congratulations (for an award, a graduation, a baby, etc.), to show
sympathy (for a death, illness, or accident).» (op cit., p.13) It is to be
mentioned that some of these situations in which a personal letter can be
used, are also found in oral communication.

2.3.4. Types of Communicative
Activities

In communicative language learning, classroom activities must be done in a
communicative way. Therefore, Littlewood (1981) distinguishes two types of
communicative activity to be performed by communicative language learners.
Those are the functional communication activities and the social interaction
activities.

2.3.4.1. Functional Communication
Activities
For Littlewood (op cit.), the classroom needs communicative activities that
emphasise the functional aspect of communication. Therefore, for example,
when learners have a problem to solve, or information to exchange, they can
use whatever language they have at their disposal. That is, the main purpose
of the activity is that learners should use the language they know to get
meanings across as effectively as possible.
This means that language learning activities should be done in their real
context so that language learners may not be disgusted thinking that the
language they are learning can not satisfy any of their real communication
needs.

2.3.4.2. Social Interaction Activities
Littlewood (op cit, p.20) says that «The competent speaker chooses language
which is not only functionally effective, but is also appropriate to the social
situation he is in». For him, learners still aim at conveying the meaning
effectively paying greater attention to the social context in which the
interaction takes place. Therefore, their success is measured in terms of
acceptability, or in terms of producing the language which is appropriate to
specific kinds of social situation. (op cit.)
This implies that a competent communicative language learner is the one who
is able to relate the classroom activities to the social interactions he is often
involved in. This is so because the society is the main application field of a
language. Therefore, every language user must relate his language to the
norms of his society.

2.3.5. Essential Processes in Learning
to Communicate
Rivers (1983) presents schematically the following division of essential
processes in learning to communicate.
Figure 2: Essential processes in learning to communicate
Perception

Cognition
Abstraction
Skill-getting Articulation
Production
(or Pseudo- Construction
Communication)
Reception Motivation to
Skill-using Interaction communicate
Expression
Source: Rivers (1983, p.43)
For Rivers, the ability to communicate, to interact verbally, presumes some
knowledge (cognition) both in the perception of units, categories, and
functions and in the internalizing of the rules relating to them. (It is a process
of abstraction). He adds that students learn to produce language sequences,
which means that they learn through doing. Then, to use the skill he has
already got, the learner must interact with other language users. Therefore,
through interaction he expresses himself and shows his ability to receive the
message from his interlocutor, and this enhances motivation to communicate.
(op cit)

2.3.6 Language-based Barriers to
Communication
DeSantis (1999, p.92) says that «Although it takes little physical effort to say
something to someone, it does take mental effort to ensure that what we say
conveys our intended meaning. Even if we create what we think is the perfect
message, the possibility always exists that the receiver will misinterpret the
message or find it ambiguous».
Therefore, he adds that «Misunderstandings occurs for numerous physical,
mental, and cultural reasons. Ineffective use of language is one reason.
Among the most common language based barriers to effective communication
are bypassing, indiscrimination, and polarisation» (op cit., p.93)
Here, the bypassing is defined as a misunderstanding between a sender and
a receiver when what is meant by the speaker differs from what is heard and
understood by the listener. The indiscrimination is a form of perceptual set in
which a person chooses to ignore differences and changes in events, things
and people. The author gives an example of the statement «Students cheat in
school» which may be interpreted to include all students instead of some
students. Then, the polarisation is the tendency to view things in terms of
extremes- rich or poor, beautiful or ugly, good or bad, etc.- even though most
things exists somewhere in between. Therefore, if the structure «either-or», as

an aspect of language, is used to take such extreme positions, the language
used can cause polarisation and then hinder the effectiveness of
communication. (op cit.)

2.4. Definition and Views on
Communicative Competence
2.4.1. Definition of the
Communicative Competence
According to Richards, Platt and Platt (1992, p.65) quoted in Kilfoil and Walt
(1997, p.12), the communicative competence is «The ability not only to apply
the grammatical rules of a language in order to form grammatically correct
sentences, but also to know when and where to use these sentences and to
whom». Kilfoil and Walt add that communicative competence goes beyond the
formal language taught in the classroom and it includes sociolinguistic rules.
Therefore, a language learner has to know the culture of the target language
group and has to be able to function socially as well as linguistically. In this
way, he can know what the first-language speaker would regard as impolite or
rude, what type of question to ask or not, how to get angry in the target
language and how to reproach without being rude. (op cit.)
Hymes quoted in Rivers (1983, p.14) defines the communicative competence
as «What a speaker needs to know to communicate effectively in culturally
significant settings». Similarly, DeSantis (1999, p.25), quoting O'Hair,
Friedrich, Wiemann and Wiemann, say that «Communication competencies
are skills and understanding that enable communication partners to exchange
messages appropriately and effectively» Then, Hymes (1972), cited in
Gikwerere (2005, p.8), says that «Communicative competence is used to refer
to the knowledge of sociolinguistic rules, or the appropriateness of an
utterance, in addition to knowledge of grammar rules».
Littlewood (1981) provides four broad domains of skill which make up a
person's communicative competence, and which must be recognised in
foreign language teaching. These skills are presented from the speaker's
perspectives as follows:
- The learner must attain as high a degree as possible of linguistic
competence
- The learner must distinguish between the forms that he has mastered as
part of his linguistic competence and the communicative functions that they
perform.
- The learner must develop skills and strategies for using language to
communicate meanings as effectively as possible in concrete situations.
- The learner must become aware of social meaning of language forms.

Munby (1978, p.11) says, «Above all, communicative competence relates an
ideal speech situation in the same way that linguistic competence relates to
the abstract system of linguistic rules». Therefore, he defines the
communicative competence as «The ideal speaker's mastery of the dialogueconstitutive universals, irrespective of the actual restrictions under empirical
conditions». (op cit., p.11)
In a nutshell, the communicative competence refers to the speaker or a
writer's choice of the language to use according to the social, spatial, and
chronological environment in which he is. Therefore, Revell (1979, p.5) says
that «Theories of communicative competence imply that teachers must do
more than just supply learners with a number of language structures to
manipulate». Therefore, Rivers (1972, p.72) says, «Teachers must
demonstrate how language items are used, and in what situations they are
appropriate».

2.4.2. Components of the
Communicative Competence
2.4.2.1. Grammatical Competence
Kilfoil and Walt (1997, p.13) define the grammatical competence as «Correct
application of rules of grammar but not explicit knowledge of grammatical
rules». According to them it is also referred to as linguistic competence.
Besides, Canale and Swain (1980) say that it deals with features and rules of
language vocabulary, word formation, and pronunciation, sentence formation
to understand and express accurately the literal meaning of utterances.
Richards and Schmidt (1983, p.7) say that «Such competence focuses
directly on the knowledge and skill required to understand and express
accurately the literal meaning of utterances; as such, grammatical
competence will be an important concern for any second language
programme» For them, the grammatical competence is concerned with
features and rules of language such as vocabulary, word formation, sentence
formation, pronunciation, spelling and linguistic semantics. (op cit.)

2.4.2.2. Sociolinguistic Competence
For Canale and Swain (1978), sociolinguistic competence includes sociocultural rules of use and rules of discourse. It requires appropriateness in
understanding and producing utterances in different sociolinguistic contexts.
For Kilfoil and Walt (1997, p.13), it is «The appropriate use of the language,
for example, formal language for formal occasions».
This competence seems to be very important in actual communication.
However, Richards and Schmidt (1983) say that there is a tendency in many
second language programmes to treat it as less important than grammatical
competence. However, they say, this tendency is odd because it ignores the

fact that the sociolinguistic competence is crucial in interpreting utterances for
their social meaning.

