Conservatism in the United States

 

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Conservatism in the United States is a major American major American political ideolog ideologyy. In

contemporary American politics, it is often associated with the Republican Party Party.. Core God d and country country, and many U.S. conservative principles include a belief in Go conservatives support a fiscal policy rooted in small governmen governmentt, laissez faire capitalism capitalism,, policy, American conservatives usually advocate and supply-side economics. economics. In foreign policy, some moderate aspects of " American except exceptionalism ionalism", ", a belief that the U.S. is unique among nations and that its standing and actions do and should guide the course of  world history.  Although there has has always been a conservative tradition in America America,, the modern  American conservative conservative movement w was as popularized by Russell Kirk who, Kirk who, in 1953, published The Conservative Mind. Two years later, in 1955, William F. Buckley, Jr Jr.. founded National Review, a conservative c onservative magazine that included traditionalists, such as anti-communists.. This bringing together of separate Kirk, along with libertarians and anti-communists ideologies under a conservative umbrella was known as "fusionism". Politically, the conservative movement in the U.S. has often been a coalition of various groups, which has sometimes contributed to its electoral success and other times been a source of  internal conflict. Modern conservatism saw its first national political success with the 1964 nomination of  Goldwater, a U.S. Senator from Arizona and author of The Conscience of a Barry Goldwater Conservative

(1960), as the candidate for president. 1980, the Cold War conservative movement wasRepublican able to attract disaffected SouthernIn Democrats, liberal Democrats, and evangelical Christians, to nominate and elect the Republican Reagan,, a self-identified American conservative, as president. candidate Ronald Reagan Subsequent electoral victories included gaining a Republican congressional majority in 1994 and the election of George of George W. Bush in 2000 and 2004. The conservative movement has been advanced by influential think tanks such as the Heritage Foundatio Foundation n, Hoover Institution, Institution, Hudson Institute and Manhattan Institute. Institute. Major media outlets, such as The Wall Street Journa Journall, Fox News, News, The Washington Times,, and Townhall.com Times Townhall.com,, are often described as conservative. The two increasingly major American political p arties, parties, the Democrats and the Republicans, havewing" become polarized, with the Democrats described as "liberal" and "left and the Republicans as "conservative" and "right wing". Contents 

History tory 1 His 1.1 Ori Origins gins Southern hern Conse Conservat rvatism ism 1.2 Sout Century tury 1.3 Late 19th Cen 1.4 Early 20th Cen Century tury 1.5 Modern conservat conservatism ism o o o o o

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Conservat 1.5.1 of Modern Conservatism 1.5.2 Origins Nixon, Reagan, and Bush Bush ism 1.5.2.1 Reagan and the conservative ascent asc ent 

 

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conservatism 2 Types of conservatism 2.1 Conservatism as ideology and political philos philosophy ophy 2.2 Social conservatism and tradi tradition tion 2.3 Fiscal conservat conservatism ism 2.4 Economic liberal liberalism ism politics 3 Conservatism in the United States electoral politics 3.1 Conservative geography, "Red Sta States" tes" topics 4 Other topics 4.1 Contemporary Burkean conservativ conservativism ism 4.2 Conservatism and the Co Courts urts 4.3 Semantics, language, and m media edia 4.3.1 Language Language 4.3.2 Television Television 4.3.3 R adio adio magazines 4.3.4 Newspapers and magazines movements 5 Conservative political movements 6 Conservative thinkers and leaders in the United U nited States States 7 References References 7.1 Primary sour sources ces 7.2 Intellectual his history tory 7.2.1 Political activity activity o o o o

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7.3 Biograp Biographical hical 7.4 Recent poli politics tics Neoconservatism 7.4.1 Neoconservatism 7.4.2 Critic tical al views views 7.4.2 Cri 8 See also 9 External links links 9.1 U.S. conservative organizations and publicat publications ions 9.2 Articles and essays on U.S. conservat conservatism ism o o

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History Origins

Unlike England, Europe and even former European colonies, the United States does not [1] Therefore, conservatism cannot be have major ideological, class-based parties parties..[1] identified with a specific party, and there is vast disagreement over which politicians [2][3]] and writers from the past should be included as conservatives conservatives..[2][3 Generally however the Federalist, Whig and Republican Parties are considered the "conservative" parties, while the Democratic Party is considered "liberal". Prior to the American Revolution, colonial institutions were generally conservative, including established churches, entailed property ownership and bondage labor. Local land-owning and merchant elites became powerful through patronage from colonial governors and formed "court" factions in the colonial legislatures, opposed by "popular" factions representing less privileged voters. These conservative elites and their followers are often referred to by modern historians historians as "Tories", the term later used by leaders of 

 

the American Revolution to describe those loyal to the Crown. Some of the leading Tory writers included Joseph Galloway, Galloway, Thomas Hutchinso Hutchinson n, Peter Oliver and Samuel Seabury.. Following the Revolution, approximately 100,000 loyalists fled the United Seabury States, although the great majority remained in America. wrote te tthat hat the the American  American Revolution Revolution was "a Russell Kirk , in The Conservative Mind, wro conservative reaction, in the English political tradition, against royal innovation" [4], and saw the Federalists, led by John Adams as "the first conservative faction in an independent America" [5]. Federalists had rebelled only because the British government had threatened the English traditions and institutions that the colonists enjoyed. The Federalist leadership had enjoyed considerable power and influence under British rule and unsurprisingly former Tories joined in the new party.  Alexander Hamilton Hamilton,, feared that the American The Federalists, led by John Adams and and Alexander Revolution could follow the radical course of the French Revolution of 1789, and concentrated power in the central government, restricted voting franchise to propertyActs, which were laws designed to target owners, and introduced the Alien the Alien and Sedition Acts, subversion. Conservatives who could be relied on to invalidate radical legislation were appointed to the Supreme Court. However, the Federalist Party declined following Jefferson's Jeffer son's vict victory ory in 1800, leavi leaving ng the Democratic Republican Party dominant. The Federalist party dissolved in 1815. In 1824, the Democratic-Rep Democratic-Republican ublican Party split into several factions, notably the Jacksonians Jacksonians (later the De Democratic mocratic Party) a and nd the National Republicans. Republicans . In the early 1830s, the National Republicans combined with various other political factions to form the Whig Party Party,, choosing the name "Whig" because it had been used by patriots in the Revolution and therefore therefore appealed to American Americans' s' sense of tradition. Daniel Webster and other Whig leaders called themselves the "conservative party" and used the word "conservative." This word had been coined by French politician [6]] Chateaubriand in 1819, Chateaubriand 1819,[6 and introduced into American politics by John C. Calhou Calhoun n. In Whig usage, it emphasized preservation of the union and constitutionalism (as opposed to abolitionism). abolitionism). However, the term "conservative" was omitted from Whig's final 1856 presidential platform. Unlike the Federalists, the Whigs made a direct appeal to ordinary voters, v oters, successfully running the well-known General William Henry Harrison as its presidential candidate in 1840. The campaign portrayed Harrison as a rugged frontiersman, whereas he was a  Virginia Planter. But But lack of unity, esp especially ecially over the issue of slavery, led to the party's decline and it disappeared by 1860. The first Republican president, Abraham president, Abraham Lincoln Lincoln,, who is widely regarded as one of   America's best presidents and, unlike Harrison, an an actual frontiersm frontiersman, an, was ab able le to appeal to both Hamiltonian and Jeffersonian elements, security and democracy. The Republican constituency grew to include northern farmers and freed slaves, and led to Republican dominance for the next eighty years.

 

Southern Conservatism

John Randolph of Roanok e and John C. Calhoun Calhoun expressed a traditional conservatism in the Southern states before the Civil War. [7]] Randolph declared in 1829: "I am an aristocrat: I love liberty, I hate equality". equality".[7 He is considered, along with John Calhoun, to be one of the main defenders of Southern plantation interests before the Civil War.

