Cyrenaica. a Short History

Cyrenaica: a short history
From Wikipedia
Cyrenaica
ة قر ب
self-declared autonomous region
[1][2]
ofLibya

Flag


Cyrenaica as an administrative unit included all of eastern Libya from 1927 to
1963: Italian Cyrenaica from 1927 to 1937 and the Cyrenaica governorate until 1963.
Semi-autonomy
proclaimed
6 March 2012
Autonomy
proclaimed
3 November 2013
Capital Benghazi
[3]

Government
• Body Cyrenaica Transitional
Council
[4]
(declared)
General National Congress(de facto
authority)
Area
[5]

• Total 855,370 km
2
(330,260 sq mi)
Population (2006)
[6]

• Total 1,613,749
• Density 1.9/km
2
(4.9/sq mi)
Cyrenaica (/saɪrɨˈneɪ.ɨkə/ SY-rə-NAY-ə-kə; Ancient Greek: Κυρηναϊκή Kyrinaiki, after the city
of Cyrene; Arabic: ة قر ب Barqah;) is the eastern coastal region of Libya. Also known
as Pentapolis in antiquity, it was part of the Creta et Cyrenaica province during theRoman
period, later divided in Libia Pentapolis and Libia Sicca. During the Islamic period, the area
came to be known as Barqa, after the city of Barca.
Cyrenaica was the name of an administrative division of Italian Libya from 1927 until 1943,
then under British military and civil administration from 1943 until 1951, and finally in
the Kingdom of Libya from 1951 until 1963. In a wider sense, which is still used, Cyrenaica is
composed of all of the eastern part of Libya, including the Kufra District. Cyrenaica is adjacent
to Tripolitania in the northwest and Fezzan in the southwest. The region that used to be
Cyrenaica officially until 1963 is now divided up into severalshabiyat, the administrative
divisions of Libya).
Cyrenaica was the birthplace of the Libyan civil war, and was largely under the control of
the National Transitional Council for most of the war; their headquarters were in Benghazi.
[7]

Contents
 1 Geography
 2 History
o 2.1 Berber people
o 2.2 Greek cities
o 2.3 Roman province
 2.3.1 Christianization
o 2.4 Arab and Ottoman rule
o 2.5 Italian rule
o 2.6 Emirate of Cyrenaica
o 2.7 Gaddafi rule
o 2.8 Post-Gaddafi federalism
 3 Population
 4 Cities and towns of Cyrenaica
 5 Episcopal sees
 6 See also
 7 References
 8 Further reading
 9 External links
Geography

Satellite image of Libya with Cyrenaica on the right side, showing the green Mediterranean coast in the north
and the large desert in the centre and south
Geologically, Cyrenaica rests on a mass of Miocene limestone that tilts up steeply from
the Mediterranean Sea and falls inland with a gradual descent to sea level again.
This mass is divided into two blocks. The Jebel Akhdar extends parallel to the coast from
the Gulf of Sidra to the Gulf of Bomba, and reaches an elevation of 872 meters. There is no
continuous coastal plain, the longest strip running from the recess of Gulf of Sidra
pastBenghazi to Tolmeitha. Thereafter, except for deltaic patches at Susa and Derna, the
shore is all precipitous. A steep escarpment separates the coastal plain from a relatively level
plateau, known as the Marj Plain, which lies at about 300 meters elevation. Above the Marj
Plain lies a dissected plateau at about 700 meters elevation, which contains the highest peaks
in the range.
[8]

The Jebel Akhdar and its adjacent coast are part of the Mediterranean woodlands and
forests ecoregion, and have a Mediterranean climate of hot, dry summers and relatively mild
and rainy winters.
[9]
The plant communities of this portion of Cyrenaica include forest,
woodland, maquis, garrigue, steppe, and oak savanna. Garrigue shrublands occupy the non-
agricultural portions coastal plain and coastal escarpments, with Sarcopoterium spinosum,
along with Asphodelus microcarpus and Artemisia herba-alba, as the predominant
species.
[8][10]
Small areas of maquis are found on north-facing slopes near the sea, becoming
more extensive on the lower plateau.Juniperus phoenicea, Pistacia lentiscus, Quercus
coccifera and Ceratonia siliqua are common tree and large shrub species in the
maquis.
[8][10]
The upper plateau includes areas of garrigue, two maquis communities, one
dominated by Pistacia lentiscus and the other a mixed maquis in which the endemic Arbutus
pavarii is prominent, and forests of Cupressus sempervirens, Juniperus phoenicea, Olea
europaea, Quercus coccifera, Ceratonia siliqua, and Pinus halepensis.
[8]