2.4.2.3. Discourse Competence
Richards and Schmidt (1983, p.9) say that «This type of competence
concerns the mastery of how to combine grammatical forms and meanings to
achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres». Then, Canale and
Swain (1978) continue saying that it deals with cohesion in form and
coherence in meaning.
On one side, Richards and Schmidt say that cohesion deals with how
utterances are linked structurally and facilitates interpretation of a text. On the
other side, they say that coherence refers to the relationships among the
different meanings in a text, where these meanings may be literal meanings,
communicative functions, and attitudes. (Op cit)

2.4.2.4. Strategic Competence
For them, Richards and Schmidt (1983, p.10), «The strategic competence is
the mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication». They add that it has
two main roles: to compensate for breakdowns in communication and
enhance the effectiveness of communication. (op cit.) Kilfoil and Walt (1997,
p.13) add that it is «The ability to make one's meaning clear in a variety of
ways».

2.5. Language Acquisition and
Language Learning
2.5.1. Definition and Views on
Language Acquisition
Wilkins (1974), states that the language acquisition is enormously done
between the age of about twelve months and five years. Within this period, a
child may well be in contact with language for most his waiting hours. Through
this contact he takes different forms of the language used around him. But,
however, there is also a language a child himself produces.
According to the author, a child is not aware of the way in which the rules of a
language operate. Therefore, he is not even aware of mistakes he makes
unless there may be some process of feedback from adults for example.
Similarly, the success of a child's attempt at communication may be ensured
to him in various ways. There may be obvious signs of approval from other
people, or verbal reaction between them or toward the child. For example if

the stimulus to the child's utterance is the desire to have a drink, he knows
that the form of his utterance has proved acceptable if the drink is provided.
(op cit.)
In a word, the language acquisition is a long process through which a child, at
his early age, acquires a language by relating his innate linguistic capacity to
the features of the language being used in the community he grows in. This
capacity for acquiring language is what Littlewood (1984) describes using the
term `Language Acquisition Device' often shortened to LAD.

2.5.2. Definition and Views on
Language Learning
Littlewood says that «In second language learning as in every other of human
learning, motivation is the crucial force which determines whether a learner
embarks on a task at all, how much energy he devotes to it, and how long he
perseveres».. (op cit., p.53)
Then, talking about factors of language learning motivation, Littlewood
focuses on two aspects which are important for second language learning.
Those are the communicative need for a second language and the attitudes
towards the second language community.
In addition to the learner's motivation, Littlewood says that another important
influence on the learner's proficiency is the quality of the learning opportunities
offered by the environment. On this, he says that the learner should have
access to situations where the language is used as a natural means of
communication. Therefore, he adds that more fortunate learners may avoid
anxiety when using the second language, by establishing friendly contacts in
that language environment. (op cit.)
Johnson and Morrow (1981, p.48) add that «In most situations, learning will
be effective provided that there is extensive exposure to the target language
and plenty of opportunities for the learner to use it». Similarly, Littlewood
(1984, p.91) says that «Communicative interaction provides an opportunity for
creative construction to take place in response to the language input. From
the skill-learning perspective which is more familiar in teaching, it provides
opportunities for whole-task practice. In either case, communicative
interaction provides a situation in which internal process can create and
integrate knowledge, outside the control of the teacher and the consciousness
of the learner». Therefore, «Learners also need opportunities for
communicative use, so that they can integrate separate structures into a
creative system for expressing meaning» (op cit., p.91)
Finally, talking about the functions of language, Haycraft (1978, p.18-19),
Funocchiaro and Brumfit (1984) and Els et al (1984), quoted by Gahutu
(1998), provide a list of some functions of language that follow: introducing,
apologising, declining an offer, agreeing and disagreeing, refusing, inviting,
thanking, congratulating, etc. Therefore, «It is important to teach our learners
what they can do with the language structures they are learning. This can
motivate them and stimulate their interest». (op cit., p.51)

2.5.3. Oral Language Skills
Byrne (1976) says that oral communication is a two-way process between
speaker and listener involving the productive skills with speaking and
receptive skills with understanding or listening. Therefore, speaking and
listening are discussed as oral language skills.

2.5.3.1. Speaking
According to Ur (2002), speaking seems intuitively the most important of all
the four language skills. That is, people who know a language are referred to
as «speakers» of that language and many of most foreign language learners
are primarily interested in learning to speak.
Ur provides characteristics of a successful speaking activity as follows:
1. Learners talk a lot. As much as possible of the period of time allotted to
the activity is in fact occupied by learner talk. This may seem obvious, but
often most time is taken up with teacher talk or pauses.
2. Participation is even: Classroom discussion is not dominated by a
minority of talkative participants: all get chance to speak, and contributions are
fairly evenly distributed
3. Motivation is high: Learners are eager to speak: because they are
interested in the topic and have something new to speak about it, or because
they want to contribute to achieving a task objective.
4. Language is of an acceptable level: Learners express themselves in
utterances that are relevant, easily comprehensible to each other, and of an
acceptable level of language accuracy. (op cit., p.120)
In addition to these characteristics of successful speaking, he provides also a
list of four problems related to speaking activities:
1. Inhibition
Unlike reading, writing and listening activities, speaking requires some degree
of real-time exposure to an audience. Learners are often inhibited about trying
to say things in a foreign language in the classroom: worried about making
mistakes, fearful of criticism or losing face, or simply shy of the attention that
their speech attract.
2. Nothing to say
Even if they are not inhibited, you often hear learners complain that they
cannot think of anything to say: they have no motive to express themselves
beyond the guilty feeling that they should be speaking.
3. Low or uneven participation
Only one participant can talk at a time if he or she is to be heard, and in large
group this means each one will have only very little talk time. This problem is

compounded with the tendency of dome learners to dominate, while others
speak very little or not at all.
4. Mother tongue use
In classes where all or a number of the learners share the same mother
tongue, they may tend to use it : because it is easier, because it feels
unnatural to speak to another in a foreign language, and because they feel
less «exposed» if they are speaking their mother tongue. If they are talking in
small groups it can be quite difficult to get some classes -particularly the less
disciplined or motivated ones- to keep to the target language. (op cit., p.121)
Kennedy and Rod (1984) state some skills resulted from speaking, namely:
group discussion skills, social skills, and occupational skills. For the
discussion skills Johns and Johns (1977) cited by Kennedy and Rod (op cit.,
p.114) say that non-native English learners have the following difficulties:
a) comprehension of spoken English (`they speak too fast; they mumble;
vocabulary is idiomatic');
b) the pressing need to formulate a contribution quickly (`I can't think what to
say');
c) shyness about the value of a contribution (`I might say something wrong');
d) inability to formulate an idea in English (`I don't know how to say it in
English')
e) awareness that a given function may be realised in various ways (`I don't
know the best way to say it'); and
f) frustration about being unable the discussion (`some students speak too
much').