Calhoun, a Democrat, articulated a sophisticated conservatism in his writings. Richard Hofstadter (1948) called him "The Marx of the Master Class." He believed that only property holders should be allowed to vote, and resisted the growing strength of the federal government. He also argued that a conservative co nservative minority should be able to limit li mit the power of a "majority dictatorship" because tradition represents the wisdom of past generations. (This argument echoes one made by Edmund Burke, Burke, the founder of British conservatism, in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)). However, as Russell Kirk wrote, after the Civil War and Reconstruction, traditional conservatism faded in the South. "Grant and Sherman ground their valor into powder, Emancipation and Reconstruction demolished demolished the loose structure of their old society, economic subjugation crushed them into the productive machine of modern times. No [8] has had a briefer span of triumph than that accorded Randolph's political philosophy and Calhoun's."

Southern conservatism revived after the Civil War with the rise of the Dixiecrats and the "Solid South". The Democratic Party styled itself "The Party of the White Man", and worked to overturn the gains in civil rights accomplished by civil rights workers from the north, who were largely Republican. Northerners who came south to teach Africancarpetbaggerss, while Southerners who  Americans to read read and write were denigrated as carpetbagger fought for civil rights were called "scalawags". Southern Negroes were denied the right to vote, by violence and and threats of violence violence,, for a centur century, y, from the time of th the e Reconstruction until the 1960s. Conservatism as anthe intellectual the South was briefly revived Nixon in the 20th Century with rise of themovement Southern in Agrarians Agrarians. . Today, after Richard Nixo n'searly Strategy,, cultural and political conservatism has gained a foothold in the Southern Strategy  American South based not on racism, but on religion, with the Repu Republican blican and Democratic parties swapping places, and the "solid south" switching from Democrat to Republican. Late 19th Century

Following the American Civil War, the United States entered the Gilded Age (18681900) during which there was massive economic expansion, but also growing divisions of wealth, with John D. Rockefeller, Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegi Carnegie e, J.P. Morgan Morgan and others creating huge corporations dominating entire industries, while 12 hour work days, child labor, [9]] unethical business dealings and discrimination were common common..[9

 

During this period, both the Republican and Democratic Parties pursued laissez-faire economic policies. The best known president of this era was Grover Clevelan Cleveland d, a Democrat,, who fought corruption and high taxes, and vigorously defended big Bourbon Democrat business. William Graham Sumne Sumnerr, a popular philosopher of this period, exemplified the [10]] Opposition to belief in free markets, anti-imperia anti-imperialism lism and the gold standard standard..[10 conservatism came mostly from outside the two political parties, from trade unions and farm groups, often forming third parties p arties such as the Green Greenbackback-Labor Labor Part Partyy and the Populist Party Party..  As the century drew drew to a close, tthe he United Stat States es had become a major commerc commercial ial power and had acquired overseas territories in Hawaii, Cuba, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam. The two parties re-aligned in the election of 1896, with the Republicans, led by William McKinley McKinley,, becoming the party of business, sound mone moneyy, Bryan,, and assertive foreign policy, and the Democrats, led by populist William Jennings Bryan becoming the party of labour and farmers, a inflationary monetary policy of bimetalism of bimetalism,, anti-imperialism, and a tariff strictly for revenue as opposed to protection protection.. Early 20th Century

Robert A. Taft See also: Old Right (United States) In the early years of the twentieth century, Republican presidents Theodore Roosevel Rooseveltt and William Howard Taft governed more as Progressives than as Conservatives (Roosevelt more so) including regulation of railroad rates, federal inspection of food and drugs, and ant anti-trust i-trust legislat legislation ion and prosecutions. Nelson Aldrich Aldrich,, the Republican Senate Majority leader, introduced legislation to establish the Federal Reserve System, System, which was set up in 1913. The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917 alarmed both Democrats and Republicans, leading both parties to take strong anti-communist positions. In 1918, American troops were sent to join European, Asian, Canadian C anadian and Australian forces in an allied interventi inter vention on in the Russian Russian Civil War War, while at home the government passed laws against anarchists10,000 and other radicals, and conducted numerousagainst raids (see PalmerEugene Raids), Raids ), arresting people, and even fabricated evidence suspects. Debs,, the leader of the Socialist Party was convicted under the Espionage Act 1917 for Debs

 

opposing American entry into the First World War, and was sentenced to ten years imprisonment and many elected Socialist office-holders were expelled from office. At At the height of the "Red "Red Scare Scare", ", the Attorney-General, Alexander Attorney-General, Alexander Palme Palmerr predicted that there would be a Communist C ommunist Revolution in America on May 1, 1920. Conservative Republicans returned to dominance in 1920 with the election of President Harding g. The presidency of Calvin of Calvin Coolidg Coolidge e (1923-29) was a high water mark  Warren G. Hardin for conservatism, both politically and intellectually. Coolidge himself spoke and wrote extensively in defense of American enterprise. Classic writing of the period includes Democracy and Leadership (1924) by Irving Babbitt and H.L. Mencken Mencken's magazine  American Mercury (1924-33). The Efficiency Movemen Movementt attracted Progressive

Republicans like Herbert Hoover Hoover with its pro-business, quasi-engineering approach to solving social and economic problems. Depression n which followed the 1929 stock market collapse led to price The Great Depressio deflation, massive unemployment, falling farm incomes, investment losses, bank  failures, business bankruptcies and reduced government revenues. The voters grew Hooverr's claim that prosperity was just impatient with Republican President Herbert Hoove around the corner and that government was powerless to improve the economy and elected Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevel Rooseveltt as president in 1932. Roosevelt assembled experts and introduced a set of policies called the New Deal Deal, which was greatly Keynes.. influenced by the economic theories of the Liberal economist John Maynard Keynes These included devaluing the dollar, which would lead to permanent inflation, running a budget deficit, and increasing spending on government works and social welfare programs, as well as establishing regulatory bodies such as the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). and Al Smith (1928) Former Democratic presidential candidates John W. Davis (1924) and Al along with other anti-New Deal Democrats and wealthy industrialists, formed the League  American Liberty Leagu e in order to organize against the new administration. Rightt, a group of libertarian of libertarian,, freeOpposition to the New Deal also came from the Old Righ market anti-interventionists, originally associated with Midwestern Republicans and Southern Democrats. Old Right were also"isolationists", later united inalthough opposing Americantoentry into the Second WorldThe War, and were called opposition the war came from across the political spectrum (see (see America  America First First.. However, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the German declaration of war against the United States united them behind the war effort. Garnerr worked with congressional allies to prevent Roosevelt  Vice President John Nance Garne from appointing sympathetic Supreme Court judges who would not over-rule New Deal legislation as unconstitutional. U.S. Senator Josiah Bailey (D-NC) released what later Manifesto"" in December 1937 which marked the became known as the "Conservative Manifesto beginning of what later became known as the "Conservative Coalition Coalition"" between [11 [11]] Republican and Southern Democrats Democrats..  Although Roosevelt tried to purge th the e conservative Democrats in the 1938 election, the Coalition controlled Congress until 1961, aside from a brief period in 1949-50. Its most prominent leaders were Senator Russelll (D-GA). Robert Taft (R-OH) and Senator Richard Russel

 

Robert Taft unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination in 1940, 1948, and 1952, and was an opponent of American membership in NATO and participation in the Korean War.. War  Although the United United States em emerged erged as the world's undisput undisputed ed leading power follow following ing the Second World War, the Soviet Union was able to build substantial military power, and had influence with many independence groups in European colonies. While the government addressed addressed this perceived threat by ma maintaining intaining a permanent militar militaryy presence throughout the world, conservatives used their power in Congress to investigate a perceived threat from domestic Communists. Senator Joe McCarthy and Congressman Richard Nixon were leading congressional anti-communist investigators, investigators, though McCarthy did so in a highly morally questionable manner, while FBI Director J Edgar Hoover Hoover led police investigations and informed the public of the perceived threat and Screen Actor's Guild President Ronald Reaga Reagan n looked for Communists working in the film industry. Modern conservatism

