Confucian Ethics and Japanese Management Practices

Confucian Ethics and Japanese Management Practices
Author(s): Marc J. Dollinger
Source: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 7, No. 8 (Aug., 1988), pp. 575-584
Published by: Springer
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Confucian

Ethics

and Japanese

Practices

Management

Marcj.

ABSTRACT. This paper proposes that an important method
for understanding the ethics of Japanese management is the
systematic study of its Confucian traditions and thewritings
of Confucius. Inconsistencies and dysfunction in Japanese
ethical and managerial behavior can be attributed to
in Confucius'

contradictions
between

the Confucian

code

writings
and modern

and

inconsistencies

realities.

Attention

needs to be directed tomodern Confucian philosophy since,
an
historically Confucian thought has been
early warning
system for impending change.

seems

to be little doubt that the management
will have, and
of
practices
Japanese
corporations
an
are
on
management
important
impact
having
in the United
States and the
and
practice
thinking

There

rest of the world

In the
(Abegglen and Stalk, 1986).
are
and
papers
being published
the nature
research programs
launched to determine
A major portion of
and efficacy of the phenomenon.
academic

arena,

effort in 'International
development
is directed
Business'
toward the study of, and con
tact with,
the
firm and
Japanese
trading company.
the
have
Japanese firms and
Japanese government
centers within
established
the university
academic
the curricula

environment

to

foster

help

cooperative

and

projects

mutual

understanding.
arisen concerning
have naturally
the
Questions
or
non
not
adoption of Japanese ways and whether
can
Japanese firms
successfully implement
techniques
in another
which
have been proved
culture
(e.g.,
and Mirza,
Tsurumi,
1978; Buckley
1985; Dillon,
et
1983; Sethi
al, 1984). The debate over the issues of

Dr. Marc

J. Dollinger

is an Assistant

Indiana University. He
versity

in 1983. His

Professor

of Management

at

received his PhD. from Lehigh Uni

current

research

is
focused

on

management of smallfirms and entrepreneurship

the

strategic

Dolling*

in
places the question
divergence
is thor
framework
and the evidence

and

convergence
an academic

oughly mixed

(Dunphy, 1987). It is unclear from

and empirical
theoretical development
findings
or not the
Japanese
(and therefore other
are
more
East Asian economies)
like the
becoming
both

whether

or vice

West

versa.

to culture as a factor in
though references
a gap exists
the convergence
debate are ubiquitous,
in our
of
of
the
ethics
Japanese cul
understanding
ture. Most Westerners,
business
academics,
including
source
to
have had litde or no exposure
original
materials
has
been
There
consider
(in translation).
Even

able reliance on secondary sources for interpretations
For
and representations
of the cultural phenomena.
a set of
Ouchi
offers
(1981)
example,
managerial
and concludes
that both East andWest
prescriptions
are
on a Z form of
is
converging
organization which
on
not
Japanese culture for its existence.
dependent

Abegglen and Stalk (1985) briefly summarize the
and industrial prac
theory that Japanese managerial
in the culture, and then discount
tices are embedded
the theory's influence. Hamada
(1985) rejects Theory
Z and attempts to build a model
of the corporation
which
integrates corporate practices, Japanese cul
ture and the economic
environment.
Jaeger and
of control
the effectiveness
(1985) attribute
to
in Japanese
the shared
systems
organizations
values and culture. All of these authors, and others
1987, for a voluminous
(see Dunphy,
review), offer

Baliga

their interpretation
of the culture of Japan and their
enactment of it. Since most Western
readers have no
direct

of Japanese
experience
and
historical
philosophical

ethics
roots,

and society,
the reader

its
is

to accept reconstructions
of Japanese culture
rather than the logic-in-use
(Kaplan, 1964).
The purposes
of this paper are twofold. One

forced

design

is to offer

original material

Journal ofBusinessEthics 7 (1988) 575-584.
? 1988 byKluwer Academic Publishers.