Areas of red soil are found on the Marj Plain, which has borne abundant crops
of wheat and barley from ancient times to the present day. Plenty of springs issue on the
highlands. Wild olive trees are abundant, and large areas of oak savanna provide pasture to
the flocks and herds of the local Bedouins.
[11]
Historically large areas of range were covered in
forest. The forested area of the Jebel Akhdar has been shrinking in recent decades. A 1996
report to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization estimated that the forested area was
reduced to 320,000 hectares from 500,000 hectares, mostly cleared to grow crops.
[10]
The
Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority estimates that the forested area
decreased from 500,000 hectares in 1976 to 180,000 hectares in 2007.
[12]

The southward slopes of the Jebel Akhdar occupied by the Mediterranean dry woodlands and
steppe, a transitional ecoregion lying between the Mediterranean climate regions of North
Africa and the hyper-arid Sahara Desert.
[13]

The lower Jebel el-Akabah lies to the south and east of the Jebel Akhdar. The two highlands
are separated by a depression. This eastern region, known in ancient times asMarmarica, is
much drier than the Jebel Akhdar, and here the Sahara extends to the coast. Historically, salt-
collecting and sponge fishing were more important than agriculture.Bomba and Tobruk have
good harbors.
[11]

South of the coastal highlands of Cyrenaica is a large east-west running depression, extending
eastward from the Gulf of Sidra into Egypt. This region of the Sahara is known as the Libyan
Desert, and includes the Great Sand Sea and the Calanshio Sand Sea. The Libyan Desert is
home to a few oases, including Awjila (ancient Augila) and Jaghbub.
History
Berber people
The oldest known people that inhabited the area in recorded history were the Berber people.
Most of the inhabitants of this Libyan territory today are considered Berber by origin and their
ancestors spoke an ancient Berber language. Today, remnants of the Berber language of this
area are found in Awjila-Berber language in the Awjila oasis.
Ancient Berbers founded a number of cities and settlments in the area on the coast and in the
internal oases.
Greek cities
During the Ramesside period (thirteenth century BC), the Libu and the Meshwesh were tribes
of the area of Cyrenaica which are mentioned in Egyptian records as making frequent
incursions into the New Kingdom of Egypt, and as later controlling the 21st through 24th
dynasties.
Cyrenaica was colonized by the Greeks beginning in the 7th century B.C. The first and most
important colony was that of Cyrene, established in about 631 BCE by colonists from the
Greek island of Thera. They had left their island because of a severe famine.
[14]
Their
commander Aristoteles took the Libyan name Battos.
[15]
His dynasty, the Battaid, persisted in
spite of heavy resistance by the Greeks in neighboring cities.
The east of the province was called Marmarica (no major city), but the important part was in
the west, comprising five cities, hence known as the Pentapolis: Cyrene (near the modern
village of Shahat) with its port of Apollonia (Marsa Susa), Arsinoe
or Taucheira (Tocra), Euesperides or Berenice (near modern Benghazi), Balagrae (Bayda)
and Barce(Marj) – of which the chief was the eponymous Cyrene.
[14]
The term "Pentapolis"
continued to be used as a synonym for Cyrenaica. In the south the Pentapolis faded into
theSaharan tribal areas, including the pharaonic oracle of Ammonium.
The region produced barley, wheat, olive oil, wine, figs, apples, wool, sheep, cattle,
and silphium, an herb that grew only in Cyrenaica and was regarded as a medicinal cure
andaphrodisiac.
[16]
Cyrene became one of the greatest intellectual and artistic centers of the
Greek world, famous for its medical school, learned academies, and architecture, which
included some of the finest examples of the Hellenistic style. The Cyrenaics, a school of
thinkers who expounded a doctrine of moral cheerfulness that defined happiness as the sum of
human pleasures, were founded by Aristippus of Cyrene
[17]
Other notable natives of Cyrene
were the poet Callimachus and the mathematicians Theodorus andEratosthenes.
[16]