2.5.3.2. Listening
According to Gamble and Gamble (2002, p.193), «Listening is a deliberate
process through which we seek to understand and retain aural stimuli. Unlike
hearing, listening depends on a complex set of skills that must be acquired».
They also propose a scale that illustrates the listening levels-energy.
Figure 3: The scale of listening levels-energy
Listening to help others
Active(emphatic listening)
Listening to analyse and generate content
Listening to retain content
Listening to understand content
Hearing

Requires greatest expenditure
of energy
Requires least expenditure of energy
Source: Gamble and Gamble (2002, p.194)
Ur (2002, p.105) says that «The objective of listening comprehension in the
classroom is that students should learn to function successfully in real-life
listening situations». Therefore, he provides a list of listening situations which
follows:
LISTENING SITUATIONS
Interview

Theatre show

Instructions

Telephone chat

Loudspeaker announcement

Lesson, lecture

Radio news

Conversation, gossip

Committee meeting

Watching television

Shopping

Story-telling

(c) Cambridge University Press 1996

Source: Ur (2002, p.105)
Ur (2002) states five characteristics of real-life listening situations namely, the
informal spoken discourse; listener expectation and purpose; looking as well
as listening; ongoing, purposeful listener response; and speaker attention.
Littlewood (1981) says that listening is often called a passive skill but it
demands active involvement from the hearer. In addition, Abbott et al (1981)
say that, despite their own experience in learning foreign languages, many
people seem to think that listening is fairly easy and certainly much easier
than speaking or writing. This assumption that listening, contrary to other
skills, is easy may be the basis on which many teachers don't put much
emphasis on teaching listening; however, ignoring the listening in language
teaching activities is also to ignore that it works complementarily with other
skills in oral communication process.

2.6. Instructional Technologies in
Communicative Language Teaching
Having heard someone speaking of instructional technologies in language
teaching, what comes first in mind is the equipment and materials used to
achieve some of the language teaching objectives. Here, the equipment is
referred to as the hardware which is needed either to display or to store
various types of auditory and/or visual information that can be used in the
language teaching.

For Lonergan (1984, p.118), «The term `hardware' is used to refer to the
machinery itself: the video recorder, the television set, and so on». Then,
materials are referred to as the software designed for language teaching
purposes and which are made active or productive when used with
appropriate equipment. That is why Lonergan (op cit., p.118) says,
«The software is what is needed to make the hardware function. In the case of
video recorder, the software is the video tape».

2.6.1. Audio Cassettes and Cassette
Player
Locatis and Atkinson (1984) say that audio media such as radio, record player
and tape recorder are available in most households and many people have
sophisticated audio equipment in their homes. However, the potential of audio
media as an educational tool is too seldom realised.
Talking of audiocassette, also called audiotape, Locatis and Atkinson (op cit.)
say that the audiotape is a narrow plastic ribbon that is shiny on one side and
dull on the other. The dull side contains a layer of magnetic iron oxide
particles and the sound is placed on the tape by magnetising those particles.
These particles can also be read by the tape recorder/player and sent through
an amplifier and speaker to create sound. In addition, they say that the
audiotapes can be erased, recorded, and replayed several times without any
loss of quality.
As far as language teaching is concerned, the teacher can use the audiotape
with a tape recorder and/or tape player in teaching listening. To do this, he
can play recorded texts published for language teaching purposes. He can
also record his own text; either from natural voice or from a live radio
programme broadcast by native speakers. On this, Locatis and Atkinson (op
cit., p.210) say that «Learners can participate in locally produced programmes
or can use those that are available from other sources. Locally produced
programmes can be done by classroom instructors or learners with little or no
prior experience».

2.6.2. CDs and CD player
Locatis and Atkinson (op cit., p.202) define the CD as «A small one-sided disc
upon which digitally coded sound has been placed». They add that the digital
player, which should be compared to a CD player, reads the coded sound by
use of laser beam.
It is to be mentioned that CDs are in the area of advanced technology and
they can be used in various ways. They can be used to display either audio
messages or audio-visual ones, with all these depending on the way materials
were recorded on the CD and on the compatibility of the playing equipment
used. Therefore, in language teaching, CDs should be used in place of audio
tapes and video.

2.6.3. Video Cassettes and Video
Player
Lonergan (1984) says that recording on videotape is an electronic process
which is done only with a magnetic tape. But, after recording, this magnetic
tape becomes a material which can be used in language teaching according
to its content. Therefore, films made for language teaching have the obvious
merit of being planned and produced for a language-learning audience.
Hence, it can be produced as a good language teaching material.
Lonergan continues, distinguishing five categories of video tapes than can be
used in language teaching. This distinction is made according to the content
of films or how they are recorded. Those are:
- Video recordings of language teaching broadcasts and films,
- Video recordings of domestic television broadcast,
- Video recordings of specialist films and television programs,
- Video language material made for the classroom,
- Self-made video films. (op cit.)
Thus, the language teachers should use any of these video materials which
may be available at school or which they can make themselves. They can
also refer to some great broadcasting institutions aiming at teaching English
language for example and which may provide them with some of these
materials.
It is of a great communicative value to use video films in language teaching.
Therefore, Lonergan (op cit.) says that with video player, the combination of
sound and vision is dynamic, immediate, and accessible. Therefore, the
communication can be shown in a context, and various features of
communicative language can be perceived easily by the learner.
However, he adds that, for many teachers, working with video recorders and
cameras is a new experience. Therefore, teachers should do their best to be
confident in handling and using the video equipment in language teaching.
Unfortunately, video, especially when used at home has got such strong
connotations of entertainment that many learners, when watching video
language teaching materials, expect that they are entertaining.

2.6.4. Computer
Computer is the most important pieces of equipment of all instructional
technologies in that it can accomplish almost all tasks that should
accomplished by other audio and/or video teaching aids. Therefore, computer
can be used in various areas of language teaching process such as listening
comprehension, speaking, writing, vocabulary, and phonetics. Talking about

computer and teaching phonetics, for example, Leech and Candlin (1984),
cited in Muvandimwe (2005, p.20), gives reasons for using computer in
phonetics teaching:
Ø First, the subject can be taught more effectively with a computer than
without;
Ø Second, it is actually jolly good fun, and makes teaching more enjoyable
and more interesting than it was before;
Ø Innovation and increased efficiency are essential if phonetics is to maintain
its position in linguistics and language teaching.
In addition, they argue that it is no doubt that Computer Assisted Language
Learning (CALL) is the lure which has attracted the ELT professions to the
computer for it processes information quickly. (op cit.) Furthermore,
Muvandimwe (op cit., p.10) citing Merril (1986) says that «Some programs on
computer are designed to aid students in their use of subject matter».
Therefore, schools, especially those concerned much with language teaching,
should manage to bring some of computer programs designed for teaching
and learning language.
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
The third chapter of this study describes the methods, and procedures used
by the researcher throughout the study. As it is said by Baily in Ndikubwimana
(2005), there are different methods of collecting data and they differ from one
to another. Therefore, the chapter discussed the design of the study, area of
the study, population of the study, sample and sampling techniques,
instruments of data collection, validity of the instrument, method of data
collection, method of data analysis, and limitations of the study.
3.2. Design of the Study
Hutton (1990, p.8) cited in Blaxter, Hughes, and Tight (2001, p.77) says that
«Survey research... is the method of collecting information by asking a set of
pre-formulated questions in predetermined sequence in a structured
questionnaire to a sample of individuals drawn so as to be representative of a
defined population».
Then, Rosier (1988, p.107) cited in Blaxter, Hughes, and Tight (op cit., p.77),
says that «Survey research in education involves the collection of information
from members of a group of students, teachers, or other persons associated
with educational process, and the analysis of this information illuminates
important educational issues»
Therefore, this research was a survey study since it is concerned with the
exploration of the extent to which English language learners, in secondary
schools' letters option, are communicatively competent and the factors that
influence their competence in communicative English language.
3.3. Area of the Study