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from

one of the

576

Marcj.
sources

ethical
the
of Japanese
tradition,
of Confucius,
and illustrate its contributions
in the context of Japanese
and industrial
managerial
are
as the most
The
Analects
practices.
regarded
source
In the Ana
reliable
of Confucius'
writings.

major
Analects

lects, Confucius
themes
major
important
wrote
of
character

set

the

tone

of Chinese

of these

themes

the

importance
of human nature

and

introduced
The

philosophy.
is humanism.
of

the
most

Confucius

the

the
individual,
and the value of devel

He wrote
of the
through
learning.
of human
and the need for
perfectability
beings
constant renovation of the
in
order to achieve
spirit
oping

oneself

that perfection.
The second purpose is to offer the hypothesis
that
in re
of the contradictory
much
results obtained
can
the
question
searching
convergence-divergence
nature of
be explained by the contradictory
Japanese
an exercise
approach may be termed
in hermeneutics.
Hermeneutical
method
relies on

tradition. This

and emphasizes
interpretation
dimension
of research. The researcher
textual

level-constructs

found

the historical

interprets first
in the text material
and trans

Grimes,
number

The
of Confucian
modernization.
contributions
are directed at the ethical aspects of human
thought
some to call
a Confucian
interaction,
Japan
leading
et al,
1986; MacFarquhar,
(Adler
1980).
society
has at its core four distinct,
Japanese Confucianism
not
exclusive
(or consistent)
mutually
First, in its most essential form, Confucian
ism is a humanistic
and the human being
philosophy
is
with
dignity and respect. Second, Confu
regarded
its
cianism
the values of harmony with
inculcates
on
concurrent
and
emphasis
loyalty, group
family
though
themes.

of the individ
and the submergence
identification,
ual. Righteousness
and the acts of righteous individ
uals within
the framework of loyalty provide a third
dimension.
theme of
Lastly, there is the integrating
who
the morally
the Chun-Tzu,
superior person,
to the other Con
leads by example and is devoted
fucian

alive and is actuated. The
system comes
is the leader of the Confucian
society.
a note of caution is offered. The
Before beginning,
all managerial
here are not to subsume
purposes
under a cultural imperative model. Cul
phenomena
ture is not the
of managerial
only determinant
as the
which
culture
behavior. Models
posit
single
cause of
and practice have been
behavior
managerial
are seen
et al.
(1985) and these
critiqued by Kagono
as insufficient
to
business
all
Japanese
phen
explain
or
omena. Indeed the
empirical question of whether
not Confucian
societies differ more
them
among
ethical

Chun-Tzu

selves than with

theWest

has not been

settled. There

in some
change
suggestion
This
traditions.
while
ways
maintaining
underlying
is in fact exactly the Japanese experience,
reflected in
is no

that societies

cannot

one of
most famous
Japan's
slogans of the moderni
science" (toyo no
zation era, "Eastern ethics, Western
no
do toku, seiyo
gei ). However,
causality
although
two of the three criteria of
proved,
are present,
and time prece
covariance
causality
the elimination
of
dence (Selltiz et al, 1976). Only
is
alternative explanations,
e.g., materialism,
missing.
cannot

be

into

symbolic representations
(Steffy and
one of a
is
Hermeneutical
1986).
exegesis
of methodologies
that fall into the general
classification
of subjective, qualitative
research, em
an
perspective
idiographic
(Morey and
phasizing
Luthans,
1984).
a
society combining Buddhism,
Japan is complex
Shintoism
and Confucianism
with
the artifacts of
lates these

Dollinger

values.

It is
through

the Chun-Tzu

that the

in Japan

Confucianism

was born

in 551 or 552 B.C. in the state of
career was devoted
His
Shantung.
to
almost exclusively
and education. He
teaching
a
him
group of scholars as he made
gathered around
his way, serving inminor administrative
posts. At the
were
of
his
that
56,
age
superiors
unwilling
finding
a 13 year
as
to
adopt his teachings
policy, he began
to
He
for
social
reforms.
returned
journey pushing
Lu at the age of
and for the next five
sixty-eight
wrote
the writings
he
and
years
taught. Among
are the
to be
this
produced
thought
period
during

Confucius
Lu

in modern

Analects.

He

died

at age 73

(see Chan,

1963, for a

good historical
Confucianism

accounting).
out from China
spread
throughout
Asia in spite of the fact that Confucianism
had no
missionaries.
The bearers of the message
of Confu
cius were Buddhist monks, who while
proselytizing
carried the day-to-day
values of Con
for Buddha,
is not native
fucius with
them. Since Confucianism
to

Japan, having
to understand

been
the

imported
divergent

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from China, in order
route that
Japanese

Japanese Management
Confucianism
history
The
many
detailed
beyond

it is necessary
in Japan.
of Confucian
thought
course of Confucian
philosophy

times

has

taken,

historical
the

wrote

since Confucius

to trace the
has
and

changed
lived. A
is
to

the influence of Chu Hsi (1130-1200) the philoso
phy of Confucius
mental philosophy
Neo-Confucianism

was

re-established

as the funda

civilization. Chu Hsi's
a
influence
pervasive
East Asia and has shaped behavior
there
throughout
was
for hundreds
of years (Chan, 1986). It
among
to select the four books
Chu Hsi's accomplishments
that became known as the Classics: the Analects, the
of Chinese
remains