Modern conservatism, which combines elements from both traditional conservatism and libertarianism, emerged following World War II II,, has its immediate political roots in reaction to the New Deal. It is generally referred to simply as "conservatism". Origins of Modern Conservatism C onservatism

 Although the Republicans Republicans returned to power with tthe he election of Genera Generall Dwight D. Eisenhowerr as president in 1952, the economic and social policies of the New Deal had Eisenhowe become generally accepted and its opponents were marginalized. Isolationism had discredited the Old Right and their opposition to Civil Rights had discredited the Southern Democrats. The most critical opposition to these policies came from writers. Kirk claimed that both classical and modern liberalism placed too much Russell Kirk claimed emphasis on economic issues and failed to address man's spiritual nature, and called for a plan of action for a conservative political movement. He said that conservative leaders [12]] This target group is should appeal to farmers, small towns, the churches, and others. others.[12 similar theMises, core, Ayn constituency of Milton the British Conservative Party. Freidrich Hayek , liberal Hayek  Ludwigto von Ran Rand d, and Friedman advocated a return to classical Mises or libertarian policies and together provided a vigorous criticism of the welfare state and Keynesian Keyne sian econ economics omics.. William F. Buckley, Jr. formed the magazine the National Review in 1955 as a forum for these writers to voice their disagreements with modern liberalism and also with one another. He was joined by anti-communist Robert W. Welch Jr. Jr., who would found the John Birch Society in 1958, as a shareholder and contributor. The main disagreement between Kirk, who would become described as a "traditional conservative", and the libertarians was whether tradition and virtue or liberty should be fusionism": their primary concern. Frank Meyer tried to resolve the dispute with "fusionism":  America could not conserve conserve its tradit traditions ions without econo economic mic freedom. He also n noted oted that they were united in opposition to "big government" and made anti-communism the glue that would unite them. The term "conservative" was used to describe the views of 

 

Natio Nat ion nal R Rev evie iew w ssup uppo port rter ers, s, des it ite e iini niti tial al pr prot otes ests ts fr from om th the e llib iber erta tari rian ans, s, be becc use the term  ""lliberal" h ha ad b be ecome a asssociate iated d with ""New New De Deal" al" su suppor pporters. ters. They w wer er also later known as the "New "New Right Right", as o posed to the New Left Left.. The conservatives united behind the unsu unsucces ccessful sful 196 1964 4 presi president dential ial camp campaig aig of  Sena Se nato torr  B Bar arry ry Go Gold ldwa wate ter, r, wh who o h d published the "Conscience of a Conservativ ive e" (1960), a best-selling book that xplained modern conservative theory. Substantial organization  ffo or tth he cca ampaig ign n c me from the John Birch Society and the ne ly-formed  Young Americans for Freedom Freedom.. In 1965 1965 con conser servat vative ivess ca campa mpaign igned ed ffor or B Buck uckll y as a third party par ty can candid didat ate e ffor or May Mayor or of N Ne e  York and in 1966 for Ronald Reagan, who was elected governor of California. R agan sought the Republican presidential nomination in 1968 19 68 an and d 197 1976, 6, be befo fore re fi fina nallllyy b be eing elected president in 1980. The grow The growth th of cons conser erva vati tism sm wi witt in the Republican Party attracted conservative Southern Democrats as new me bers, and the Republicans became the do inant power in the Southern states. In 1964, the segregationist Democratic Senat r Strom Thurmond joined the Republican Thurmond joined Republicans, and in 1973 former Texas Democratic Go ernor John Connally followed. Meanwhile, S uthern African American voters beg ega an supporting the Democrats overwhelmingly. (Se Southern  Strategy Strategy). Nixon, Reagan, and Bush See also: Nixon and the liberal c nsensus nsensus

The Republican administrations f President Richard Nixon in the 1970s wer détente, and economic olicies characterized more by th their e em mphasis on realpolitik , détente than b byy th their eir a adh dher eren ence ce tto o co cons nser erva vati tive ve vvie iews in such as wage wage and pri price ce contr controls ols than foreign and economic policy.

Ronald Reagan Reagan Reagan Rea gan and the con conser servat vativ iv ascent

of Ronald Reaga Reagan n's It was not until the election of 1 of 1 80 and the subsequent eight years of R presidency that the modern Am rican conservative movement truly achieved

 

ascendancy. In that that election, Republicans took cont control rol of the Senate for the first time since 1954, and conservative principles dominated Reagan's economic and foreign policies, with supply side economics and strict opposition to Soviet Communism defining the Administration's philosophy. Reagan's ideas were largely espoused and supported Foundation n, which grew dramatically in its influence during by the conservative Heritage Foundatio the Reagan years as Reagan and his senior aides looked to Heritage for policy guidance.  An icon of the American American conservative m movement, ovement, Reaga Reagan n is credited by his supporters supporters with transforming the politics of the United States, galvanizing the success of the Republican Party, uniting a coalition of economic conservatives who supported his economic policies policies,, known as "Reaganomics Reaganomics," foreign policy conservatives who favored his staunch opposition to Communism and the Soviet Union over the détente of his support for defen defense se strengt strengthenin hening g predecessors through the Reagan Doctrine and support measures, and social conservatives who identified with Reagan's conservative religious and social ideals. Reagan's labeling the former Soviet Union an "evil "evil empire empire," ," while criticized by many American liberals and other world leaders, is now viewed by historians as a turning point in the Cold War War,, justifying more assertive measures to defeat, as opposed to merely contain, the Soviet Union as a world power. In defining conservatism, Reagan Reagan said: "If you analyze it I believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism. li bertarianism. I think conservatism is really a misnomer just as liberalism is a misnomer for the liberals -- if we were b back ack in the days of the Revolution, so-called conservatives today would be the Liberals and the liberals would be the Tories. The basis of conservatism is a desire for less government interference or less centralized authority or more individual freedom and this is i s a pretty general description [13] also of what libertarianism is." Types of conservatism

conservative e" is often used used ver veryy differe differently ntly from In the United States today, the word "conservativ the way the word was used in the past and still is used in many parts of the world. The core ideals of historical conservatism, the way they are popularly understood today, were preserving of the land-owning larevolution nd-owningled class prese rving strongand ties between church and state.the As power the industrial to aand newpreserving manufacturing professional elite, the ideals of conservatism changed to embrace laissez-faire economics econo mics an and d an oppos opposition ition to socialism socialism..[14] In the United States, from the mid-20th century on, these two forms of conservatism have largely combined, but still are at odds with those who believe in both limited government and free market economics. Barry Goldwate Goldwaterr is one example of a "free enterprise" conservative, one of the last Republica Republican n proponents of classical of classical liberalism and small government. Jerry Falwel Falwelll is an example of a Christian conservative, and indicative of the new alliance alli ance between large government conservatives, like George W. Bush,, and the religiously-informed Bush religiously-informed proponen proponents ts of conservative ssocial ocial policy. Many Reagan a self-declared conservatives cite Ronald Reaga of these conservative themes in nhisaspolitical ideology.conservative who incorporated all

 