To achieve the objectives of this study the researcher decided to conduct the
research in secondary schools having the letters option. However, the study
was not done on all those schools in Rwanda, but in those located in Rusizi
and Nyamasheke districts. These districts are located in the Southern West of
Rwanda and they have four schools with letters option namely. Those are:
Collège de NKANKA, E.S.TYAZO, E.S.RANGIRO, and G.S.KARENGERA.
The table below shows these schools and their locations.
Table 1: Schools used in the research
Names of schools

Sector

District

Collège de NKANKA Rusizi

Nkanka

E.S.RANGIRO

Nyamasheke Rangiro

E.S.TYAZO

Nyamasheke Kanjongo

G.S.KARENGERA

Nyamasheke Kirimbi

3.4. Population of the Study
The population of the study is composed of all students and teachers of
English in the literary option of the schools located in Rusizi and Nyamasheke
districts. The schools in respect with this study have 366 students who are in
the literary option and 4 teachers of English. The table below shows the
number of students and teachers of English in the schools concerned with this
study.
Table 2: The number of students and teachers of English who make the
population
Names of schools

Number of students Number of teachers of English Total population

Collège de NKANKA

95

1

96

E.S.RANGIRO

40

1

41

E.S.TYAZO

103

1

104

G.S.KARENGERA

128

1

129

TOTAL

366

4

370

The table below shows the number of students, in the literary option of
schools concerned with the study, according to their respective classes.
Table 3: The number of students who make the population according to
their classes
Classes

4th Form 5th Form 6th Form TOTAL

Schools
Collège de NKANKA

57

38

-

95

E.S.RANGIRO

14

26

-

40

E.S.TYAZO

22

37

44

103

G.S.KARENGERA

40

38

50

128

TOTAL

133

139

94

366

3.5. Sample and Sampling Technique
According to Manheim and Richards (1991, p.92) the sample is «Any subgroup of the population which is identified for analysis». Similarly, as it was
not possible to use the whole population, what should be done to find more
valid information, the researcher resorted to the sampling technique in order
to find a small part that can represent the population.
As far as sample and sampling techniques are concerned, the first and
important thing to do is to determine the sample size to use. Therefore, Boll
and Gall (1971) cited in Kalu (2005) say that in order to determine the sample
size, the sample is 20% for the population up to 1,000, 10% for 5,000, and 5%
for 10,000.
Therefore, referring to the model of Boll and Gall's sample size, the reseacher
decided to take 20% of 366 students that are in the literary option of schools
concerned with this study. That is to say that, 73 students is the sample to be
selected from all students. For the teachers of English in the literary option,
they were all selected because there is almost one teacher in each school
only. This shows that the whole sample size is supposed to be made of 77
persons including students and teachers.
Talking about the sample and the sampling techniques used in this research,
one can first mention the class of 5th form which was selected through
judgemental or purposive sampling technique. This technique consists of
giving to a given subject more chance to be selected because of its special
characteristics which can enable the researcher to reach his objectives more
easily. Blaxter, Hughes, and Tight (2001) say that the purposive sampling is a
handpicking of supposedly typical or interesting cases. Therefore, at this level
all 139 students of the 5th forms were selected because this is the only class
whose students are mature enough and which can be found in all schools
concerned with the study.
Secondly, the simple random sampling technique was used in order to select
73 students from all 139 students of the 5th forms. As this number is equal to
approximately 53% of all students of the 5th forms, the researcher decided to
take this ratio for all students in every class. Therefore, 20 students were
selected at College de NKANKA, 14 students at E.S.RANGIRO, 19 students
at E.S.TYAZO, and 20 students at G.S.KARENGERA. The sampling
technique used here consists of giving equal chance to all members of a
group to be selected. Therefore, to do this, students' class numbers were
written on pieces of paper, and then mixed in a container from which they
were picked one by one until the desired number of students for the sample
was selected.
Thirdly, using the judgemental/ purposeful sampling technique once again,
one teacher of English was selected in each school. This technique was used
because there is only one teacher of English who teaches in the literary option
in each school. That is to say that 4 teachers were used in this study.
The table below shows the sample used in each school. That is to say the
number of students and teachers selected in each school.

Table 4: The sample of the study
Schools

Number of students

Number of teachers Total sample

5th form students Sample
Collège de NKANKA

38

20

1

21

E.S.RANGIRO

26

14

1

15

E.S.TYAZO

37

19

1

20

G.S.KARENGERA

38

20

1

21

TOTAL

139

73

4

77

3.6. Instrument of Data Collection
In order to collect data used in this research, the questionnaire and the test
were used as the research instruments.
3.6.1. Questionnaire
As says Kalu (2005), the questionnaire is an instrument of data collection
which elicits responses from respondents of the research through a series of
questions or statements put together with specific aim in mind. He adds that a
questionnaire can be structured/closed or unstructured/open-ended.
Therefore, the researcher decided to use a structured questionnaire which
consists of restricting the respondent to respond to questions in the manner
and extent required. This type of questionnaire was used to avoid longsentence responses from respondents which could impede the analysis of
collected data.
3.6.2. Test
The test was used in this research to measure the extent to which students of
the literary option are aware of how language can be properly used in friendly
communication. Therefore, the test consisted of matching each element of
one column to its corresponding element in the other column. The first column
was made of a series of phrases that are often used in friendly
communication, and the second column was made of a series of
communicative situations in which these phrases are used. Then, all students
who were used as respondents of the questionnaire sat also for this test.
3.7. Validity of the Instruments
According to Kalu (2005) validity is the appropriateness of an instrument in
measuring what it is intended to measure. Therefore, in order to determine the
validity of the instruments used, the researcher asked one English teacher at
University to check whether the question items of the questionnaire and those
of the test were really designed in accordance to the research questions and
hypotheses.
Then, three students taken from the researcher's class fellows were asked to
respond to the questionnaire and to do the test so that they may help him
foretell problems that would hinder real respondents from providing necessary
information. Finally, comments provided by these validators were used to
make the final version of these research instruments.