Book ofMencius, the Great Learning and the Doctrine
of
theMean. These
four Classics preserved Confucian
to the twentieth cen
thought intact down through
on
and
Chu
Hsi's
commentaries
The
Classics
tury.
were
as
texts
in
1313
them
for
the official
adopted
the civil service examinations
and remained
so,
until 1905.
unchanged
in
The
earliest record of Confucianism
Japan
occurs somewhere between
the 6th and 7th centuries
wave of
more
important
(de Bary, 1958). The
Confucian
influence arrived in Japan in the sixteenth
century with Zen Buddhist monks. This Confucian

A.D.

the Sung Neo-Confucianism
quickly
adopted
by the early
ism,

of Chu Hsi, was
rulers
Tokugawa

(1600?1868) to help them justify and solidify their
was

and political
the military
reign. The Shogun
ruler of Japan under Tokugawa
rule. Confucianism
that the
provided the focus for precisely the problem
the
creation
and
maintenance
faced:
of a
Shogun
stable political and social order on the basis of a firm
1960). Con
(Reischauer and Fairbank,
scholars used the peace and unity
versely, Confucian
as
created by the Tokugawa's
government
military
ethical

code

an
to rid themselves
of the clerical
opportunity
dominance
of Chinese-style
mandarins
and to unite
Confucian
with statism.
thinking
had a different
The Tokugawa
Confucianists
thrust than the Manchu
in
principle,
doxy was,
the Japanese Confucianist
of

administrative

political

Chinese

although the ortho
sees
same.
the
Jansen (1965)
of the time as a forerunner

innovation

organization

of

577

thrust was

on

administrative

a

of

control

large

central

of Confucianism
perspective
of this paper. However,
due

scope

Practices

and experiment.
The
the decentralized
daimyo

(the local clan chief) provided many opportunities
to inter
for heterodoxy
and allowed Confucianism
act with
local political
Manchu
conditions.
(The

state).
Thus
between
there began a mutual
dependency
the state as represented by the
Tokugawa
Shogunate,
the baku-han
decentralized
system
(the
political
Much
military
network) and the Neo-Confucianists.
was
intact, the
adopted
orthodoxy
natural hierarchy of classes (elite and samurai, farmer,
the four themes described
artisan, merchant),
pre
of Buddhist
and Taoist
the
and
viously,
shedding
tenets
in
philosophical
(Hall, 1970). Basic education
was Chinese Confucian
its
Japan
by the mid-1700s;
was
to
the
individual's
moral char
purpose
develop
of

the Chu

Hsi

acter both as an absolute

In

the

Japanese

setting,

reinforce values
?

achievement

to one's

respect

to

human duty and in order
the samurai's function
(Dore, 1965).

better fulfill

Confucian

of duty,

in honor

self-discipline,

to one's

superiors.

teachings

. .

name

(Jansen,

and
1965,

to

served

loyalty and
gratitude

and

p. 96).

Later on in
Tokugawa
and early 18th centuries,
of Confucianism
elements

rule, during the late 17th
some
distinctly Japanese
to emerge. These
began
to
be
Japanese elements helped
tighten the bonds
tween the
of the
needs
and
the
secular
philosophy
Two
of the more
aspects
important
ruling elite.
new
were
of
the
of this
heterodoxy
development
behavior
for
the
code
of
ethics
and
bushido
(the
of com
samurai) and the increasing
respectability
two
activities
mercial
These
(Hall, 1970).
develop
ments were not unrelated. As a means of
regulating
and controlling
the social order, each class of
was
own Tao
or code of
its
(do),
people
given
behavior. The samurai's code was the bushido,
the
warrior's way. The merchant's
code was chonindo,
society

could be righteousness,
way. There
and
class in a Confucian
each
for
humanity
principle
its duties
and each class could perform
scheme,
to the ethical
its
of
do
without
principles
according
the merchant's

shame.

to
were devotion
duty,
arts, austerity, temperance,
and the readiness to die immediately
self-discipline
at
for their superiors. The chonin, or merchants,
samu
to imitate the more
tempted
highly esteemed
rai. Their
the
code demanded
loyalty (to
trading
The

elements

cultivation

house

of bushido

of the martial

or

firm), frugality
renovation
of equipment

harmony

and

(re-investment
and machines)

righteousness.