In the 21st century U.S., some of the groups calling themselves "conservative" include: 1. Classical or institutional conservatism — Opposition to rapid change in governmental and societal institutions. This kind of conservatism is anti-ideological insofar as it emphasizes process (slow change) over product (any particular form of  government). To the classical conservative, whether one arrives at a government controlled by a particular political poli tical party is less important than whether change is affected through rule of law rather than through revolution and sudden innovation. The classical conservative emphasizes historical historical continuity, to ensure that a reform does not cause chaos within both the populace and historical institutions of a given society. Classical conservatives also favor tradition over experimentation, and have an inherent distrust in utopian utopian schemes. 2. Ideological conservatism or right-wing conservatism — In contrast to tthe he antiideological classical conservatism, right-wing conservatism is, as its name implies, ideological. It favors business and established religion, and opposes socialism, Fascism Fascism,, and communism. communism. 3. Christian conservatism — Conservative Christia Christians ns are prima primarily rily interested in wha whatt they describe as family values values.. They believe that the United States was founded as a abortion n is wrong, favor teacher-led Christian praye prayerr in Christian Christ ian nati nation, on, believ believe e that abortio state schools, define marriage as betwee between n one man and one woma woman n , and desire regulation of the public media to reduce profanity and sexual references. They strongly oppose the normalization of homosexualit of homosexualityy. 4. Neoconservatism — A modern form of conser conservatism vatism that supports a more assertive foreign policy, aimed at promoting democracy abroad. Neoconservatism was Kristol,, usually credited first described by a group of disaffected liberals, and thus Irving Kristol as its intellectual progenitor, defined a neoconservative as "a liberal who was mugged by reality." Although originally regarded as an approach to domestic policy (the founding instrument of the movement, Kristol's The Public Interest periodical, did not even cover foreign affairs), through the influence of figures like Dick Chene Cheneyy, Robert Kagan,, Richard Perle Kagan Perle,, Kenneth Adelman Adelman and (Irving's son) Bill Kristol, Kristol, it has become most famous for its association with most the foreign policyand of the Georgeconservatives W. Bush administration. administration . Many o off the nation's prominent influential during the two terms of the Bush administration were considered "neoconservative" "neoconservative" in [15 [15]] their ideological orientation. orientation. 5. Small government conservatism — Small government conservatives look for a decreased role of the federal government. They follow the Founding Fathers in their suspicion of a powerful federal government. 6. Paleoconservatism — Arising in the 1980 1980ss in reaction tto o neoconservatism, stresses tradition, especially Christian tradition and the importance to society of the traditional family. Paleoconservatives strongly oppose government intervention into people's lives. Huntington n for example, argue that multiracial, multiethnic, and Some, Samuel P. Huntingto [16]] egalitarian states are inherently unstable. unstable.[16 Paleoconservatives Paleoconservat ives are generally

 

isolationist, and suspicious of foreign influence. The magazines Chronicles and American Conservative are generally considered to be Paleoconservative in nature. 7. Libertarian conservatism — Emphasizes a strict interpretat interpretation ion of the United States Constitution, Constitution, particularly with regard to federal power power. Libertarian conservatism is constituted by a broad, even conflicted, coalition including pro-business social moderates, those favoring classic states' rights, individual liberty activists, and people concerned over single issues. This mode of thinking tends to espouse laissez-faire economics and a disdain for and distrust of the federal government. Libertarian conservatives' emphasis on personal freedom often leads them to adopt social positions contrary to those of Christian Ch ristian conservatives. The libertarian branch of conservatism may have similar disputes that isolationist i solationist paleoconservatives would with neoconservatives. However libertarian conservatives may be more militarily interventionist or support a greater degree of military strength than other libertarians. li bertarians. Contrarily strong preference for local government makes libertarian conservatives in frequent opposition to international government. Conservatism as ideology and politic political al philosophy

Classical conservatives tend to be anti-ideological, and some would even say anti[17]] promoting rather, as Russell Kirk explains, Kirk explains, a steady flow of  philosophical,,[17 philosophical "prescription and prejudice." Kirk's use of the word "prejudice" here is not intended to carry its contemporary pejorative connotation: a conservative himself, he believes that the inherited wisdom of the ages may be a better guide than apparently rational individual judgment. In contrast to classical conservatism, social conservatism and fiscal conservatism are concerned with consequences as well as means. There are two overlapping subgroups of social conservatives—the traditional traditional and the religious. Traditional conservatives strongly support traditional codes of conduct, especially those they feel are threatened by social change. For example, traditional conservatives may oppose the use of female soldiers in combat. Religious conservatives focus conducting as prescribed a religious authority code. the United Stateson this translatessociety into taking hard-line by stances on moral issues,orsuch asIn opposition to abortion abortion and homosexuality homosexuality. Some religious conservatives go so far as to support the use of government institutions to promote religiosity in public life. Fiscal conservatives support limited government, limited taxation, and a balanced budget. Some admit the necessity of taxes, but hold that taxes should be low. l ow. A recent movement against against the inherita inheritance nce tax labels such a tax a death tax. tax. Fiscal conservatives often argue that competition in the free market is more effective than the regulation of  industry, with the exception of industries that exhibit market dominance or monopoly powers. For some this is a matter of principle, as it is for the libertarians and others influenced by thinkers such as Ludwig von Mises, Mises, who believed that government intervention in the economy is inevitably i nevitably wasteful and inherently corrupt and For others, "free market economics" simply represents the most efficient way immoral. to

 

promote economic growth: they support it not based on some moral principle, but pragmatically, because it "works". Most modern American fiscal conservatives accept some social spending programs not specifically delineated in the Constitution. As such, fiscal fi scal conservatism today exists somewhere between classical classical conservatism and co contemporary ntemporary consequent consequentialist ialist political philosophies. Throughout much of the 20th century, one of the primary forces uniting the occasionally disparate strands of conservatism, and uniting conservatives with their liberal and socialist opponents, was opposition to communism communism,, which was seen not only as an enemy of the traditional traditional order, but also the enemy of western freedom an and d democracy. For example, in the 1980s, the United States government spent billions of  dollars arming and supporting Islamic terrorists, because these terrorists were fighting communists. [18] Social conservatism and tradition

Main article: Social conservatism Social conservatism or "cultural conservatism" is generally dominated by defense of  traditional norms and values, of local l ocal customs and of societal evolution, e volution, religion,, than socialsocial upheaval, though the distinction is not absolute. Often based upon rather religion modern cultural conservatives, in contrast to "small-governm "small-government" ent" conservatives and "states-rights" "states-right s" advocates, increas increasingly ingly turn to the federal governm government ent to overrule the states in order to preserve educational and moral standards. Social conservatives emphasize traditional traditional views of social units such as the family family,, church church,, or locale. Social conservatives would typically define family in terms of local Catholic,, social conservatism may entail histories and tastes. To the Protestant or Catholic support for defining marriage as between a man an and d a woman (thereby bann banning ing gay marriage)) and laws placing restrictions on abortio marriage abortion n. Conservative Protestants often advocate teaching universe of intelligent of intelligent desig design in the public schools, and believe that the theory of a the God-created should benpresented as a legitimate explanation for the world's creation. They often object when the schools teach a secular version of history, making the claim, for example, that all of America's Founding Fathers were Christian, and that America is thus founded on a Christian tradition. From this same respect for local traditions comes the correlation between conservatism and patriotism.[citation needed] Conservatives, out of their respect for traditional, established institutions, tend to strongly identify with nationalist movements, existing governments, and its defenders: police, the military, and national poets, authors, and artists. Conservatives hold that military institutions embody admirable values like honor, duty, courage, and loyalty. Military institutions are independent sources of tradition and ritual pageantry that conservatives tend to admire.

 

Some conservatives conservatives want to us use e federal power to block state actions they disapprove of. Thus in the 21st century came support for the "No "No Child Left Behind" Behind" program, support for a constitutional amendment prohibiting same-sex marriage marriage,, support for federal laws overruling states that attempt to legalize marijuan marijuana a or assisted suicide. suicide. The willingness to use federal power to intervene in state affairs is the negation of the old state's rights position.  Anti-intellectualism has sometimes been a component of social conservatism, especially when intellectuals were seen in opposition to religion reli gion or as proponents of "progress". [19]

In the 1920s, William Jennings Bryan led the battle against Darwinism and evolution evolution,, a battle which still goes on in some conservative circles today.