3.8. Method of Data Collection
Talking about the collection of data, Blaxter, Hughes, and Tight (2001, p.179)
say that «Face-to-face surveys may get a better response rate, but are more
time consuming for the researcher». However, despite the shortage of time,
the researcher decided to administer the questionnaire himself. This was
helpful because whenever respondents had difficulties in comprehension of
the question items I was ready to help them.
This method was not much used for teachers because they were supposed to
have fewer difficulties to understand the questionnaire than students. In
addition they should feel bothered by controlling over them like students.
Therefore, they responded to the questionnaire freely.
As far as the test is concerned, the teacher who would be teaching at the time
of giving the test was used to supervise the class. This was done to avoid any
attempt of cheating among students, what might have corrupted the originality
of the information drown from that test.
All students, already selected, were given the same time to respond to the
questionnaire and to do the test; therefore, the researcher collected copies of
those who had already finished up to the time that was fixed. Therefore, out of
77 copies of questionnaire that were given to students and teachers, 77
copies were collected. It is equal to 100% of all copies distributed. Then, out
of 73 copies of test that were given to students, 73 copies were collected.
They are equal to 100% of all test copies distributed.
3.9. Method of Data Analysis
In this research, the quantitative method of data analysis was used because
both the questionnaire and the test used as instruments of data collection
could easily provide necessary information in numbers. After collecting data,
computer softwares designed for data analysis were used. These are the
Epidata 3.1 and SPSS 11.5, and they are suggested by Blaxter, Hughes, and
Tight (2001) as good softwares for quantitative analysis of data. To have this
done, data were, first, entered in Epidata 3.1 which could directly save them
and organise them in form of table. Then, they were exported in SPSS where
they were analysed. Through this analysis, tables of frequency and mean
were provided in accordance to each question item of the questionnaire or
from the results obtained by different students in the test they did.
3.10. Limitations of the Study
In carrying out this research, the following limitations were encountered:
Ø The students were ashamed of showing their weakness in using English for
communicative purposes thinking that their schools would be badly evaluated
by higher authorities. Having noticed that, the researcher tried to ensure them
that the information they provided would be confidential and that he was not
doing an enquiry.
Ø The schools in which the research was conducted were located on a very
wide geographical area and it was very difficult to reach them. This caused
the researcher to arrive in some schools so late that he used to meet some
teachers at their homes and to meet students in evening studying time.

Ø Many Students thought that responding to the questionnaire and doing the
test were tasks which they would be paid for. Therefore, the researcher
managed to explain them that the indirect benefit they would get from the
completion of this study is greater and more durable than the direct one.
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION
4.1. Introduction
This chapter deals with the presentation of data, the analysis and the
interpretation of findings. It presents the data from respondents collected
through questionnaires and the test. The questionnaires targeted respectively
students and English Teachers in the literary option whereas the test targeted
students only. Therefore, some of tables illustrate findings from both teachers
and students while others illustrate those from students only. Then, all the
headings and subheadings that make this chapter are structured according to
the questionnaire items and the distribution of results from the test among
different groups of student who have sat for it.
Answers from respondents were used to, both, answer to the research
questions and test the hypotheses of the research. For the sake of clarity and
simplicity, it is to be mentioned that percentages were presented in the tables
as they were exactly calculated but, for decimal numbers, only one decimal
was presented while the following ones were rounded up. For instance,
instead of writing 16.43836 % and 60.27397%, they were rounded and,
therefore, 16.4 % and 60.3 % respectively were written.
4.2. Teachers and Students' Views on E.L. Learners' Use of English in
Real-life Communication
As far as the students' use of English in real-life communication is concerned,
the researcher focused on investigating the following points: the extent to
which students are interested in using English in real-life communication, how
they feel when speaking English outside the classroom and what they
consider more important; either accuracy, fluency or the mixture of the both
when they are speaking.
4.2.1. Students' Interest in Using English Language in Real-life
Communication
To be communicatively competent, E.L. learner should be sufficiently
interested in using English in his everyday-life communication. Therefore, the
following table illustrates the extent to which E.L. learners are found interested
in using English to communicate.
Table 5: Students' interest in using E.L. in real-life communication
Students

Answers

Teachers

Number of respondents Percentage (%) Number of respondents Percentage (%)
Always

12

16.4

-

-

Often

13

17.8

-

-

Sometimes

42

57.5

4

100

Rarely

5

6.9

-

-

Never

1

1.4

-

-

Total

73

100

4

4

The table 5 reveals that a small percentage of 16.4% of students is always
interested in using English in real-life communication and only 17.8% of the
students use it often. However, a great percentage of 57.5% represents a
number of students who are sometimes interested in using English in real-life
communication; then, 6.9% and 1.4% represent a number of students who are
rarely and never respectively interested. On the other side, a hundred percent
of teachers agreed that students are sometimes interested in using English in
real-life communication.
From these findings it is noticed that students are poorly interested in using
English in real-life communication. However, Littlewood (1984, p.53) says
that, «In second language learning as in every other of human learning,
motivation is the crucial force which determines whether a learner embarks on
a task at all, how much energy he devotes to it, and how long he perseveres».
Therefore, it is to be mentioned that this students' poor interest in using
English in real-life communication should be caused by these students' lack of
motivation in using foreign languages in general and English in particular.
4.2.2 Students' Feeling when Speaking English Out of Classroom Setting
The feeling of a language learner when he is speaking that language has a
great relationship with his communicative competence. Therefore, the
following table shows how E.L. learners feel when using English in their oral
communication. That is, whether they feel proud or shy when speaking
English.
Table 6: Students' feeling when speaking English out of the classroom
setting
Students

Answers

Teachers

Number of
respondents

Percentage
(%)

Number of
respondents

Percentage
(%)

They feel
proud

44

60.3

-

-

They feel shy

29

39.7

4

100

Total

73

100

4

100

As it is shown in table 6, 60.3% of students said that they feel proud when
speaking English out of classroom setting while 39.7% represent the number
of students who are shy. On the other side, a hundred percent of teachers
confirmed that students feel shy when they are speaking English out side of
classroom. This contradiction between students and teachers' answers should
be due to the fact that some students did not want to reveal their weakness
especially thinking that their schools would be negatively criticized thereafter.
Then, relying much on the teachers' assertion, one can say that students are
generally shy when using English outside the classroom. This observation
relates to `problems with speaking activities' stated by Ur (2002). These

problems are the following: inhibition, nothing to say, low or uneven
participation, and the mother tongue use. This means that, if an E.L. learner
finds himself inhibited, dominated by the use of his mother tongue, etc. in the
classroom, it would always be difficult for him to use this language outside the
classroom where he encounters different people he is not familiar with.
4.2.3. Students' Choice between Accuracy and Fluency when They Are
Speaking in English.
As say Richards, Platt and Platt (1992, p.65) cited in Kilfoil and Walt (1997,
p.12), the communicative competence is «The ability not only to apply the
grammatical rules of a language in order to form grammatically correct
sentences but also, to know when and where to use these sentences and to
whom». Therefore, to be communicatively competent, a language learner
needs to be both accurate and fluent when he is speaking. The following table
shows what students prefer from accuracy, fluency and the mixture of
accuracy and fluency.
Table 7: Students' choice between accuracy and fluency
Students

Answers

Teachers

Number of
respondents

Percentage
(%)

Number of
respondents

Percentage
(%)

Accuracy

32

43.8

4

100

Fluency

10

13.7

-

-

Both accuracy and
fluency

31

42.5

-

-

Total

73

100

4

100

The table 7 above presented shows that 43.8% of students prefer to be more
accurate than fluent in their speech. However, a small percentage of 13.7
represent the number of students who prefer to be more fluent than accurate
in their speech. Then, 42.5% of students said that both accuracy and fluency
are the main goals in their speech. On the other side, a hundred percent of
teachers said that all students consider much more accuracy than fluency
when they speak. The fact that there is a small number of students who
regard fluency as an element of great importance in their speech allows the
researcher to confirm that students' communicative competence in
conversational English is low. This point of view goes hand in hand with that
of Richards et al (1985, p.107) who say that «Fluency is the features which
give speech the qualities of being natural and normal, including the use of
pausing, rhythm, intonation, stress, rate of speaking, and use of interjections
and interruptions».
4.3. Availability of Language Teaching Aids in Schools and the Use of
these Latter to Develop Oral Communicative Skills among E.L. Learners
Talking about the language teaching aids, the researcher wanted to know the
extent to which schools access on audio-visual equipment, how schools use
this equipment and the extent to which teachers and students judge audiovisual equipment important in E.L. teaching.
4.3.1. Availability of Audio-visual Equipment in Schools