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of profits,
as well
as

In fact, the class barriers

578
Marc].
that prevented
merchants
wealthy
their status made
them even richer
to reinvest

from

changing
by forcing them
in commercial
activities

their wealth

time class
Fairbank,
(Reischauer
1960). Over
to blur but were
never
lines began
completely
in debt to merchants,
eliminated. Warriors,
deeply
mer
had their debts cancelled
by the
commonly
and

chants in exchange for higher status (Bort?n, 1970).
even
though original Confucian
thought deni
was
a 17th
it
and
profit,
possible for
grated money
to
Muro
write,
century Confucian,
Kyuso

And

To
buys

rejoice
valuable
but

trade,

when

one

makes

merchandise
it is

unpardonable

or
transaction
profitable
is part of amerchant's
cheaply
...
in a samurai
(de Bary,
a

1958, p. 430).

it is a ridiculous

thing that the aristocracy and the
or that
in
class
Japan should disdain profit,
they
military
should say that they disdain profit.When aman does not
disdain profit, he is called a bad person. Such is the
. . .Rice is li
perverse practice of the times
( principle),
...
is
li
is
the
li,
commodity
buying, selling and
gold
paying
Universe

In

interest
...

are
(de Bary,

all

of

part

li

...

Law

the

of

the

1958, p. 491).

rule of over

1868

250

the Tokugawa
years
to an end with
the restoration of the Emperor
a
revolution
This was
Meiji.
essentially
peaceful
on the rode to moderniza
to
begin Japan
designed
tion. The lessons drawn from the Chinese experience

in theOpium Wars (1842) and the Perry Expedition
was
At

to the
that change
Japanese
to preserve their nation's
independence.
a
the time of the Meiji Restoration
there were

1854 demonstrated
needed

individuals
of exceptional
(like Iwasaki of
samurai
and merchant
who
straddled
Mitsubishi)
lead Japan through this revo
traditions and helped
number

lutionary

time.

of
taught the perfectability
the
proper ethical/political
society through
organi
et al,
zation and
leadership
(Fairbank
1965). Many
was on
that their Confucianism
Japanese recognized
the fringe of Chinese Confucianism,
it was
however
to
clear that this Confucian
contributed
philosophy
a
sense
the development
of
of nationalism,
strong
as funda
and promoted
education
and ambition
mental

values

in

the general

population

(Jansen,

1965a).
The modernization

on
by the Meiji
brought
Restoration
in
and the opening
of Japan succeeded
a
economic
and
state,
cap
strong military
creating
able of resisting Western
much
pressures. However
of

the culture

Japan persisted. Al
strong
though
formally abolished,
class distinctions
remained. The Confucian
concept
was
as a part
of superior/inferior
ingrained. By 1890,
of the Meiji Constitution,
the Imperial Rescript
of

There

even
who

emerged

Education

of Confucian

a

group

of
skill

peasant
entrepreneurs
capital,
possessed
to form
business
and the technology necessary
large
et al,
The
1965).
(Fairbank
organizations
guiding
of
the
Restoration,
epitomized
by Saku
philosophy
ma Shozan's
"Eastern ethics, Western
Science"
slogan
was characterized
an easy blend of
(Passin, 1965),
by

made

Confucian

education

mandatory

and universal

(Bort?n, 1970).
In the late 20th century Confucianism

was been weakened
losophy
individuation
(Maruyama,
ethical

code

Japanese
The

came

of

which

Confucianism,

social classes were

was
to argue from
By the 19th century it
possible
manner
of historical
the very Confucian
reflection
that human society rested on the twin pillars of labor
De Bary quotes
and the exchange
of merchandise.
Kaiho Seiyo,
...

Dollinger

phi
patterns of

by emerging
as a moral
1965) but
it is still dominant.

management
survival

as a

from

and

practices
feudal

times

of

a

sense

of

personal

relationship between employer and employee in industry
[is] paralleled by a strong sense of personal or corporate
loyalty within management itself (Reischauer and Fair
bank, 1960, p. 511).
is no

set of
single homogeneous
managerial
behaviors
that can safely be labeled as "Japanese".
a
in
Within
Japan there is
good deal of variance
the
between
practice,
managerial
especially
larger
There

trading
smaller

company/financial
firms. Variation

center

firm

and

exists within

the
these

surely
as Ouchi
two groups as well.
Additionally,
(1981)
are
a
American
of
there
number
firms that
observes,
appear to use similar practices
Z)
(labeled Theory
and

therefore

deemed

these managerial
behaviors
Another
interpretation

accultural.

may be
however

are
is that the practices
that is, there
pan-cultural;
are
cultures and ethical systems capable of
multiple
very similar management
practices
(equi
producing
a
great deal has been written
finality). However,