Fiscal conservatism

Main article: Fiscal conservatism Fiscal conservatism is the economic and political policy that advocates restraint of  governmental taxation taxation and expenditures. Fiscal Fiscal conservatives since the 19th cent century ury have argued that debt is a device to corrupt politics; they argue that big spending ruins the morals of the people, and that a national debt creates a dangerous class of  speculators. The argument in favor of balanced of balanced budget budgetss is often coupled with a belief  that government welfare programs should be narrowly tailored and that tax rates should be low, which implies i mplies relatively small government institutions. This belief in small government combines with fiscal conservatism to produce a broader economic liberalism, which wishes to minimize government intervention in the economy. This amounts to support for laissez-faire economics. This economic liberalism borrows from two schools of thought: the classical liberals' pragmatism and the libertarian's notion of "rights." The classical liberal maintains that free markets work  best, while the libertarian contends tthat hat free markets are the on only ly ethical markets. Economic liberalism

The economic philosophy of freedom conservatives in theliberalism United States tends be more liberal allowing for more economic freedom. . Economic can go wellto beyond fiscal conservatism's concern for fiscal prudence, to a belief or principle that it is not prudent for governments to intervene in markets. It is i s also, sometimes, extended to a broader free-market, or "small government government" philosophy. Economic liberalism is associated with free-market, laissez-faire economics. liberall" Economic liberalism, insofar as it is ideological, owes its creation to the "classical libera tradition, in the vein of   Adam Adam Smith Smith,, Friedrich A. Hayek  Hayek , Milton Friedman Friedman, and Ludwig von Mises. Mises. Classical liberals and libertarians support free markets on moral, ideological grounds:

principles of individual liberty morally dictate support for free markets. Supporters of  the moral grounds for free markets include Ayn include Ayn Rand and Ludwig von Mises. Mises. The liberal tradition is suspicious of government authority, and prefers individual choice, and hence tends to see capitalist economics as the preferable means of achieving economic ends.

 

Modern conservatives, on the other hand, derive support for free markets from practical grounds. Free markets, they argue, are the most productive markets. Thus the modern conservative supports free markets not out of necessity, but out of expedience. The support is not moral or ideological, but driven on the Burkean notion of prescription: what works best is what is right.  Another reason why conservatives ssupport upport a sma smaller ller role for the governme government nt in the economy is the belief in the importance of the civil society. society. As noted by Alexis by Alexis de Tocqueville,, a bigger role of the government in the economy will make people feel less Tocqueville responsible for the society. society. The respon responsibilities sibilities must then be taken over by tthe he government, requiring higher taxes. In his book Democracy book Democracy in America America,, De Tocqueville describes this as "soft oppression". It must be noted that while classical liberals and modern conservatives reached free markets through different means historically, to-date the lines have blurred. Rarely will a politician claim that free markets are "simply more productive" or "simply the right thing to do" but a combination of both. This blurring is very much a product of the merging of the classical liberal and modern conservative positions under the "umbrella" of the conservative movement. The archetypal archetypal free-ma free-market rket conse conservative rvative administ administrations rations of the late 20th century -- the Margaret Thatcher government in the UK and the Ronald Reagan Reagan government in the U.S. -- both held th the e unfett unfettered ered oper operatio ation n of the market to be the corne cornerston rstone e of  contemporary modern conservatism (this philosophy is sometimes called neoliberalism). neoliberalism). To that end, Thatch Thatcher er privatized industries and Rea Reagan gan cut the maximum capital gains tax from 98% to 20%, though in his second term he raised it back up to 28%. Contrary to the neoliberal ideal, Reagan increased government spending from about 700 billion in his first year in o office ffice to about 900 billion in his last yea year. r. [20] The interests of capitalism of capitalism,, fiscal and economic liberalism, and free-market econom economyy do not necessarily coincide with those of social conservatism. At times, aspects of  capitalism and free markets have been profoundly subversive of the existing socia sociall order, as in economic modernization, or of traditional attitudes toward the proper y. To position in society, in the nowofnear-universal of pornography of pornograph that end,ofonsex issues at the as intersection economic andavailability social policy, conservatives of  one school or another are often at odds. Conservatism in the United States electoral politics See also: Dixiecrats Dixiecrats,, Southern strategy strategy,, Solid South South, Contract with America

In the United States, the Republican Party is generally considered to be the party of  conservatism. This has been the case since the 1960s, when the conservative wing of  that party consolidated its hold, causing it to shift permanently to the right of the Party. The most dramatic realignment was the white South, which moved Democratic Party. from 3-1 Democratic to 3-1 Republican between 1960 and 2000.

 

Map of result resultss by sta state te of the 2004 U.S. presidential election wi with th st stat ates es wo by Republicans in red and ssttates w n by Democrats in blue. In addition, many United States libertarians, in the Libertarian Party and eve some in the Republican Party, see themselves as conservative, even though they advocate significant economic and social chang hanges es – for insta instance, nce, furth further er dismantlin dismantling g t e welfare system or  lib liber eral aliz izin ing g dr drug ug p pol olic ic . They see these as conservative policies be ause they conform  to the spirit of individual liberty that they consider consider to be a traditiona traditional American value. On the other end of the scale le,, s me Amer America icans ns see th thems emselv elves es as ccons onserv ervat atiive while nott be no bein ing g ssup uppo port rter erss o off fre free em mar arket policies. These people generally favor protectionis otectionistt jobs bs.. trade policies and government i tervention in the market to preserve American jo Many of tthese hese conse conservat rvatives ives were originally supporters of  neoliberalism who changed of neoliberalism their stance stance af after ter per perceiving ceiving ttha ha countries such as China we were re bene benefi fiti ting ng fr fro om that sy syst stem em at th the ee exp xpen ense se of Am Amer eric ican prod produc ucti tion on.. Ho Howe weve ver, r, d des espi pite te tthe heir ir ssup upp p rt for protectionism, they still tend to av avor or o oth ther er el elem emen ents ts of fr free ee ma mark rket et ph philo iloso sop phy, such as low low ta taxe xes, s, lilimi mite ted d go gove vern rnme ment nt a d balanced budgets.

Cons Co nser erva vati tive ve ge geog ogra raph phy, y, "R d States"

Today in tthe Today he U. U.S., S., geographica geographicallll the Sout South h, the non-coastal West West,, and Alas and Alas a are co con nse serrva vattiv ive e st stro ron ngh ghol olds ds.. Ho Howe we er, the division of the United States into co servative red states and liberal blue states is artificial and does not reflect the actual distribution of voters of either stripe. Most c llege towns are generally liberal and vote Democratic. The majority of people who live in rura rurall area areass and a smal smaller ler major majority ity of thos living in suburbs of a me ropolitan area, tend to be conservative (socially, the "exurb "exurbss" or suburbs cu cult ltur ural ally ly,,  a and nd/o /orr fis fisca calllly) y) an and d v te Republican. People who live in the urban cores of  large metropolitan areas tend to be liber liberal al and vot vote e Dem Democr ocrati atic. c. Th Thus, us, wit withi hi each state, stat e,  tthere here is a divisio division n be betwee twee city and county, between town and gown. gown. [1 [1]] [2]

 

Other topics Contemporary Burkean conservativism

In western Europe Europe conservatism is g generally enerally associa associated ted with the following views, as noted by the conservative author Russell Kirk  Kirk in in his 1953 book, The Conservative Mind, and (during the lat 18th century) by the British political philosopher Edmund Burke: Burke: 1. "Beli "Belief ef in a trans transcende cendent nt orde order, r, or body of natu natural ral law, w which hich rul rules es socie society ty as well as conscience." 2. "Affec "Affection tion fo forr the prolife proliferati rating ng var variety iety a and nd myst mystery ery of h human uman exist existence ence,, as opposed to the narrowing uniformity, egalitarianism, and utilitarian aims of most radical systems;" 3. "Persuasion that freedom and prop property erty are closely linked: separate property from private possession, and the Leviathan becomes master of all." 4. "Faith in prescription and distrust of 'sophisters, calculators, and economist economists' s' who would reconstruct society upon abstract designs." 5. "Reco "Recognit gnition ion tha thatt chan change ge may n not ot be sa saluta lutary ry reform reform:: hast hastyy innova innovation tion ma mayy be a devouring conflagration, rather than a torch of progress." Conservatism and the Courts