All secondary schools do not possess or access on audio-visual equipment
equally. Therefore, the table below shows the extent to which schools own the
equipment such as radio, video player, CD player and computer.
Table 8: Availability of audio-visual equipment in schools
Answer «Yes»
frequency

Students

Teachers

Number of respondents % Number of respondents %

Equipment
Radio

56

76.7

4

100

Video player

55

75.3

3

75

CD player

37

50.7

-

-

Computer

58

79.5

3

75

A glance at the above table shows that 76.7 % of students and 100% of
English teachers agreed that their schools own radio cassette player. In
addition 75.3% of the students and 75% of teachers confirmed that video
player is available in their schools. Then, only 50.7% of students said that CD
player can be found in their schools. Moreover, 79.5% of students and 75% of
teachers stated that their schools own computers. However, no English
teacher agreed that CD player is available in his school. The reasons for this
may be that they are not interested in using such equipment, hence they
cannot know whether they are available or not.
In this light, it is clear that all schools own sufficient audio-visual teaching aids.
This sufficient ownership of the teaching aids should result in students'
sufficient practice of English language for communicative purposes. These
findings go hand in hand with the idea of Locatis and Atkinson (1984) who say
that audio media such as radio, record player and tape recorder are available
in most households and many people have sophisticated audio equipment in
their homes. However, the potential of audio media as an educational tool is
too seldom realised. Therefore, it is worth knowing whether the available
equipment is used for language teaching purposes.
4.3.2. Schools' Use of Audio-visual Equipment in E.L. Teaching and
Learning
As all schools do not access on audio-visual equipment, all schools that have
that access do not use this equipment in language teaching purposes.
Therefore, the table below shows the extent to which schools use audio-visual
equipment in language teaching purposes. .
Table 9: The E.L. teachers' use of audio-visual equipment in teaching
Answer «Yes»
frequency

Students

Teachers

Number of respondents % Number of respondents %

Equipment
Radio

37

50.7

2

50

Video player

8

11

-

-

CD player

6

8.2

-

-

Computer

16

21.9

-

-

The above table shows that 50.7% of students and 50% of English teachers
said that radio is used for English language teaching purposes. 11% of
students asserted that video player is really used. Then, only 8.2% of students
said that CD player is used. Moreover, 21.9% of students responded that
computer is sometimes used for E.L. teaching purposes.
No English teacher said that Video player, CD player and computer are used
for E.L. teaching purpose while some students responded `yes'. The reason
for this may be that students use this equipment outside English class in their
spare time for example or in other courses. However, this poor use of audiovisual equipment in language teaching is very dangerous in development of
students' communicative competence in conversational English. This is not far
from the writings of Lonergan (1984) saying that with video player, the
combination of sounds and vision is dynamic, immediate and accessible.
Therefore, the communication can be shown in a context and various features
of communicative language can be perceived easily by the learner. Then, it is
to wonder whether both teachers and students are aware of the importance of
using audio-visual equipment in language teaching.
4.3.3. Importance of Using Audio-visual Equipment in E.L. Teaching and
Learning
Students and teachers do not have the same view on the importance of using
audio-visual equipment in English teaching and learning process. The
following table shows the level at which students and teachers agree that
using audio-visual equipment in E.L. teaching is important.
Table 10: The importance of using audio-visual equipment in E.L.
teaching and learning
Students

Answers

Teachers

Number of
respondents

Percentage
(%)

Number of
respondents

Percentage
(%)

Strongly Agree

32

43.8

4

100

Agree

25

34.3

-

-

Disagree

13

17.8

-

-

Strongly
Disagree

3

4.1

-

-

Total

73

100

4

100

From the result of this table, it is clearly shown that 43.8% of students and
100% of English teachers strongly agreed that audio-visual equipment is of a
paramount importance in E.L. teaching/ learning process. Only 34.3% of
students agreed with this assertion. Conversely, 17.8% of students disagreed
and only 4.1% of students strongly disagreed that audio-visual equipment is
important in E.L. teaching/learning process.

Therefore, it is to be mentioned that both students and E.L. teachers are
aware of the importance of using audio-visual equipment in E.L.
teaching/learning process. It means that the poor use of this equipment is due
to others factors but not to the fact that they ignore the importance of this.
4.4. E.L. Teachers' Focus on Oral Skills when Teaching
As far as the E.L. teachers focus on oral skills is concerned, the researcher
wanted to know, the rank given to oral language skills comparatively to other
language skills, how much time teachers prepare and teach the lesson on oral
skills, and then which oral skill is insisted on.
4.4.1. Writing, Reading, Speaking and Listening Skills as They Are
Emphasised on by E.L. Teachers
Writing, reading, speaking and listening are known as four traditional
language skills and all language learners are supposed to have sufficient
knowledge on each of these skills. However, some language teachers do not
take these skills at the equal footing in their teaching activity. Therefore, two
tables below show respectively students and teachers' views on the extent to
which E.L. teachers emphasise on these skills differently.
Table 11: The views of students about their teachers' emphasis on some
of the four skills
Skills
Frequency

Writing

Reading

Speaking

Listening

Respondents %

Respondents %

Respondents %

Respondents %

Always

17

23.3

17

23.3

7

9.6

-

-

Often

24

32.9

17

23.3

13

17.8

9

12.3

Sometimes

25

34.2

24

32.9

30

41.1

3

4.1

Rarely

4

5.5

13

17.8

16

21.9

47

64.4

Never

3

4.1

2

2.7

7

9.6

14

19.2

Total

73

100

73

100

73

100

73

100

The table above shows that 23.3% of respondents agreed that their teachers
always emphasise writing skill in E.L. teaching process. 32.9% said that
writing is often emphasised, 34.2% confirmed that it is sometimes
emphasised. However, 5.5% said that writing is rarely emphasised while 4.1%
responded that writing is never emphasised. As far as reading is concerned,
23.3% of respondents agreed that reading is always emphasised by their
teachers. The same percentage said that reading is often emphasised. In the
same way 32.9% confirmed that reading is sometimes emphasised.
Conversely, 17.8% said that it is rarely emphasised and only 2.7% said that
reading is never emphasised in E.L. teaching/learning process.
Concerning speaking skill, 9.6% of respondents said that speaking is always
emphasised and 17.8% confirmed that it is often emphasised. A great
percentage of 41.1% confirmed that it is sometimes emphasised in their
language learning. On the contrary, 21.9% responded that speaking is rarely
emphasised and 9.6% answered that speaking is never emphasised in E.L.
teaching/learning process. For the listening skill, 12.3% said that it is often
emphasised and 4.1% said that it is sometimes emphasised in their language

learning. Conversely, a great percentage of 64.4% of respondents confirmed
that listening is rarely emphasised and 19.2% said that it is never
emphasised.
Table 12: The views of teachers about their emphasis on some of the
four skills
Writing