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Practices

Japanese Management
and many authors agree
about Japanese management
on its
components
major
(Pascale, 1978; Tsurumi,
Nonaka
and Johansson,
Munchus
1985;
1978;
1983;
1985).
Kagonoetfd/.,
Miller
and
Keys

to
review and attempt
(1984)
to as the "Japanese manage
refer
they
review
encompasses
jungle". Their
resource
human
Japanese manufacturing
practices,
a
and decision-making
modes.
policies,
Through
a
review of the literature,
reduce
they
subjective
to
three
of observable managerial
practices
myriad

integrate what
ment
theory

a
long
lifetime

factors:
underlying
a commitment
to

run

planning

employment,

sense of collective

Japanese

All

responsibility.
factors have bases in Confucian

underlying
The practices

which

horizon,
and the
three

thought.
the first factor in

underline

run
horizon,
planning
long
to sufficient time to manage,
in
in work, and
discipline
implementation,

their

the
integration,
include: a commitment
diligence
the development

of an organiza
are all consistent with
the

These
philosophy.
Confucian
goal of the search for perfection
of a righteous character.
development

and the

It is in the fullfilment of these obligations that
the Chun-Tzu
on

Writing

is expected to make his contribution.
these subjects, (all quotes from Chan,

Confucius said,The superior man does not seek fulfill
ment of his appetite nor comfort in his
lodging. He is
in
in
and
his
his
duties
careful
speech. He
diligent
associates with men of moral principles and thereby
realizes himself. Such a person may be said to love
learning.'

'A ruler who

said,

governs

like the north polar star,which
the others

revolve

his

measures

and

will

regulate

then

avoid

they
or shame.

by

virtue

is

it.'

around

said, 'Lead the people with

Confucius

state

remains in place while

governmental

and
law and
by
punishment,
but have no sense of honor

wrong-doing
virtue
them
and
them
by
regulate
a sense of
rules of
and
will
have
propriety
they
set themselves
and moreover,
right.'
Lead

by

the

shame,

Confucius said,The superior man brings the good things
of others to completion and does not bring the bad things
of others to completion. The inferior man does just the
opposite.'

These

three Analects
as the

describe what

help

could be

"preferred leadership
style"
are constant,
society. Leaders
steady, and
this behavior
for subordinates.
provides
guidance
act with
Leaders must
magnanimity,
compassion,

Confucian

et al,
the
(Sethi
1984). Also,
leader does not resort to rules and laws to

and wisdom

lead, but

instead

trusts

of

said, The

Confucius

possessions
man

superior

to be

wants

slow

in

Confucius was completely free from four things:He had
no

of

arbitrariness

opinion,

no

no

dogmatism,

obstinacy

egotism.

cannot be ac
perfection
a
to
require
patient attention
complished
overnight,
to
detail and encourage Japanese workers
"pursue
the last grain of rice in the corner of their lunch box"
tasks of achieving

ideal of renovation
(Hayes, 1981). The Confucian
and renewal enables the Japanese to renew each day
to the
term
the commitment
long
goals of the
a search for
and
the
organization,
perfection without
results. From the book, the
pressure for immediate
Great Learning (Chan, 1963) comes this
description,
The
you

inscription on the bath tub of King T'ang read, 'If
can

renovate

one

yourself

day,

then

can

you

do

so

so
so
everyday, and keep doing
everyday, and keep doing
after
day
day.
and

in

characterized

Confucian

thinks

thinks of virtue; the
. . .'

word but diligent in action.'

The

Confucius

man

inferior

superior man

said,The

Confucius

and no

1963),

vision

to
their
propriety will enable the people
accomplish
to this in Chinese
tasks. The one exception
history
was the
Legalist School of the Ch'in dynasty (221?
206 B.C.) which
doctrine in favor
rejected Confucian
a
of
legalistic society based upon power. The Legal
in
ists succeeded
China but their violence
unifying
and brutality
lead to their overthrow
(Chan, 1963).
Even now in Japan, there is a decided
for
preference
shared values over
legalisms.
are four additional Analects
comment
Following
on the character of the Chun-Tzu:
ing

and the articulation

tional

579

that

the

shared

virtue

of

Confucius
or

practice

Confucius
out

the new

said, Is
from
said,

'A man

is

a
pleasure
to time what

it not

time

qualified

who

to learn
has been

reviews

to teach

the old

and

to

repeat
. .

learned?'.

so as to find

others.'