Main article: Originalism One stream of conservatism exemplified by William Howard Taft extols independent  judges as experts experts in fairness and and the final arbite arbiters rs of the Constitution. Constitution. However, another more crit critical ical variant of conse conservatism rvatism co condemns ndemns "judicial activism" -- that is,  judges rejecting laws laws passed by Con Congress gress or interpret interpreting ing the Constitution Constitution in new ways. This position goes back to Jefferson's vehement attacks on federal judges and to  Abraham Lincoln Lincoln's 's attacks on the Dred Scott decision of 1857. In 1910 Theodore Roosevelt broke with most of his lawyer friends and called for popular votes tthat hat could overturn unwelcome decisions by state courts. President Franklin D. Roosevelt Roosevelt did not attack the Supreme Court directly in 1937, but ignited a firestorm of protest by a Courtt ofdesegregation, the 1960s came under proposal to add seven justices. The Warren Cour conservative attack fornew decisions regarding redistricting, and the rights of those accused of crimes. originalism", ", the assertion that the  A more recent variant variant that em emerged erged in the 197 1970s 0s is ""originalism United States Constitution should be interpreted to the maximum extent possible in the light of what it meant when it was adopted. Originalism should not be confused with a similar conservative ideology, strict constructionism constructionism,, which deals with the interpretation of the Constitution as written, but not necessarily within the context of the time when it was adopted. In modern times, originalism has been advocated by U.S. Supreme Court  Antonin Scalia, Bork and and other conservative  justice Antonin  justice Scalia, former U.S. federal judge Robert Bork   jurists.

 

Semantics Sema ntics,, language, language, and media media Language

In the late 20th century conservatives found new ways to use language and the media to support their goals and to shape the vocabulary of political discourse. Thus the use of "Democrat" as an adjective, as in "Democrat Party" was used first in the 1930s by Republicans to criticize large urban Democratic machines. Republican leader Harold Stassen stated in 1940, "I emphasized that the party controlled in large l arge measure at that time by Hague in New Jersey, Pendergast in Missouri and Kelly Nash in Chicago should not be called a 'Democratic Party.' It should be called the 'Democrat party.'" [Safire 1994] In 1947 Senator Robert A. Taft said, "Nor can we expect any other policy from any Democrat Party or any Democrat President under present day conditions. They cannot possibly win an election solely through the support of the solid South, South, and yet their political strategists believe the Southern Democrat Party will not break away no matter how radical the allies imposed upon it." [Taft Papers 3:313]. The use of  "Democrat" as an adjective is standard practice in Republican national platforms (since 1948), and was a standard practice in the White House in 2001-2008, for press releases and speeches. Television

Pew further reported that conservatives and liberals were increasingly polarized in their TV news preferences. The cable news audience was slightly more Republican and more strongly conservative than the public at large or the network news audience. Among regular cable news viewers, 43% described their political views as conservative, compared with 33% of regular network news viewers; 37% of cable viewers are moderate, compared to 41% of network viewers; and 14% are self-described liberals versus 18% of network viewers. The audience for the Fox News Channel Channel has grown since 1998, attracting more conservative and Republican viewers. In 1998, the Fox News audience mirrored the public in terms of both partisanship and ideology. However, the percentage of Fox News Channel viewers who identify as Republicans has increased steadily from 24% in 1998, to 29% in 2000, 34% in 2002, and 41% in 2004. Over the same time period, the percentage of Fox viewers who describe themselves as conservative has increased from [21] 40% to 52%. 52%.[21] Radio

Conservatives gained a major new communications medium with the advent of talk  of talk  radio in the 1990s. Rush Limbaug Limbaugh h proved there was a huge nationwide audience for specific and heated heated discussions of current events from a conservat conservative ive viewpoint. Major Major hosts who describe themselves as either conservative or libertarian include: Michael Peroutka,, Jim Quinn Peroutka Quinn, Dennis Miller, Miller, Ben Ferguson Ferguson, Lars Larson, Larson, Sean Hannit Hannityy, G. Gordon Liddy, Liddy, Laura Ingraham, Ingraham, Mike Church, Church, Mark Levin, Levin, Michael Savag Savage e, Glenn Beck , Larry Elde Elderr, Kim Peterson Peterson,, Neal Boortz Boortz,, Michael Reaga Reagan n, Jason Lewis and Ken Hamblin Hamblin.. The Salem Radio Network  Network syndicates syndicates a group of religiously-oriented Republican

 

activists, including Evangelical Christian Hugh Hewitt, Hewitt, and Jewish conservatives Dennis Prager and Michael Medved Medved. One popular Jewish conservative, Dr. Laura Schlessinge Schlessingerr, offers parental and personal advice, but is an outspoken critic of social and political issues. Libertarians such as Neal Boortz (based in Atlanta), and Mark Davis (based in Ft.  Art Bell held some Libertarian Worth and Dallas, Texas) reach large local audiences. audiences. Art views before his talk show adapted adapted a new paranormal format. format. Many of these hosts also publish books, write newspaper columns, appear on television, and give giv e public lectures (Limbaugh was a pioneer of this model of multi-media punditry). At a rarer level, University of Chicago psychology professor Milt Rosenberg has been hosting a talk show [22]] on WGN radio in Chicago since the 1970s. Talk radio provided an "Extension 720" 720"[22 immediacy and a high degree of emotionalism that seldom is reached on television or in magazines. Pew researchers found in 2004 that 17% of the public regularly r egularly listens to talk radio. This audience is mostly male, middle-aged, well-educated and conservative.  Among those who who regularly listen to talk radio, 41% are Republicans a and nd 28% are Democrats. Moreover, 45% describe themselves as conservatives, compared with 18% [21] who say they are liberal. liberal.[21] Newspapers Newsp apers and magaz magazines ines

While most American conservatives argue that the U.S. print and television media have a liberal bias, they have made inroads in establishing several influential outlets in these media segments. In addition to Fox News in television and several prominent national conservative radio personalities, several print media outlets are identified with Journall and Boston conservatism. In newspapers, the editorial page of The Wall Street Journa Herald,, Chicago Tribune Herald Tribune and The Washington Times are each considered conservative. Standard, The American In magazines, National Review, Policy Review, The Weekly Standard Spectator and Human Events are each influential conservative publications with tens of  thousands of readers. Conservative political movements

Contemporary Contempor ary politic political al conserv conservatis atism m — the actu actual al politic politicss of peopl people e and parties professing profes sing to be cconse onservat rvative ive — in m most ost western democratic countries is an amalgam of  social and institutional conservatism, generally combined with fiscal conservatism, and usually containing elements of broader economic conservatism as well. As with liberalism, it is a pragmatic and protean politics, opportunistic at times, rooted more in a tradition than in any formal set of principles. It is certainly possible for one to be a fiscal and economic conservative but not a social conservative; in the United States at present, this is the stance of libertarianism. It is also possible to be a social conservative but not an economic conservative, or to be a fiscal conservative without being either a social conservative or a broader economic conservative, such as the "deficit hawks" of the Democratic Party. Party. In general use, the unqualified term "conservative" is often applied to social conservatives who are not fiscal or economic conservatives. It is rarely applied in th the e opposite case, except in specific contrast to those who are neither.