In 525 BCE, after taking Egypt, the Persians took the Pentapolis. They were followed
by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, who received tribute from these cities after he took
Egypt.
[14]
The Pentapolis was formally annexed by Ptolemy I Soter and it passed to
the diadoch dynasty of the Lagids, better known as the Ptolemaic dynasty. It briefly gained
independence under Magas of Cyrene, stepson of Ptolemy I, but was reabsorbed into the
Ptolemaic empire after his death. It was separated from the main kingdom by Ptolemy VIIIand
given to his son Ptolemy Apion, who, dying without heirs in 96 BCE, bequeathed it to
the Roman Republic.
Roman province

Creta et Cyrenaica within theRoman Empire in the 2nd century

Map of Cyrenaica and Marmaricain the Roman era (Samuel Butler, 1907)
The Latin name Cyrenaica dates to the 1st century BCE. Although some confusion exists as to
the exact territory Rome inherited, by 78 BCE it was organized as one administrative province
together with Crete. It became a senatorial province in 20 BC, like its far more prominent
western neighbor Africa proconsularis, and unlike Egypt itself which became an imperial
domain sui generis (under a special governor styled praefectus augustalis) in 30 BC.

Roman ruins of Ptolemais, Cyrenaica
The Tetrarchy reforms of Diocletian in 296 changed the administrative structure. Cyrenaica
was split into two provinces: Libya Superior orLibia Pentapolis comprised the above-
mentioned Pentapolis with Cyrene as capital, and Libya Inferior or Libia
sicca the Marmarica(only significant city now the port Paraetonium), each under a governor of
the modest rank of praeses. Both belonged to the Diocese of the Orient with its capital at
Antioch in Syria and from 370 to the Diocese of Egypt, within the praetorian
prefecture of Oriens. Its western neighbor Tripolitania, the largest split-off from Africa
proconsularis, became part of the Diocese of Africa, subordinate to the prefecture ofItalia et
Africa. After the earthquake of 365, the capital was moved to Ptolemais. After the Empire's
division, Cyrenaica became part of the East Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), bordering
Tripolitania. It was briefly part of the Vandal Kingdom to the west, until its reconquest by
Belisarius in 533.
The Tabula Peutingeriana shows Pentapolites to the east of Syrtes Maiores, indicating the
cities of Bernice, Hadrianopolis, Tauchira, Ptolomaide, Callis, Cenopolis, Balacris and
Cyrene.
[18]

Christianization
According to Synoptic Gospels, Simon of Cyrene carried the cross of Jesus Christ to the
crucifixion.
According to one tradition, Saint Mark the Evangelist was born in the Pentapolis, and later
returned after preaching with Saint Paul inColosse (Col 4:10) and Rome (Phil 24; 2 Tim 4:11);
from Pentapolis he made his way to Alexandria.
[19]

Early Christianity spread to Pentapolis from Egypt; Synesius of Cyrene (370–414), bishop
of Ptolemais, received his instruction at Alexandria in both the Catechetical School and
the Museion, and he entertained a great deal of reverence and affection for Hypatia, the last
pagan Neoplatonist, whose classes he had attended. Synesius was raised to the episcopate
by Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, in AD 410. Since the First Council of Nicaea in AD 325,
Cyrenaica had been recognized as an ecclesiastical province of the See of Alexandria, in
accordance with the ruling of the Nicaean Fathers.The patriarch of the Coptic Church to this
day includes the Pentapolis in his title as an area within his jurisdiction.
[20]