The second underlying factor identified by Keys

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580
MarcJ. Dollinger
was the commitment,
albeit by a
(1984)
to
of
This
lifetime
firms,
minority
employment.
factor manifested
itself by
levels of investment
high
in
employee development,
training and socialization,
career
reduced turnover, non-specialized
paths and
and Miller

the development
of internal
The
labor markets.
on the
Confucian
emphasis
family, which has been
to the firm, and the
that domi
groupism
the Confucian
ethos serve as a foundation
for

redirected
nates

and Stalk (1985), who also
these practices. Abegglen
career
as one of the
identify
employment
signature
characteristics
of Japanese corporation, note that new
recruits are selected for the
general characteristics
as
to their skills. The
of their character,
opposed
characteristics
that are valued
the
are, of course,
Confucian

ones

mergence

of

of

and the sub
loyalty, diligence,
on these
individual
needs. Writing

subjects, Confucius
. . .The

said,
man

superior

is not

an

implement.

view that
the fundamental
saying expresses
are
have
inherent
value,
people
good, they
they exist
as total
not to be treated as tools.
organisms,
This

the Confucian
ethic of group was
Originally,
most often
to
in the
applied
relationships
family and
to
are
These
lifetime
rela
government.
traditionally
the group concept was extended
was
around which
agriculture

In
Japan,
tionships.
to
first
the clan,

era, to the firm.

and then, in the industrial

organized

Yu Tzu [a student of Confucius] said, Tew of those who
are filial and respectful brothers will show
disrespect to
and

superiors,

there
to

disrespectful

has

superiors,

never
yet

a man

who

disorder.

A

been
creates

is not
superior

man is devoted to the fundamentals
the
(roots).When
root is
firmly established, the moral law (Tao) will grow.
Filial piety and brotherly respect are the root of humanity

in Japan

1986). The leaders
(Browning,
as
into
of
the company
entry
speak
into another family"
again
(Abegglen

positive value
of the kaisha

"being born
and Stalk, 1985, p. 200.)
The third factor that emerges

from

and

the Key

Miller study (1984) is that of collective responsibility.
and its practice may trace its roots to the
necessities
of rice cultivation
which
the
requires
at
to cooperate
whole
and
harvest
village
planting
time. (Since rice cultivation pre-dates Confucianism,
amaterialist
is a
explanation
plausible alternative).
in the group
its values
This
collectivism
finds
This

value

nature

centered
tices

of Confucian

Such prac

thought.

as consensus

decision-making
(ringi), participa
tive management
and
(nemawashi),
quality circles all
use the
as
Concomitant
action.
the
basis
for
group
the group values are the personal values that are
to make
the group work. Ouchi
required
(1981)
Z as: trust,
describes
these in his Theory
subtlety,
are all components
of
intimacy and loyalty. These

with

the current worker's
I Tzu

Meng
'Never

asked about filial piety. Confucius

said,

. .'

disobey.

. . .Confucius
according
serve
should

bushido.

said, 'A ruler should employ his ministers

to

the
their

principles
ruler with

of

and ministers

propriety,

loyalty.'

. . . Hold

to be fundamental.
loyalty and faithfulness
Have no friends who are not as good as yourself. When
you make

be anxious

'Especially

quotations

lest parents

above
and

Confucian

them.

should

reflect

be

the

said,

sick'

character

of

that if

it is readily
from family

loyalty,
are
expanded
tool of social control

the dicta

to correct

be afraid

asked about filial piety. Confucius

Meng Wu-po

The

don't

mistakes,

apparent
to firm, this is a
(Abegglen and Stalk,

(jen).'

powerful

said, '[A good man] does not worry about
known
being
by others but rather worries about not

of the individual
1986). It requires the submergence
to achieve
is more
than
Self-promotion
perfection.
it is disloyal and immoral.
egotism,

Confucius

them.'

knowing

Confucius

On loyalty:
Tseng-Tsu
on

three

ingratiating

[a student] said, Everyday
points;

whether

in

counseling

they

are

Japanese
expected

'A man

appearance

with

is seldom

clever
aman

words
of

and

an

humanity.'

I examine myself
others

I have

not

been loyal;whether in intercourse with my friends I have
not been faithful; and whether I have not
repeated again
and again and practiced the instructions of my teacher.'
When

said,

are offered lifetime
employment,
to stay aswell.
is not a
Job hopping

Ethical

contradictions

in Japanese

management
In addition
detailed

to

above,

the positive
and
values
and
negative
contradictory

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practices
aspects

of

the Confucian

of Confucian

tions

Confucian

between

democratic

noted.

been

of

Each

capitalism.

these

said, (Chan,

. . Women
.

types

to
results obtained
the disparate
explain
helps
the convergence/divergence
researchers investigating

of the group,
ranking member
a
she is senior to
number of the men.