 

It can be argued that classical conservatism tends to represent the interests of the of the Establishment.. Yet, this is not always the case. Considering the conservative's Establishment opposition to political abstractions, the "true" conservative ought never support a contrived social state, be that on the left (Communism (Communism)) or on the right (Fascism (Fascism). ). There is an independent justification of the attitude of conservatism, which tends to favor what is organic and has been shap shaped ed by history, against the pla planned nned and artificial. Conservative thinkers and leaders in the United States

Some notable figures in the history of conservatism in the United States are: Politicians     

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President John Adams President Adams (1735–1826) President Presid ent Grover Cleveland Cleveland (1837–1908) President Presid ent Ronald Reagan Reagan (1911–2004) President Presid ent George W. Bush Bush (1946–)  Vice President President John John C. C. Ca Calh lhoun oun (1782– 1850)  Alexander Secretary of the Treasury Treasury Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804)

Intellectuals & Economists 

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Robert W. Welch Welch,, Jr. (1899– 1985) Milton Friedman Friedman (1912–2006) Russell Kirk  Kirk (1918–1994) (1918–1994) Kristol (1920–) Irving Kristol Samuel P. Huntin Huntington gton (1927– 2008) William F. Buckley, Buckley, Jr. (1925–

Gingrich rich (1943– 2008) Speaker of the House House Newt Ging Sowell well (1930–) Thomas So ) Robert Ka Senator Sena tor John Randolph of Roan Roanoke oke (1773– Kagan gan (1958–) 1833) Popular ar writer writers, s, activi activists sts and Senator Sena tor Josiah William Ba Bailey iley (1873–1946) Popul commentators Senator Sena tor Robert A. Taft (1889–1953) Thurmond ond (1902–2003) Senator Sena tor Strom Thurm Jerry Fal Falwell well (1933–2007) Senator Sena tor Barry Goldw Goldwater ater (1909–1998) Pat Buchanan Buchanan (1938–) Senator Sena tor Jesse He Helms lms (1921–2008) Bennett (1943–) William Bennett Buckley kley (1923–) Senator Sena tor James L. Buc Schlessinger (1947–) Laura Schlessinger Senator Sena tor Rick Santo Santorum rum (1958–) Rush Limb Limbaugh augh (1951–) Congressman Congressm an Ron Paul (1935–) 

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Jurists

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Chief Justice Justice John John Jay  Jay (1745–1829) Chief Justice Justice William Rehnquist Rehnquist (1924– 2005) Justice Just ice Antonin Scalia (1936–)  Antonin Scalia Justice Just ice Clarence Thomas Thomas (1948–) Bork  ork (1927–) (1927–) Judge Jud ge Robert B

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KriLevin Bill Kristol Mark evin(1952–) (1957–) Lstol Robert Kagan Kagan (1958–) Sean Han Hannity nity (1961–)

Think-tanks  

The Heritage Found Foundation ation Institution tion The Hoover Institu

Magazines & Publications   

Review iew National Rev Policy Rev Review iew The Weekly Stan Standard dard

 

References

1. ^ Adams, Ian, Political Ideology Today (2001), p.32 "The USA is different again, since unlike Canada and Europe it did not develop a party system as firmly based on ideolo ideological gical di differen fference." ce." 2. ^ Charles W. Dunn, J. David Woodard, The Conservative Tradition in America (1996), p. viii: "Today, "Today, some conservat conservative ive adherents wou would ld say that there is no significant conservative tradition in America. Here we will argue otherwise, believing that the ideas of conservatism were forged in the crucible of history and experience in reaction to hostile ideas and unfortunate events." 3. ^ Arthur Aughey, Greta Greta Jones, W. T. M. Riches, The Conservative Political Tradition in Britain and the United States (1992), p. 1: "...there are those who advance the thesis that American exceptionalism means...there can be no  American conservatism conservatism precisely beca because use the American American Revolution crea created ted a universally liberal society." 4. ^ Russell Kirk, "The Conservative Mind" (1953), p. 6. 5. ^ Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind (1953), p. 63 6. ^ The Scary Echo of the Intolerance of the French Revolution in America Today Today 7. ^ Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind (1953) 130. Conservati rvative ve Mind (1953) 159. 8. ^ Russell Kirk, The Conse 1868-1900 -1900 (1997) pp. 9. ^ Robert W. Cherny, American Politics in the Gilded Age, 1868 3-4 10 10.. ^ Curtis, Bruce. "William Graham Sumner 'On the Concentration of Wealth.'" Journal of American History 1969 55(4): 823-832. Troy, ""Taking Taking on FDR: Senator Josiah Bailey and the 1937 11 11.. ^ Kicker, Troy, Conservative Manifesto" Manifesto" 12 12.. ^ Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind (1950), pp 423-424. 13 13.. ^ Reason Magazine, 1975-07-01 14 14.. ^ The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia, Columbia University Press, 1983, 1983, ISBN 0231056788 023105678 8. 15 15.. ^ "List of prominent neoconservatives," neoconservatives," Sourcewatch.org. 16 16.. ^ Samuel P. Huntington, "The Clash of Civilizations," Foreign Affairs Summer 1993, v72, n3, p22-50, online version. version. 17 17.. ^ The Value-Centered Historicism of Edmund Burke Burke 18 18.. ^ National Geographic, September 2007.  Anti-Intellectualism lism in American Life (1963) 19 19.. ^ Richard Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectua 20 20.. ^ The World Almanac and Book of Facts, Facts, ISBN 0-88687-910-8 0-88687-910-8 a b 21 21.. ^ I. Where Americans Go for f or News: News Audiences Increasingly Politicized Politicized 22 22.. ^ Untitled Document Document Primary sources  

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Buckley, William F., Jr., ed. Up from Liberalism Stein and Day, (1958) Buckley, William F., Jr., ed. Did You Ever See a Dream Walking? American Conservative Thought in the 20th Century Bobbs-Merrill, (1970) The Essential Neo-Conservative Reader (Perseus Publishing, Mark Gerson, 0-201-15488-9 9 (1997)) ISBN ed., 0-201-15488-

 

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Irving Kristol, Neoconservatism: the Autobiography of an Idea Idea, ISBN 0-02874021-1 8740211 Gregory L. Schneider, ed. Conservatism in America Since 1930: A Reader (2003) Stelzer ed. The Neo Irwin Stelzer NeoCon Con Re Read ader er (20 (2005) 05) ISBN 0-8021-4193-5 0-8021-4193-5 Wolfe, Gregory. Right Minds: A Sourcebook S ourcebook of American Conservative Thought. Regnery, (1987)

Intellectual history 

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Dunn, Charles Charles W. an and d J. David Wooda Woodard; rd; The Conservative Tradition in America Rowman & Littlefield, 1996 Filler, Louis. Dictionary of American Conservatism Philosophical Library, (1987) Foner, Eric. "Radical Individualism in America: Revolution to Civil War," Literature of Liberty, vol. 1 no. 3, 1978 pp 1-31 online Bruce Frohnen et al. eds. American Conservatism: Conservatism: An Encyclopedia Encyclopedia (20 (2006) 06) ISBN 1-932236-44-9 1-932236-449, the most detailed reference Genovese, Eugene. The Southern Tradition: The Achievement and Limitations of  an American Conservatism Harvard University Press, 1994 Paul.. The Conservative Movement Twayne, 1993. Gottfried, Paul Guttman, Allan. The Conservative Tradition in America Oxford University Press, 1967. Willmoore Kendall, and George W W.. Carey. "Towards a Definition of  'Conservatism." Journal of Politics 26 (May 1964): 406-22. Russell sell.. The Conservative Mind Mind. Regnery Publishing Publishing;; 7th edition (2001): Kirk, Rus 0-89526-1711-5 5 ISBN 0-89526-17 Lora, Ronald. Conservative Minds in America Greenwood, 1976. Theodore J. The End of the Republican Era (19 Lowi, Theodore (1995) 95) online rev review iew Meyer, Frank S. ed. What Is Conservatism? 1964. Murphy, Paul V. The Rebuke of History: Hi story: The Southern Agrarians and American Conservative Thought (2001) Nash, George Movement ment in Am America erica Since 19 1945 45 George.. The Conservative Intellectual Move (1978) influential history Robert A. Conservatism: Dream and Reality. University of Minnesota Nisbet, Robert Press, 1986. Ribuffo, Leo P. 1983. The Old Christian Right: The Protestant Far Right from the Great Depression to the Cold War. Temple University Press. Rossiter, Clinton. Conservatism in America. 2nd ed. Harvard University Press, 1982. Melvin J. Thorne; American Conservative Conservative Thought since World War II: The Core Ideas Greenwood: 1990 Peter Viereck; Conservatism: from John Adams to Churchill 1956, 1978