The Eparchy of the Western Pentapolis was part of the Coptic Orthodox Church of
Alexandria as the Pope of Alexandria was the Pope of Africa, The most senior position in The
Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church after the Pope was the Metropolitan of Western
Pentapolis, but since its demise in the days of Pope John VI of Alexandria as a major
Archiepiscopal Metropolis and now being held as a Titular See attached to another Diocese.
After often being destroyed and then restored, during the Roman period it became a mere
borough but was, nevertheless, the site of a diocese. Its bishop, Zopyrus (Zephyrius is a
mistake), was present at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. The subscriptions
at Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) give the names of two other bishops, Zenobius and
Theodorus.
Although it retained the title "Pentapolis", the ecclesiastic province actually included all of the
Cyrenaica, and not just the five cities and Pentapolis remains included in the title of both Popes
of the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria.
Arab and Ottoman rule
Cyrenaica was conquered by Muslim Arabs during the tenure of the second caliph, Omer Bin
Khattab, in 643/44,
[21]
and became known as Barqah after its provincial capital, the ancient city
of Barce. After the breakdown of the Ummayad caliphate, it was essentially annexed to Egypt,
although still under the same name, first under the Fatimid caliphs and later under
the Ayyubid and Mamluk sultanates. Ultimately, it was annexed by the Turkish Ottoman
Empire in 1517. It was part of the Tripolitania Vilayet. Its main cities
becameBenghazi and Derna.
Italian rule

Emir Idris as-Senussi (left), and behind him (from left) Hussein Maziq,Muhammad Sakizli, and Mustafa Ben
Halim formed the government of Cyrenaica in late 1940s

Flag of the short-lived emirate of Cyrenaica, 1949–1951.

Littorio Palace in Benghazi was the seat of the Cyrenaican assembly
The Italians occupied Cyrenaica during the Italo-Turkish War in 1911 and declared it an
Italian protectorate on 15 October 1912. Three days later, the Ottoman Empire officially ceded
the province to the Kingdom of Italy. On 17 May 1919, Cyrenaica was established as an
Italian colony, and, on 25 October 1920, the Italian government recognized Sheikh Sidi
Idriss as the leader of the Senussi, who was granted the rank of Emir until in 1929. In that year,
Italy "derecognized" him and the Senussi. On 1 January 1934, Tripolitania, Cyrenaica,
and Fezzan were united as the Italian colony of Libya.
The Italian fascists constructed the Marble Arch as a form of an imperial triumphal arch at the
border between Cyrenaica and Tripolitani near the coast.
There was heavy fighting in Cyrenaica during World War II between the Allies and the Italian
Army and the Nazi German Afrika Korps. In late 1942, the armed forces of the British
Empire overran Cyrenaica, and the United Kingdom administered all of Libya through 1951,
when the Kingdom of Libya was established and granted independence.
[22]

Emirate of Cyrenaica
In 1949, Idris as-Senussi, with British backing, proclaimed Cyrenaica as an independent
emirate called the Emirate of Cyrenaica. This emirate soon became part of the Kingdom of
Libya when it was established and an independent kingdom on 24 December 1951, with Idris
as-Senussi becoming King Idris I.
Gaddafi rule
Since 1 September 1969, when the Senussi dynasty was overthrown by Colonel Muammar
Gaddafi, Cyrenaica occasionally experienced nationalist activity against Gaddafi's military
dictatorship, including a military rebellion at Tobruk in 1980.
[23]

In 2007, the Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority, headed by Saif al-
Islam Gaddafi, announced a regional plan for Cyrenaica, developed by the firm Foster and
Partners. The plan, known as The Cyrene Declaration, aimed to revive Cyrenaica's agriculture,
create a national park, and develop the region as a cultural- and eco-tourism destination. The
announced pilot projects included plans for three hotels, including the Cyrene Grand Hotel near
the ruins of Cyrene.
[24]