Reading

Speaking

Listening

Respondents %

Respondents %

Respondents %

Respondents %

Always

2

50

1

25

-

-

-

-

Often

1

25

1

25

-

-

-

-

Sometimes 1

25

2

50

3

75

-

-

Rarely

-

-

-

-

1

25

4

100

Never

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Total

4

100 4

Skills
Frequency

100 4

100 4

100

From the results of this table 50% of respondents agreed that they always
emphasise writing skill in E.L. teaching process. 25% said that writing is often
emphasised, 25% confirmed that it is sometimes emphasised. As far as
reading is concerned, 25% of respondents agreed that reading is always
emphasised. The same percentage said that reading is often emphasised. In
the same way 50% confirmed that reading is sometimes emphasised.
Concerning speaking skill, a great percentage of 75% confirmed that it is
sometimes emphasised in their language teaching. On the contrary, 25%
responded that speaking is rarely emphasised. As far as listening skill is
concerned, 100% of E.L. teachers said that it is rarely emphasised in their
language teaching process.
From the findings in table 11 and table 12, it is clear that the most emphasised
skills are writing and reading while speaking and listening are neglected. This
implies that students' communicative competence in conversational English
cannot be well developed.
4.4.2. The Frequency at which a Lesson on Oral Skills Is Planned
The researcher wanted to know the extent to which the lesson on oral skills is
prepared and taught by E.L. teachers. Therefore, the following table shows
the time during which E.L. learners have the lesson on oral skills.
Table 13: The frequency at which oral skills are taught
Students

Answers

Teachers

Number of respondents Percentage (%) Number of respondents Percentage (%)
Always

7

9.6

-

-

Often

8

11

-

-

Sometimes

25

34.2

2

50

Rarely

22

30.1

2

50

Never

11

15.1

-

-

Total

73

100

4

100

The above table reveals that 9.6% of students confirmed that they have
always a lesson on oral skills. 11% said that they have such lesson is often
given. In the same way, a great percentage of students and teachers said that
the lesson on oral skills is sometimes given. That is 34.2% for students and
50% for teachers. Nevertheless, 30.1% of students and 50% of English
teachers answered that the lesson on oral skills is rarely planned. 15.1%
remaining students said that a lesson on oral skills is never given.
In fact, taking into consideration the importance of oral skills in developing
students' communicative competence, insufficient frequency of planning a
lesson on oral skills may result in serious problem to the development of
communicative competence in conversational English. This is not in disparity
with the findings of Ur (2002) who says that speaking seems intuitively the
most important of all the four skills. That is, people who know a language are
referred to as `speakers' of that language.
4.4.3. Emphasis on either Speaking or Listening in E.L. Teaching and
Learning
A language teacher may be interested in developing his students' oral skills
but have difficulty to balance the emphasis to be given to each of these skills.
That is why the table below is used to show the emphasis on either speaking
or listening in E.L. teaching and learning process.
Table 14: Emphasis on either speaking or listening in E.L. teaching and
learning
Students

Respondents
Answers

Teachers

Number of respondents Percentage (%) Number of respondents Percentage (%)

Speaking

41

56.1

4

100

listening

21

28.8

-

-

None of them

11

15.1

-

-

Total

73

100

4

100

The above table shows that 56.1% of students and 100% of teachers said that
speaking is emphasized. 28.8% of students agreed that listening is more
emphasised than speaking. Contrary to this, 15.1% of students said that none
of both speaking and listening is emphasized in E.L. teaching/learning
process.
This cannot help in developing communicative competence because the latter
involves the development of both proactive and receptive skills. In this light,
emphasizing speaking which is one of the productive skills, and ignoring or
neglecting listening which is one of receptive skills, is a serious problem in
language learning for communicative purposes. In this way, these findings
derive support from Byrne (1976) who states that oral communication is a two
way process between speaker and listener involving the productive skills of
speaking and receptive skills of understanding

4.4.4. Factors Influencing Teachers in Deciding which Skills to Insist on
when Teaching English Language
Having remarked that some language skills are given much emphasis while
others are neglected, the researcher wanted to know the factors influencing
teachers in deciding which skills to insist on when teaching English. He used
the table below to show the extent to which teachers agree that each of these
factors affects the teachers' decision on the skills to give much emphasis in
the language teaching process.
Table 15: Factors influencing teachers' choice of language skills to
emphasise
Teachers' answers
Factors

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
F

%

F % F

%

F

%

Instructional aids

1

25

3 75 -

-

-

-

National exams

4

100

-

-

-

-

-

-

Formation in E.L. Teaching

-

-

-

-

4

100

-

-

As it is presented in table 15, 25% of teachers strongly agreed that the
availability of instructional aids for language skills development, is a a factor
influencing their choice of skills to emphasise. Then, a great percentage of
75% agree with this assertion. 100% of respondents strongly agreed that the
construction of English national exams is the factor influencing their decision
on which skills to insist on when teaching. Conversely, 100% of these
teachers disagreed with the assertion that their choice of the language skills to
insist on, is influenced by having got formation in E.L. teaching or not.
From these findings, it is to be confirmed that the way English national exams
are constructed is the main factor influencing the teachers' choice of the skills
which they put emphasis on. The second factor is the availability of
instructional aids. That is, having seen that that writing and reading are skills
that are given much emphasis in E.L. teaching and learning, English national
exams are prepared to measure only students' communicative competence in
writing and reading skills. Then, it may be that instructional aids that are
available in schools are not put on E.L. teachers' disposal so that they may be
used to develop students' communicative competence in oral skills and, then,
in conversational English . If teachers are still deciding what to teach in
accordance with what are likely to be the main concern of the national exam
and if they do not use modern instructional aids effectively, students will
always be unable to use English language in real-life communication.
4.5. The Ability of Students in Using E.L. in Friendly Communication
Situations
Littlewood (1984) says that the learner should have access to situations
where the language is used as a natural means of communication. Therefore,
according to him, more fortunate learners may avoid anxiety when using the
second language, by establishing friendly contacts in that language
environment. Based on this the reseacher designed a test intending to know
whether E.L. learners are able to use different functions of the language to
establish a friendly communication in English.

The following table shows the mean and the standard deviation calculated
from the students' marks in the test. Then, these marks are used to illustrate
the students' ability to use E.L. in everyday-life communication considering
different categories in which they are; that is, the category of sex, that of
residence area, and the one based on students' family level of literacy.`
Table 16: The mean of students' marks from the test
Marks obtained by students out of
20 (x)

Number of students who obtained each
mark (f)

fx

1

4

4

2

4

8

3

7

21

4

7

28

5

9

45

6

15

90

7

7

49

8

4

32

9

6

54

10

6

60

12

3

36

16

1

16

Total

N = 73

Ófx =
443

Mean ( )
=

=

= 6.1

The table 16 shows the mean calculated from the students' results is 6.1.
Knowing that the test has been done out of 20, the calculated mean is very
low. This implies that these students do not use English language in real-life
communicational context such as in friendly communication. It is worth to
mention that this poor communicative competence is due to various factors;
but to be clear and concise, the researcher wanted to find out different factors
which might influence the students' ability to use English in situations related
to friendly communication. These factors are the following: sex, students'
residence area and their family literacy.
4.5.1. Sex and Students' Ability to Use E.L. in Their Everyday-life
Communication
The table below shows the mean and the standard deviation calculated from
marks obtained respectively by female and male students who sat for the test.
Table 17: The mean of female and male students' marks
Sex of students N Mean
Female students 21