even
though
As Confucius

of

and the realities

ethics

as the lowest

treated

Con

into two types; internal
and contradic
thought

can be classified

tradictions
contradictions
modern

have

tradition

581

Practices

Japanese Management

and

servants

1963),
are most

by

A

issue.

third

internal

contradiction

concerns
the
as leader. From

of the superior person
emergence
is this individual to come from?
where
Internal contradictions
core themes of
and harmony produce
humanity
stress for the modern
impor
Japanese. The
major
tance of the human
is emphasized
throughout,
being
are to
individuals
yet for the sake of harmony
needs. In theWest,
there is a
submerge desires and
bias which values the individual above the need for
The

In the East

harmony.
(Maruyama,

is generally
reversed
Japanese have consciously

the bias

1965). The
to avoid Westernization

as

they achieved
science, Eastern
through
the Japanese ruling elite
ethics". For example, when
went
for a
Restoration
after the Meiji
searching
on which
to model
constitution
their new one, they

attempted
modernization

chose

"Western

the German

model

because

of Bismarck

consciousness.

source

Another
fucian

value

of

system

conflict

internal
is the need

in the Con

for rigid hierarchy

and the full development of humanity (jen).Clearly,
barriers prevent each person from
full
of Confu
potential. The
integration
reaching
cianism with
the
the Taoist
of
concept
Way
helps
some of the stress
alleviate
by enabling
people,
never
within
their strata, to develop
fully while
However
there remains in Japan
leaving that level.
an
to
resistance
ethic that would
great
egalitarian
the hierarchical

allow

full

personal
Korean

for

Japanese

almost

all forms

rights

all.

For

example,
discriminated
ancestry
against and kept segregated from Japanese of native
are discriminated
in
ancestry, and women
against
of

are

of economic

life. Irish (1986) de
in a
scribes
he had while
experience
working
in which
he is reprimanded
for
firm,
Japanese
a woman
with
has
who
manager
showing sympathy
been passed over for promotion
may times and is
an

If individual

to be
abhorred
ity is
suppressed, and self-promotion
how will the superior person be known? The differ
a true Chun-Tzu
ence between
calmly
standing
amidst

confusion

and chaos while

his trusty subordi
a
superior things, and
accomplish
do-nothing,
senior
official
who
over-promoted
know-nothing
stands
while
better
educated
juniors solve
silently
by
nates

problems
unobtrusive

can

be very
observation.

difficult
Confucius

to determine
himself

faced

by
a

adminis
similar problem. As a virtuous but minor
trator he was unable, within
to
his own lifetime,
exert any
his
other
than
among
leadership
disciples.

External

contradictions

it

it
This made
freedoms.
individual
played down
more
to the Confucian
attractive
ethic. However,
once the country was
it was inevitable
that
opened
into
Western
the
and ideas would
elements
seep
Japanese

to deal with.

difficult

If you are familiar with them, they will cease to be
humble. If you keep them at a distance theywill resent it.

clash
ethics and teachings
occasionally
with the realities of the modern
and complex busi
on renovation
ness world. For
example, the emphasis
seem incon
and the values of ritualizing behavior
sistent with the need for change and innovation. The
Confucian

this contradiction
Japanese mitigate
by focusing
and concen
behavior
their rituals on interpersonal
in
innovation.
technological
trating their efforts
distaste
the
for profit and
Confucian
Similarly,
have
of
the corresponding
suspicion
ill-gotten gain
been reconciled aswell. Japanese companies prefer to
to the
and their contributions
emphasize
growth
all are
national polity
instead of profit. And while
are necessary
aware that
for future invest
profits
are made
to appear a
of
ment,
they
by-product
on
virtuous behavior. This puts enormous
pressure
to be both pure and
executives
Japanese
productive
the same time. When
profits
inferior ways, by inferior people,
for those individuals are severe.
at

Confucius

said,

'Wealth

and

honor

are obtained

in

the consequences

are what

every

man

desires. But if they have been obtained in violation of
moral principles (li), theymust not be kept. . .'

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582
MarcJ. Dollinger
Confucius
will

Confucius

by

profit,

he

enemies.'

said, The

the

ness,

are motivated

acts

'If one's

said,

have many

man

inferior

man
superior
understands

understands

righteous

profit.'