Political activity 

Hart, Jeffrey. The Making of the American Conservative Mind: The National

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Review and ItsThe Times (2005) Lora, Ronald.; Conservative Pre Press ss in Twentieth-Cen Twentieth-Century tury America Greenwood

Press, 1999

 

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McDonald, Forrest. States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 17761876 (2002) Malsberger, John W. From Obstruction to Moderation: M oderation: The Transformation of  Senate Conservatism, 1938-1952 2000. Patterson, James. Congressional Conservatism and the New Deal: The Growth of  the Conservative Coalition in Congress, 1933-39 (1967) Perlstein, Rick. Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the  American Consensus Consensus (2004) on 1964 Reinhard, David W.; Republican Right since 1945 University Press of Kentucky, 1983 Shelley II, Mack C. The Permanent Majority: The Conservative Coalition in the United States Congress (1983) Wilensky, Norman N. Conservatives in the Progressive Era: The Taft Republicans of 1912 (1965).

Biographical 

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H. Lee Cheek Jr.;Calhoun and Popular Rule: The Political Theory of the Disquisition and Discourse University of Missouri Press. 2001. Stresses Calhoun's Republicanism Crunden, Robert M. The Mind Mind and Art o off Albert Ja Jay y Nock (1964) Dierenfield, Bruce J. Keeper of the Rules: Congressman Howard W. Smith of   Virginia (1987), leader of the Conservative coalition in Congress Fergurson, Ernest B. Hard Right: The Rise of Jesse Helms, 1986 Fite, Gilbert. Richard B. Russell, Jr, Senator from Georgia (2002) leader of the Conservative coalition in Congress Goldberg, Robert Alan. Barry Goldwater (1995) Judis, John B. William F. Buckley, Jr.: Patron Saint of the Conservatives (1988) Kelly, Daniel. James Burnham and and the Struggle for the World: A Life (2002) Patterson, James T. Mr. Republican Republican:: A Biograp Biography hy of Robert A. Taft (1972) Rodgers, Marion Elizabeth. Mencken: The American Iconoclast (2005) Federici , Michael P. Eric Voegelin: The Restoration of Order (2002) Pemberton, William E. Exit with Honor: The Life and Presidency of Ronald Reagan (1998)

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Smant, Kevin J. Principles and Heresies: Frank S. Meyer and the Shaping of the  American Conservative Conservative Movement (2002) (ISBN (ISBN 1-882926-72-2 1-882926-72-2) Smith, Richard Norton. An Uncommon Man: Man: The Triumph of Herbert Hoover (1994) strongest on 1933-64 Sam.. Whittaker Chambers: A Biography (199 (1997) 7) ((ISBN ISBN 0-394-58559 0-394-58559-Tanenhaus, Sam 3) Chambers, Whitt Whittaker aker,, Witness (1952), a memoir his Communist years

Recent politics 

John B. Bader; Taking the Initiative: Initiative: Leadership Age Agendas ndas in Congress and the

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"Contract America" Georgetown University Press, (1996) Berkowitz,with Peter . Varieties Of Conservatism Conservat ism In America (2004)

 

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Collins, Robert M. Transforming America: Politics and Culture During the Reagan  Years, (Columbia University Press; 320 pages; 2007). Himmelstein, Jerome and J. A. McRae Jr., "'Social Conservatism, New Republicans and the 1980 Election'", Public Opinion Quarterly, 48 (1984), 595605. Micklethwait, John, and Adrian Wooldridge. Wooldridge. The Right Nation Nation (2004) Geoffrey Nunberg, "Language and Politics" Politics" Freshmen hmen an and d the Rae; Nicol C. Conservative Reformers: The Republican Fres Lessons of the 104th Congress M. E. Sharpe, 1998 Schoenwald; Jonathan . A Time for Choosing: The Rise of Modern American Conservatism (2002)

Neoconservatism

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List of prominent American neoconservatives, SourceWatch SourceWatch Bloom, Allan. The Closing of the American Mind (1988) Democracy, cy, Power, and tthe he Fukuyama, Francis. America at the Crossroads: Democra Neoconservative Legacy (2007) Gerson, Mark. The Neoconservative Vision: From the Cold War to Culture Wars (1997) Halper, Stefan & Clarke, Cl arke, Jonathan, America Alone: The Neo-Conservatives Neo-Conservatives and

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the Global Order (Cambridge University Press, 2004) ISBN 0-521-8383 0-521-838344-7 7 Stelzer, Irwin. Neo-conservatism (2004)

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Critical views  

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Bell, David. ed, The Radical Right. Doubleday 1963. Diamond, Sara. Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movemen Movements ts and Political Power in the United States. (1995) Huntington, Samuel P. "Conservatism as an Ideology." American Political Science Review 52 (June 1957): 454-73. Koopman; Douglas L. Hostile Takeover: The House Republican Party, 1980-1 1980-1995 995 Rowman & Littlefield, 1996 Lapham, Lewis H. "Tentacles of Rage" in Harper's, September 2004, p. 31-41. Lewis A., Coser Lewis A., and Irving H Howe owe,, eds. The New Conservatives: A Critique from the Left New American Library, 1976. Martin, William. 1996. With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in  America, New York: Broadway Books.

See also       

Enterprise rise Institute Institute  American Enterp Compassionate conservatism conservatism Common sense conservative conservative Constitution Party Party FreedomWorks orks ation FreedomW Found Heritage Foundation Institute Leadership Institute

 

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Liberalism in the United States Review magazin National Review Neoconservatism ism Neoconservat New R ight ight Old R ight ight Paleoconservatism Paleoconservatism Prog Progre ress ssiv ivis ism m in in the the Un Unit it d States States Review magazine Policy Review Reactionary Reactionary Reagan Doctrine Doctrine foreign olicy Religious right right Standard ma azine The Weekly Standard United States Republican Party

External links U.S. conservative o orrganizati ns and publications 

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The Heritage Found Foundation ation,, generally considered world's most influential conservative think tank. ReaganConservatives.us s.us,, promoting traditional Conservative beliefs in politics ReaganConservative

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and faith. Projec Proj ectt fo for a N New ew Am Amer eric ic National Review maga magazin zin Townhall.com,, conservati Townhall.com Chronicles maga magazine zine.. Lea FirstThings.com.. FirstThings.com

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The American Conservati e maga magazine zine..

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Institute , a training organization for conservative ac ivists. "The Leadership Institute

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n Cen Century tury,, neoc neoconser onservati vative ve think tank. tank. , influential conservative political magazine. e news, information, and commentary. ing magazine of traditional conservative th ught.

 Articles  and essays essays on U.S. c nservatism 

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"Th "The e Origin Originss of the the Mode Moderrn American Conservative Movem Moveme ent, nt,"" Her Herita itage Foundatio Foundation . e  Pr ive Predomina ce in the U.S.: A Moment or an Era?" ra?",, 21 e perts from "Conservantiv the U.S U.S. and abroa oad d, p po on er the future of conservatism. irginia.. Dictionary of the History f Ideas: Conservatism at the University of Virginia How Rus Russel selll Kirk Kirk (And (And Th Right) Went Wrong

Cons rvatism in North America

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