6.8

Male students

5.8

52

The table 16 reveals that the mean calculated from 21 female students' results
is 6.8. On the contrary, the mean calculated from 52 male students' results is
5.8. From these findings, it is to be mentioned that neither female nor male
students are communicatively competent in conversational English because
none of these groups got the mean of 10 out of 20. However, a significant
difference exists between the mean of female students and that of male
students who sat for the test.
Even though there is no clear reason for this difference between girls and
boys' results in the test, one can try to guess the reason: It may be that a
great number of boys who did the test do not like to use English when
conversing with their friends. They may have difficult to find particular words
or phrases to use appropriately to a given situation or context. This is so
because boys like freedom more than girls. Boys may like to speak paying
less attention on the appropriateness of their speech. Therefore, the
researcher has the reason to reject the first hypothesis saying that «Sex is not
a significant factor influencing E.L. learners' communicative competence in
conversational English».
4.5.2. Students' Residence Area and Their Ability to Use E.L. in their
Everyday-life Communication
The following table shows the mean and the standard deviation calculated
from marks obtained respectively by students from rural residence area and
those from urban residence area.
Table 18: The mean of students' marks according to their residence area
Students' residence area N Mean
Rural residence area

43

6

Urban residence area

30

6.2

The above table shows that the mean calculated from the results of 43
students from rural areas, is 6. However, the mean calculated from the results
of 30 students from urban areas, is 6. A glance at these findings allows the
researcher to say that there is no significant difference between students from
rural areas and those from urban areas in using English in real-life
communication. This assertion is proved by the fact that none of these two
groups got 10 out of 20.
This poor communicative competence between both students from urban
areas and those from rural areas is a serious problem which may be due to
the fact that all of them find it easier to communicate through the mother
tongue that to use English. However, students from urban areas should be
more communicative competence in conversational English than counterparts
because they have some facilities that should enable them to overcome this
problem. For example, those facilities are: they frequently encounter people
who do not use Kinyarwanda to communicate, they have sufficient access on
radio, television and video in their homes, and they can use these series of
equipment for language learning; many of them may have also learning
evening programmes where they speak English their home tutors. Hence,
relying on these findings, the second hypothesis is retained. It says that
«There is no significant difference of communicative competence in

conversational English between E.L. learners from rural area and those from
urban area».
4.5.3. Students' Family Literacy and their Ability to Use E.L. in Their
Everyday-life Communication
The following table shows the mean and the standard deviation calculated
from marks obtained by students from families with different levels of literacy.
Table 19: The mean of students' marks according to their families'
literacy
The level of students' family literacy

N Mean

At least one family member attended university/ institution of higher education 29

7.3

At least one family member finished the secondary school

52

6.5

All family members finished the primary only

23

4.5

The above table shows that 29 students whose families have at least one
person who attended university or any other educational institution, got the
mean of 7.3. Then, 52 students whose families have at least one person who
finished the secondary school have the mean of 6.5. Finally, 23 students from
families where all other members finished the primary school only, have the
mean of 4.5.
From these results, it is worth to mention that the level of literacy in students'
families is an important factor that influences students' communicative
competence in conversational English. That is why the third hypothesis i
rejected. It says that «There is no significant relationship between family
literacy and E.L. learners' communicative competence in conversational
English».
4.6. Summary of the Chapter
The fourth chapter, which is the core of this study, is concerned with the
presentation, analysis and interpretation of research data. Through this
chapter the emphasis was put on checking whether E.L. learners are
communicatively competent in conversational English.
In this regard, the researcher wanted to check the extent to which learners
use English in real-life communication. He wanted also to show the impact of
teachers' use of teaching aids on the learners' communicative competence in
conversational English.
Then, he tried to exhibit the language skills that are given much emphasis by
teachers and some of the factors that influence them in choosing skills to
insist on. Finally, it was noticed that E.L. learners do not generally use E.L. in
friendly communication whatever is the group of sex they belong to, their
residence area and the level of their family literacy.
CHAPTER FIVE: GENERAL CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES.
The preceding chapter has dealt with the presentation, analysis and
interpretation of the data obtained from students and English teachers in

schools with the literary option in Rusizi and Nyamasheke districts. Then, this
chapter is going to deal with conclusion, recommendations and suggestions
for future researches.
5.1. General Conclusion
The main goal of this work was to evaluate the communicative competence in
conversational English among English Language Learners in the Literary
Option. To have this goal reached, two instruments for data collection: the
questionnaire and the test were resorted to. As far as data analysis is
concerned, specific software such as EPIDATA and SPSS designed for data
analysis have been used based on the responses provided by the research
informants, that is, by both students and English teachers.
Through the respondents' answers this study revealed that students are not
interested in using E.L. in real-life communication. The reason for this may be
that students have no motivation in using foreign languages in general and
English in particular. This relates also to the fact that many students feel shy
when using English outside the classroom. All these imply that many students
have poor communicative competence in conversational English which is also
due to their choice of accuracy by ignoring fluency which is, instead, an
important component of an effective oral communication.
In addition, from the findings of this study, it was noticed that all schools own
audio-visual teaching aids but teachers do not resort to them for E.L. teaching
purposes. However, both students and teachers are aware of a paramount
importance of using audio-visual equipment in E.L. teaching/learning in order
to develop communicative competence in conversational English.
Furthermore, it was found that writing and reading are the most emphasised
skills in E.L. teaching/learning process while speaking and listening are
neglected. This may be caused by the way English national exams are
constructed; that is, these exams have nothing to do with students'
competence in oral skills. Then, teachers are not familiar with language
teaching aids designed for oral skills development.
Finally, students' poor communicative competence is shown by their failing
marks in the test on their ability to use English in friendly communication.
Then, it was found that sex and students residence area are not significant
factors to students' communicative competence. However, the level of literacy
in students' families influences significantly the students' communicative
competence in conversational English.
5.2. Recommendations
After having drawn the conclusion of this study's findings, it is worth making
some recommendations to different educational stakeholders in order to help
secondary school students in general and particularly those of the literary
option; improve their communicative competence in conversational English in
case the made recommendations are taken into account. In this light, the
following recommendations are addressed to the Ministry of Education, the
National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC), the National Examination
Council (NEC), school leaders and E.L. teachers.
5.2.1. To the Ministry of Education and the NCDC

The Ministry of Education and the NCDC should:
Ø Provide schools with updated materials that can be used to enhance
conversational English among E.L. learners.
Ø Provide E.L. teachers with in-service trainings on how to improve their
students' communicative competence in conversational English.
Ø Collaborate with the National Examination Council to introduce oral skills in
English national exams.
5.2.3. To schools' Leaders
Schools' leaders especially headmasters and heads of studies should:
Ø Explain to students the importance of using foreign languages in general
and particularly English for communicative needs.
Ø Oblige teachers and students to use foreign languages including English,
both in the classroom and outside the classroom.
Ø Integrate in school activities some out-of-classroom activities enabling
students to be involved in actual communication using English Language.
5.2.4. To E.L. Teachers in the Literary Option
Ø Consider oral skills on the equal footing with other language skills.
Ø Use audio-visual equipment available in their schools for communicative
language teaching purposes.
Ø Initiate students' English clubs in which students can find the opportunity to
use E.L. in meaningful context.
5.3. Suggestion for Further Researches
As this work is not exhaustive, future studies would be concerned with the
following areas:
Ø Using audio-visual language teaching equipment to improve E.L. learners'
communicative competence in conversational English.
Ø The impact of students' socio-economic background on their communicative
competence in conversational English.
Ø Investigating the role of the NCDC into the improvement of E.L. learners'
communicative competence in conversational English.
Ø Factors impeding secondary school E.L. teachers to develop students'
communicative competence in conversational English.
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APPENDICES