For much of the Libyan civil war, Cyrenaica was largely under the control of the National
Transitional Council while Tripolitania and Fezzan remained under Gaddafi's government
control. Some proposed a "two-state solution" to the conflict, with Cyrenaica becoming an
independent state,
[25]
but this concept was strongly rejected by both sides, and the three
regions were united again in October 2011 as rebel forces took Tripolitania and Fezzan and
the government collapsed.
Post-Gaddafi federalism
Although a historical region, Cyrenaica has not had an official central government of its own for
decades. Its individual provinces have reported directly to the central government in Tripoli.
On 20 July 2011, The First National Conference for Federalism proposed the idea for the first
time after the Libyan Civil War as a key solution to quickly reach to stability in the country after
the fall of the Gaddafi government. Dr. Abubakr Mustafa Buera was the head of the
preparatory committee, and then was elected as the first president for the National Federal
Block; the First Political Group that called for federalism.
[citation needed]


Benghazi, Venice HAll, 20 July 2011

Movement for Federal Libya (November 2nd, 2012)

First Cyrenaica Council - March 6th, 2012
On 6 March 2012, a relative of King Idris, Ahmed al-Senussi, was appointed as the leader of
the self-declared Cyrenaica Transitional Council, a meeting of tribal and military
leaders.
[26][27][28]
According to the Council, Cyrenaica extends from the central coastal city
of Sirteto the Egyptian border.
[29]
In October 2013, "transitional" was dropped and the Council
was renamed as "Council of Cyrenaica in Libya" (CCL). According to CCL, there would be
further announcements relating to setting up a local parliament and a Shura Council. Struggle
for a federal system was also emphasized to take place purely through legal channels.
[30]

On 2 November 2012, the federal approach was about to evaporate after serious conflicts
between the self-declared Cyrenaica Transitional Council lead by Ahmed al-Senussi and
the National Transitional Council, but a new initiative by pro-Cyrenaican motivated youth
leaders who resurrected the movement by a successful rally organized by Muheddine
Mansury, Osama Buera, and Salem Bujazia the founders of Movement for Federal Libya which
focused on organizing numerous rallies and campaigns in addition to distributing a number of
10,000 flags to rebound the Cyrenaican people to their identity's symbol.
In a competing turn of events, Abd-Rabbo al-Barassi was appointed as the head of the
"Government of Cyrenaica" on 6 November 2013, supported by a local military leader Ibrahim
Jathran and also without the consent of the central government.
[31]
Based on the appointed
posts at the PBC, the government of al-Barassi plans to cover all functions except for foreign
affairs and defence.
[32]
On 11 November 2013, PBC announced formation of its own oil
company, further straining relations with the Tripoli government.
[33]

CCL says that they attempted to present a united front with Jadhran, but that he had proved
inflexible and intent on pursuing his own agenda.
[34]

Population
Cyrenaica's population grew throughout years along with the overall growth in Libya's
population.
Year Population
Percent of
Libya's
population
1954 291,236 27
1964 450,954 29
1973 661,351 29
1984 1,033,534 28
1995 1,261,331 26
2006 1,613,749 29
Cities and towns of Cyrenaica

The city of Benghazi was traditionally the centre of Cyrenaica
 Benghazi
 Bayda
 Tobruk
 Derna
 Ajdabiya
 Marj
Episcopal sees
Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Libya Superior or Libya Pentapolitana listed
in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees:
[35]

 Barca
 Berenice (Benghazi)
 Boreum (Tabibbi)
 Cyrene
 Dystis
 Erythrum (Uaili-Et-Trun)
 Olbia
 Ptolemais in Libya
 Sozusa in Libya
For the ancient sees of Libya Inferior see Marmarica. For those of Creta see Byzantine Crete.
See also[

1950 postage due stamps of independent Cyrenaica
 Cyrenaics philosophical school
 List of Kings of Cyrene
 List of colonial heads of Cyrenaica
 List of Leading Political Figures Defending the Sovereignty of Cyrenaica
 Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe
 Postage stamps and postal history of Cyrenaica
 History of Libya
 Christianity in Libya
 Islam in Libya
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Further reading[
 Cyrenaica in Antiquity (Society for Libyan Studies Occasional Papers). Graeme Barker,
John Lloyd, Joyce Reynolds ISBN 0-86054-303-X