A
be, "If Confucius
question would
legitimate
societies main
disdained wealth, how do Confucian
is not unlike
tain capitalism?" This
the question
in his critique of the
Weber
asked and answered
Chinese

system (Weber, 1951). His point
was conducive
that Protestantism
and

mandarin

to show

was

was
of capitalism while
Confucianism
supportive
not. The answer for
one
Japan is different from the
Weber

for China.

construed

Japanese Confucianism
and the merchant was encour

developed
differently
to follow his
to seek
Way
(Tao), and
aged
perfection
in commercial
transactions. For example,
according
to the Mitsui
house
laws, the chonin
(merchants),
were inferior to the samurai, yet within
the chonin's
world, he was master
(Hall, 1970).
at Kikkoman,
Chief executive
Japan
resignations
most
are
and
Toshiba
Airlines,
recently
significant
surrender authority but not
because
the executives
in

for corporate mistakes
(Passin, cited
responsibility
the Wall Street Journal, 7/10/1987,
p. 19).
Within
whole
to

culture
corporate
Japanese
notion
is that the leader can

anyone

the U.S.
(Yoshi

or

he

she wishes,

but

cited

in

social

the

ethics,

the

authority
delegate
In
the
responsibility.

authority and responsibility

(leaders) delegate

Tsurumi,

not

and

the Wall

Street

Journal,

7/10/

1987, p. 19)
The

exists
potential for unreconciled
inconsistency
between
human
endless
renovation
perfectability,
and the economic
realities of failed policies. What
to a
does failure mean
Failure
Japanese Confucian?
to a Confucian
is shame and dishonor,
and is not
terms. The execu
in economic
immediately
grasped
above were not as an immediate
resignations
of
economic
failure. The Kikkoman
consequence
incident was over tainted wine,
the JAL incident
over a crash which
over
500
killed
the
people,
tive

Toshiba

scandal concerned

Ameri

selling top-secret
to the Soviets. While
each case has
technology
cause
the
repercussions,
secondary financial
primary
of the resignations was the
reality of imperfectability.
can

Confucius
improvement
inferior man

said,
or
seeks

The

superior
to
occasion
it in others.'

man
blame]

seeks
in

[room
himself;

for
the

to hierarchical
The Japanese's dedication
systems,
the
Confucian
and to extreme
model,
following
the hierarchy, can be seen as dysfunc
loyalty within
tional. Bresler
(1986) blames Japan's group-centered,
hierarchical
social mores for
interfering with the free
of
He
market
forces.
claims that loyalty to a
play
more
firm or a
important
family of related firms is
in many
than price and
decisions.
quality
purchasing
He also claims that the
that
Japa
special emphasis
nese

on
places
social harmony
results

term
long
in massive

culture

relationships
distribution

and
in

efficiencies.
and small stores
Layers of middlemen
are
from the development
of more
effi
protected
cient distribution
because
their
of
policies
long
service to
larger firms.

Sullivan (1983) has suggested that the Theory Z
competent managers
and not their abilities.

mentality
produces minimally
chosen for their characteristics
He

adds that the
rigidity

to

of the strict adherence
which

emanate

also have

occasional

hierarchical

from

the

relationships,
industrial clan, are stifling and counter-pro
ductive. Ouchi
the negative
(1981) also recognized
a
of
Confucian
dominated
aspects
organizational
culture. He noted
that xenophobia
and racism are
of this intense group loyalty aswell.
by-products
earlier

values

Confucian

for

consequences
Japan. Morgan
just-in-time

the

relationships
smaller manufacturers
contracting
structure
of

in his

(1985),
(kanban)
between

negative
of

industrial

organization
observations
of

the

calls

the

inventory practices,
the larger assemblers
Arms
"incestuous".

is not common

and the

length
in Japan. The hierarchical

industrial
organization
at a severe economic

puts

smaller,

lower class firms
Similarly,
elderly,

disadvantage.
the retired
class workers, women,
are often
and part time workers
shabbily
lower

treated.

Popper, Janow
other consequence
order by hierarchy.
In

societies

obligation
in a vertical

with

are

and Wheeler
of

(1985) suggest
the Confucian
tendency

Confucian

traditions

. . .

an
to

of

concepts

generally based upon unequal relationships

hierarchy.

Equal

rights

in aWestern

sense

are

not part of the traditional system
(p. 10).
in Confu
the status of freedom
Pyle, discussing
cian Asia (cited in theWall
Street Journal, 3/27/87,
the differences
between Western
p. 15), illustrates
and Eastern

conceptions

of equality:

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...

In

tolerance

individualism,
far

less reliance

to

seems

there
particular
for
governmental

guidance,
for
respect
greater
on
legal guarantees,

be

in Asia

less value

greater
on
placed

stress

Dissent
. .

countries.

remains
(from

suspect
Freedom at Issue,

in most
Jan.?Feb.

of

1985,Kaisha, New York: Basic

Books.

upon

the need for morality on the part of the leaders and the
masses.

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